PART I

INTRODUCTION

I. GENERAL NOTES ON STYLE AND STYLISTICS

S t y l i s t i c s , sometimes called l i n g u o - s t y 1 i s t i c s, is a branch of general linguistics. It has now been more or less definitely outlined. It deals mainly with two interdependent tasks: a) the investigation of the inventory of special language media which by their ontological features secure the desirable effect of the utterance and b) certain types of texts (discourse) which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication. The two obiectives of stylistics are clearly discernible as two separate fields of investigation. The inventory of special language media can be analysed and their ontological features revealed if presented in a system in which the co-relation between the media becomes evident. The types of texts can be analysed if their linguistic components are presented in their interaction, thus revealing the unbreakable unity and transparency of constructions of a given type. The types of texts that are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication are called functional styles of language (FS); the special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance are called stylistic devices (SD) and expressive means (EM). The first field of investigation, i.e. SDs and EMs, necessarily touches upon such general language problems as the aesthetic function of language, synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea, emotional colouring in languge,_the interrelation between language and thought, the individual manner of an author in making use of language and a number of other issues. The second field, i.e. functional styles, cannot avoid discussion of such most general linguistic issues as oral and written varieties of language, the notion of the literary (standard) language, the constituents of texts larger than the sentence, the generative aspect of literary texts, and some others. In dealing with the objectives of stylistics, certain pronouncements of adjacent disciplines such as theory of information, literature, psychology, logic and to some extent statistics must be touched upon. This is indispensable; for nowadays no science is entirely isolated from other domains of human knowledge; and linguistics, particularly its branch stylistics, cannot avoid references to the above mentioned disciplines because it is confronted with certain overlapping issues. The branching off of stylistics in language science was indirectly the result of a long-established tendency of grammarians to confine 9

their investigations to sentences, clauses and word-combinations which are "well-formed", to use a dubious term, neglecting anything that did not fall under the recognized and received standards. This tendency became particularly strong in what is called descriptive linguistics. The generative grammars, which appeared as a reaction against descriptive linguistics, have confirmed that the task of any grammar is to limit the scope of investigation of language data to sentences which are considered well-formed. Everything that fails to meet this requirement should be excluded from linguistics. But language studies cannot avoid subjecting to observation any language data whatever, so where grammar refuses to tread stylistics steps in. Stylistics has acquired its own status with its own inventory of tools (SDs and EMs), with its_own object of investigation and with its own methods of research. The stylistics of a highly developed language like English or Russian has brought into the science of language a separate body of media, thus widening the range of observation of phenomena in language. The significance of this branch of linguistics can hardly be over-estimated. A number of events in the development of stylistics must be mentioned here as landmarks. The first is the discussion of the problem of style and stylistics in " " in 1954, in which many important general and particular problems were broadly analysed and some obscure aspects elucidated. Secondly, a conference on Style in Language was held at Indiana University in the spring of 1958, followed by the publication of the proceedings of this conference (1960) under the editorship of Thomas Sebeok. Like the discussion in " " this conference revealed the existence of quite divergent points of view held by different students of language and literature. Thirdly, a conference on style and Stylistics was held in the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages in March 1969. At this conference lines were drawn along which studies in linguo-stylistics might be maintained. An interesting symposium was also held in Italy, the proceedings of which were published under the editorship of professor S. Chatman in 1971. A great number of monographs, textbooks, articles, and dissertation papers are now at the disposal of a scholar in stylistics. The stream of information grows larger every month. Two American journals appear regularly, which may keep the student informed as to trends in the theory of stylistics. They are Style issued at the Arkansas University (U.S.A.) and Language and Style published in Southern Illinois University (U.S.A.) (See also the bibliography on p. 324). It is in view of the ever-growing significance of the exploration of language potentialities that so much attention is paid in linguo-stylistics to the analysis of expressive means (EMs) and stylistic devices (SDs), to their nature and functions, to their classification and to possible interpretations of additional meanings they may carry in a message as well as their aesthetic value. In order to ascertain the borders of stylistics it is necessary to go at some length into the question of what is style. 10

The word s t y l e is derived from the Latin word 'stilus' which meant a short stick sharp at one end and flat at the other used by the Romans for writing on wax tablets. Now the word 'style' is used in so many senses that it has become a breeding ground for ambiguity. The word is applied to the teaching of how to write a composition (see below); it is also used to reveal the correspondence between thought and expression; it frequently denotes an individual manner of making use of language; it sometimes refers to more general, abstract notions thus inevitably becoming vague and obscure, as, for example, "Style is the man himself" (Buffon), "Style is depth" (Darbyshire); "Style is deviations" (Enkvist); "Style is choice", and the like. All these ideas directly or indirectly bear on issues in stylistics. Some of them become very useful by revealing the springs which make our utterances emphatic, effective and goal-directed. It will therefore not come amiss to quote certain interesting observations regarding style made by different writers from different angles. Some of these observations are dressed up as epigrams or sententious maxims like the ones quoted above. Here are some more of them. "Style is a quality of language which communicates precisely emotions or thoughts, or a system of emotions or thoughts, peculiar to the author." (J. Middleton Murry) " . . . a true idiosyncrasy of style is the result of an author's success in compelling language to conform to his mode of experience." (J. Middleton Murry) "Style is a contextually restricted linguistic variation." (Enkvist) "Style is a selection of non-distinctive features of language." (L. Bloomfield) "Style is simply synonymous with form or expression and hence a superfluous term." (Benedetto Croce) "Style is essentially a citational process, a body of formulae, a memory (almost in the cybernetic sense of the word), a cultural and not an expressive inheritance." (Roland Barthes) Some linguists consider that the word 'style' and the subject of linguistic stylistics is confined to the study of the effects of the message i.e. its impact on the reader. Thus Michael Riffaterre writes that "Stylistics will be a linguistics of the effects of the message, of the output of the act of communication, of its attention-compelling function". 1 This point of view has clearly been reached under the influence of recent developments in the general theory of information. Language, being one of the means of communication or, to be exact, the most important means of communication, is regarded in the above quotation from a pragmatic point of view. Stylistics in that case is regarded as a 1anguage science which deals with the results of the act of communication. To a very considerable degree this is true. Stylistics must take into consideration the "output of the act of communication". But stylistics must also investigate the ontological, i.e. natural, inherent, and func1 Riffaterre, M. The Stylistic Function. Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Linguists, The Hague, 1964, pp. 31617.

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tional peculiarities of the means of communication which may ensure the effect sought. Archibald A. Hill states that "A current definition of style and stylistics is that structures, sequences, and patterns which extend, or may extend, beyond the boundaries of individual sentences define style, and that the study of them is stylistics." 1 The truth of this approach to style and stylistics lies in the fact that the author concentrates on such phenomena in language as present a system, in other words, on facts which are not confined to individual use. The most frequent definition of style is one expressed by Seymour Chatman: "Style is a product of individual choices and patterns_of choices (emphasis added) among linguistic possibilities."2 This definition indirectly deals with the idiosyncrasies peculiar to a given writer. Somehow it fails to embrace such phenomena in text structure where the 'individual' is reduced to the minimum or even done away with entirely (giving preference to non-individualistic forms in using language means). However, this definition is acceptable when applied to the ways men-of-letters use language when they seek to make it conform to their immediate aims and purport. A somewhat broader view of style is expressed by Werner Winter who maintains that "A style may be said to be characterized by a pattern of recurrent selections from the inventory of optional features of a language. Various types of selection can be found: complete exclusion of an optional element, obligatory inclusion of a feature optional elsewhere, varying degrees of inclusion of a specific variant without complete elimination of competing features."3 The idea of taking various types of selection as criteria for distinguishing styles seems to be a sound one. It places the whole problem on a solid foundation of objective criteria, namely, the interdependence of optional and obligatory features. There is no point in quoting other definitions of style. They are too many and too heterogeneous to fall under one more or less satisfactory unified notion. Undoubtedly all these diversities in the understanding of the word 'style' stem from its ambiguity. But still all these various definitions leave an impression that by and large they all have something in common. All of them point to some integral significance, namely, that style is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one author from another or members of one subclass from members of other subclasses, all of which are members of the same general class. 4 What are these sets of characteristics typical of a writer or of a subclass of the literary language will be seen in the analysis of the language means of a given writer and of the subclasses of the general literary standard.
1

p. 54.
2 3

Hill, Archibald A. Poetry and Stylistics. In: "Essays in Literary Linguistics",

Chatman, Seymour. Stylistics: Quantitative and Qualitative, 1967, v. 1, p. 30. Winter, Werner. Styles as Dialects. Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Linguists, p. 324. 4 See "Style in Language", ed. by T. Sebeok. N. Y., 1960, p. 427. 12

Another point the above quotations have in common is that all of them concentrate on the form of the expression almost to the detriment of the content. In other words, style is regarded as something that belongs exclusively to the plane of expression and not to the plane of content.1 This opinion predominantly deals with the correspondence between the intention of the writer whoever he may bea man of letters, the writer of a diplomatic document, an article in a newspaper, or a scientific treatiseand the effect achieved. The evaluation is also based on whether the choice of language means conforms with the most general pattern of the given type of texta novel, a poem, a letter, a document, an article, an essay and so on. It follows then that the term 'style', being ambiguous, needs a restricting adjective to denote what particular aspect of style we intend to deal with. It is suggested here that the term i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e should be applied to that sphere of linguistic and literary science which deals with the peculiarities of a writer's individual manner of using language means to achieve the effect he desires. Deliberate choice must be distinguished from a habitual idiosyncrasy in the use of language units; every individual has his own manner and habits of using them. The speech of an individual which is characterized by peculiarities typical of that particular individual is called an i d i o l e c t . The idiolect should be distinguished from what we call individual style, inasmuch as the word 'style' presupposes a deliberate choice. When Buffon coined his famous saying which, due to its epigrammat ical form, became a by-word all over the world, he had in mind the idiolect, i.e. those qualities of speech which are inherent and which reveal a man's breeding, education, social standing, etc. All these factors are, however, undoubtedly interwoven with individual style. A man's breeding and education will always affect his turn of mind and therefore will naturally be revealed in his speech and writing. But a writer with a genuine individual style will as much as possible avoid those language peculiarities which point to his breeding and education in order to leave room for that deliberate choice of language means which will secure the effect sought. It follows then that the individual style of a writer is marked by its uniqueness. It can be recognized by the specific and peculiar combination of language media and stylistic devices which in their interaction present a certain system. This system derives its origin from the creative spirit, and elusive though it may seem, it can nevertheless be ascertained. Naturally, the individual style of a writer will never be intirely independent of the literary norms and canons of the given period. When we read novels by Swift or Fielding we can easily detect features common to both writers. These features are conditioned by the general literary canons of the period and cannot therefore be neglected. But the adaptations of these canons will always be peculiar and therefore
1 In linguistics there are two terms now generally recognized and widely used plane of expression and plane of content. These are synonymous to the concepts form and matter.

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distinguishable. Alexander Blok said that the style of a writer is so closely connected with the content of his soul, that the experienced eye can see the soul through his style, and by studying the form penetrate to the depth of the content.1 The idea of this subtle remark can be interpreted in the following way:the style of a writer can be ascertained only by analysis of the form, i.e. language media. To analyse the form in order to discover the idiosyncrasies of a writer's style is not an easy, but a rewarding task. Approaches to components of individuality such as 1) composition of larger-than-the-sentence units (see p. 193). 2) rhythm and melody of utterances, 3) system of imagery, 4) preference for definite stylistic devices and their co-relation with neutral language media, 5) interdependence of the language media employed by the author and the media characteristic 'of the personages, are indispensable. The language of a writer is sometimes regarded as alien to linguostylistics. Here is what V. M. Zirmunsky writes: "The language of a writer can hardly be considered an object of linguo-stylistics. If analysed outside the problem of style (the style of the work, the writer, the literary trend or the literary era), the language falls into a mass of words, collocations and grammatical facts, which taken in isolation will serve as but unreliable evidence as to the life of the given language in the given period of its development." 2 However, observations of the ways language means are employed by different writers, provided no claim is made to defining the individual style as a whole, may greatly contribute to the investigation of the ontological nature of these means by throwing light on their potentialities and ways of functioning. The individuality of a writer's style is shown in a peculiar treatment of language means. In this connection it is worth referring to Flaubert's notion on style. He considers style, as it were, non-personal, its merits being dependent on the power of thought and on the acuteness of the writer's perceptions.3 The same idea, only slightly modified, is expressed by J. Middleton Murry who said that "A true style must be unique, if we understand by the phrase 'a true style' a completely adequate expression in language of a writer's mode of feeling."4 In discussing the problem of individual style let us make it clear from the outset that the problem itself is common ground for literature and linguistics. However, inasmuch as language is the only media to accommodate poetic messages, it is necessary to go at some length into the domain of individual style, it being the testing ground for language means. The individual style of an author is frequently identified with the general, generic term 'style'. But as has already been pointed out, style is a much broader notion. The individual style of an author is only one of the applications of the general term 'style'. The analysis of an author's
See: . . . ., 1961, . 69. . . .... .: . ., 1962, . 50. 3 . 18761891. , 1950, . XIII, . 200. 4 J. Middleton Murry. The Problem of Style. Ldn, 1961, pp. 1415.
2 1

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language seems to be the most important procedure in estimating his individual style. This is obvious not only because language is the only means available to convey the author's ideas to the reader in precisely the way he intends, but also because writers unwittingly contribute greatly to establishing the norms of the literary language of a given period. In order to compel the language to serve his purpose, the writer draws on its potential resources in a way different from what we see in ordinary speech. This peculiarity in the manner of using language means in poetry and emotive prose has given rise to the notion of S t y l e a s D e v i a n c e . 1 Most illustrative of this tendency is George Saintsbury's statement made as far back as 1895: "It is in the breach or neglect of the rules that govern the structure of clauses, sentences, and paragraphs that the real secret of style consists..."2 The same idea is expressed by G. Vandryes, one of the prominent linguists of today, who states that "The belles-lettres style is always a reaction against the common language; to some extent it is a jargon, a literary jargon, which may have varieties."3 The idea has a long history. In the 1920s there arose a trend which was named formalism in literature and which has crucial relevance to present-day endeavours to analyse the role of form in embodying matter. Several literary critics representative of this school as well as a number of writers maintained the idea that language sometimes imposes intolerable constraints on freedom of thought. Hence all kinds of innovations were introduced into the language which sometimes not only disagree with the established norms of the language, but actually depart from them in principle. The result in many cases is that the language steps over the threshold of the reader's ability to perceive the message. The essential property, indeed, merit of a truly genuine individual style is its conformity to the established norms of the language system in their idiosyncratic variations. This uniqueness of the individual style of an author is not easy to observe. It is due not only to the peculiar choice of words, sentence-structures and stylistic devices, but also to the incomparable manner these elements are combined. It is hardly possible to under estimate the significance of a minute analysis of the language of a writer when approaching the general notion of his style. The language will inevitably reveal some of the author's idiosyncrasies in the use of language means. Moreover, the author's choice of language means reflects to a very considerable extent the idea of the work as a whole. Nowhere can the linguist observe the hidden potentialities of language means more clearly than through a scrupulous analysis of the ways writers use these means. But for the linguist the importance of studying an author's individual style is not confined to penetration into the inner properties of language means and stylistic devices. The writers of a given period in
1 2 3

See: Nils Erik Enkvist. Linguistic Stylistics. The Hague-Paris, 1973, 6. Saintsbury, G. Miscellaneous Essays. Ldn, 1895, p. 85. . . ., 1937, . 25152. 15

the development of the literary language contribute greatly to establishing the system of norms of their period. It is worth a passing note that the investigations of language norms at a given period are to a great extent maintained on works of men-of-letters. One of the essential properties of a truly individual style is its permanence. It has great powers of endurance. It is easily recognized and never loses its aesthetic value. The form into which the ideas are wrought assumes a greater significance and therefore arrests our attention. The language of a truly individual style becomes de-automatized. It may be said that the form, i.e. the language means themselves, generate meaning. This will be shown later when we come to analyse the nature and functions of stylistic devices. The idea of individual style brings up the problem of the correspondence between thought and expression. Many great minds have made valuable observations on the interrelation between these concepts. There is a long list of books in which the problem is discussed from logical, psychological, philosophical, aesthetic, pragmatic and purely linguistic points of view. Here we shall only point out the most essential sides of the problem, viz. a) thought and language are inseparable; b) language is a means of materializing thought. It follows then that the stylicist cannot neglect this interrelation when analysing the individual style of an author. But it is one thing to take into account a certain phenomenon as a part of a general notion and another thing to substitute one notion for another. To define style as the result of thinking out into language would be on the same level as to state that all we say is style. The absurdity of this statement needs no comment. The problem of the correspondence between matter and form (which are synonymous for thought and expression) finds its most effective wording in the following: "To finish and complete your thought!.. How long it takes, how rare it is, what an immense delight!.. As soon as a thought has reached its full perfection, the word springs into being, offers itself, and clothes the thought."1 Naturally such a poetical representation of the creative process should not be taken literally. There is a certain amount of emotional charge in it and this, as is generally the case, obscures to some extent the precision which a definition must have. However, it is well known that the search for an adequate expression often takes an enormous amount of time and mental effort. This idea is brilliantly expressed by V. Mayakovsky: " . . ." The genuine character of the individual style of an author is not necessarily manifest from the tricky or elaborate expressions he uses. Some forms of the language which pass unobserved even by an experienced reader due to their seeming insignificance in the general system of language may be turned into marked elements by the creative
1 Joubert. Quoted from N. Foerster & J. M. Steadman Jr. Sentences and Thinking. N. Y., 1923, p. 1.

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mind of the writer. Sometimes these 'insignificant' elements of the language scattered in the text are the bearers of the author's idiosyncratic bias. This is particularly true of the ways Hemingway, Faulkner and other modern writers have made use of language means, reflecting, as it were, the general tendency of trends in modern English and American literature. According to the observations of many a literary critic, the style of modern literary works is much more emotionally excited, 'dishevelled', incoherent than that of Dickens, Thackeray, Galsworthy. The language of some ultra-modern writers to some extent reflects the rapidly increasing tempo of the present industrial and technical revolution. Sensitive to the pulsation of social life in the country, they experiment with language means so as to mirror the vibration of extralinguistic reality. In every individual style we can find both the general and the particular. The greater the author is, the more genuine his style will be. If we succeed in isolating and examining the choices which the writer prefers, we can define what are the particulars that make up his style and make it recognizable. At the same time the linguist will be able to discern those potentialities of language means which hitherto were latent or, at the most, used only occasionally. The individuality of a writer is shown not only in the choice of lexical, syntactical and stylistic means but also in their treatment.1 It is really remarkable how a talented writer can make us feel the way he wants us to feel. This co-experience is built up so subtly that the reader remains unaware of the process. It is still stronger when the aesthetic function begins to manifest itself clearly and unequivocally through a gradual increase in intensity, in the foregrounding of certain features, repetitions of certain syntactical patterns and in the broken rhythm of the author's mode of narrating events, facts and situations. What we here call individual style, therefore, is a unique combination of language units, expressive means and stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer's works or even utterances easily recognizable. Hence, individual style may be likened to a proper name. It has nominal character. The analogy is, of course, conventional, but it helps to understand the uniqueness of the writer's idiosyncrasy. Individual style is based on a thorough knowledge of the contemporary language and also of earlier periods in its development. Individual style allows certain justifiable deviations from the rigorous norms. This, needless to say, presupposes a perfect knowledge of the invariants of the norms. Individual style requires to be studied in a course of stylistics in so far as it makes use of the potentialities of language means, whatever the character of these potentialities may be. But it goes without saying that each author's style should be analysed separately, which is naturally impossible in a book on general stylistics.
1

See also: Victor M. Hamm. Meter and Meaning. PMLA, 1954, No. 4, Part 1, p. 698, 17

Selection, or deliberate choice of language, and the ways the chosen elements are treated are the main distinctive features of individual style. The treatment of the selected elements brings up the problem of the norm. The notion of the norm mainly refers to the literary language and always presupposes a recognized or received standard. At the same time it likewise presupposes vacillations of the received standard. In order to get a workable definition of the norm for the purposes set in this book and, particularly, in connection with the issue of individual style, it will be necessary to go a little bit deeper into the concept. We shall begin with the following statement made by Academician L. V. Scherba: "Very often when speaking of norms people forget about stylistic norms (emphasis added) which are no less, if not more, important than all others."1 This pronouncement clearly indicates that there is no universally accepted norm of the standard literary language, that there are different norms and that there exist special kinds of norm which are called stylistic norms. Indeed, it has long been acknowledged that the norms of the spoken and the written varieties of language differ in more than one respect (see p. 35). Likewise it is perfectly apparent that the norms of emotive prose and those of official language are heterogeneous. Even within what is called the belles-lettres style of language (see p. 3334) we can observe different norms between, for instance, poetry and drama. In this connection I. Vachek of the Prague School of Linguistics states that "it is necessary to reject the possibility of the existence of an abstract, universal norm which subordinates written and oral norms in any of the natural languages."2 The same view is expressed by M. A. K. Halliday who states: "There is no single universally relevant norm, no one set of expectancies to which all instances may be referred." 3 This point of view is not, however, to be taken literally. The fact that there are different norms for various types and styles of language does not exclude the possibility and even the necessity of arriving at some abstract notion of norm as an i n v a r i a n t, which should embrace all v a r i a n t s with their most typical properties. Each style of language will have its own invariant and variants (see pp. 3334), yet all styles will have their own invariant, that of the written variety of language. Both oral (colloquial) and written (literary) varieties can also be integrated into an invariant of the standard (received) language.
1

. 65.

. . . ., 1958, . 1,

2 . . .: . ., 1967, . 530. 3 Halliday, M. . . Linguistic Function and Literary Style. In: "Literary Style: A Symposium." Ldn, 1971, p. 314.

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The norm is regarded by some linguists as "a regulator which controls a set of variants, the borders of variations and also admissible and inadmissible variants." (E. A. Makayev) Here are some other definitions. "The norm is an assemblage (a set) of stable (i.e. regularly used) means objectively existing in the language and systematically used." (Gavranek) "A certain conventionally singled out assemblage of realizations of language means recognized by the language community as a model." (Gukhman & Semenyuk) "The norm is a linguistic abstraction, an idea thought up by linguists and existing only in their minds." (A. E. Darbyshire) "There is, of course, no such thing as the norm to be found in actual usages. It is a concept which must be expressed by means of a formula, and it is a concept about that which is left of uses of language when all stylistic qualities have been taken away from them." (A. E. Darbyshire) The last of the definitions elaborates the idea of the norm as something stripped of its stylistic qualities. This is not accidental. Many linguists hold the view that anything which can be labelled stylistic is already a deviation from the established norm (see a number of the definitions of 'style' given on p. 11). They forget that regular deviations from the norm gradually establish themselves as variants of the norm; the more so because, as has been stated, 'deviations' of a genuinely stylistic character are not deviations1 but typified and foregrounded natural phenomena of language usage, though sometimes carried to the extreme. So, finally, we can arrive at the conclusion that the norm presupposes the oneness of the multifarious. There is a conscious attitude to what is well-formed against what is ill-formed. Well-formedness may be represented in a great number of concrete sentences allowing a considerable range of acceptability. The norm, therefore, should be regarded as the invariant of the phonemic, morphological, lexical and syntactical patterns circulating in language-in-action at a given period of time. Variants of these patterns may sometimes diverge from the invariant but they never exceed the limits set by the invariant lest it should become unrecognizable or misleading. The development of any literary language shows that the variants will always centre around the axis of the invariant forms. The variants, as the term itself suggests, will never detach themselves from the invariant to such a degree as to claim entire independence. Yet, nevertheless, there is a tendency to estimate the value of individual style by the degree it violates the norms of the language. As we have already cited, G. Saintsbury considers that the real secret of style reveals itself in the breach or neglect of the rules that govern the structure of clauses, sentences, and paragraphs (see p. 15). This conception is aptly illustrated theoretically in the Theory of Deviance mentioned above (p. 15) and practically in the works of certain modern poets like E. E. Cummings and others who try to
1

See also: A. E. Darbyshire. A Grammar of Style. Ldn, 1971, p. 186. 19

break away entirely from the established and recognized invariants and variants of the given norm. They introduce various patterns which are almost undecodable and consequently require special devices for grasping the messages.1 Quite a different point of view is expressed by E. Sapir, who states: "...the greatestor shall we say the most satisfyingliterary artists, the Shakespeares and Heines, are those who have known subconsciously how to fit or trim the deeper intuition to the provincial accents of their daily speech. In them there is no effect of strain. Their personal 'intuition' appears as a completed synthesis of the absolute art of intuition and the innate, specialized art of the linguistic medium."2 This idea is common to many stylicists who hold that real and genuine individuality of style will reveal itself not in the breach of the rules, in other words, not in deviating from the accepted norms, but in the peculiar treatment of them. However, it must be repeated that some deviations, if they are motivated, may occur here and there in the text. Moreover, let us repeat once more that through constant repetitions such deviations may become legitimate variants of the norm and establish themselves as members of the language system. The problem of variants of the norm, or deviations from the norm of the literary language, has received widespread attention among linguists and is central to some of the major current controversies. It is the inadequacy of the concept 'norm' that causes the controversy. At every period in the development of a literary language there must be a tangible norm which first of all marks the difference between literary and non-literary language. Then there must be a clear-cut distinction between the invariant of the norm (as an abstraction) and its variants (in concrete texts). As will be seen later almost every functional style of language is marked by a specific use of language means, thus establishing its own norms which, however, are subordinated to the norminvariant and which do not violate the general notion of the literary norm. One of the most characteristic and essential properties of the norm is its flexibility. A too rigorous adherence to the norm brands the writer's language as pedantic, no matter whether it is a question of speech or writing. But on the other hand, neglect of the norm will always be regarded with suspicion as being an attempt to violate the established signals of the language code which safeguard and accelerate the process of communication. At the same time, a free handling of the norms may be regarded as a permissible application of the flexibility of the norm. It must be acknowledged that to draw a line of demarcation between facts that illustrate the flexibility of the norm and those which show its violation is not so easy. The extremes are apparent, but border cases are blurred. Thus "footsteps on the sand of war" (E. E. Cummings) or "below a time" (see other examples on pp. 162163) are clearly violations of the accepted norms of word-building or word-combinations.
1 See in this connection a special magazine LOP (Language of Poetry) where a number of articles are devoted to various attempts to decipher such messages. 2 Sapir, E. Language. N. Y., 1921, p. 240.

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But "silent thunder", "the ors and ifs" and the like may from one point of view be regarded as a practical application of the principle of flexibility of the norm and from anotheras a violation of the semantic and morphological norms of the English language. Variants interacting with the rigorous rules of usage may reveal the potentialities of the language for enrichment to a degree which no artificial coinage will ever be able to reach. This can be explained by the fact that semantic changes and particularly syntactical ones are rather slow in process and they reject any sudden imposition of innovations on the code already in action. There is a constant process of gradual change taking place in the forms of language and their meaning at any given period in the development of the language. It is therefore most important to master the received standard of the given period in the language in order to comprehend the correspondence of this of that form to the recognized norm of the period. Some people think that one has to possess what is called a "feeling for the language" in order to be able to understand the norm of the language and its possible variants. But this feeling is deeply rooted in the unconscious knowledge of the laws according to which a language functions, and even in its history, which explains much concerning the direction it has progressed. When the feeling of the norm, which grows with the knowledge of the laws of the language, is instilled in the mind, one begins to appreciate the beauty of justifiable fluctuations. Paradoxal though it may seem, the norm can be grasped, nay, established, only when there are deviations from it. It is therefore best perceived in combination with something that breaks it. In this connection the following remarks made by L. V. Scherba are worth quoting: "... in order to achieve a free command of a literary language, even one's own, one must read widely, giving preference to those writers who deviate but slightly from the norm." "Needless to say, all deviations are to some extent normalized: not every existing deviation from the norm is good; at any rate, not in all circumstances. The feeling for what is permissible and what is not, and mainlya feeling for the inner sense of these deviations (and senseless ones, as has been pointed out, are naturally bad), is developed through an extensive study of bur great Russian literature in all its variety, but of course in its best examples."1 "I say justifiable or "motivated" because bad writers frequently make use of deviations from the norm which are not motivated or justified by the subject matterthat is why they are considered bad writers."2 While dealing with various conceptions of the term 'style', we must also mention a commonly accepted connotation of style as e m b e l l i s h m e n t of l a n g u a g e . This understanding of style is upheld in some of the scientific papers on literary criticism. Language and style as embellishment are regarded as separate bodies. According to this idea language can easily dispense with style, because style here is likened to
1

. . . . ., 1939, 1, . 10. 2 Ibid. 21

the trimming on a dress. Moreover, style as embellishment of language is viewed as something that hinders understanding. It is, as it were, alien to language and therefore needs to be excluded from the observations of language scholars. That is why almost all contemporary books on grammar and general linguistics avoid problems of style or, at most, touch upon them in passing. The notion of style as embellishment presupposes the use of bare language forms deprived of any stylistic devices, of any expressive means deliberately employed. In this connection Middleton Murry writes: "The notion that style is applied ornament had its origin, no doubt, in the tradition of the school of rhetoric in Europe, and in its place in their teaching. The conception was not so monstrous as it is today. For the old professors of rhetoric were exclusively engaged in instructing their pupils how to expound an argument or arrange a pleading. Their classification of rhetorical devices was undoubtedly formal and extravagant... The conception of style as applied ornament . . . is the most popular of all delusions about style."1 The notion of style as embellishment of language is completely erroneous. No matter how style is treated, it is the product of a writer's deliberate intention to frame his ideas in such a manner as will add something important, something indispensable in order to secure an adequate realization of his ideas. To call style embellishment is the same thing as to strip it of its very essence, that is, to render unnecessary those elements which secure the manifold application of the language units. No doubt there are utterances which contain all kinds of unmotivated stylistic means. Moreover, there are writers whose style abounds in such utterances. But they are either those who, admiring the form, use it at the expense of the matter, or those who, by experimenting with the potentialities of language means, try to find new ways of rendering their ideas. In both cases the reader is faced with difficulties in decoding the message and this greatly hinders understanding. A very popular notion of style among teachers of language is that style is t e c h n i q u e f x p r e s s i o n. In this sense style is generally defined as the ability to write clearly, correctly and in a manner calculated to interest the reader. Though the last requirement is not among the indispensables, it is still found in many practical manuals of style, most of which can be lumped together under the title "Composition and Style". This is a purely utilitarian point of view of the issue in question. If this were true, style could be taught. Style in this sense of expression studies the normalized forms of the language. The teaching process aims at lucidity of expression. It sets up a number of rules as to how to speak and write well and generally discards all kinds of deviations as being violations of the norm. The norm in these works is treated as something self-sustained and, to a very great extent, inflexible. The utilitarian approach to the problem is also felt in the following statement by E. J. Dunsany, an Irish dramatist and writer of short stories:
1

Op. cit., pp. 1011. 22

"When you can with difficulty write anything clearly, simply, and emphatically, then, provided that the difficulty is not apparent to the reader, that is style. When you can do it easily, that is genius." V. G. Belinsky also distinguished two aspects of style, making a hard and fast distinction between the technical and the creative power of any utterance. "To language merits belong correctness, clearness and fluency," he states, "qualities which can be achieved by any talentless writer by means of labour and routine." "But style () is talent itself, the very thought."1 Almost the same point of view is held both by A. N. Gvozdev and F. L. Lucas. Gvozdev states that "Stylistics has a practical value, teaching students to master the language, working out a conscious approach to language"2 and Lucas declares that the aims of a course in style are: a) to teach to write and speak well, b) to improve the style of the writer, and c) to show him means of improving his ability to express his ideas.3 It is important to note that what we call the practical approach to the problem of style should by no means be regarded as something erroncous. The practical side of the problem can hardly be over-estimated. But should it be called style? The ability to write clearly and emphatically can and should be taught. This is the domain of grammar, which today rules out the laws and means of composition. The notion of style cannot be reduced to the merely practical aspect because in such a case a theoretical background for practical aims cannot be worked out. Moreover, stylistics as a branch of linguistics demands investigation into the nature of such language means as add aesthetic value to the utterance. Just as the interrelation between lexicology and lexicography is accepted to be that of theory and practice, so theoretical and practical stylistics should be regarded as two interdependent branches of linguistic science. Each of these branches may develop its own approach and methods of investigation of linguistic data. The term 'style' is widely used in literature to signify l i t e r a r y g e n r e . Thus, we speak of classical style or the style of classicism, realistic style, the style of romanticism and so on. The use of the word 'style' has sometimes been carried to unreasonable lengths, thus blurring the terminological aspect of the word. It is applied to various kinds of literary works: the fable, novel, ballad, story, etc. The term is also used to denote the way the plot is dealt with, the arrangement of the parts of literary composition to form the whole, the place and the role of the author in describing and depicting events. It is suggested in this work that the term 'style' be used to refer to purely linguistic facts, thus avoiding the possible ambiguity in its
1 2 3

. . 1843 . . ., 1948, . VIII, . 396. . . . ., 1952, . 8. See Lucas, F.L. Style. Ldn, 1962.
23

application. After all the origin of the word 'style' is a justification for the suggestion. However, we are fully aware of the fact that such a proposition will be regarded as an encroachment on the rights of literature to have its own terms in spite of the fact that they are the same as terms in linguistics. Now let us pass to the discussion of an issue the importance of which has to be kept clearly in mind throughout the study of stylistics, that is the dichotomy of language and speech or, to phrase the issue differently, language as-a-system and language-in-action. It deserves at least a cursory discussion here not only because the issue has received a good deal of attention in recent publications on linguistic matters, but also because, as will be seen later, many stylistic devices stand out against the background of the distinctive features of these two above-mentioned notions. The simplicity of the issue is to some extent deceptive. On the surface it seems that language-in-action takes the signs of language-as-a-system and arranges them to convey the intended message. But the fact is that the signs of the latter undergo such transformations in the former that sometimes they assume a new quality imposing new significations on the signs of the language code. There is compelling evidence in favour of the theory which demands that the two notions should be regarded in their unity, allowing, however, that each of them be subjected to isolated observation. Language-as-a-system may figuratively be depicted as an exploiter of language-in-action. All rules and patterns of language which are collected and classified in works on grammar, phonetics, lexicology and, stylistics first appear in language-in-action, whence they are generalized and framed as rules and patterns of language-as-a-system. It is important here to call attention to the process of formation of scientific notions. Whenever we notice a phenomenon that can be singled out from a mass of language facts we give it a name, thus abstracting the properties of the phenomenon. The phenomena then being collected and classified are hallowed into the ranks of the units of language-as-asystem. It must be pointed out that most observations of the nature and functioning of language units have been made on material presented by the written variety of language. It is due to the fixation of speech in writing that scholars of language began to disintegrate the continuous flow of speech and subject the functioning of its components to analysis. So it is with stylistic devices. Being born in speech they have gradually become recognized as certain patternized structures: phonetic, morphological, lexical, phraseological and syntactical, and duly taken away from their mother, Speech, and made independent members of the family, Language. The same concerns the issue of functional styles of language. Once they have been recognized as independent, more or less closed subsystems of the standard literary language, they should be regarded not as styles of speech but as styles of language, inasmuch as they can be patterned as to the kinds of interrelation between the component parts in each of the styles. Moreover, these functional styles have been subjected
24

to various classifications, which fact shows that the phenomena now belong to the domain of language-as-a-system. However, it must constantly be born in mind that the units which belong to this domain are abstract in their nature. Functional styles are merely models deprived of material substance, schemes which can be materialized in language forms. When materialized in language forms they become practical realizations of abstract schemes and signify the variants of the corresponding invariants of the models. This relatively new science, stylistics, will be profitable to those who have a sound linguistic background. The expressive means of English and the stylistic devices used in the literary language can only be understood (and made use of) when a thorough knowledge of the languageas-a-system, i.e. of the phonetic, grammatical and lexical data of the given language, has been attained. It goes without saying that the more observant the student is, the easier it will be for him to appreciate the peculiar usage of the language media. Justification for bringing this problem up is that some language scholars frighten students out of studying stylistics on the ground that this subject may effectively be studied only on the basis of a perfect command of the language. Such scholars, aware of the variables and unknowns, usually try in their teaching to sidestep anything that may threaten well-established theories concerning the laws of language. Alertness to the facts of language-in-action should be inherent, but it can be developed to a degree necessary for an aesthetic evaluation of the works of men-of-letters. And for this purpose it is first of all necessary to get a clear idea of what constitutes the notions 'expressive means' and 'stylistic devices'.
2. EXPRESSIVE MEANS (EM) AND STYLISTIC DEVICES (SD)

In linguistics there aredifferent terms to denote particular means by which utterances are foregrounded,i . e . made more conspicuous, more effective and therefore imparting some additional information. They are called expressive means, stylistic means, stylistic markers, stylistic devices, tropes, figures of speech and other names. All theseterms are used indiscriminately and are set against those means whichwe shall conventionally calln e u t r a l . Most linguists distinguishordinary (also: substantial, referential) semantic and stylistic differ ences in meaning. In fact a l l language means contain meaningsomeof them contain generally acknowledgedg r a m m a t i c a l and lexical meanings (s e p. e 58). others besides these contain p e i f i c meani ngs which may be called s s t y l i s t i . Such meanings go alongside primary meanings and, as it were, are superimposed on them. Stylistic meanings are so to speak deautomatized. As is known, theprocess of automatization, i.e. a speedy and subconscious use of lan uage data, is one of the indispensable ways g of making communicationeasy and quickly decodable. 25

But when a stylistic meaning is involved, the process of de-automatization checks the reader's perception of the language. His attention is arrested by a peculiar use of language media and he begins, to the best of his ability, to decipher it. He becomes aware of the form in which the utterance is cast and as the result of this process a twofold use of the language mediumordinary and stylisticbecomes apparent to him. As will be shown later this twofold application of language means in some cases presents no difficulty. It is so marked that even a layman can see it, as when a metaphor or a simile is used. But in some texts grammatically redundant forms or hardly noticeable forms, essential for the expression of stylistic meanings which carry the particular additional information desired, may present a difficulty. What this information is and how it is conveyed to the mind of the reader can be explored only when a concrete communication is subjected to observation, which will be done later in the analyses of various stylistic devices and in the functioning of expressive means. In this connection the following passage from "Investigating English Style" by D. Crystal and D. Davy is of interest: "Features which are stylistically significant display different kinds and degrees of distinctiveness in a text: of two features, one may occur only twice in a text, the other may occur thirty times,or a feature might be uniquely identifying in the language, only ever occurring in one variety, as opposed to a feature which is distributed throughout many or all varieties in different frequencies."1 What then is a stylistic device? Why is it so important to distinguish it from the expressive and neutral means of the language? To answer these questions it is first of all necessary to elucidate the notion expressiveness'. The category of e x p r e s s i v e n e s s has long been the subject of heated discussions among linguists. In its etymological sense expressiveness may be understood as a kind of intensification of an utterance or of a part of it depending on the position in the utterance of the means that manifest this category and what these means are. But somehow lately the notion of expressiveness has been confused with another notion, viz. e m t i v e n e s s. Emotiveness, and correspondingly the emotive elements of language, are what reveal the emotions of writer or speaker. But these elements are not direct manifestations of the emotions-they are just the echoes of real emotions, echoes which have undergone some intellectual recasting. They are designed to awaken coexperience in the mind of the reader. Expressiveness is a broader notion than emotiveness and is by no means to be reduced to the latter. Emotiveness is an integral part of expressiveness and, as a matter of fact, occupies a predominant position in the category of expressiveness. But there are media in language which aim simply at logical emphasis of certain parts of the utterance. They do not evoke any intellectual representation of feeling but merely serve the purpose of verbal actualization of the utterance. Thus, for example,
1

David Crystal and Derek Davy. Investigating English Style. Ldn, 1969, p. 21 26

when we say "It was in July 1975 that the cosmos experiment of a joint American-Soviet flight took place" we make the utterance logically emphatic by a syntactical device which will be described in due course. The same thing is to be observed in these sentences: (1) Mr. Smith was an extremely unpleasant person. (2) Never will he go to that place again. (3) In rushed the soldiers! (4) It took us a very, very long time to get there. In sentence (1) expressiveness is achieved by lexical meansthe word 'extremely'. In (2) and (3) by syntactical meansdifferent types of inversion. In (4) the emphasis is materialized by the repetition of the word 'very' which is in itself a word used to intensify the utterance. But in the sentences: (1) Isn't she cute! (2) Fool that he was! (3) This goddam window won't open! (4) We buddy-huddled together. (5) This quickie tour didn't satisfy our curiosity. we can register positive emotiveness, inasmuch as there are elements that evoke certain representations of the feeling of the speaker. In sentence (1) and (2) there are syntactical means which evoke this effect. In (3) and (4) there are lexical means'goddam', 'buddy-buddied' (=were on very friendly relations); in (5)a morphological device (the suffixie). It must be noted that to draw a hard and fast distinction between logical and emotional emphasis is not always possible. The fact is that the logical and the emotional frequently overlap. A too strong logical emphasis may colour the utterance with emotional elements, thus causing a kind of expressiveness which is both logical and emotive. However, the extremes are clearly set one against the other. Now it should be possible to define the notion of expressive means. The expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance. These intensifying forms, wrought by social usage and recognized by their semantic function, have been singled out in grammars, courses in phonetics and dictionaries (including phraseological ones) as having special functions in making the utterances emphatic. Some of them are normalized, and good dictionaries label them as "intensifiers". In most cases they have corresponding neutral synonymous forms. Compare, for example, the following pairs: (1) He shall do it! = I shall make him do it. (2) Isn't she cute! = She is very nice, isn't she? Expressiveness may also be achieved by compositional devices in utterances comprising a number of sentencesin syntactical wholes and in paragraphs. This will be shown in the chapter on syntactical stylistic devices. The most powerful expressive means of any 1anguage are phonetic. The human voice can indicate subtle nuances of meaning that no other
27

means can attain. Pitch, melody, stress, pausation, drawling out certain syllables, whispering, a sing-song manner and other ways of using the voice are much more effective than any other means in intensifying an utterance emotionally or logically. In the language course of phonetics the patterns of emphatic intonation have been worked out, but many devices have so far been little investigated. Paradoxal though it may seem, many of these means, the effect of which rests on a peculiar use of the voice, are banned from the linguistic domain. But there has appeared a new science"paralinguistics"of which all these devices are the inventory. The writer of this book holds the opinion that all the vocal peculiarities enumerated should be recognized as legitimate members of the phonetic structure of language and that therefore the term 'paralinguistics' should be done away with. Professor Seymour Chatman introduces the term 'phonostylistics' and defines it as a subject the purpose of which is "the study of the ways in which an author elects to constrain the phonology of the language beyond the normal requirements of the phonetic system."1 As can be inferred from this quotation, phonetic expressive means and particularly phonetic stylistic devices (see p. 123) are not deviations from "the normal requirements of the phonetic system" but a way of actualizing the typical in the given text. Vocal phenomena such as drawling, whispering, etc. should be regarded as parts of the phonemic system on the same level as pitch, stress and tune. In this part of the book where general ideas are presented in an introductory aspect only, there is no need to go deeper into the issue of what constitutes the notion expressive means of the phonetic system. The reader is referred to part I I I "Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices" (p. 123). Passing over to some preliminary remarks op the m o r p h o l o g i c a l e x p r e s s i v e m e a n s of the English language, we_must point to what is now thr impoverished set of media to which the quality of expressiveness can be attributed. However, there are some which alongside their ordinary grammatical function display a kind of emphasis and thereby are promoted to EMs. These are, for example, The Historical Present; the use of shall in the second and third rson; the use of some demonstrative pronouns with an emphatic meaning as those, them ("Those gold candles fixed in heaven's air"Shakespeare); some cases of nominalization, particularly when conversion of verbal stems is alien to the meaning of the verbs or the nominalization of phrases and sentences and a number of other morphological forms, which acquire expressiveness in the context, though this capacity is not yet registered as one of the latent properties of such forms. Among the w o r d - b u i l d i n g m e a n s we find a great many forms which serve to make the utterance more expressive by intensifying some of their semantic and/or grammatical properties. The diminutive
1 Chatman, Seymour. Stylistics: Qualitative and Quantitative. In: "Style", vol. 1, 1967, No. 1, p. 34.

28

suffixes -y (-ie), -let, e.g. 'dearie', 'sonny', 'auntie', 'streamlet', add some motional colouring to the words. We may also refer to what are called neologisms and nonce-words formed with non-productive suffixes or with Greek roots, as 'mistressmanship', 'cleanorama'(see p. 92). Certain affixes have gained such a power of expressiveness that they begin functioning as separate words, absorbing all of the generalizing meaning they attach to different roots, as, for example, 'isms and ologies'. At the l e x i c a l l e v e l there are a great many words which due to their inner expressiveness constitute a special layer (see chart on p. 71). There are words with emotive meaning only (interjections), words which have both referential and emotive meaning (epithets), words which still retain a twofold meaning: denotative and connotative (love, hate, sympathy), words belonging to the layers of slang and vulgar words, or to poetic or archaic layers. The expressive power of these words cannot be doubted, especially when they are compared with the neutral vocabulary. All kinds of set phrases (phraseological units) generally possess the property of expressiveness. Set phrases, catch words, proverbs, sayings comprise a considerable number of language units which serve to make speech emphatic, mainly from the emotional point of view.heir use in every-day speech is remarkable for the subjective emotional colouring they produce. It must be noted here that due to the generally emotional character of colloquial language, all kinds of set expressions are natural in every day speech. They are, as it were, part and parcel of this form of human intercourse. But when they appear in written texts their expressiveness comes to the fore because written texts, as has already been pointed out, are logically directed unless, of course, there is a deliberate attempt to introduce an expressive element in the utterance. The set expression is a time-honoured device to enliven speech, but this device, it must be repeated, is more sparingly used in written texts. In everyday speeeh one can often hear such phrases as: "Well,it will only add fuel to the fire" and the like, which in fact is synonymous to the neutral: "It will on make ly the situation worse." Finally, at the s y n t t i a l l e v e l there are many constructions which, when set against synonymous neutral ones, will vel a certain degree of logical or emotional emphasis. In order to be a b l e t o distinguish between expressive means and stylistic devices, to which we now pass, it is necessary to bear in mind that expressive means are concrete facts of language. They are studied in the respective language manuals, though it must be once again regretfully stated that some grammarians iron out all elements carrying expressiveness from their works, as they consider this quality irrelevant to the theory of language. Stylistics studies the expressive means of language, but from a spe cial angle. It takes into account the modifications of meanings which various expressive means undergo when they are used in different func tional styles. Expressive means have a kind of radiating effect. They 29

noticeably colour the whole of the utterance no matter whether they are logical or emotional. What then is a stylistic device? It is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative model . It follows then that an SD is an abstract pattern, a mould into which any content can be poured. As is known, the typical is not only that which is in frequent use, but that also which reveals the essence of a phenomenon with the greatest and most evident force. SDs function in texts as marked units. They always carry some kind of additional information, either emotive or logical. That is why the method of free variation employed in descriptive linguistics 1 cannot be used in stylistics because any substitution may cause damage to the semantic and aesthetic aspect of the utterance. A. W. De Groot points out the significance of SDs in the following passage: "Each of the aesthetically relevant features of the text serves to create a feature of the gestalt2 of the poem. In this sense the relevant linguistic features may be said to function or operate as gestalt factors."3 The idea of the function of SDs is expressed most fully by V. M. Zirmunsky in the following passage: "The justification and the sense of each device lies in the wholeness of the artistic impression which the work of art as a self-contained thing produces on us. Each separate aesthetic fact, each poetical device (emphasis added) finds its place in the system, the sounds and sense of the words, the syntactical structures, the scheme of the plot, the compositional purportall in equal degree express this wholeness and find justification." 4 The motivated use of SDs in a genuine work of emotive literature is not easily discernible, though they are used in some kind of relation to the facts, events, or ideas dealt with in the artistic message. Most SDs display an application of two meanings: the ordinary one, in other words, the meaning (lexical or structural) which has already been established in the language-as-a-system, and a special meaning which is superimposed on the unit by the text, i.e. a meaning which appears in the language-in-action. Sometimes, however, the twofold application of a lexical unit is accomplished not by the interplay of two meanings but by two words (generally synonyms) one of which is perceived against the background of the other. This will be shown in subsequent chapters.
1 By 'free variation' is meant the substitution of one form by another without any change of meaning. 2 'Gestalt' is a term in psychology which denotes a phenomenon as a whole, a kind of oneness, as something indivisible into component parts. The term has been borrowed by linguistics to denote the inseparability of the whole of a poetic work. 3 De Groot A. W. Proceedings of the IX International Congress of Linguists, p. 295. 4 . . . . . ., "Academia", 1928, . 354.

30

The_conscious transformation of a language fact into a stylistic device has been observed by certain linguists whose interests in linguistic theory have gone beyond the boundaries of grammar. Thus A. A. Potebnya writes: "As far back as in ancient Greece and Rome and with few exceptions up to the present time, the definition of a figurative use of a word has been based on the contrast between ordinary speech, used in its own, natural, primary meaning, and transferred speech."1 The contrast which the author of the passage quoted points to, can not always be clearly observed. In some SDs it can be grasped immediately; in others it requires a keen eye and sufficient training to detect it. It must be emphasized that the contrast reveals itself most clearly when our mind perceives twofold meanings simultaneously. The meanings run parallel: one of them taking precedence over the other. Thus in "The night has swallowed him up" the word 'swallow' has two meanings: a) referential and b) contextual (to make disappear, to make vanish). The meaning (b) takes precedence over the referential (a). The same can be observed in the sentence: "Is there not blood enough upon your penal code that more must be poured forth to ascend to Heaven and testify against you?" (Byron) The interrogative form, i.e. the structural meaning of a question, runs parallel with the imposed affirmative thought, i.e. the structural meaning of a statement, and it is difficult to decide which of the two structural meaningsthe established or the superimposedtakes the upper hand. In the following chapters where detailed analysis of the different SDs will be carried out, we shall try, where possible, to consider which of the two meanings realized simultaneously outweighs the other. The birth of SDs is a natural process in the development of language media. Language units which are used with more or less definite aims of communication in various passages of writing and in various functional styles begin gradually to develop new features, a wider range of functions, thus causing polyfunctionality. Hence they can be presented as invariants with concrete variables. The interrelation between expressive means and stylistic devices can be worded in terms of the theory of information. Expressive means have a greater degree of predictability than stylistic devices. The latter may appear in an environment which may seem alien and therefore be only slightly or not at all predictable. Expressive means, on the contrary follow the natural course of thought, intensifying it be means commonly used in language. It follows that SDs carry a greater amount of information and therefore require a certain effort to decode their meaning and purport. SDs must be regarded as a special code which has to be well know to the reader in order t be deciphered easily. The notion of language as a special code is now very much practiced in the analyses of the functions of language units. E. Stankievicz sees
1

. . . , 1905, . 204. 31

 kind of code-switching when SDs are employed. He also acknowledges the twofold application of the language code when ... the neutral, basic code serves as the background against which the elements of another system acquire expressive prominence within the context of the basic system ." 1 SDs are used sparingly in emotive prose, lest they should overburden the text with implications thus hindering the process of decoding. They are abundantly used in poetry and especially so in some trends of poetical tradition, consequently retarding mental absorption of the content. 2 Not every stylistic use of a language fact will come under the term SD, although some usages call forth a stylistic meaning. There are practically unlimited possibilities of presenting any language fact in what is vaguely called its stylistic use. For a language fact to be promoted to the level of an SD there is one indispensable requirement, which has already been mentioned above, viz. that it should so be used to call forth a twofold perception of lexical or/and structural meanings. Even a nonce use can and very often does create the necessary conditions for the appearance of an SD. But these are only the prerequisites for the appearance of an SD. Only when a newly minted language unit which materializes the twofold application of meanings occurs repeatedly in different environments, can it spring into life as an SD and subsequently be registered in the system of SDs of the given language. Therefore it is necessary to distinguish between a stylistic use of a language unit, which acquires what we call a stylistic meaning, and a stylistic device, which is the realization of an already well-known abstract scheme designed to achieve a particular artistic effect. Thus many facts of English grammar are said to be used with stylistic meaning, for example, the morphological expressive means mentioned on p. 28. But most of them have not yet been raised to the level of SDs because they remain unsystematized and so far perceived as nonce uses. They are, as it were, still wandering in the vicinity of the realm of SDs without being admitted into it. This can indirectly be proved by the fact that they have no special name in the English language system of SDs. An exception, perhaps, is the Historical Present which meets the requirements of an SD. So far the system of stylistic devices has not been fully recognized as legitimate members of the general systemlof language. This is mainly due to the above-mentioned conception of grammatical theory as dealing exclusively with a perfectly organized and extremely rigid scheme of language rules, precise and accurate in its application.
3. GENERAL NOTES ON FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF LANGUAGE

We have defined the object of linguo-stylistics as the study of the nature, functions and structure of SDs and EMs, on the one hand, and the study of the functional styles, on the other. In section 2 of this In1 Stankievicz, E. Problems of Emotive Language. In: "Approaches to Semiotics". The Hague, 1964, p. 246. 2 For a more detailed analysis of the information carried by SDs see . . , ., 1974.

32

troduction (p. 25) we have outlined the general principles on which the notions of EMs and SDs rest. It is now time to outline the general principles on which functional styles rest. A functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in commumication. A functional style is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of a language. The literary standard of the English language, like that of any other developed language, is not so homogeneous as it may seem. In fact the standard English literary language in the course of its development has fallen into several subsystems each of which has acquired its own peculiarities which are typical of the given functional style. The members of the language community, especially those who are sufficiently trained and responsive to language variations, recognize these styles as independent wholes. The peculiar choice of language means is primarily predetermined by the aim of the communication with the result that a more or less closed system is built up. One set of language media stands in opposition to other sets of language media with other aims, and these other sets have other choices and arrangements of language means. What we here call functional styles are also called r e g i s t e r s or In the English literary standard we distinguish the following major functional styles (hence FS): 1) The language of belles-lettres. 2) The language of publicistic literature. 3) The language of newspapers. 4) The language of scientific prose. 5) The language of official documents. As has already been mentioned, functional styles are the product of the development of the written variety of language.1 Each FS may be characterized by a number of distinctive features, leading or subordinate, constant or changing, obligatory or optional. Most of the FSs, however, are perceived as independent wholes due to a peculiar combination and interrelation of features common to all (especially when taking into account syntactical arrangement) with the leading ones of each FS. Each FS is subdivided into a number of substyles. These represent varieties of the abstract invariant. Each variety has basic features common to all the varieties of the given FS and peculiar features typical of this variety alone. Still a substyle can, in some cases, deviate so far from the invariant that in its extreme it may even break away.
1 This does not mean, however, that the spoken communications lack individuality and have no distinct styles of their own. Folklore, for example, is undoubtedly a functional style inasmuch as it has a definite aim in communicating its facts and ideas, and is therefore characterized by a deliberately chosen language means. Here we shall confine our attention to the study of the functional styles bred within the literary written standard. Those types of literature which began life purely as speech, were passed on by word of mouth, subsequently perpetuated in writing, are left to the care of specialists in folklore.

discourses.

33

We clearly perceive the following substyles of the five FSs given above. T h e b e l l e s - l e t t r e s FS has the following substyles: a) the language style of poetry; b) the language style of emotive prose; c) the language style of drama. T h e p u b l i c i s t i c F S comprises the following substyles: a) the language style of oratory; b) the language style of essays; c) the language style of feature articles in newspapers and journals. T h e n e w s p a p e r F S falls into a) the language style of brief news items and communiques; b) the language style of newspaper headings and c) the language style of notices and advertisements. T h e s c i e n t i f i c p r o s e F S also has three divisions: a) the language style of humanitarian sciences; b) the language style of "exact" sciences; c) the language style of popular scientific prose. T h e o f f i c i a l d t F S can be divided into four varieties: a) the language style of diplomatic documents; b) the language style of business documents; c) the language style of legal documents; d) the language style of military documents. The classification presented here is by no means arbitrary. It is the result of long and minute observations of factual material in which not only peculiarities of language usage were taken into account but also extralinguistic data, in particular the purport of the communication. However, we admit that this classification is not proof against criticism. Other schemes may possibly be elaborated and highlighted by different approaches to the problem of functional styles. The classification of FSs is not a simple matter and any discussion of it is bound to reflect more than one angle of vision. Thus, for example, some stylicists consider that newspaper articles (including feature articles) should be classed under the functional style of newspaper language, not under the language of publicistic literature. Others insist on including the language of everyday-life discourse into the system of functional styles. Prof. Budagov singles out only two main functional styles: the language of science and that of emotive literature.1 It is inevitable, of course, that any classification should lead to some kind of simplification of the facts classified, because items are considered in isolation. Moreover, substyles assume, as it were, the aspect of closed systems. But no classification, useful though it may be from the theoretical point of view, should be allowed to blind us as to the conventionality of classification in general. When analysing concrete texts, we discover that the boundaries between them sometimes become less and less discernible. Thus, for instance, the signs of difference are sometimes almost imperceptible between poetry and emotive prose; between newspaper FS and publicistic FS; between a popular scientific article and a scientific treatise; between an essay and a scientific article. But the extremes are apparent from the ways language units are used both structurally and semantically. Language serves a variety of needs
1 See: . . . ., 1967; Riset, E. Stilistik der Deutschen Sprache. M., 1959.

34

and these needs have given birth to the principles on which our classification is based and which in their turn presuppose the choice and combination of language means. We presume that the reader has noticed the insistent use of the expression 'language style' or 'style of language' in the above classification. This is done in order to emphasize the idea that in this work the word 'style' is applied purely to linguistic data. The classification given above to our mind adequately represents the facts of the standard English language. For detailed analyses of FSs see chapter VI of this book (p. 249), where in addition to arguments for placing this or that FS in a given group, illustrations with commentary will be found.
4. VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

The functioning of the literary language in various spheres of human activity and with different aims of communication has resulted in its differentiation. This differentiation is predetermined by two distinct factors, namely, the actual situation in which the language is being used and the aim of the communication. The actual situation of the communication has evolved two varieties of language t h e s p k e n and t h e w r i t t e n. The varying aims of the communication have caused the literary language to fall into a number of self-sufficient systems (functional styles of language). Of the two varieties of language, diachronically the spoken is primary and the written is secondary. Each of these varieties has developed its own features and qualities which in many ways may be regarded as opposed to each other. The situation in which the spoken variety of language is used and in which it develops, can be described concisely as the presence of an interlocutor. The written variety, on the contrary, presupposes the absence of an interlocutor. The spoken language is maintained in the form of a dialogue, the written in the form of a monologue. The spoken language has a considerable advantage over the written, in that the human voice comes into play. This is a powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all kinds of gestures, which, together with the intonation, give additional information. The written language has to seek means to compensate for what it lacks. Therefore the written utterance will inevitably be more diffuse, more explanatory. In other words, it has to produce an enlarged representation of the communication in order to be explicit enough. The forms of the written language replace those of the spoken language when dissemination of ideas is the purpose in view. It is the written variety of language with its careful organization and deliberate choice of words and constructions that can have political, cultural and educational influence on a wide and scattered public. In the long process of its functioning, the written language has acquired its own characteristic features emanating from the need to amplify the utterance, which is an essential point in the written language.
35

The gap between the spoken and written varieties of language, wider or narrower at different periods in the development of the literary language, will always remain apparent due to the difference in circumstances in which the two are used. Here is an example showing the difference. "Marvellous beast, a fox. Great places for wild life, these wooded chines; so steep you can't disturb thempigeons, jays, woodpeckers, rabbits, foxes, hares, pheasantsevery mortal thing." Its written counterpart would run as follows: 'What a marvelous beast a fox is! These wooded chines are splendid places for wild life. They are so steep that one can't disturb anything. Therefore one can see every imaginable creature herepigeons, jays, woodpeckers, rabbits, foxes, hares and pheasants.' The use of the peculiarities of the spoken variety in the written language, or vice versa, the peculiarities of the written language in lively speech, will always produce a ludicrous effect. In this connection A. S. Pushkin wrote: "The written language is constantly being enlivened by expressions born in conversation but must not give up what it has acquired in the course of centuries. To use the spoken language only, means not to know the language."1 It must be borne in mind that in the belles-lettres style there may appear elements of colloquial language (a form of the spoken variety), but it will always be stylized to a greater or lesser degree by the writer. The term 'belles-lettres' itself suggests the use of the written language. The spoken language by its very nature is spontaneous, momentary, fleeting. It vanishes after having fulfilled its purpose, which is to communicate a thought, no matter whether it is trivial on really important. The idea remains, the language dissolves in it. The written language, on the contrary, lives together with the idea it expresses. A trustworthy observation on the difference between the spoken and written varieties of language is made by Prof. Archibald A. Hill in his "An Analysis of 'The Windhover'." "Ordinary speech is ephemeral, meant to be reacted to and forgotten. ...chains in speech, therefore, work mostly forward and over a fairly short span. In literature they can also work backward and there can be more than one chain running at a time, so that a given item can have one meaning in one span, a different one in a second."2 The spoken language cannot be detached from the user of it, the speaker, who is unable to view it from the outside. The written language, on the contrary, can be detached from the writer, enabling him to look upon his utterance objectively and giving him the opportunity to correct and improve what has been put on paper. That is why it is said that the written language bears a greater volume of responsibility than its spoken counterpart. The spoken variety differs from the written language (that is, in its written representation) phonetically, morphologically, lexically and
1 2

. . . . 12, . 96. In PMLA, v. LXX, No. 5, p. 976.

syntactically. Thus, of morphological forms the spoken language commonly uses contracted forms, as 'he'd' (he would), 'she's' (she is), 'I'd' ve' (I would have). It must be remembered that we touch upon the differences between the two varieties of the English language within standard (literary) English. However, some forms of the vernacular do make their way into the oral (spoken) variety of standard English. They are, as it were, on the way to be admitted into the standard. Such are, for example, the use of don't instead of doesn't, as in "It's a wonder his father don't take him in his bank" (Dreiser); he instead at him, as in "I used to play tennis with he and Mrs. Antolini" (Salinger); I says, ain't (instead of am not, is not, are not), them instead of these or those, as in "Them's some of your chaps, ain't they?" (Tressell); Leggo='let go', hellova='hell of a' and others. These morphological and phonetic peculiarities are sometimes regarded as violations of grammar rules caused by a certain carelessness which accompanies the quick tempo of colloquial speech or an excited state of mind. Others are typical of territorial or social dialects. The following passage is illustrative in this respect: "Mum, I've asked a young lady to come to tea tomorrow. Is that all right?" "You done what?" asked Mrs. Sunbury, for a moment forgetting her grammar. "You heard, mum." (Maugham) Some of these improprieties are now recognized as being legitimate forms of colloquial English. Thus, Prof. H. Whitehall of Indiana University now admits that "Colloquial spoken English often uses them as the plural form of this and that, written English uses these and those. 'Them men have arrived'." 1 The most striking difference between the spoken and written language is,"however, in the vocabulary used. There are words and phrases typically colloquial, on the one hand, and typically bookish, on the other. This problem will be dealt with in detail in the next chapter. Such words and phrases as 'sloppy', 'to be gone on somebody' (=to be violently in love with); 'I_take it' (=I understand); 'a sort of; 'to hob-nob with' (=to be very familiar with) and others immediately mark the utterance as being colloquial, that is, belonging to the spoken variety of language. They are rarely found in the author's narrative unless special stylistic aims are pursued. When set against ordinary neutral words or literarybookish words and expressions, they produce a marked stylistic effect. Here is an example: "He says you were struck off the rolls for something." "'Removed from the Register' is the correct expression," placidly interrupted the doctor. (Maugham) Here are some more examples of present-day colloquial phrases which are gaining ground in standard English but which are strongly felt to
1

Whitehall, H. Structural Essentials of English. N. Y., 1956, p. 104. 37

be colloquial: 'How come?' (=Why? How does that happen?), 'What time do you make it? ', 'so much the better', 'to be up to something', 'to buddy-buddy together' (=to be friends). The spoken language makes ample use of intensifying words. These are interjections and words with strong emotive meaning, as oaths, swearwords and adjectives which have lost their primary meaning and only serve the purpose of intensifying the emotional charge of the utterance. Here are some examples: "I'd sure like to hear some more about them people." (Don Gordon) "In fact, you ought to be darn glad you went to Burtingame." (L. Ford) "He put my goddam paper down..." (Salinger) The words 'here' and 'there' are also used to reinforce the demonstrative pronouns, as in: "If I can get a talk with this here servant..." said Weller. "That there food is good." "Is this 'ere (here) hall (all) you've done?" he shouts out. There is another characteristic feature of colloquial language, namely, the insertion into the utterance of words without any meaning, which are appropriately called "fill-ups" or empty words. To some extent they give a touch of completeness to the sentence if used at the end of it or, if used in the middle, help the speaker to fill the gap when unable to find the proper word. Illustrative is the use of 'and all' in Holden's speech in Salinger's novel "The Catcher in the Rye". Here are some examples: "She looked so damn nice, the way she kept going around and around in her blue coat and all." "... splendid and clear-thinking and all." "... he is my brother and all." Such words and set expressions as well, so to say, you see, you know, you understand, and all, as well as what may be called "mumbling words" like m-m, er-r, also belong to the category of fill-ups. The syntactical peculiarities of the spoken language are perhaps not so striking as the lexical ones, but more than any other features they reveal the true nature of the spoken variety of language, that is, the situational character of the communication. The first of them is what is erroneously called ellipsis, that is, the omission of parts of the utterance easily supplied by the situation in which the communication takes place. These are in fact not omissions, but the regular absence of parts unnecessary in lively conversation when there are two or more people speaking. Here are some absolutely normal and legitimate constructions which have missing elements in the spoken language, elements which are, however, indispensable in the written language: "Tell you what." "Who you with? (Who are you with?)" "Care to hear my ideas about it?" "Ever go back to England?" "Just doing a short story to kill the time."
38

A second feature is the tendency to use the direct word-order in questions or omit the auxiliary verb, leaving it to the intonation to indicate the grammatical meaning of the sentence, for example: "Scrooge knew Marley was dead?" (Dickens) "Miss Holland look after you and all that?" Unfinished sentences are also typical of the spoken language, for example, ' I f you behave like that I ' l l . . . ' There is a syntactical structure with tautological subject which is also considered characteristic of colloquial English. It is a construction in which two subjects are used where one is sufficient reference. Usually they are noun and pronoun, as in: 'He was a kind boy, Harry.' 'Helen, she was there. Ask her.' In the spoken language it is very natural to have a string of sentences without any connections or linked with and, that servant of all work, for example: 'Came home late. Had supper and went to bed. Couldn't sleep, of course. The evening had been too much of a strain.' It has already been pointed out that the spoken variety of language is far more emotional than its counterpart, due mainly to the advantage the human voice supplies. This emotiveness of colloquial language has produced a number of syntactical structures which so far have been littl e investigated and the meaning of which can hardly be discerned without a proper intonation design. Here are some of them: "Isn't she cute!" "Don't you tell me that." "A witch she is!" "And didn't she come over on the same boat as myself!" "He fair beats me, does James!" "Clever girl that she is!" "You are telling me!" "There you have the man!" "Somebody is going to touch you with a broomstick!" The characteristic syntactical features of the written variety of language can easily be perceived by the student of language. As the situation must be made clear by the context, the utterance becomes more exact. That means the relations between the parts of the utterance must be precise. Hence the abundance of all kinds of conjunctions, adverbial phrases and other means which may serve as connectives. As someone has said, a clear writer is always conscious of a reader over his shoulder. He must explain. Most of the connecting words were evolved in the written language and for the most part are used only there. Such connectives as moreover, furthermore, likewise, similarly, nevertheless on the contrary, however, presently, eventually, therefore, in connection
39

with, hereinafter, henceforth, have a decidedly bookish flavour and are seldom used in ordinary conversation. Another syntactical feature of the written language is its use of complicated sentence-units. The written language prefers hypotaxis to parataxis: long periods are more frequent than short utterances. The monologue character of the written language forcibly demands logical coherence of the ideas expressed and the breaking of the utterance into observable spans; hence units like the supra-phrasal unit and the paragraph (see pp. 193198). The words and word-combinations of the written language have also gained recognition as a separate layer of the English vocabulary. Richard D. Altick, Prof, of English at the Ohio State University, calls many phrases that tend to be bookish "space-wasters". These are despite the fact (= although); in_the matter of (= about); a long period of time (== a long time); in the capacity of (=as); resembling in nature (= like); reach a decision (= decide); met with the approval of Jones (= Jones approved); announced himself to be in favour of (= said he favoured) and others. However, these "space-wasters" cannot always be so easily dispensed with, and Prof. Altick seems not to take into consideration the subtle difference in meaning carried by such pairs as in the capacity of and as, resembling in nature and like. Of course, there are the "hightalkers" who frequently over-indulge in bookishness of expression, thus causing a natural protest on the part of ordinary readers. J. D. Adams, an American linguist and critic, gives an example of such over-bookishness from an Academy of Science report: "The evolution of an optimum scientific payload will require a continuing dialogue among all potential investigators and the engineers responsible for implementing their scientific goals." Then he gives what he calls a "possible translation": "Finding the right cargo will require continuing conferences of those working on the project." 1 It is worthy of note that most of the ridicule poured1 on the bookish language used by different writers is concentrated on the vocabulary. Little or no mockery is made of the syntactical pattern, even though in the long run it is this feature that has as great a weight as any of the others in distinguishing the written from the spoken language. The syntactical structure, no matter how complicated it may be, reflects the essential difference between the two varieties of language, and is accepted without question. Any syntactical pattern of the written, variety will always show the interrelation between the parts of the utterance, so there is nothing to hinder the reader in grasping the whole. This is the case with prose writing. With regard to poetry, the situation is somewhat different. Recent observations on the peculiarities of the language of modern English and American poetry have proved that it is mainly the breach of syntactical laws that hinders understanding to a degree that the message be1

"Speaking of Books". The N. Y. Times Book Review, March 29, 1964. 40

comes undecodable. Coherence and logical unity backed up by purely linguistic means is therefore an essential property of the written variety of language. The bookish vocabulary, one of the notable properties of the written language, may, on the contrary, go beyond the grasping powers of even the most intelligent reader and may very frequently need interpretation. 5. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LITERARY (STANDARD) LANGUAGE Up till now we have done little more than mention the literary (standard) language, which is one of the most important notions in stylistics and general linguistics. It is now necessary to elucidate this linguistic notion by going a little deeper into what constitutes the concept and to trace the stages in the development of the English standard language. This is necessary in order to avoid occasional confusion of terms differently used in works on the history, literature and style of the English language. Confusion between the terms "literary language" and "language of literature" is frequently to be met. Literary language is a historical category. It exists as a variety of the national language. "It must be remembered," said A. M. Gorki, "that language is the creation of the people. The division of the language into literary and vernacular only means that there are, as it were, a rough 1 unpolished tongue and one wrought by men-of-letters." The literary language is that elaborated form (variety) of the national language which obeys definite morphological, phonetic, syntactical, 2 lexical, phraseological and stylistic norms recognized as standard and therefore acceptable in all kinds and types of discourse. It allows modifications but within the frame work of the system of established norms. It casts out some of the forms of language which are considered to be beyond the established norm. The norm of usage is established by the language community at every given period in the development of the language. It is ever changing and therefore not infrequently evasive. At every period the norm is in a state of fluctuation and ,it requires a very sensitive and efficient eye and ear to detect and specify these fluctuations. Sometimes we may even say that two norms co-exist. But in this case we may be positive that one of the co-existing forms of the language will give way to its rival and either vanish from the language entirely or else remain on its outskirts. In this connection it will not come amiss to note that there are two conflicting tendencies in the process of establishing the norm: 1) preservation of the already existing norm, sometimes with attempts to re-establish old forms of the language;
1 2

. . ., 1937, . 220. For the definition of the norm and its variants see pp. 1819. 41

2) introduction of new norms not yet firmly established. In this connection it will be interesting to quote the following lines from H. . Wyld's "A History of Modern Colloquial English." "If it were necessary to attempt to formulate the general tendencies which have been discernible in Received Standard English during the last three centuries and a half, and which have been increasingly potent during the last hundred and fifty years, we should name two, which are to some extent opposed, but both of which are attributable to social causes. The first is the gradual decay of ceremoniousness and formality which has overtaken the speech and modes of address, no less than the manners, of good society. The second of the effortsometimes conscious and deliberate, sometimes unconsciousafter 'correctness' or correctitude, which, on the one hand, has almost eliminated the use of oaths and has softened away many coarsenesses and crudities of expressionas we should now feel them to be, however little squeamish we may be while on the other it has, by a rigid appeal to the spellingthe very worst and most unreliable court for the purposedefinitely ruled out, as 'incorrect' or 'slipshod' or 'vulgar', many pronunciations and grammatical constructions which had arisen in the natural course of the development of English, and were formerly universal among the best speakers. Both of these tendencies are due primarily to the social, political and economic events in our history.... "These social changes have inevitably brought with them corresponding changes in manners and in speech... but the speech and habits of a lifetime are not changed in a moment, as a vesture. Much of the old remains, and slowly and imperceptibly the newcomers react upon their environment, almost as much as they are influenced by it. Thus, for instance, it is suggested that the Middle Class Puritan ideals have gradually brought about a greater reticence of expression and a more temperate use of expletives, and also a greater simplicity of manners, from which many of the airs and graces of the older order were eliminated. Again, a highly cultivated and intellectual section of the Middle Class have played a prominent part in Church and State since the time of Elizabeth. We see under that monarch a generation of courtiers, statesmen, and prelates, who were also scholars, and even some who... were educational reformers and writers upon language, as well as statesmen. The influence of these learned courtiers would be in the direction of correctness and elegance of utterance, in opposition to the more careless and unstudied speech of the mere men of fashion."1 It is interesting to note that much of what was considered a violation of the norm in one period of the development of a language be1

Wyld, H. . A History of Modern Colloquial English. Ldn, 1935, pp. 1819. 42

comes acknowledged and is regarded as perfectly normal in another period. Many words and constructions which were once considered illiterate have become literary. And no effort was spared to ban innovations, particularly in the sphere of vocabulary, by the purists of any given period. But most of their efforts were in vain. The people, who are the only lawgivers of the language, gradually accepted changes in all language levels and in vocabulary. There is no hard and fast division between the literary and non-literary language. They are interdependent. The literary language constantly enriches its vocabulary and forms from the inexhaustible resources of the vernacular. It also adopts some of its syntactical peculiarities and by so doing gives them the status of norms of the literary language. Thus selection is the most typical feature of the literary language. The process of selecting and admitting lexical or morphological forms into the literary language is not a conscious effort on the part of scholars. It is rather a reluctant concession than a free and deliberate selection. When a linguistic item circulating in the non-literary language gains admission into the sacred precincts of the literary language, it is mostly due to the conscious choice of the man-of-letters, who finds either an aesthetic value in the given unit, or some other merit that will justify its recognition as a lawful member of the literary language. This, however, is not the case with structural units. As the national language is the creation of the people as a whole, morphological and syntactical changes which gradually and imperceptibly take place in their speech from one generation to another, cannot fail in the long run to enter the literary language. Men-of-letters not only write the language, they also speak it and in moat cases just like any one of their countrymen. Newly-coined words, or neologisms, as they are called, which are created according to the productive models of word-building in the given language do not go beyond the boundaries of the literary norms. If a newly-coined word is understood by the community, it may become a fact of the literary language. But the literary language casts off any form that is unrecognizable. The development of the literary language is governed by its own laws. It is highly resistant to innovations of speech. The English literary language was particularly regulated and formalized during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The influence of the men-of-letters on this process can hardly be over-estimated. Some of them, none the less, hindered the natural, organic process of development. Baugh 1 points out that Swift, for example, "in matters of language... was a conservative." Byron, on the other hand, was very liberal and introduced into the literary language many new words and phrases. Not all of them gained recognition and stayed in the literary language; but nevertheless they were facts of the literary language by their very nature. Take, for example, the word 'weatherology' coined by Byron.
1

Baugh, Albert . A History of the English Language. Ldn, 1963, p. 319. 43

The literary language greatly influences the non-literary language. Many words, constructions and particularly phonetic improvements have been introduced through it into the English colloquial language. This influence had its greatest effect in the 19th century with the spread of general education, and in the present century with the introduction of radio and television into the daily lives of the people. Many words of a highly literary character have passed into the non-literary language, often undergoing peculiar morphological and phonetic distortions in the process. The non-literary language manifests itself in all aspects of the language: phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactical. Such formerly dialectal peculiarities as in' instead of ing; [a:] instead of [x]; the dropping of [h] and the insertion of [h] at the beginning of some words; [ai] instead of [ei], [rain][rein], are typical phonetic peculiarities of non-literary English. The difficulty that one faces when attempting to specify the characteristic features of the non-literary variety lies mainly in the fact that it does not present any system. The best way to check this or that form of non-literary English is to contrast it to the existing form. Literary English is almost synonymous with the term s t a n d a r d E n g l i s h . Standard English is best described in an interesting book written by Randolph Quirk, Professor of English language in the University of London, the title of which is "The Use of English." He states: "We have seen that standard English is basically an ideal, a mode of expression that we seek when we wish to communicate beyond our immediate community with members of the wider community of the nation as a whole. As an ideal, it cannot be perfectly realised, and we must expect that members of different 'wider communities' (Britain, America, Nigeria, for example) may produce different realisations. In fact, however, the remarkable thing is the very high degree of unanimity, the small am ount of di ve r ge nc e . Any of us c a n re a d a n e ws p a p er printed in Leeds or San Francisco or Delhi without difficulty and often even without realising that there are differences at all."1 Cockney, regarded as the remnants of the London dialect, seems to be growing into a generic term for any form of non-standard English in Britain, although non-standard varieties of English exist in territorial variants. Literary English is indifferent to territorial usage. The publication of dictionaries does much to establish the literary language norms. As a matter of fact, it is impossible to establish any norm once and for all. At the very moment it is established, it begins to fluctuate. Such fluctuations not infrequently result in considerable changes. And the compilers of English dictionaries are forced willynilly to acknowledge a variant and present it as co-existing alongside the one previously recognized as solely acceptable. This is particularly
1

Quirk, Randolph. The Use of English. Ldn, Longmans, 1962, pp. 95-96. 44

the case with reference to pronunciation. The scholar fixing the language norm is made to bow to his majesty the people. The English literary language has had a long and peculiar history. Throughout the stages of its development there has been a struggle for progressive tendencies, which, on the one hand, aim at barring the language from the intrusion of contaminating elements, such as jargonisms, slang, vulgarisms and the like, and, on the other hand, at manifesting themselves in protest against the reactionary aspirations of some zealous scholars to preserve the English language in a fixed form. The English language, as is known, is the result of the integration of the tribal dialects of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes who occupied the British Isles in the 3rd5th centuries. The first manuscripts of the language belong to the 8th century. But the language of the 8th and consecutive centuries is so unlike present-day English that Englishmen do not understand it. This language is called Anglo-Saxon or Old English. Old English is a dead language, like Latin or classic Greek. Like them and like the Russian language, it is an inflected language. The Old English period lasted approximately until the end of the twelfth century. During the next stage in its development, known as the Middle English period, the English language rapidly progressed towards its present state. By this time it had greatly enlarged its vocabulary by borrowings from Norman-French and other languages. The structure of the language had considerably changed due to the loss of most of the inflections and also to other very important changes. By the middle of the thirteenth century Norman-French, which had been the official language since the Norman Conquest in 1066, was almost completely ousted by English. In 1362 Parliament was first opened in English, and a few years later court proceedings were ordered to be carried on in English and not in French, "which was too l i t t l e known." The New English period, as it is called, is usually considered to date from the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . This is the beginning of the English language known, spoken and written at the present time. This period cannot yet be characterized by any degree of uniformity in the language. The influence of the various dialects was still strongly felt, but the London dialect was gradually winning general recognition. According to many historians of the English language, by the latter part of the 15th century the London dialect had been accepted as the standard, at least in writing, in most parts of the country. This should to a very great extent be attributed to Caxton, the first English printer, who in his translations and in the books he printed used the current speech of London. Caxton writes that he was advised by learned men to use the most curious terms that he could find, and declares that he found himself in a dilemma ''between the plain, rude and curious. But in my judgement", he goes on, "the common terms that be daily used been lighter to understand than the old and ancient English." Puttenham, author of "The Art of English Poesie," declares that as the norm of literary English "... ye shall therefore take the usual speech of the court, and that of Lon45

don and the shires lying about London within LX (sixty) miles and not much above."1 But the process of establishing the London speech as a single norm throughout the country was very slow and hardly perceptible. Even the language of the 16th century, according to C. Wyld, "...both in printed works and in private letters, still shows considerable dialectal individualism. The Standard... is not yet completely fixed."2 In the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y literary English began markedly to flourish. The rapid development of printing went parallel with the general growth of culture, to which much was contributed by the two universities, Oxford and Cambridge. In the second half of the 16th century, a century marked by the political and economic rise of England, literature began to flourish in all formsdrama, poetry and prose. The works of literary criticism written at the time show the interest awakened in poetry and drama. Frequent translations were now made from the Greek and Latin classic writers. Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, and, later, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher and many other writers of the period exerted a very great influence on the growth and perfection of the English literary language. The freedom in the use of language so characteristic of this epoch was often subjected to wise and moderate restrictions set by these writers. So, for example, Ben Jonson, while accepting Quintillian's statement that "...custome is the most certain mistress of language," at the same time warns "...not to be frequent with every day coining", nor to use words from past ages which were no longer in use, that is, archaic words as, for instance, Chaucerisms. In their use of the language there were two tendencies among the writers of this age: one was the free and almost unrestricted use of new words and forms, coined or imported into the English language; the other was the revival of archaic words, the latter being a counter-weight to the former. Two names may be called to mind as representing the two tendencies: Spenser, on the one hand, Shakespeare, on the other. Spenser tried to preserve the old English words, especially those denoting abstract ideas, which had been replaced by words of French or Latin origin. He praised these words as being more expressive than the borrowed ones. On the contrary, Shakespeare advocated in his sonnets and plays the unrestricted use of words of all kinds and particularly new coinages. Shakespeare himself coined many new words. Marlowe and Fletcher drew widely on the resources of vernacular English and this, to a large extent, explains the remarkable vigour and expressiveness of their language. To give a general idea of the factors influencing the development of literary English in the 15th and 16th centuries, it will suffice to point out the following three:
1 2

Baugh, Albert C. Op. c i t . , p. 275. Wyld, H. . A History of Modern Colloquial English. Ldn, 1925, p. 102.
46

1) A common interest in classical literature during the Renaissance and hence the application of classical grammar, spelling and rhetoric to the English language. Attempts were made by scholars to force the classical norms into the English language. 2) A desire to keep the language pure, to retain and revive old English words and as far as possible old English morphological and syntactical forms. This tendency has been called a r c h a i c p u r i s m . The influence of archaic purism led to an acute struggle against the intrusion of foreign words, particularly those of Latin and continental French origin, and as a consequence of this struggle an orientation towards the obsolescent forms of the language. 3) An orientation towards the living, developing and rapidly changing norms of the colloquial language. Free use was made of the inherent properties of the English language as they had materialized by this time, for example, free use of conversion, word-composition, derivation and semantic change. In the domain of syntax and word-order too, there was already considerable freedom of usage. The Protestant Reformation, which gradually gained strength and popularity throughout the 16th century, played a great role in the development of the English literary language. Books on religion, translated or composed in strong, simple, living English with few "learned" words, and understandable to the masses of ordinary people, were by act of Parliament placed in the churches and read aloud. Parts of the Bible and later the whole Bible, were also translated in the same manner. By order of Queen Elizabeth I a Bible was placed in every church and people flocked to read it or hear it read. (Up to the reign of Elizabeth it had been forbidden to read the Bible in English and people were punished and burnt to death for doing so.) The interaction of these three factors is reflected in the grammars and books on rhetoric of the time, which serve to illustrate to the present-day reader the fluctuation of the norms then existing, as well as the linguistic ideas, tastes and credos of the scholars who laid down the law. The uncritical applications of the laws of Latin grammar to the norms observed in the English language were objected to even in the 16th century. Philip Sidney, for instance, stated that the English language must have its own grammar. He saw that such grammatical categories as case, gender, tense and mood, which are natural to Latin, could not be applied mechanically to English. However, books on rhetoric have played a considerable part in establishing the norms of literary English in the 16th as well as in the following centuries. As far back as in 1524 Leonard Cox published a textbook entitled "The Arte or Crafte of Rhetorique" which was followed by a series of works of this kind. Many of them have helped to lay the foundation for the study of the laws of composition and of the ways and means to make writing emphatic in order that the desired effect on the reader should be achieved and the main function of languagecommunicationguaranteed to the full. One of the most popular works of the time was Thomas Wilson's "Arte of Rhetorique" published in 1553. Following the ancient Latin
47

tradition of rhetoric, Wilson divides style of expression into three kinds: elevated, middle and low, a division which was in vogue up to the 19th century and which greatly influenced the course of development of the English literary language. Writing devoid of all ornament was considered coarse. It was in this period, the 16th century, that a literary trend known as euphuism came into vogue. The euphuistic manner of writing was characterized by a pedantic affectation of elegant and high-flown language abounding in all kinds of stylistic devices. It was not only the syntactical aspect of the English literary language that was influenced by the laws of rhetoric. The choice of words was also predetermined by the laws set by the rhetoricians of the 16th century. Latin words, either directly or through the French language, poured into the English literary language because English had never had, or had lost, the words required to give expression to scientific ideas. Sir Thomas More, for example, introduced into the English language a great many words in spite of the opposition of the purists of the time. To him the English language owes such words as absurdity, acceptance, anticipate, compatible, comprehensible, congratulate, explain, fact, indifference, monopoly, necessitate, obstruction, paradox, pretext and many others. Philip Sidney is said to have coined such words as emancipate, eradicate, exist, extinguish, harass, meditate and many other words and phrases. As illustrations we have chosen words which have found a permanent place in the English stock of words. Most of them have already passed into the neutral layer of words. A great many words introduced by men-of-letters in the 16th century and later have disappeared entirely from English literature. Further, there were great difficulties in spelling. No two writers spelt all words exactly alike. From the Old English period up to the 15th century there had been chaos in English spelling. The Old English system, which was phonetic, had broken down because the language had changed. Then besides that, no writer knew exactly how to spell borrowed wordsin the Latin, the French or the Norman-French way, or according to the rules which individual writers applied in their own way when spelling words of English origin.1 Even the publication of dictionaries, which began in the middle of the 17th century, did not f i x English spelling. One of the first dictionaries was called "Table Alphabetical conteyning and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usual English words". This was the first dictionary confined entirely to the English language. Spelling was one of the problems which the English language began consciously to face in the 16th century and it was fairly settled before the end of the 17th century. And yet this period is characterized mainly by freedom of the norms used in the literary language. The interaction of the lively everyday speech and the unstable rules of English grammar led to a peculiar enrichment of the literary language. New word-combinations were coined with ease and new meanings attached to them (for example, to come
1 The influence of the Latinists can be seen, for example, in the words debt and doubt. The b was inserted to make the words look more like the Latin originals.

48

about in the meaning of 'to happen'; to come by'to get'; to come upon= 'to near'). The same can be observed in the composition of compound words, particularly words with adjectives as first components, for example, with The element deep in these examples loses its primary logical meaning and assumes a new meaning, half-grammatical, which we call emotional. The word thus assumes a new quality: it is a semi-prefix, indicating the intensification of the quality embodied in the second adjective. The free use of words, in spite of the restrictions imposed on this freedom by certain ardent adherents of the "purity" of the language, resulted in the appearance of new meanings of words. First they were perceived as contextual, probably accompanied by suggestive intonation and gestures, and then, in the course of time, through frequency of repetition, the new meanings were absorbed into the semantic structure of the word. As an illustration of the instability of the norms of usage it will be interesting to point out the variety of prepositions that could be used with verbs. Thus, the verb to repent was used with the following prepositions: 'repent at', 'repent for', 'repent over', 'repent in', 'repent of. The syntactical patterns of this period were also marked by noticeable variety arising from the relative freedom of usage. This freedom is observable not only in the word-order but in the use of double negations, as in 'say nothing neither' and the like. In morphology it is marked by the use of both adjectives and adverbs in the function of modifiers of verbs, as in 'to speak plain', 'she is exceeding wise' and the like, The fluctuation in the norms of the English literary language of the 16th century is ascribed to a variety of causes. One is that the London dialect, which formed the core of the national literary language, was not yet spoken all over the country. Consequently, an educated man who came, let us say, from the North of England, still retained in his speech certain of the morphological and syntactical forms of his native dialect. Then, in view of the fact that the norms of the literary language were not yet hard and fast, he used these dialectal forms in his writing. There was a great influx of forms from the common speech of the people into the literary language which, however, was still the domain of the few. Students of the history of the English language give a number of reasons explaining this influx of forms from the everyday language of the people. One of them is that after the church of England refused to acknowledge the authority of Rome, church services had been translated from Latin into simple, strong English. Services were held daily and long sermons delivered in English. Many of the clergy found that the literary English did not have much more meaning to the people than church Latin had had, so they modified it, bringing it closer to the speech of
1 The examples are taken from G. McKnight's Modern English in the Making. N. Y., 1956.

the word deepdeep-divorcing; deep-premediated; deep-searched; deepsore; deep-sweet; deep-wounded; deep-brained. 1

49

the people among whom they lived. Clergymen who were unable to write their own sermons used those of the great protestant reformers of the 16th century which were written in simple forceful English with a minimum of borrowed words. It was in the choice of the words to be used in literary English that the sharpest controversy arose and in which the two tendencies of the period were most apparent. On the one hand, there was a fierce struggle against "ink-horn" terms, as they were then called.1 Among the learned men of the 16th century who fought against the introduction of any innovations into the English language must be mentioned Sir John Cheke, Roger Ascham and, in particular, Thomas Wilson, whose well-known "Arte of Rhetorique" has already been mentioned. He severely attacked "ink-horn" terms. Some of the words that were objected to by Thomas Wilson were affability, ingenious, capacity, celebrate, illustrate, superiority, fertile, native, confidence and many others that are in common use to-day. Puttenham, although issuing a warning against "ink-horn terms", admits having to use some of them himself, and seeks to justify them in particular instances. He defends the words scientific, majordome, politien (politician), conduct (verb) and others. On the other hand, there was an equally fierce struggle against the tendency to revive obsolete words and particularly the vocabulary and phraseology of Chaucer. Ben Jonson in this connection said: "Spenser in affecting the ancients writ no language." Sir John Cheke, one of the purists of the century, tried to introduce English equivalents for the French borrowings: he invented such words as mooned (lunatic), foresyer (prophet), byword (parable), freshman (proselyte), crossed (crucified), gainrising (resurrection). Of these words only freshman in the sense of 'first-year student' and byword in the sense of 'a saying' remain in the language. The tendency to revive archaic words, however, has always been observed in poetic language. The 16th century may justly be called crucial in establishing the norms of present-day literary English. Both of the tendencies mentioned above have left their mark on the standard English of to-day. Sixteenth-century literary English could not, however, be called standard English because at that time there was no received standard. S e v e n t e e n t h e n t r literary English is characterized by a general tendency to refinement and regulation. The orientation towards classical models, strong enough in 16th century English, assumed a new function, that of refining, polishing and improving the literary language. This was, of course, one of the trends leading to the final establishment of the norms of literary English. The tendency to refine the language, to give it the grace and gallantry of the nobility of the period, is manifested in the writings of language theoreticians and critics of the time. Illustrative of this is the "Essay on Dramatic Poesy" by John Dryden, where we find the following:
1 Terms born from an 'ink-horn', that is, words and phrases which were purposely coined by men-of-letters, and the meaning of which was obscure.

50

"I have always acknowledged the wit of our predecessors... but I am sure their wit was not that of gentlemen; there was ever somewhat that was i l l bred and clownish in it and which confessed the conversation of the authors... In the age wherein these poets lived, there was less of gallantry than in ours; neither did they keep the best company of theirs (their age)... The discourse and raillery of our comedies excel what has been written by them."1 One of the many manifestations of the process of regulation and refinement can be seen in the succesive editions of Shakespeare's works in 1623, 1632, 1664, 1685, in which the language of the great playwright was subjected to considerable change in order to make it conform to the norms established by his successors. There were not only morphological and syntactical changes, but even changes in Shakespeare's vocabulary. Words that were considered ' i l l bred and clownish' were sometimes changed, but more often they were omitted altogether. In 1664 a special committee was set up, the aim of which was to normalize and improve the English language. But the Committee did not last long and had l i t t l e influence in deciding upon the norms of usage. A considerable role in the regulation of the norms was played by a number of new grammars which appeared at this period. Among these the "Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae" written in Latin by John Wallis and published in 1653 is particularly notable. It was a kind of protest against the blind imitation of Latin grammars, although the author could not free himself entirely from the influence of the Latin grammatical system and the Latin theory of language. The tendency of refining and polishing the English literary language by modelling it on the classic Greek and Latin masterpieces was counteracted, however, by another strong movement, that of restricting literary English to a simple colloquial language which would easily be understood by the ordinary people. The Protestant Reformation also played its role in safeguarding the English literary language for the people. So, on the one hand, there was the rhetoric which was "...a potent force in shaping the English language in the period following the Renaissance"2 and which undoubtedly paved the way for the norms of the standard English of the 17th century. On the other hand, there was the authorized version of the English Bible first published in 1611, which "...has served to keep alive English words and to fix their meanings, and it has provided language material and pattern in word, in phrase, in rhythm... to English writers and speakers of all subsequent times."3 According to Frank A. Visetelly, the Bible contains 97 per cent of Anglo-Saxon words, more than any other English book.
1 2 3

Q u o t e d b y . . W y l d ,o p . c i t . , p . 1 5 4 . H M c K n i g h t , G . HO p . c i t . , p . 1 2 4 . . Ibid. 51

Early in the seventeenth century English dictionaries began to appear as practical guides to the use of new words, terms belonging to science and art and also "ink-horn" terms, which had poured into the English language in the 16th century and continued to flow in in the seventeenth. As in every century there was a struggle between the purists, the "keepers" of the already established norms of the language, who mainly orientate towards the literary and somewhat obsolescent forms of language, and the admirers of novelty who regard everything new that appears on the surface of the language as representing its natural development and therefore as something that should be readily accepted into the system without its being subjected to the test of time. Such a struggle is the natural clash of tendencies which leads to changes in the literary language of each linguistic period. But there is nevertheless a general tendency in each period, which will undoubtedly be reflected in the literary language. The normalizing tendency, so apparent in the seventeenth century, continues into the eighteenth. But by e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y it had become a conscious goal. The aim of the language scholars who sought to lay down the law in the eighteenth century may be expressed as the desire to f i x the language for all time, to establish its laws once and for all. Order and regularity were the qualities they esteemed. Their need for standardization and regulation was summed up in their word "ascertainment" of the language. G. H. McKnight, a student of the history of modern standard English, whom we have already cited, describes the general tendency of the development of the literary English of the eighteenth century in the following words: "The little-controlled English language of the time of Sidney and Shakespeare, the elegant freedom of expression of the Restoration period, was to be subjected to authority. Both learning represented by Johnson and fashinable breeding represented by Chesterfield came together in a common form of language reduced to regularity and uniformity."1 But the actual history of the development of standard English cannot be reduced to the interaction of learning and fashionable breeding. The development of the literary language is marked by the process of selection. The real creator of the literary form of the language remains the people, the actual lawgiver of the norms. Scientists and men-of-letters only fix what has already been established by general usage. New norms of usage cannot be imposed. But to historians of language the opinions of writers and scholars of a given period as well as those of ordinary people are of great value. They help to trace the fluctuating trends leading to the establishment of the norms of the period and influence to some extent the progress of literary English.
1

McKnight, G. H. Op. c i t . , p. 373. 52

In the eighteenth century two men had a great influence on the development of the norms of literary English. These were Jonathan Swift and Samuel Johnson. In an attempt to regularize the use of English, Swift condemned both what he called "vulgar slanginess" and "intolerable preciosity". According to Swift, the "vulgar slanginess" came from a certain school of young men from the universities, "terribly possessed with fear of pedantry", who from his description wished to be what we should call 'up to date'". "'They... come up to town, reckon all their errors for accomplishments, borrow the newest set of phrases and if take a pen into their hands, all the odd words they have picked up in a coffee-house, or at a gaming ordinary are produced as flowers of style.' "Such a 'strange race of wits' with their 'quaint fopperies' of manner and speech, exist in every age. Their mannerisms rarely pass beyond their immediate clique, and have no more permanence than foam on the river." 1 The "intolerable preciosity", as Swift understands it, was the tendency to use embellishments to the detriment of clarity and exactness. It was Swift who declared the necessity "to call a spade a spade", a phrase which has become a symbol for a plain and simple way of expression. Samuel Johnson's attitude toward language is best expressed in his Grammar: "For pronunciation, the best rule is to consider those as the most elegant speakers who deviate least from the written words." Faithful to this doctrine Johnson in trying to "ascertain" the English language was mainly concerned with the usage of great English writers. In his famous dictionary, first published in 1753, the influence of which on subsequent dictionaries of the English language can hardly be over-estimated, Johnson made his selection only from words found in literary publications, ignoring the words and collocations used in oral intercourse, in the lively colloquial English of his day. The definitions given by Johnson reflect only the usage of the great writers of his own and of preceding centuries. The literary-bookish character of Johnson's dictionary has greatly influenced the word usage of written English and also the formation of different styles in literary English. Eighteenth-century concepts in the fields of philosophy and natural sciences had considerable influence on contemporary theoretical linguistic thought. Even the titles of certain grammars of the period reflected the general tendency to lay down categorical laws. Thus, for example, the title: "Reflections on the Nature and Property of Language in General, on the Advantages, Defects, and Manner of Improving the English Tongue in Particular" by Thomas Stackhouse (1731) clearly shows the aims of the writer, aims which were common to most of the 18th century works on language, i. e. improving the language and fixing its laws for the use of the people.
1

Wyld, H. . Op. cit., p. 160. 53

This general trend of language theory is also expressed by Samuel Johnson in the preface to his dictionary. "Language," he writes, "is only the instrument of science, and the words are but the signs of ideas. I wish, however, that the instrument might be less apt to decay, and that the signs might be permanent, like the things which they denote." However, adherence to the theoretical trends of the century was not universal. There were some scholars who protested against arbitrar i l y imposing laws and restrictions on the language. Thus, for example, John Fell in his "Essay towards an English Grammar" published in 1784 declares: "It is certainly the business of a grammarian to find out, and not to make, the laws of language." In this work the author does not assume the character of a legislator, but appears as a faithful compiler of the scattered laws. "... It matters not what causes these customs and fashions owe their birth to. The moment they become general they are laws of the language; and a grammarian can only remonstrate how much so ever he disapprove."1 The eighteenth century literary trend was also influenced to a considerable degree by the rhetoric which since the Renaissance had played a noticeable role in all matters of language.2 But the majority of language scholars were concerned with the use of words, inasmuch as the lexical units and their functioning are more observable and discernible in the slow progress of language development. The well-known article by Jonathan Swift "A Proposal for the Correcting, Improving, and Ascertaining the English Tongue" in its very title sums up the general attitude of scholars towards the English of their century. The main issues of this document, remarkable in many ways, centre around the use of words and set expressions. Meanwhile, however, colloquial English, following its natural path of progress and living its own life, although it was subjected to some extent to the general tendencies laid down by the men-of-letters, exhibited a kind of independence in the use of words, expressions, syntax, and pronunciation. The gap between the literary and colloquial English of the 18th century was widening. The restrictions forced on the written language

McKnight, G. H. Op. cit., p. 390. It is interesting to remark in passing that language theories of the 16th to the 18th centuries were in general more concerned with what we would now call macrolinguistics in contrast to the present time when the process of atomization of language facts not infrequently overshadows observations concerning the nature and properties of units of communication.
2

54

are felt in the speech of the characters in the novels and plays of this period. 1 Their speech is under the heavy influence of literary English and therefore it is erroneous to understand it as representing the norms of 18th century spoken English. The n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y trends in literary English are best summarized in the following statement by McKnight: "The spirit of purism was evidently alive' in the early nineteenth century. The sense of a classical perfection to be striven for survived from the eighteenth century. The language must not only be made more regular, but it must be protected from the corrupting influences that were felt to be on all sides. Vulgarisms were to be avoided and new words, if they were to be tolerated, must conform not only to analogy but to good taste."2 This puristic spirit is revealed mainly in the attitude towards vocabulary and pronunciation. Syntactical and morphological changes are not so apparent as lexical and phonetic ones and therefore are less exposed to the criticism of the purists. Many new words that were coming into use as, for example, reliable, environment, lengthy were objected to on the principle that they were unnecessary innovations replacing, e. g., trustworthy, scenery circumstances and long. Macaulay protested against the use of talented, influential, gentlemanly. The tendency to protest against innovation, however, gradually gave way to new trends, those of the 19th century, which can be defined as the beginning of the recognition of colloquial English as a variety of the national language. Colloquial words and expressions created by the people began to pour into literary English. The literary critics and men-of-letters objected to the maxims laid down by their predecessors and began to lay the foundation for new theoretical concepts of the literary language. Thus De Quincey in his essay on rhetoric declares: "...since Dr. Johnson's time the freshness of the idiomatic style has been too frequently abandoned for the lifeless mechanism of a style purely bookish and mechanical."3 "The restriction of the English vocabulary which was promoted by the classicizing tendencies of the eighteenth century," writes McKnight, "was appreciably loosened by the spirit which produced the Romantic movement."4 However, the purists never ceased to struggle against new coinages and there were special lists of proscribed words and expressions. The constant struggle of those who endeavour to safeguard the purity of their language against new creations or borrowings, which alone can supply the general need for means to render new ideas, seems to repre1 2 3 4

See examples on pp. 239-240 ("Represented Speech"). McKnight, G. H. Op. c i t . , p. 509. Quoted by McKnight, G. H. Op. c i t . , p. 518, ed. 1956. Ibid., p. 517. 55

sent a natural process in language development. It is this struggle that makes the literary language move forward and forces the recognition of new forms, words and syntactical patterns. The works of Byron, Thackeray, Dickens and other classic writers of the 19th century show how many words from the colloquial language of that period have been adopted into standard literary English. Another feature of 19th century literary English to be noted is a more or less firmly established differentiation of styles, though this process was not fully appreciated by the scholars of the period. The dichotomy of written and oral intercourse which manifested itself mainly in the widening of the gap between the literary and nonliterary forms, so typical of 18th century English, led the way to a cluster of varieties within the literary language, viz. to its stratification into different styles. A particularly conspicuous instance of this stratification was the singling out of poetic diction and the establishment of a set of rules by which the language of poetry was governed. Strict laws concerning word usage and imagery in poetry had long been recognized as a specific feature of the style of poetry. The norms of 19th century literary English were considerably influenced by certain other styles of language, which by this period had already shaped themselves as separate styles. By this period the shaping of the newspaper style, the publicistic style, the style of scientific prose and the official style may be said to have been completed and language scholars found themselves faced with new problems. It became necessary to seek the foundation and distinctive characteristics of each functional style of language and analyse them. The shaping of the belles-lettres prose style called forth a new system of expressive means and stylistic devices. There appeared a stylistic device represented speech (see p. 236) which quickly developed into one of the most popular means by which the thought and feeling of a character in a novel can be shown, the speech of the character combining with the exposition of the author to give a fuller picture. The favourite stylistic devices of the prose style of the 18th century, rhetorical questions, climax, anaphora, antithesis and some others gave way to more lively stylistic devices, as breaking off the narrative, detached constructions and other devices so typical of the norms of lively colloquial speech. Stylistic devices regarded with suspicion and dissapproval in the 18th century were beginning to gain popularity. The realistic tendencies and trends in English literature during this period made it necessary to introduce non-literary forms of English when depicting characters from the so-called lower classes through the idiosyncrasies of their speech. In this connection another feature must be mentioned when characterizing the ways and means by which literary English of the 19th century progressed. This was a more liberal admission of dialectal words and words from the Scottish dialect in particular. To a considerable extent this must be attributed to Robert Burns, whose poems were widely read and admired and who, as is known, wrote in the Scottish (Scots) dialect. The novels of Walter Scott also aided the process.
56

In summing up the main features of the struggle to establish norms for 19th century literary English, special mention must be made of the two tendencies characteristic of this period. One was reactionary purism, the principles of which were laid down in the 17th and 18th centuries and which became manifest in the struggle against any innovation no matter where it came from. The purist was equally against words borrowed from other languages, the coinage of new words and also semantic changes in the native stock of words. This reactionary purism orientated the literary language towards a revival of old words which had gone out of use and of constructions typical of earlier stages in the history of English. The other tendency was to draw on the inexhaustible resources of the vernacular both in vocabulary and in the lively syntactical patterns of colloquial English so suggestive of the warm intonation of the human voice. This tendency was particularly observable in the belles-lettres style of language and Byron, Thackeray and Dickens contributed greatly to the enrichment of the literary language. The end of the century led practically to no change in the general direction of the two tendencies. But there is undoubted evidence that the second of the two above-mentioned tendencies has taken the upper hand. Reactionary purism is dying down and giving way to strong modernizing tendencies, which flourish particularly in the newspaper style and the belles-lettres style. The recognition in the 20th century of the everyday speech of the people as a variety of the national language has done much to legalize the colloquial form of English which, until the present century had been barred from the domain of language studies. We must point out that the functional styles of language have shaped themselves within the literary form of the English language. The division of the standard English language into two varieties, written and spoken (the literarary language and the colloquial language), which was recognized earlier and which was acknowledged as a natural coexistence, now goes alongside the problem of the "closed" systems of styles of language.
6. MEANING FROM A STYLISTIC POINT OF VIEW

Stylistics is a domain where meaning assumes paramount importance. This is so because the term 'meaning' is applied not only to words, word-combinations, sentences but also to the manner of expression into which the matter is cast. The linguistic term m e a n i n g has been defined in so many ways that there appears an urgent need to clarify it; particularly in view of the fact that in so many lexical, grammatical and phonetic SDs this category is treated differently. It has already been mentioned that a stylistic device_is mainly realized when a twofold application of meaning is apparent. At some period in the development of a certain trend in linguistic theory in America, viz. descriptive linguistics, meaning was excluded from observations in language science; it was considered an extra-linguistic category. 57

The tendency was so strong that R. Jakobson proposed the term "semantic invariant" as a substitute for 'meaning'. " I f , however, you dislike the word meaning because it is too ambiguous," writes R. Jakobson, "then let us simply deal with semantic invariants, no less important for linguistic analysis than the phonemic invariants."1 But this tendency has been ruled out by later research in language data. One of the prominent American scientists, Wallace L. Chafe, is right when he states that "...the data of meaning are both accessible to linguistic explanation and crucial to the investigation of language structurein certain ways more crucial than the data of sound to which linguistic studies have given such unbalanced attention." 2 The problem of meaning in general linguistics deals mainly with such aspects of the term as the interrelation between meaning and concept, meaning and sign, meaning and referent. The general tendency is to regard meaning as something stable at a given period of time. This is reasonable, otherwise no dictionary would be able to cope with the problem of defining the meaning of words. Moreover, no communication would be possible. In stylistics meaning is also viewed as a category which is able to acquire meanings imposed on the words by the context. That is why such meanings are called c o n t e x t u a l m e a n i n g s . This category also takes under observation meanings which have fallen out of use. In stylistics it is important to discriminate shades or nuances of meaning, to atomize the meaning, the component parts of which are now called the s e m e s , i. e. the smallest units of which meaning of a word consists. "A proper concern for meanings," writes W. Chafe, "should lead to a situation where, in the training of linguists, practice in the discrimination of concepts will be given at least as much time in the curriculum as practice in the discrimination of sounds." 3 It will be shown later, in the analysis of SDs, how important it is to discriminate between the meanings of a given word or construction in order to adequately comprehend the idea and purport of a passage and of a complete work. It is now common knowledge that lexical meaning differs from grammatical meaning in more than one way. L e x i c a l m e a n i n g refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of objective reality, whether real or imaginary. Lexical meaning is thus a means by which a word-form is made to express a definite concept. G r a m m a t i c a l m e a n i n g refers our mind to relations between words or to some forms of words or constructions bearing upon their structural functions in the language-as-a-system. Grammatical meaning can thus be adequately called "structural meaning". There are no words which are deprived of grammatical meaning inasmuch as all words belong to some system and consequently have their
1 Jakobson, R. The Conference of Antropologists and Linguists. In: "Selected Writings". The Hague, v. 2, p. 565. 2 Chafe, W. L. Meaning and the Structure of Language. Chicago, 1970, p. 351. 3 Ibid., p. 78.

58

place in the system, and also inasmuch as they always function in speech displaying their functional properties. It is the same with sentences. Every sentence has its own independent structural meaning. This structural meaning may in some cases be influenced or affected by the lexical meanings of the components or by intonation. In the sentence 'I shall never go to that place again', we have a number of words with lexical meanings (never, go, place, again) and words with only grammatical meaning (I, shall, that) and also the meaning of the whole sentence, which is defined as a structure in statement form. But each of the meanings, being closely interwoven and interdependent, can none the less be regarded as relatively autonomous and therefore be analysed separately. It is significant that words acquire different status when analysed in isolation or in the sentence. This double aspect causes in the long run the growth of the semantic structure of a word, especially when the two aspects frequently interweave. Words can be classed according to different principles: morphological (arts of speech), semantic (synonyms, antonyms, thematic), stylistic (see classification on. p 72), and other types of classification. In each of these classifications lexical or/and grammatical meanings assume different manifestations. In a morphological classification words are grouped according to their grammatical meanings; in a semantic classification, according to their logical (referential) meanings, in a stylistic classification, according to their stylistic meaning. Lexical meanings are closely related to concepts. They are sometimes identified with concepts. But concept is a purely logical category, whereas meaning is a linguistic one. In linguistics it is necessary to view meaning as the representation of a concept through one of its properties. Concept, as is known, is versatile; it is characterized by a number of properties. Meaning takes one of these properties and makes it represent the concept as a whole. Therefore meaning in reference to concept becomes, as it were, a kind of metonymy. This statement is significant inasmuch as it will further explain the stylistic function of certain meanings. One and the same concept can be represented in a number of linguistic manifestations (meanings) but, paradoxal though it may sound, each manifestation causes a slight (and sometimes considerable) modification of the concept, in other words, discloses latent or unknown properties of the concept. "The variability of meanings," writes R. Jakobson, "their manifold and far-reaching figurative shifts, and an incalculable aptitude for multiple paraphrases are just those properties of naturall language which induce its creativity and endow not only poetic but even scientific activities with a continuously inventive sweep. Here the indefiniteness and creative power appear to be wholly interrelated." 1 The inner property of language, which may be defined as self-generating, is apparent in meaning. It follows then that the creativity of
1 Jakobson, R. Linguistics in Relation to Other Sciences. In: "Selected Works". The Hague, v. 11, p. 659.

59

language so often referred to in this work, lies in this particular category of language sciencemeaning. The variability of meanings caused by the multifarious practical application of the basic (fundamental) meaning when used in speech has led to the birth of a notion known as p o l y s e m a n t i c i s m . This is a linguistic category which contains a great degree of ambiguity. On the one hand, we perceive meaning as a representation of a definite concept by means of a word. On the other hand, we state that the same concept may be expressed by different meanings all belonging to the same word. Still more confusing is the well-recognized fact that different concepts may be expressed by one and the same word. But such is the very nature of language, where contradiction, ambiguity and uncertainty run parallel with rigidity, strictness and conformity to standard requirements of grammatical acceptability. S. D. Katznelson remarks in this connection that "a lexical meaning may... conflict with the basic functional meaning of its class remaining, however, within its own class."1 The ability of a word to be polysemantic, i. e. to comprise several lexical meanings, becomes a crucial issue for stylistic studies. It must be clearly understood that the multitude of meanings that a word may have is not limited by dictionaries where this multitude has already been recognized and fixed. Some meanings, which for the time being have not as yet been recognized as legitimate members of the semantic structure of the given word, may, in the course of time, through frequent use become such and subsequently become fixed in dictionaries. Convincing proof of this are the so-called addenda to new editions of dictionaries where new meanings are presented as already recognized facts of language. A stylistic approach to the issue in question takes into consideration the fact that every word, no matter how rich in meanings it may be, leaves the door open for new shades and nuances and even for independent meanings. True, such meanings are not always easily accepted as normal. Moreover, many of them are rejected both by scholars and the people and therefore are not recognized as facts of language. Such meanings become obscure in the family of lexical meanings of a word; they can only be traced back to the original use. However, some of these meanings are occasionally re-established in the vocabulary at a later time. Lexical meaning, be it repeated, is a conventional category. Very frequently it does not reflect the properties of the thing or the phenomenon it refers to. However, some meanings are said to be motivated, i.e. they point to some quality or feature of the object. The conventional character of meaning can best be illustrated by the following example. In Russian the word '' is a general term denoting all kinds of articles made from flax: underwear, household articles, shirts and so on. The origin of the word is (white). In English this concept is de1

. . . ., 1972, . 154. 60

noted by the word 'linen', which is the name of the material (Latin linum flax) from which the articles mentioned were made. In German the same concept is 'die Wasche', i.e. something that can be washed, a process, not the material, not the colour. The concept from which all meanings branch off is known as the inner form of the word. So we see that different properties, essential, non-essential, optional and even accidental may be taken to name the object. The chosen property in the course of time loses its semantic significance and dependence on the inner form and the word begins to function in the language as a generic term, a sign for various objects. Here we approach the theory of signs, which is so important in understanding the relative character of language units and their functioning. By a sign, generally speaking, we understand one material object capable of denoting another object or idea. The essential property of a sign is its relatively conventional character. A sign does not possess the properties of the object it denotes. It is made to denote another object by its very nature. In other words, people impose on certain objects the quality to denote other objects. Thus, a flag is the sign of a nation (state), a cross is the sign of Christianity, a plain gold ring is the sign of marriage, a uniform is the sign of a definite calling or profession, a crown is the sign of monarchy. These are sign-symbols. There are also signs which are not material objects. The science that deals with the general theory of signs is called s em i t i s. It embraces different systems of signs, traffic signs, communication between different species of living beings, etc. The following is a widely recognized definition of a sign: "A sign is a material, sensuously perceived object (phenomenon, action) appearing in the process of cognition and communication in the capacity of a representative (substitute) of another object (or objects) and used for receiving, storing, recasting and transforming information about this object." 1 Signs are generally used in a definite system showing the interrelations and interdependence of the components of the system. This system is called a c o d e . Thus we speak of a language code which consists of different signslexical, phonetic, morphological, syntactical and stylistic. Every code is easily recognized by its users, they understand the nature, meaning, significance and interrelation of the signs comprising the given code. Moreover, the user of the code must be well aware of possible obstacles in deciphering the meaning of different signs. This presupposes a preliminary knowledge not only of the basic meanings of the signs in question but also the derivative meanings and the minimum of semes of each meaning. One of the essential features of a sign, as has been stated above, is its conventional, arbitrary character. However, the language system, unlike other semiotic systems, has the following distinctive feature: having once been established and having been in circulation for some period of time, it becomes resistant to substitutions. No effort to repla1

. . ., 1965, . 9. 61

 a sound, or a morpheme, or a word, not to mention a structural pattern, has been successful. If an innovation is forced by reiterated usage into the language-as-a-system it inevitably undergoes a certain modification of its meaning (ideographic or stylistic). It will be noticed here that we often speak of signs and meanings, having in mind words. To clear up possible ambiguity let us make it clear that words are units of language which can be compared to signs, for they are materialized manifestations of ideas, things, phenomena, events, actions, properties and other concepts, whereas meanings are the products of our mental decisions. The materialized manifestations of words take the form either of a chain of vowel and consonant sounds (sound waves) or of a chain of graphical signs which are the interpretation of these sounds. Meanings are not material phenomena. That is why we frequently meet the definition of the word as having a twofold nature: material and spiritual. The form of the word which, as has been stated above, also contains meaning differs from the word only in one respect, viz. it is not independent, in other words, it cannot be used autonomously. It is always a part of a word. For example, the word spirit is a self-sustained unit. But the suffix -al in spiritual is not so, though it possesses both material form and a meaning (grammatical: a unit that can form and adjective). This contradictory nature of a word is the source by which its semantic wholeness, on the one hand, and its diversity on the other, is caused. The study of how words gradually develop, change and lose their meaning and acquire new ones is the subject of lexicology and lexicography. A word can be defined as a unit of language functioning within the sentence or within a part of it which by its sound or graphical form expresses a concrete or abstract notion or a grammatical notion through one of its meanings and which is capable of enriching its semantic structure by acquiring new meanings and losing old ones. To explain the semantic structure of a word is not an easy task. Only lexicographers know how difficult it is. This difficulty is mainly caused by the very nature of the word. It may in some circumstances reveal such overtones of meaning as are not elements of the code. The following analogy will not come amiss. There are in nature sounds that we do not hear, there is light that we do not see, and heat that we do not feel. Special apparatus is necessary to detect these phenomena. Almost the same can be said about almost every language sign: sound, morpheme, word, sentence, stylistic device. These signs can bring to life subtleties of meaning which are passed unnoticed by the untrained mind and which can be detected only through the employment of a special method, called s u p r a l i n e a r a n a l y s i s . This method requires some faith in intuition. Most scholars, however, rely on wellverified facts to the detriment of the evidence of the senses.1 Max Born, the physicist, gives a well verified example. He says that if we speak of vacillations and waves in space, we necessarily presuppose the existence
1

See . . ., 1963, . 34. 62

of the object to which the verb 'vacillate' refers. 1 It will be a violation of this well-established law if we use a verb not having in mind (explicitly or implicitly) the object to which it refers. We have dealt at some length with such concepts as meaning and sign because these are the crucial issues of stylistics. Nothing can ever be achieved in stylistic studies without a thorough understanding of these highly complicated notions. There is a difference in the treatment of the potentialities of language signs in grammar, phonetics and lexicology, on the one hand, and in stylistics, on the other. In stylistics we take it for granted that a word has an almost unlimited potentiality of acquiring new meanings, whereas in lexicology this potentiality is restricted to semantic and grammatical acceptability. In stylistics the intuitive, and therefore to a very great extent subjective, perception of meaning in words is raised to the level of actuality. The issue touched upon here is the well-known contradistinction between the scientific (abstract), intellectually precise perception of world phenomena and the sensory, intuitive, vague and uncertain impressions of an artistic perception of these same phenomena. Max Born has it somewhat differently: "The representatives of one group do not want to reject or to sacrifice the idea of the absolute and therefore remain faithful to everything subjective. They create a picture of the world which is not the result of a systemic method, but of the unexplained activity of religious, artistic or poetic expressions of other people. Here reign religious zeal, aspirations to brotherhood, and often fanaticism, intolerance and the suppression of intellect... The representatives of the opposing group, on the contrary, reject the idea of the absolute. They discover frequently with horror that inner feelings cannot be expressed in comprehensible forms."2 Leaving aside the rather ambiguous pronouncement concerning the aspirations of those who adhere to the idea of the absolute, we cannot but admit that those who reject the intuitive in the analysis of language phenomena are prone to suppress everything which arises from a sensory perception of language-in-action, thus overlooking the fact that the intuitive is in the long run the result of accumulated social experience. It is of paramount importance in stylistics to bear in mind that concepts of objective reality have different degrees of abstractness. This is adequately manifested in language. Adjectives are more abstract in meaning than nouns. Adverbs may be considered more abstract than adjectives inasmuch as they usually characterize an abstract notion, action or state. Conjunctions and prepositions have a still higher degree of abstractness because it is not objects as such that they indicate, but the correlation of the concepts involved. Therefore we may consider conjunctions and prepositions, and some auxiliary words as well, to be on the border line between lexical and grammatical categories, or in terms of meaning, having a grammatical meaning which suppresses the lexical meaning.
1 2

Ibid., p. 45. Ibid., p. 13. 63

Within the grammatical classes of words there are also different degrees of abstractness. Nouns, as is known, are divided into two large classes, abstract and concrete. But this division does not correspond to the actual difference in the degree of abstractness. This will be explained later when we come to illustrate abstractness and concreteness. A word, as is known, generalizes. Consequently, a word will always denote a concept, no matter whether it names a definite object of embraces all the objects of a given kind. The problem of abstractness, and especially the degree of abstractness, is of vital importance in stylistics in more than one respect. Stylistics deals not only with the aesthetic and emotional impact of the language. It also studies the means of producing impressions in our mind. Impression is the first and rudimentary stage of concept. But the concept through a reverse process may build another kind of impression. Impressions that are secondary to concepts, in other words, which have been born by concepts, are called i m a g e r y . Imagery is mainly produced by the interplay of different meanings. Concrete objects are easily perceived by the senses. Abstract notions are perceived by the mind. When an abstract notion is by the force of the mind represented through a concrete object, an image is the result. Imagery may be built on the interrelation of two abstract notions or two concrete objects or an abstract and a concrete one. Three types of meaning can be distinguished, which we shall call logical, emotive and nominal respectively. L o g i c a l meaning is the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept. This meaning is also synonymously called referential meaning or direct meaning. We shall use the terms logical and referential as being most adequate for our purpose. Referential meanings are liable to change. As a result the referential meanings of one word may denote different concepts. It is therefore necessary to distinguish between primary and secondary referential, or logical, meaning. Thus, the adverb inwardly has the primary logical meaning of 'internally', or 'within'. Its secondary logical meanings are: 'towards the centre', 'mentally', 'secretly', which are to some extent derived from the primary meaning.1 Some dictionaries give a very extended list of primary and secondary logical meanings, and it is essential for stylistic purposes to distinguish them, as some stylistic devices are built on the interplay of primary and secondary logical meanings. All the meanings fixed by authoritative English and American dictionaries comprise what is called t h e s e m a n t i c s t r u c t u r e of the wrd. The meanings that are to be found in speech or writing and which are accidental should not be regarded as components of the semantic structure of the word. They may be transitory, inasmuch as they depend on the context. They are contextual meanings.
1

S u c h

m e a n i n g s

a r e

t h e r e f o r e 6 4

a l s o

c a l l e d

d e r i v a t i v e

Let us compare the meaning of the word presence in the following two sentences. "The governer said that he would not allow the presence of federal troops on the soil of his State." "...the General has been faced with the problem of the country's presence on foreign soil, the stubborn resistance of officers and officials..." In the first sentence the word presence merely means '...the state of being present', whereas in the second sentence the meaning of the word expands into '...occupation', i.e. the seizure and control of an area, especially foreign territory, by military forces. The first meaning is the dictionary meaning of the word. The second meaning is a contextual one. It lives only in the given text and disappears if the context is altered. However, there are definite reasons to assume that a number of derivative meanings are given place in dictionaries on the basis of contextual meanings. When the two meanings clearly co-exist in the utterance, we say there is an interaction of dictionary and contextual meanings. When only one meaning is perceived by the reader, we are sure to find this meaning in dictionaries as a derivative one. Sometimes it is difficult to decide whether there is a simultaneous materialization of two dictionary logical meanings or an interplay of a dictionary and a contextual meaning. The difficulty is caused, on the one hand, by insufficient objective criteria of what should be fixed in dictionaries as already established language facts and, on the other hand, by deliberate political, aesthetic, moral and other considerations on the part of the compilers of the dictionaries. Thus, in Byron's use of the word arise in the line "Awake, ye sons of Spain, awake, arise!" the word arise has the long-established meaning of 'revolt'. It is not contextual any longer. But no English or American dictionary fixes this particular meaning in the semantic structure of the word, and it is left to the ability of the attentive reader to supply the obvious meaning. The same can be said about the word appeasement. There is an implicit difference in the treatment of the semantic structure of this word in British and American dictionaries. In no British dictionary will you find the new derivative meaning, viz. 'a sacrifice of moral principle in order to avert aggression'. Some modern American dictionaries include this meaning in the semantic structure of the word 'appeasement'. The reason for the difference is apparentthe British prime minister Chamberlain in 1938 played an ignoble role in Munich, sacrificing Czechoslovakia to Hitler's greed. The new meaning that was attached to the word (in connection with this historical event) cannot now be removed from its semantic structure. A dictionary meaning is materialized in the context; a contextual meaning is born in the context. However, dictionaries, though the only reliable sources of information regarding the meanings of a given word, apply very diverse and even contradictory principles in ascertaining the general acceptability and recognition of some of the shades of meaning which are in process of being shaped as independent meanings.
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Thus, to excuse oneself in the meaning of 'to leave', as in 'Soames excused himself directly after dinner' (Galsworthy); or the meaning of a thought = 'a little' as in 'A thought more fashionably than usual' (Galsworthy) are fixed as separate meanings in some modern British and American dictionaries, but are neglected in others. Every word possesses an enormous potentiality for generating new meanings. This power is often under-estimated by scholars who regard a word as a unit complete in itself and acknowledge a new-born meaning only when it has firmly asserted itself in language and become accepted by the majority of the language community. But not to see the latent possibilities of a word is not to understand the true nature of this unit of language. The potentiality of words can also be noted in regard to e m o t i v e m e a n i n g . Emotive meaning also materializes a concept in the word, but, unlike logical meaning, emotive meaning has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker towards these things or to his emotions as such. Therefore the emotive meaning bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through a kind of evaluation of them. For example: I feel so darned lonely. (Graham Green, "The Quiet American".) He classified him as a man of monstrous selfishness; he did not want to see that knife descend, but he felt it for one great fleeting instant. (London) The italicized words have no logical meaning, only emotive meaning. Their function is to reveal the subjective, evaluating attitude of the writer to the things or events spoken of. Men-of-letters themselves are well aware that words may reveal a subjective evaluation and sometimes use it for definite stylistic effects, thus calling the attention of the reader to the meaning of such words. Thus, for example, in the following passage from "The Man of Property" by Galsworthy: "She was not a flirt, not even a coquettewords dear to the heart of his generation, which loved to define things by a good, broad, inadequate wordbut she was dangerous." Here the words 'flirt' and 'coquette' retain some of their logical meaning. They mean a person (particularly a girl) who endeavours to attract the opposite sex, who toys with her admirers. But both words have acquired an additional significance, viz. a derogatory shade of meaning. This shade may grow into an independent meaning and in this case will be fixed in dictionaries as having a special emotive meaning, as, for example, have the words fabulous, terrifying, stunning, spectacular, swell, top, smart, cute, massive and the like. Many words acquire an emotive meaning only in a definite context. In that case we say that the word has a c o n t e x t u a l e m o t i v e meaning. Stephen Ullmann holds that "Only the context can show whether a word should be taken as a purely objective expression, or whether it is primarily designed to
66

convey and arouse emotions. This is obvious in the case of words like liberty, and justice, which are frequently charged with emotional implications. But even colourless everyday terms may, in freak contexts, acquire unexpected emotional overtones, as, for instance, 'wall' in this passage from a Midsummer Night's Dream: 'And thou, wall, sweet, lovely wall, ...Thanks, courteous wall... wicked wall.'"1 Ullmann's point of view is only partly true. There are, of course, words which, as we have pointed out, may acquire emotive meaning in a context. Ordinarily though, and particularly when taken as isolated lexical units, they can hardly be said to possess emotive meaning. But Ullmann's opinion that only the context can inject emotive meaning into words, contradicts the facts. In the vocabulary of almost any European language there are words which are undoubtedly bearers of emotive meaning. These are interjections, oaths or swear-words, exclamatory words (variants of interjections) and a great number of qualitative or intensifying adjectives some of which have already been mentioned. The emotive meaning of some of these classes of words is so strong that it suppresses the co-existing logical meaning, as, for example, in stunning and smart. It is significant that these words are explained in dictionaries by means of synonymous words charged with strong emotional implications, i. e. words that direct the mind not to objective things, ideas or phenomena but to the feelings. Thus, the word smart is explained in "The Penguin English Dictionary" thus: "stinging, pungent, keen; vigorous, brisk; clever, intelligent; impertinent; shrewd; witty; spruce, neat, gay, fashionable!"2 Other classes of words with emotive meaning have entirely lost their logical meaning and function in the language as interjections. Such words as alas, oh, ah, pooh, darn, gosh and the like have practically no logical meaning at all; words like the devil, Christ, God, goodness gracious, etc., are frequently used only in their emotive meaning. The same can be said about the words bloody, damn and other expletives. Contrary to Stephen Ullmann, we think that emotive meaning is inherent in a definite group of words and adherent to many words denoting emotions and feelings even when taken out of the context. Ullmann's example of the word wall as bearing strong emotive meaning does not stand scrutiny. He overlooks the real bearers of emotive meaning, viz. the words preceding or following it: 0, sweet, lovely (these three words are repeated several times), courteous, wicked. It goes without saying that these words strongly colour3 the word wall, but no emotive meaning as a counterpart of logical meaning can be observed here.

Ullmann, Stephen. Words and their Use. Frederick Muller, Ldn, 1951, p. 28, "The Penguin English Dictionary" edited by G. N. Garmonsway. C o l o u r i n g is a loose term. It is used here as a synonym to contextual emotive meaning. But it may be used further on when we want to point out the effect on the utterance as a whole of a word with a strong emotive meaning.
2 3

3*

67

Emotive meaning of words plays an important role in stylistics. Therefore it should never be underrated. A very keen eye or ear will always distinguish elements of emotive meaning. Emotional colouring may be regarded as a rudimentary stage of emotive meaning. This is generally fixed as an independent meaning in good dictionaries. Anything recognizable as having a strong impact on our senses may be considered as having emotive meaning, either dictionary or contextual. And finally we come to n o m i n a l m e a n i n g . There are words which, while expressing concepts, indicate a particular object out of a class. In other words, these units of the language serve the purpose of singling out one definite and singular object out of a whole class of similar objects. These words are classified in grammars as proper nouns. The nature of these words can be understood if we have a clear idea of the difference between the two main aspects of a word: "nomination" and "signification". These aspects are also called "reference" and "signification" or "denotation" and "connotation". The difference can roughly be illustrated by the following example. Let us take the word table. The first thing that appears in our mind is the general notion deprived of any concrete features or properties. This is the signification. But by the word table we may also denote a definite table. In this case we use a definite article and the meaning becomes nominating. But we may also fix a definite name to the object which we want to be recognized as a unique object because of its peculiar properties. In this way proper names appear. Their function is not to single out one of the objects of the class for one particular occasion, as in the case with the use of the definite article, but to make it the bearer of the properties which our mind has attached to it. Thus nominal meaning is a derivative logical meaning. To distinguish nominal meaning from logical meaning the former is designated by a capital letter. Such words as Smith, Longfellow, Everest, Black Sea, Thames, Byron are said to have nominal meaning. The logical meaning from which they originate may in the course of time be forgotten and therefore not easily traced back. Most proper names have nominal meanings which may be regarded as homonyms of common nouns with their logical or emotive meanings, as Hope, Browning, Taylor, Scotland, Black, Chandler, Chester (from the Latin word castra'camp'). Hence logical meanings which nominate an object, at the same time signify the whole class of these objects. Nominal meanings which nominate an object are deprived of the latter function because they do not represent a class. It must be remembered, however, that the nominal meaning will always be secondary to the logical meaning. The process of development of meaning may go still further. A nominal meaning may assume a logical meaning due to certain external circumstances. The result is that a logical meaning takes its origin in a nominal meaning. Some feature of a person which has made him or her noticeable and which is recognized by the community is made the basis for the new logical meaning. Thus dunce (a dullard, a stupid person) is derived from the personal name, Duns Scotus, a medieval scholastic; hoolgian (a ruffian) is probably derived from the name of a rowdy fam68

ily, cf. the Irish name Houligan, in a comic song popular about 1885; boycott (refuse to do business with, combine together against a person by breaking off all relations with him). The verb boycott was first used in 1880 to describe the action of the Land League towards Captain Boycott, an Irish landlord. The nominal meanings of these words have now faded away and we perceive only one, the logical meaning. But sometimes the process of attaching nominal meaning to a word with a logical meaning takes place, as it were, before our eyes. This is done for purely stylistic purposes and is regarded as a special stylistic device (see p. 164).