Drying

The removal of a liquid from a material by the application of heat &

is accomplished by the transfer of a liquid from a surface into an
unsaturated vapor phase .

There are many non thermal methods of drying

1- Expression of a solid to remove liquid ( the squeezing of a wetted

sponge)

2-The extraction of liquid from a solid by use of a solvent

3-The adsorption of water from a solvent by the use of desiccants

4- The absorption of moisture from gases
by passage through sulfuric acid column.

5-Desication of a moisture from a solid

by placing it in a sealed container with a
moisture – removing material (silica gel).
Psychrometry
A critical factor in drying operations is the vapor-carrying capacity
of the air, nitrogen, or other gas stream passing over the drying
material.
This carrying capacity determines not only the rate of drying but
also the extent of drying, i.e., the lowest moisture content to which
a given material can be dried. The determination of the vapor
concentration and carrying capacity of the gas is termed
psychrometry. The air water vapor system is the system most
commonly employed in pharmaceutical drying operations.

The concentration of water vapor in a gas is called the humidity of

the gas.
Dried products are more stable
than moist ones, as is the case in
such ( effervescent salt ,aspirin,
hygroscopic powders, ascorbic acid
,& penicillin).
Humidity Measurement.
The most accurate means of measuring humidity is by the gravimetric method. In this
procedure, a known amount of air is passed over a previously weighed moisture-
absorbing chemical such as phosphorus pentoxide, and the resultant increase in weight of
the chemical is measured.
Although accurate, the gravimetric method is cumbersome and slow. For rapid
determination of humidity, temperature-measurement methods are most often used.

The simplest instrument for this purpose is the sling psychrometer (Fig. 3-2). It consists of
two bulb thermometers set in a frame that is attached to a swivel handle. One thermometer,
the dry-bulb thermometer, has a bare bulb; the bulb of the other thermometer, the wet-bulb
thermometer, is covered by a wick saturated with water. The psychrometer is whirled
through the air, and the two thermometer readings are taken at successive intervals until
these temperatures no longer change.

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THEORY OF DRYING

Drying involves both heat & mass

transfer operations.

Heat must be transferred to the material

to be dried in order to supply the latent
heat required for vaporization of the
moisture.
The focus on the film of liquid at the surface of the
material
The rate of evaporation is related to the rate of heat transfer by the equation

dW/dθ of water = q/λ -----------(1) where

dW/dθ is the rate of evaporation

q is the overall rate of heat transfer

λ is the latent heat of vaporization of water

The rate of diffusion of moisture into the air stream is expressed by
rate equations, the driving forces is a humidity differential, whereas for
heat transfer is a temperature differential so the equation
 dW\dθ =kA(Hs – Hg) where
 dW\dθ is the rate of diffusion
 K is the coefficient of mass transfer
 A is the area of the evaporating surface
 Hs is the absolute humidity at the evaporating surface
 Hg is the absolute humidity in the passing air stream
 K is not a constant , but varies with velocity of the air
stream passing over the evaporating surface , the
relationship is in the form
 K= cGn
 Where c is a constant
 G is the rate of flow of air
 After an initial period of adjustment , the rate of evaporation
is equal to the rate of diffusion of vapor & the rate of heat
transfer so
 dW/dθ = q/λ =kA( Hs – Hg)
 If the overall rate of heat transfer ,q , is expressed as
the sum of the rates of heat transfer by convection,
radiation, & conduction so
 dW/dθ= (qc+ qr + q k )/ λ
=kA( Hs – Hg)
 Where all q are the rates of heat transfer by convection ,
radiation , conduction respectively.
 Drying of solids
 1-Loss on drying : LOD
 %LOD= ( wt. of water in sample\total wt. of wet sample
)Х100
 2-moisture content
 % MC =(wt of water in sample/wt of dry sample)Х100
Behavior of solids during drying
 1-first a wet solid placed in a drying oven, it begins to absorb heat &
increases in temperature
 at the same time , the moisture begins evaporating & thus tends to
cool the drying solid.
 2- after a period of initial adjustment the rates of heating & cooling
become equal & the temperature of the drying material stabilizes.
 This period of initial adjustment is shown as segment AB in Figures
3-3A and 3-3B.
 If the wet solid is initially at a higher temperature than the wet-bulb
temperature, it cools down following segment A'B.
https://www.google.com/search?q=powder+in+tray+of+dryer&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjLo_C5hbrwAhVLQRoKHdQvBNkQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=powder+in+tray+of+dryer&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1D_zAFYgOMBYMXsAWgAcAB4AIABeYgBmAiSAQMwLjmYAQCgAQGq
AQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=NH6WYMu5HMuCadTfkMgN&bih=526&biw=1093&hl=en#imgrc=RROl_PCe5OL1kM
 At point C, the surface water is no longer
At point B, the temperature ~s stabilized
replaced at a rate fast enough to maintain a
and remains constant as long as there is
continuous film. Dry spots begin to appear, and
a film of moisture remaining at the
the rate of drying begins to fall off. The
surface of the drying solid. Between
moisture content at which this occurs is
points B and C, the moisture
referred to as the critical moisture content.
evaporating from the surface is replaced
Between points C and D, the number and area
by water diffusing from the interior of
of the dry spots continue to grow, and the rate
the solid at a rate equal to the rate of
of drying falls steadily.
evaporation. The rate of drying is
The time CD is referred to as the first falling
constant, and the time BC is the constant
rate period. rate period or the period of unsaturated surface
drying.

At point D, the film of surface water is

completely evaporated, and the rate of drying
depends on the rate of diffusion of moisture
to the surface of the solid. Point D is referred
to as the second critical point. Between points
D and E the rate of drying falls even more
rapidly than the first falling rate, and time DE
is called the
second falling rate period.
When the drying rate is equal to zero, starting
at point E, the equilibrium moisture period
begins, and the solid is in equilibrium with its
surroundings, i.e., its temperature and
moisture content remain constant. Continued
drying after this point is a waste of time and
energy.

Method of determining rate of drying: The difference in moisture content between any two
measurements divided by the time period between measurements represents the rate of
drying for this time period. This value is plotted against the midpoint of the time period for a
drying rate versus time curve, or against the midpoint of the moisture content values for a
drying rate versus moisture content curve.
Classification of dryers
 2 useful classifications are based on either the method of
heat transfer or the method of solids handling.
 Classification according to the type of heat transfer is
important in demonstrating gross differences in dryer
design, operation, & energy requirements.
 Classification by the method of solids handling is more
suitable when special attention must be given to the
nature of the material to be dried.
 The classification according to their method of solids
handling, the major criterion is the presence or absence of
agitation of the material to be dried.
 A drier that produces excessive agitation is contraindicated
when the dried material is friable & subject to attrition.
 If the dried product is intended to pulverized then the drying
time can be reduced & the process made more efficient.
Classification based on the method of solids handling are
divided into the following types

 1-static bed dryers

 2-moving bed dryers
 3-fluidized bed dryers
 4-pneumatic dryers
 Static bed dryers

 In which there is no relative movement among the solid

particles being dried, although there may be bulk motion of
the entire drying mass.
 Only a fraction of the total number of particles is directly
exposed to heat sources. The exposed surface can be
increased by decreasing the thickness of the bed & allowing
drying air to flow through it.
Moving bed dryers
 In which the drying particles are partially separated so that
they flow over each other
 Motion may be induced by either
 1-gravity
 2- mechanical agitation.
 The resultant separation of the particles & continuous
exposure of new surfaces allow more rapid heat & mass
transfer than the can occur in static beds.
Fluidized bed dryers
 In which the solid particles are partially suspended in an
upward moving gas stream.
 The particles are lifted & then fall back in a random manner
so that the resultant mixture of solid & gas acts like a boiling
liquid.
 The gas solid contact is excellent & result in better heat &
mass transfer than in static & moving beds.
Pneumatic dryers
 In which the drying particles are entrained & conveyed in a
high velocity gas stream.
 Pneumatic systems further improve on fluidized beds,
because there is no channeling or short circulation of the gas
flow path through a bed of particles.
 Each particles is surrounded by an envelope of drying gas.
 The resultant heat & mass transfer are extremely rapid so
drying times are short.
Static bed systems
Tray & Truck dryers
 Tray dryers are sometimes called shelf, cabinet, or
compartment dryers.
 This dryer consists of a cabinet in which the material to be
dried is spread on tiers of trays.
 The no. of trays varies with the size of the dryer.
 Dryer of laboratory size may contain as few as 3 trays where
as larger dryers hold as many as 20 trays.
Truck dryer
 Truck dryer in which the trays are loaded ( racks equipped
with wheels), which can be rolled into & out of the drying
cabinet.
 In plant operations, the truck dryer is preferred over the
tray dryer because it offers greater convenience in loading &
unloading.
 The trucks usually contain 1 or 2 tiers of trays, with about
18 or more trays per tier.
Tray dryer

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Tray dryers may be classified as direct
or indirect.
 Direct type: in which heating is accomplished by the forced
circulation of large volumes of heated air.
 Indirect tray dryers utilize heated shelves or radiant heat
sources inside drying chamber to evaporate the moisture.
 The trays used have solid, perforated or wire mesh bottoms.
 To achieve uniform drying, there must be a constant temp. &
uniform airflow over the material being dried.
https://www.google.com/search?q=tray+dryer&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjd94SW1LnwAhX0z7sIHatFAhEQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=tray+dryer&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIECCMQJzIECAAQQzICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAOgYIABAHEB5Q-fgDWL7-
A2DMjQRoAHAAeACAAZcBiAGrApIBAzAuMpgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=h0qWYJ2YO_Sf7_UPq4uJiAE&bih=526&biw=1093&hl=en#imgrc=4kil6eXrDuWtrM

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DvRYGriZKUDGNM
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en#imgrc=azA_vcye4516jM
Tunnel dryers
 Which are adaptations of the truck dryer for continuous
drying. The trucks are moved through the drying tunnel by a
moving chain.
 These trucks are loaded on one side of the dryer, allowed to
reside in the heating chamber for a time sufficiently long to
effect the desired drying & then discharge at the exit.
 The operation may be described as semicontinuous, because
each truck requires individual loading & unloading before &
after the drying cycle.
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cCegQIABAA&oq=tunnel++dryer&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQDDICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAA6BggAEAcQHlDF6QVYjIIGYLWCDGgAc
AB4AIABhgGIAYoGkgEDMC42mAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=5mKWYPX1EcyR7_UPyI2D8Ak&bih=526&biw=1093&hl=en#imgrc=pmg5BIN5
MMUt0M
Conveyor dryers
 Are an improvement over tunnel dryers because they are
truly continuous .
 The individual trucks of the tunnel are replaced with an
endless belt or screen that carries the wet material through
the drying tunnel.
 Conveyor dryers provide for uninterrupted loading &
unloading & are thus more suitable for handling large
volumes of materials.
https://www.google.com/search?q=conveyor+dryer&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjJi7yT7LnwAhU9i_0HHRuyC14Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=conveyor++dryer&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgYIABAHEB4yBggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB46CAgAEAcQBRAeUNmnBVjV0AVgneMFaABwAHg
AgAGNAYgBsQiSAQMwLjiYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=rWOWYImBAr2W9u8Pm-Su8AU&bih=526&biw=1093&hl=en#imgrc=VMZ4gteWEmzovM

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AgAGNAYgBsQiSAQMwLjiYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=rWOWYImBAr2W9u8Pm-Su8AU&bih=526&biw=1093&hl=en#imgrc=lmKOyFgWX6keFM
 Moving bed systems
/Turbo tray dryers
 Is a continuous shelf. It consist of a
series of rotating annular trays
arranged in a vertical stack, all of which
rotate slowly at 0.1 to 1 rpm.
 Heated air is circulated over the trays
by fans mounted in the center of the
stack.
 Wet mass fed through the roof of the
dryer is leveled by a stationary wiper.
After about seven-eights of a revolution
the material being dried is pushed https://www.google.com/search?q=turbo+tray+dryer
&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiv1afB7LnwAhVjWOUKHU
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Because the turbo tray dryer continuously exposes new surfaces to the
air drying rates are faster than for tunnel dryers.
 Pan dryers
 They are moving bed dryers of the indirect
type that may operate under atmospheric
pressure or vacuum & are generally used
to dry small patches of paste or slurries.
The dryer consists of a shallow, circular
jacketed pan.
 Heat is supplied by steam or hot water.
 There is a set of rotating plows in the pan
that evolve slowly, scraping the moisture –
laden mass from the walls & exposing new
surfaces to contact with the heated sides &
bottom.
https://www.3v-tech.com/en/process-equipment/13/dryers/39/pan-dryer-multidry-ev
 Atmospheric pan drying allows moisture to escape where as
in vacuum dryers in which the pan is completely enclosed .
 The dried material is discharged through a door on the
bottom of the pan.
Fluidized – bed systems
 They are of 2 types 1-vertical & 2-
horizontal.
 1- the vertical types consist of a fan
mounted in the upper part of the
apparatuse.
 The air is heated to the required
temperature in an air heater &
flows upward through the wet
material which is contained in a
drying chamber fitted with a wire
mesh support at the bottom.
 The air flow rate is adjusted by
means of a damper, & a bag
collector filter is provided at the
top of the drying chamber.
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bih=526&biw=1093&hl=en#imgrc=z5Uz1TPzPo_wPM
 This unit is used as a
granulator. The dry
ingredients are placed
in the chamber &
fluidized while the
granulating liquid is
sprayed into the bed
causing the particles to
agglomerate into
granules.
 At the end of the
granulating cycle, the
granules are dried by
heating the fluidized air. https://www.google.com/search?q=granulating+fluid+dryer&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjy14XR7rnw
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Pneumatic systems
spray dryer
 spray dryers differ from most other
dryers in that they can handle only
fluid materials such as solutions,
slurries, & thin pastes.
 The fluid is dispersed as fine droplets
into a moving stream of hot gas
where they evaporate rapidly before
reaching the wall of the drying
chamber.
 The product dries into a fine powder
which is carried by the gas current & https://www.pharmaexcipients.com/news/effect-of-excipients-on-

gravity flow into a collection system.

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