Topics in Environmental Physiology and Medicine: Edited Karl E. Schaefer

Topics in Environmental Physiology and Medicine
Edited by Karl E. Schaefer

Herbert L. Konig
Albert P. Krueger
Siegnot Lang
Walter Sonning
Biologic Effects
of Environmental Electromagnetism
Translation by Terry C. Telger
With 142 Illustrations
Springer-Verlag
New York Heidelberg Berlin
Herbert L. KOnig
Institute for the Foundation of Electrotechnics
Munich Technical University
Munich, West Germany
Albert P. Krueger
School of Public Health
University of California
Berkeley, California 94720 U.S.A.
Siegnot Lang (deceased)
Walter Sonning
Emil Dittlerstrasse 4
D-8000 Munich, West Germany
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:
Biologic effects of environmental electromagnetism.
(Topics in environmental physiology and medicine)
Bibliography: p.
1. Electromagnetism-Physiological effect. I. Konig,
Herbert L., 1925- II. Series. [DNLM: I. Electro-
magnetics. 2. Electrophysiology. 3. Ions. QT 34
K77u]
QP82.2.E43B54 574.19'17 81-8898
AACR2
© 1981 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1981
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form without writ-
ten permission from Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10010, U.S.A.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc. in this publication, even if the
former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the
Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.
987654321
ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-5861-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-5859-9

001: 10.1007/978-1-4612-5859-9
Contents
Foreword vii
Preface ix
The Electromagnetic Environment
2 Electrophysical Forces of Natural Origin 16
3 Man-made Electromagnetic Fields and Ionizing Processes 43
4 Biologic Activity of Static and Low-frequency Fields 56
5 Project Seafarer 103
6 Biologic Activity of Higher-frequency Fields and

Chemophysical Reactions 113
7 Biologic Activity of Electromagnetic Energies: General

Considerations 135
8 Small Air Ions As Biologically Active Agents 144
9 Biometeorology 176
10 The Divining Rod Phenomenon 194
11 Electromagnetic Fields: Biologic Stress or Therapy? 218
12 Electromagnetic Energies in Man's Immediate Environment 247
Appendixes 272
A Technical and Electrophysical Terms 272
vi Contents
B Parapsychological Observations 283

C Acceleration 286
D Heredity 289
E Heliobiology 291
F Conclusion of the Public Service Commission of
the State of New York's Opinion #78-13 on
760-kV Transmission Lines 294
List of References 296
Index 325
Foreword
ARCHIVE COpy
DO NOT REMOVE
The public in industrialized countries shows a mounting concern about

biological effects of electrical and magnetic fields. As a result, experimental
studies on this subject are being published in increasing numbers throughout the
world.
Prof. H. L. Konig, of the Technical University of Munich, West Germany, a
leading expert and pioneer in this field, has written an authoritative text in a lucid
style which makes the material also accessible to lay readers. The book describes
the effects of natural as well as artificial electromagnetic energies covering the en-
tire measurable frequency range from the highest frequencies, x-rays, through
microwaves, radio waves, and finally extremely low frequency (ELF) waves. Cit-
ing the evidence from scientific studies in various countries, Konig also appraises
the biologic effects of microwaves and high tension power lines, which have
become controversial issues in recent years.
Other contributions to the book have been made by Prof. Albert P. Krueger,
University of California, Berkeley, on air ionization effects and by the mete-
orologist Walter Sonning on biometeorology, documenting the influence of atmo-
spheric electrical currents on health and disease. Moreover, the late Dr. Siegnot
Lang, a former coworker of Dr. Konig, has contributed to this book.
Research on the biological effects of electrical and magnetic fields has not up to
now attracted the attention of the large number of investigators it deserves. As a
result, there are still considerable gaps in our knowledge, and in some areas only a
fragmentary mosaic of studies exists. Moreover, individual variability in the reac-
tions to electromagnetic influences appears to be rather large, and it is therefore
often not possible to get clear-cut, statistically significant results, to which I can
attest on the basis of my own experience in the study of air ion effects.
In spite of these obstacles, the authors have succeeded admirably in providing
an excellent account and integrative evaluation of the known biological effects of
the electromagnetic environment.
Karl E. Schaefer
Preface
In recent years we have seen increasing evidence that electromagnetic fields, as

well as electric and magnetic fields separately, air ions, and other phenomena of
atmospheric electricity affect living organisms. A great deal of important research
has been reported, but remains largely unnoticed because the problems involved
transcend the boundaries of the individual scientific disciplines as they are tradi-
tionally defined. This volume is the first comprehensive treatment of the subject.
For those with an interest in certain specialized areas, this book brings together
information previously available only in scattered reports in the intemationalliter-
ature. For readers interested in a general overview ofthis timely topic, these spe-
cialized studies are reviewed in the context of basic bioelectric and biomagnetic
principles.
We have devoted attention to the biologic activity of both natural and artificial
electromagnetic energies covering the entire measurable frequency range, and to
such related phenomena as air ionization and atmospheric electric currents. We
intentionally speak in terms of biologic activity because it is often impossible to
classify such effects as either adverse or beneficial. As in all biological problems,
investigations must have a statistical basis, although the reactions of individual or-
ganisms are characterized by subjective, personality-specific traits. It is beyond
the scope of this book to include exhaustive detail in discussing the studies cited,
such as, for example, statistical problems and proofs. This would compromise the
clarity of format we hope to achieve. An extensive bibliography is provided for
the reader who wishes more detailed information.
Practical applications of these experimental results have developed in such
fields as biometeorology, architectural biology, and biomedicine (both diagnostic
and therapeutic). Discussions of the most important of these applications are
included. They are completed with a discussion of the problems of high-voltage
transmission lines and the dowsing effect in view of the activity of electromagnetic
fields. However, sizable gaps still exist in OUT knowledge, both because of in-
conclusive findings and because certain questions have yet to be addressed scien-
tifically. Still, even inconclusive data point out new directions in which compre-
hensive study will yield statistically significant results. The most difficult task
x Preface
today is to establish an adequate interdisciplinary framework within which these

problems can be resolved.
We hope to have presented the subject in a manner that both includes the
wealth of the scientific findings in these areas and remains accessible to the large
audience interested in this field as a whole: physicians, veterinarians, public health
officials and researchers, city planners and architects, environmentalists, mete-
orologists, biologists, and the many engineers and technicians involved in the
production and utilization of electric and electromagnetic energies. As our small
world becomes increasingly crowded, the need for an understanding of the princi-
ples and questions addressed herein becomes ever more urgent. Our strongest
wish is to bridge the gaps between workers in these various fields and stimulate
the truly interdisciplinary interest that is required to focus upon questions that
remain not only unsolved, but often unthought-of, and to assess the implications
of findings that are often neglected.
Herbert L. Konig
1
The Electromagnetic Environment
The problem of environmental protection Sources of Electromagnetic Processes

has increasingly become a subject of public in the Environment
awareness, especially in the highly industri-
alized Western world, and with good rea- All biologic systems on earth are influenced
son. Man is gradually coming to the realiza- by highly complex environmental condi-
tion that technological progress can no tions. These complicated interrelationships
longer be blindly pursued without running are shown schematically in the form of a
the risk of destroying the natural environ- block diagram in Fig. 1-1. Central to the
ment upon which he depends. diagram is the biologic systems block,
The term environmental protection gen- comprising man, animals and plants. Ev-
erally calls to mind such images as rusted erything in this world is subject to recipro-
scrap, garbage dumps, floating and sunken cal effects based on interaction. This is es-
refuse in rivers, air pollution, and so on. It pecially true of biologic systems, which can
must be realized, however, that many fac- be both positively and negatively in-
tors are at work in pollution of the air and fluenced (a judgment which is relative, of
water which are not immediately evident or course) by periodic or static processes, by
visible. Questions in the fields of biology, certain permanent influences, and by any
chemistry, physics and technology are conceivable combination of such process-
becoming increasingly important in this es. These environmentally determined in-
regard. It is necessary, therefore, to exam- fluences, or the external causes of these
ine visible and invisible environmental fac- processes, can be subdivided into three
tors on the basis of scientific research, main groups: those of extraterrestrial ori-
which have an effect on man. It does not gin, those of terrestrial origin (Fig. 1-2), and
matter whether these factors are of natural those of technological origin which stem
or technological origin, for they combine to from artificially produced conditions.
create the environment in which man, Biologic systems can, in theory, be di-
animals and plants-in short, all life-must rectly influenced by extraterrestrial process-
exist. es via electromagnetic or corpuscular radi-
2 The Electromagnetic Environment
g- P1anatan-Sonnen-Galaxls
terrestrisch
h- (natOr1ich)
i- Atmo
j- Iono pharo
k - Erdmagnetfeld
I-Erdkugel
Smoka
b- Kunststoffe
c-LArm
d - mach. Vib ration
a- HF-un<! NF -all.
un<! magnetisclle Energie
Figure 1-1. Relationships between environmental influences and biologic systems. Extraterrestrial
and terrestrial factors based on natural processes and technological processes interact with one
another and determine the environmental conditions of life on our planet.
Key: a-Civilization (artificial); b-Plastics; c-Noise; d-Mechanical vibration; e-HF and LF electric
and magnetic energy; f-Extraterrestrial; g-Planets-Stars-Galaxy; h- Terrestrial (natural); i-At-
mosphere; j- Ionosphere; k - Geomagnetic field; 1- Terrestrial globe; m - Biologic systems; n-
Man-Animals-Plants; o-Influenced (positively or negatively) by: p-(a) Periodic processes; q-(b)
Static processes; r-(c) Permanent influence; s-(d) Mixed processes (a-c)
a-Weltraum d- Intarptanatartscher Raum
b-
Atmosphare e-:. ,ExospllAra
_+-r--+_~
,Troj:lOsphlra g-
SI,,,ln!lnl1,A ... h -
X ,I onolsphllre 1-
C-Erda
Figure 1-2. Schematic diagram of a cross-section of the earth. After Bartels (1960).
Key: a-Outer space; b-Atmosphere; c-Earth; d-Interplanetary space; e-Exosphere; f-Center of
earth; g-Troposphere; h-Stratosphere; i-Ionosphere
Sources of Electromagnetic Processes in the Environment 3
ation from celestial bodies. Gravitational major role in determining terrestrial condi-
forces are yet another influence. But these tions. Thus there exist two interconnected
extraterrestrial processes can also act indi- cycles: One from biologic systems to tech-
rectly On the earth's biologic systems by nological processes and back, the other
way of natural terrestrial environmental from biologic systems via technological
factors (Fig. 1-1). processes to terrestrial processes and back.
Terrestrial environmental conditions of Besides these two cycles there are two
natural origin may originate. in the atmo- more or less direct paths by which extrater-
sphere, ionosphere, or biosphere and so, restrial processes act On biologic systems.
viewed subjectively, act On biologic sys- One is the direct path from the extraterres-
tems "from above." The earth's magnetic trial to the biologic system, the other the in-
field and gravity, properties of the earth as a direct path via terrestrial processes. Both
planet, also act on us "from below." The paths are parallel to the other two cycles.
scientific problems associated with the ter- Even this highly simplified diagram gives
restrial environment, and to some extent an idea of the extreme complexity with
with the extraterrestrial environment, have which the various processes interact, and it
been largely solved, although new discover- becomes apparent that certain effects can-
ies in this area will likely be made in the fu- not always be clearly analyzed with regard
ture. The processes identified as "terres- to their cause. We shall nOw examine indi-
trial environmental conditions" lead a life vidually the factors that fall within these
of their own, which is to say that physico- categories.
chemical processes take place there even in
the absence of external influences and are
subject to their own laws. However, these Extraterrestrial Processes
laws are determined in part by extraterres-
trial and technological processes as well, so Numerous forms of radiation are known
the system becomes extremely complex that fall upon the earth from space: cosmic
when viewed as a whole. rays, solar wind, X-rays, ultraviolet radia-
Finally, environmental factors of tech- tion, visible light, infrared radiation, high-
nological origin include all processes that frequency radiation (such as that emitted
originate in artificially determined environ- by hydrogen at a wavelength of 21 cm) and
mental factors, including dust, emissions, low-frequency wave radiation. These forms
plastics, noise, mechanical vibrations and of radiation originate in space and are ap-
injurious substances, as well as high- parently generated by cosmic processes. It
frequency, low-frequency and static elec- is now known that radiation from space trig-
tric and magnetic energies. The existence gers very complex secondary and tertiary
of all these factors individually is generally processes within the earth's atmosphere.
known. Considerably more research is This radiation, together with its products, is
needed, however, to clarify the role played often loosely termed cosmic radiation or
by each as an environmental factor. cosmic rays, without regard for the fact that
All the processes included in the three the products are entirely of earthly origin
groups of environmental factors exert ef- and are attributable to cosmic radiation
fects on biologic systems. But these groups only in terms of their production. In a
also interact with One another, as Fig. 1-1 stricter sense, the term cosmic radiation is
shows. For example, extraterrestrial pro- reserved for the primary radiation, which
cesses act on terrestrial environmental fac- consists of nucleons.
tors, but the consequences of technology The energy that is imparted to the earth
also influence these physical and chemical by cosmic radiation is roughly equivalent to
terrestrial processes. And man, as the ini- the light intensity of the night sky. Howev-
tiator of all technological processes, plays a er, this energy is concentrated in relatively
few particles which have extremely high magnetic field diverts much of this solar
energies individually. As a result, the par- wind into a path about the earth. Only the
ticles in primary cosmic radiation are capa- uncharged neutrinos (elementary particles
ble of splitting any atoms and atomic nuclei with zero charge and zero resting mass)
they encounter. From this interaction of from the sun and the neutrons (uncharged
primary radiation with atomic nuclei, new hydrogen nuclei) produced by the action of
elementary particles are born. This process cosmic rays can pass through the earth's
takes place almost entirely at an altitude of magnetic field undisturbed. Since the neu-
16-25 km above the earth's surface. trons decay into protons and electrons after
Corpuscular radiation from the sun is 16 min, on the average, they may be the
commonly called the solar wind. Its elec- source of protons and electrons within the
trically charged components deform the magnetosphere, especially in the radiation
earth's magnetic field into an elongated, belts discovered by van Allen in 1958. The
pear-shaped shell called the magneto- typical consequences of a solar flare are
sphere. At the same time, the terrestrial illustrated in Fig. 1-3.
wave radiation charged particle cosmic radiation

transit time 8 minutes radiation less than 1 hour
20-40 hours
ultraviolet light
and X-ray
radiation
visible
light
radio waves
in metric-
wave range
1 1
ions and
electrons
atomic nuclei
~ simultaneous
+ + +
phenomena subsequent phenomena
~
~
ionization of
~
visible in
~
Increase
I~ ! •
ionization
l
the O-Iayer spectra- in receiver
helioscope nOise
~ ~
terrestrial
magnetic storm
terrestrial fade-out increase in ionospheric storm

magnetic -lS-l00m field intensity
Bal-interference (20-3MHz) -6-30km
(VHF) (SO-10kHz) polar light
(VLF and ELF)
Figur.e 1-3. Terrestrial effects of a solar flare. In reality, all phenomena are not always observed;
for example, an increase in cosmic radiation is very rare. After Bartels (1960).
~ 20~--------~--'----------r--~---------.---,
~
-¥- = 0.01
long-wave radiation
from earth's
surface
IT. ~ 273'K)
0.7
0.5.f----I-.f-4H-
0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70 100

I wavelength - - - - . . [~m]
Figure 1-4. The spectral distribution of extraterrestrial solar radiation, long-wave radiation from
the earth's surface at oDe, and atmospheric counterradiation at oDe (!lA/A = 0.01); the range visible
to the human eye is also shown. After R. Schulze (1970).
Solar radiation is described in terms of hance the secondary effects of cosmic radi-
the solar spectrum (Fig. 1-4). It has a max- ation. It remains unclear whether this effect
imum, or peak, at a wavelength of about on the earth and its atmosphere has biologic
478 nm. Radiation from this spectral region consequences as well.
is visible to our eyes. Since solar radiation
also includes wavelengths lying outside the
visible range, efforts have been intensified Terrestrial Processes
in recent years to study this radiation,
which doubtlessly also has terrestrial ef- The Atmosphere. Confining our atten-
fects, in greater detail. This invisible radiation to the atmosphere, the collective term
tion includes, most notably, ultraviolet and "terrestrial processes" includes all ele-
X-radiation, as well as longer-wave radia- ments associated with meteorology, such as
tion in the infrared and centimeter-wave air pressure, temperature, and water in its
ranges. Short-wave radiation occurs at solid, liquid and gaseous states of aggrega-
wavelengths of 1 cm-20 m. tion. Also included are natural wave radia-
Ultraviolet radiation and X-rays occupy tion (which originates primarily in thunder-
the range between 300 and 3 nm. Their storm activity, but may also be associated
principal effects consist of various distur- with ionospheric processes), electric and
bances in the earth's ionosphere. Cor- magnetic field fluctuations (which occur not
puscular radiation with velocities up to 500 only in the atmosphere), gases (0 2 , 0 3 , N),
km/s and corona radiation with velocities certain toxic chemical processes, gases es-
up to 1600 km/s are responsible for the caping from the earth (sulfur vapors, for ex-
well-known auroral phenomena as well as ample), and solid particles (dust), to name
for small magnetic disturbances and other only the most important.
effects (Fig. 1-5). Finally, chromo spheric The Ionosphere. The layer of the earth's
eruptions, or flares, are a source of cosmic upper atmosphere called the ionosphere
radiation with energies of 5 X 109 eV. The (Fig. 1-2), distinguished by its very high
principal effect of this radiation is to en- electric conductivity because of the strong
Figure 1-5. The sun. source of visible and invisible radiation. is a ball of gases 1.392.700 km in diam-
eter, the central star of our planetary system, and the only fixed star which is so close to the earth that
its surface can be closely studied. Sunspots were discovered several centuries ago. Modern research
can probe deep into the surface of the sun and investigate its chemical composition and physical
properties by special photographic techniques. This photograph shows the boiling surface of the sun
in the red wavelengths of hydrogen light. A number of interesting vortex structures are visible, which
demonstrate the presence of powerful magnetic fields. Magnetic fields are also present in sunspots and
determine all the motions that can be observed by telescope. The long, ribbon-like filaments are called
flocculi; if properly photographed, they would appear as distinct prominences.
e- reflaktlerende lonoeptWaMChIc:ht
c-
tole Zona
Figure 1-6. Schematic diagram of the propagation of radio waves between the ionosphere and the
earth's surface.
Key: a- Reflective ionospheric layer; b-Zone of short-distance reception; c-Zone of silence; d- Zone
of distant reception
ionization of the thin air there, is subjected tions during disturbances of the earth's
to certain interactions with the terrestial in- magnetic field, suggesting that solar cor-
dicators discussed above. The presence of puscular radiation contributes to the forma-
this layer, which is also known as the tion of these layers. The altitude depen-
Heaviside or Kenelly-Heaviside layer, can dence of ionization in the upper atmosphere
be demonstrated by reflection experiments for various conditions is shown in Fig. 1-7.
with radio waves (wavelength below 400 Finally, it should be noted that the weight
m), and its altitude can be determined by of the earth is increased by about 1000 tons
measuring the delay between the arrival of each day as the result of meteoritic bom-
the direct and reflected waves at a receiving bardment or capture. Most of these objects
station located far from the transmitter burn up in the earth's atmosphere, and their
(Fig. 1-6). The ion concentration can be components may absorb a small part of the
measured by similar experiments. Inves- cosmic radiation.
tigations have shown the presence of sever- Earth's Magnetic and Electric Field. The
al layers of high ion concentrations: the D processes occurring in the earth's magnetic
layer at a height of about 70 km; the E and electric (electrostatic) fields are closely
layer, which is very important for radio linked with the processes discussed above.
reception, with an average height of about The term terrestrial magnetism refers to the
100 km and an ion density of approximately magnetic field which is in close proximity to
2.5 x 1011 partic\es/m3 (during daylight the earth and which has an average inten-
hours); and the F layer, which occurs at a sity of about 5 x 10- 5 tesla (T)-O.5 gauss
height of about 250 km. All layers exhibit (G)-never exceeding about 7 x 10-5 T
daily and seasonal fluctuations in ion con- (except during extraordinary fluctuations).
centration, which further varies with longi- The permanent field is subject to a very
tude and latitude. This fact together with slow fluctuation of intensity called the sec-
observations during solar eclipses, in- ular variation, upon which seemingly ran-
dicates a close correlation between process- dom field variations are superimposed.
es in the E layer and the position of the All electric phenomena in the atmo-
su.n, and identifies short-wave solar radia- sphere between the earth's surface and the
tion as the ionizer of this layer. The ioniza- ionosphere are included in the general cate-
tion of the F layer shows strong fluctua- gory of atmospheric electricity. This in-
1000
!l00
600
400
E a-
~
"
.r=
'0
:I: 200
150
100
80 D
D
60
10 10" 10' 10" 10·
d- Elektronenkonzentration (cm-3)
Figure 1-7. The altitude-dependence of ionization in the upper atmosphere for middle latitudes.
Day/night electron concentration at (1) sunspot maximum and (2) sunspot minimum. After Hoffman
(1968) and Swider (1968).
Key: a-Altitude (km); b-Daytime; c-Nighttime; d-Electron concentration (cm- 3)
cludes the atmospheric electric field, the at- its visible emissions, a lighting discharge
mospheric charge carriers or "air ions," emits various other electromagnetic sig-
electric space charges, conduction and con- nals. The frequency of these signals ranges
vection currents and discharges in the form from that of radio waves to about 10 Hz.
of corona currents and lightning together
with the electromagnetic signals caused by Earth's Crust, Terrestrial Globe. The
them (atmospherics). hard radiation and gases emitted from the
Lightning is the most striking phenome- earth's crust and interior and the mechani-
non accompanying thunderstorm electrici- cal vibrations of the earth's surface are ad-
ty. It occurs as discharges between clouds ditional terrestrial processes. These also
and the ground, between different clouds, have effects on the factors mentioned
and occasionally between a cloud and above and may influence the magnetic field,
cloudless air. About 95% of ground light- although this point is uncertain. In addition
ning carries negative charges to the earth. to the processes listed there are gravita-
Quantities of electricity between 10 and tional forces.
200 C are transported at currents of The term ground radiation as employed
2000-200,000 A. The main discharge, in physics (not to be confused with the
which lasts 10-50 p,s, is preceded by a pre- somewhat ominous concept of "ground
liminary discharge that usually follows a rays" used by dowsers) refers to that radia-
jagged path from cloud to ground. Often the tion which is emitted from the ground as a
main discharge is followed by as many as result of radioactive substances present
25 after-discharges, lasting a total of 1s or there (uranium, thorium, actinium). These
more. The luminosity of lightning is the substances, in turn, trigger the release ofra-
result of excited ions, atoms and molecules dioactive RaEm, ThEm and AcEm to the
and may last longer than the discharge cur- surrounding air, both by direct irradiation
rent itself. The bolt of lighting itself has a (alpha, beta, and gamma rays) and by
diameter on the order of 1 m. In addition to ionization.
Environmental Processes of rate of vibration is proportional to the

Technological Origin force applied, while above resonance the
displacement is proportional; at resonance,
Smog. Smog is the result of all artificial acceleration is proportional. Resonance
products which pollute the air, especially frequencies for various parts of the human
sulfur and carbon compounds (Fig. 1-8). body have been measured: intestine, 3 Hz;
Plastics. The use of plastics in the envi- head, 20 Hz; spinal column, 5 Hz; hip
ronment of man and all biologic systems bone, 9 Hz. If the force is applied to a
has been investigated little with regard to seated person, resonance frequencies of 4
their biologic effects. The electrostatic Hz and 30 Hz have been found; to a
charge on plastic materials is probably the standing person, 5 Hz and 12 Hz. The
best known phenomenon in this regard. mechanical vibrations of the skin and mus-
Noise. Much evidence has come from cles at a frequency of about 10Hz should
medical circles in recent times confirming also be mentioned in this context. Mea-
the adverse biologic effects of artificially surements by Rohracher (1949, 1952), for
produced noise, especially during pro- example, have revealed a constant vibra-
longed exposure to medium intensities. tion of these tissues, especially in man.
Mechanical Vibrations. Mechanical vi- The earth's surface itself appears to vi-
brations may have significant health effects brate at the same frequency, though with a
in man. As Reis (1974) has shown, the relatively small amplitude.
human body is so structured that it can be Electromagnetic Energies. Electric and
regarded as a freely vibrating mass. Imped- magnetic energies over a wide range of
ance measurements have shown that it frequencies have been utilized in the civi-
behaves primarily as a mass when sub- lized world for many years. They give rise
jected to vibrations up to 5 Hz (when to electromagnetic fields in the static range
seated or standing), and as a spring at vibra- and especially in the low- and high-
tions above 40 Hz. Below resonance, the frequency ranges in connection with a
c- "'E
1000 ec.
"'E
750 ~
ON
..,.
(/)
0.75 E
CD
.E.
Cl Q>
'"
f-
0
E
en
5. 500 20
a- .l!!
;a;
u;
"
"C
0
f-
250 .25 10
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13 14 15 0 0
d- Datums-Tage vom Dezember 1952
Figure 1-8. London smog, S02 content of air and mortality in London. After Tromp (1963).
Key: a-Number of deaths per day; b-Deaths; c-S0 2, cm 3 jm 3 ; d-Date in December 1952
large variety of applications. For example, evolved. For example, it is not surprising
a dense network of high-frequency trans- that man, during the course of his develop-
mitters has been established during past ment, acquired the ability to feel. In moving
decades (communication channels, televi- about their environment, man and other
sion, radio, etc.), and low-frequency power animals must be able to probe their sur-
current has penetrated into the most re- roundings by touch, and this sense may
mote regions of human habitation (see also have been one of the first to evolve. Our
Fig. 3-2). organs of taste and smell are presumably
the products and signs of an advanced stage
of development.
The remaining two senses, however, are
Biologic Activity of Electromagnetic clearly products of the environment, for
Processes their development is quite obviously in-
fluenced by environmental conditions and
By way of introduction, let us substantiate stimuli which are specific for conditions of
the importance of electric and magnetic life on earth. The formation of sound waves
processes in our environment as biologi- in the air and similar waves in water is pos-
cally active indicators by drawing topics sible only on planets which have the neces-
from evolutionary theory. sary constituent elements. Thus the devel-
opment of hearing must be considered the
result of appropriate environmental stimuli
Evolutionary History of Life in the form of pressure waves in a certain
range of frequencies.
Today, science can offer an almost unbrok- While acoustic stimuli originate in purely
en chain of proof that over a period of terrestrial processes and conditions, the
millions of years, life evolved from elemen- sense of sight is apparently based on the
tary single cell forms to the forms with circumstance that the earth's surface is illu-
which we are now familiar. It is certain that minated by solar radiation. The sun trans-
this evolution has been influenced to some mits a broad spectrum of electromagnetic
degree by the environment. This is a logical rays to the earth, with the highest intensi-
assumption, for everything that lives and ties radiated in the very frequency range to
grows on our planet is dependent upon the which the eye is sensitive (Fig. 1-4). It is
milieu in which this process takes place. It not without significance for the develop-
is also known that life evolved in the sea ment of life on earth that this radiation,
long before it was able to take to the dry called light, is capable of penetrating the
land and air. This is because water initially outer layers of the earth's atmosphere and
provided the best environment for biologic reaching the earth's surface. The short
processes. wavelength of light, its ability to be re-
All forms of life that evolved-plants, flected, its speed of propagation and all its
animals and man-were tested to the ut- other physical properties make it ideal for
most by environmental conditions, and purposes of orientation and position-find-
only the most highly developed, fittest ing. By giving us sight, nature gave us the
species could survive. This fight for surviv- ability to form a picture of our environ-
al was waged not only against natural ment, and to do it with a directional accura-
forces such as heat, cold, fire and water, but cy (resolution) which, at least in man, far
also against members of one's own species surpasses that of sound. For example,
and against other animals or plants. when we are called to from a distance, our
Man, too-especially in his senses ears tell us the direction from which the
-clearly shows the influence of the en- sound originates with a relatively high ac-
vironment in which and with which he has curacy. When we use our eyes, however,
Biologic Activity of Electromagnetic processes 11
our directional sense is improved many- cephalographic (EEG) currents that can be
fold. Our eyes thus represent a sophis- measured in the brain of man and all the
ticated electromagnetic direction-finding higher animals. Presman (1970) apparently
system, similar to radar, except that we do did not know or did not recognize the sig-
not transmit our own waves (as do bats, for nificance of such processes in the ELF
example), but rather exploit the energies range, which was pointed out as early as
emitted by the sun. Nature has also given 1960 by Konig and Ankermtiller, and again
us the ability to analyze light sources with by Konig in 1962 in a comparison of natural
respect to frequency. We interpret these and biologic signals.
frequencies as colors. Less highly devel- Electroencephalography has, according
oped creatures can see only varying shades to Schneider (1964), developed into an in-
of gray. Human infants, in fact, do not creasingly important physiologic and clini-
acquire the ability to see colors until their cal technique. Bone, of course, has the ef-
first month of life. fect of filtering out certain frequencies. But
But life has been exposed to forms of comparison with recordings taken directly
electromagnetic energy other than light from the surgically exposed brain surface
during its evolutionary history. The phe- (electrocorticography) shows that this ef-
nomenon of atmospherics, described in fect is of little consequence for clinical pur-
Chapter 2 (see also Appendix A), probably poses. Locally produced potentials have a
occurred with much greater intensity in an- tendency to spread through conductive tis-
cient times than it does today. This is sue by way of electric field loops. Never-
evidenced by the extreme tropical climatic theless, the source of potentials which
conditions which once prevailed on earth, deviate from the norm can be localized with
and the severe thunderstorm activity as- a high degree of accuracy. When EEG
sociated with them (Fig. 1-9). It is natural recordings are made with relatively large
to suppose that these electromagnetic field electrodes applied to the scalp, the record
energies in the very low frequency (VLF) always shows the interference of the elec-
range and, especially, in the extremely low tric processes in numerous elements which
frequency (ELF) range, played a significant generate potentials. This effect presumably
role in the evolutionary history of life on involves more than just the sum of nerve
earth. Lang (1973b) speculates that during cell action potentials. In any event, the
the evolution of life, organisms must have EEG current frequencies of interest here
positively adapted to atmospheric electric must have a significance as a "fundamental
phenomena; that is to say, they made use of frequency. "
these phenomena in some way. In contrast It is customary in medicine to divide
with the more general views of Presman these EEG currents into various groups ac-
(1970) on this point, which were adopted cording to waveform (frequency, harmonic
and expanded by Lang and co-workers, we content, amplitude). Figure 1-10 shows two
shall endeavor here to present a more spe- examples of such waveforms: the alpha
cific analysis of this aspect of evolutionary waves, associated with states of relaxation
theory. and rest; and the delta waves, which are
Since the evolution of life began, the en- typical of states of stress or disorder
vironment has been replete with elec- (headaches, spasms, brain tumors, etc.). If
tromagnetic stimuli, especially in the ELF one compares the recordings of alpha
and VLF ranges. Could these not have waves and delta waves with the traces ob-
triggered the development of certain elec- tained during electric field measurements in
tric control and regulatory systems in living the ELF range, one is struck by the remark-
creatures during the course of evolution? able similarity between the alpha waves
The main evidence in support of this and type I signals, and between the delta
hypothesis is the existence of electroen- waves and type II signals. Viewing a brief
Figure 1-9. Lightning, in its variety offorms, is the most striking atmospheric electric phenomenon.
Left: Lightning in the vicinity of the Volcano Surtsey (Southern Iceland). Right: Lightning strik-
ing the Munich television tower. The evolution of life on earth has always been accompanied by at-
mospheric electric processes in the environment. Not only the visible phenomenon of lightning, but
also a number of other forms of electromagnetic energy, have been present during evolution, implying
that they, too, have exerted some influence.
Kanal4 a-
EEG
'"
2 EEG
r7
3 I" 1 sec ~I
c- EEG. (A~leitung 5)
t=
[
1 sec.
J6
200 ev I o·
>
o
d-
'<
--3:
fa,
1,5 2 2,5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8910111213 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 27 30
~
o
e- Della- f- Theta- g- Alpha- h- Beta- i- Gammaband
a3
~
Figure 1-10_ a Natural electromagnetic processes in the environment (1-4) compared with human ~
EEG records. Striking similarities are seen between Schumann resonance vibrations (1) and the EEG :t.
o
alpha rhythm, and between local electric field fluctuations (2) and the EEG delta rhythm. b Sample '0
EEG record with eyes closed. The top curve shows the EEG as a function of time. The bottom curve a
is a frequency analysis of the EEG. The height of the peaks is a relative measure of the frequency with R
rJ>
which signals at the indicated frequencies occur. The range between 8 and 11 Hz, called the alpha CD
'"
band, is predominant. After Schneider (1964). '"
Key: a-Channel 4; b-Channel 2; c-EEG (lead 5); d-Frequency analysis (Hz); e-Delta band; f-
Theta band; g-Alpha band; h-Beta band; i-Gamma band IN
-
excerpt from such records, it would be dif- nal transmitting agency. The signal infor-
ficult even for an expert to determine mation, or the command to the muscle,
whether EEG currents or naturally occur- must also be conveyed from the arriving
ring electric field fluctuations were in- signal to the muscle in a very short time.
volved. This requires that the control impulse con-
There is also a remarkable similarity in tain a considerably higher-frequency spec-
the conditions under which each group of trum than is present in the ELF range. This
signals typically occurs. For example, type is, in fact, the case, for muscular control is
I signals are observed primarily during fair- accomplished by means of electric impulses
weather periods, under quiescent weather whose frequency spectrum lies in the VLF
conditions. These conditions correspond range, about I-10kHz and higher. A natu-
closely to the mental state associated with ral, external stimulus is also present in this
the appearance of alpha waves in the EEG. higher-frequency signal range: the VLF at-
A similar comparison can be made with re- mospherics produced by lightning strokes
spect to type II signals in the ELF range. exhibit exactly the same properties in terms
Irregular occurrence, relatively high ampli- of information content as do such processes
tudes, a strong harmonic content in the fun- within the body.
damental wave, and a labile fundamental But what of the role played by natural
frequency which is in every case lower than electromagnetic processes in the frequency
the type I frequency are all typical of such ranges directly above the VLF and directly
signals. On a local scale, they are usually below the ELF? As mentioned earlier, the
indicative of strong weather disturbances intensity of natural electromagnetic phe-
and represent the antithesis of type I sig- nomena, and thus their role as environ-
nals: the disturbed, unsettled, anomalous, mental stimuli, decreases steadily from 10
unbalanced. In this respect, these field phe- kHz to higher frequencies. Moreover, elec-
nomena bear a striking resemblance to the tromagnetic energies are increasingly trans-
delta rhythm in the EEG. formed into heat as their frequency in-
A small circle of physicians is even con- creases, which further diminishes their ca-
ducting studies on the extent to which a pacity to bear information. As their
very definite frequency-specific signal ac- frequency decreases, on the other hand, the
tivity or function can be assigned to the intensity of natural electric and magnetic
human organism in the frequency range fields rises to a value which is described by
around 1- 10Hz. the natural electrostatic field (fair-weather
The electric control processes which are field), or to the intensity of the static terres-
associated with the activity of the heart and trial magnetic field (see Fig. 2-5). But such
are recorded in the electrocardiogram quasi-static fields have little in the way of
(ECG) also fall within the ELF range. information content. Viewed with respect
Similar comparisons can be made with to time, information means a change in a
respect to processes in the higher VLF pre-existing state, which is simply not
range, as in the control of muscular reac- present under static conditions. Hence,
tions. In order to move a muscle, the brain static fields and direct currents are unsuita-
sends forth control impulses that are re- ble for conveying information of a complex
layed to the muscle via a complex system of nature.
neurons and stimulate it to make the de- Becker (l963a) pointed out connections
sired movement. If these commands are to between biologic signals and natural micro-
be executed with sufficient speed, the elec- pulsations in the frequency range from 0.0 I
tric control impusle which carries the com- to several hundred hertz, stating that these
mand must be transmitted at a corre- pulsations were particularly marked in the
spondingly high velocity. This is ensured range from 8 to 16 Hz based on then-availa-
by the use of an electric current as the sig- ble data on ELF atmospherics). His inten-
Biologic Activity of Electromagnetic processes 15
tion was to show a connection between the recorded in the EEG, the processes con-
alpha rhythm, and thus the activity of the trolling cardiac function as recorded in the
human brain, and this type of electromag- ECG, and muscular control processes in
netic phenomenon. the VLF range.
Herron (1965) reports on research re- To summarize, only the frequency range
sults pertaining to micropulsations of which is described by the ELF and VLF
0.029-0.031 Hz. His results are similar to regions and lies between 0.1 Hz and 10
those of Schumann et al. (1966) and Siebert kHz (including high-frequency processes
(1964 a,b). Herron associates these natural which are correspondingly modulated) is
processes with the familiar ultraslow fluctu- suitable for biologic control processes. All
ations of potential in the EEG. control and regulatory processes in bio-
Finally, there is much evidence which logic systems take place within this range
points to an internal utilization of elec- of frequencies, and it is in this frequency
tromagnetic energies by organisms. Ac- range that naturally occurring electromag-
cording to Presman (1970), there are suf- netic phenomena play a significant role. It
ficient indications and experimental results is very likely that life was significantly
to confirm this. Examples include the distri- influenced in its evolution by the low-
bution of an electric surface potential in frequency electromagnetic component of
man and animals, the electric brain currents the atmosphere.
2
Electrophysical Forces of Natural Origin
Natural Electromagnetic Fields spectrum is cosmic radiation, which has

the highest frequencies known. The loca-
Scientific investigations since the late tion of the optical windows in the atmos-
1950s have shown that electromagnetic phere, along with comparative energy data,
processes of natural origin, covering the is also presented in Fig. 2-1.
full spectrum from static processes to the Some of the details of what we have
extremely high frequency range, exist in learned about the geophysical and elec-
our immediate environment. These electrophysical properties of natural elec-
tromagnetic energies can be classified with tromagnetic fields are outlined below.
regard to their frequency, and thus their
position in the frequency spectrum, or
described in terms of the wavelength they Quasi-static Fields, Electric Air
would possess if they were to propagate as Current
waves in empty space. An overview of the
relationship between wavelength and In 1752 Franklin demonstrated that light-
frequency, and the various frequency ranges ning is an electric discharge, similar to the
included in the electromagnetic spectrum sparks between the electrodes in an electric
are illustrated in Fig. 2-1. It is customary machine, and that therefore electricity must
to assign processes with frequencies below be present in the atmosphere. The as-
1 Hz to the ultralow frequency (ULF) sociated general atmospheric electric field
range. This is followed by the extremely (fair-weather electricity) comprises a nega-
low frequency (ELF) range (ending at 300 tively charged earth and a positively
Hz), and the very low frequency (VLF) charged atmosphere (Fig. 2-2). This may be
range (ending at 300 kHz). High-frequency explained by the phenomenon of ground
radiation includes the familiar long-wave, lightning during thunderstorms compensat-
medium-wave, short-wave, ultrashort-wave ing the negative charge in the clouds, leav-
and microwave ranges. Next in the spec- ing positive ions located at altitudes (up to
trum are infrared radiation, visible light, ul- the ionosphere) that are insulated from the
traviolet (UV) radiation, X-radiation, and ground by the intervening air. These ions
tx-, /3-, and 'Y-radiation. At the top of the are free to diffuse upward in the thinner air
Natural Electromagnetic Fields 17
.0· f '0·
.0 ..
~
co,,"'" I '0'
1
uI1r.roldla'~
• XE
10 II
- '0 'I Wattlmr '0'
.0·
.•
.,i.e ~
X·"Y '0'
rldllhon 3 · 10 1 '
• mp
'0 . Hz
i~
'0'
! UVracI. + IIQI'U
~.O • 3 · 101t - 10 " Wan/ m' .oV
• p 0-
S In f,aleo Hz
;;
~ 10 I rad"tion '0 . i;;
~ 300
i
If:
'0 .
• mm
GHz
USW
high-
Iroquoncy SW
.m JOO
MH,
-- '0 · W.ttlm' '0 •
r.d.alllOn
MW '0 .
LW
",," 300
kHz
.0' '0·
'0' k)ngHI-
w...
---
VlF
1()1 km 300 Hz 10 II
radt.ltOn
ELF 0 20 co eo 110 '00","
stlllcaUy " LF '0'''''' 03 Hz

•• hnc'IIO~.btorp..on In 1M .1MOI9".'.)
Figure 2-1.Intensity of field radiation in the biosphere and location of the optical window in the at-
mosphere. After Schulze (1970), with additions.
and horizontally in all directions. More- modified, for measurements in the iono-
over, ion pair production by cosmic rays sphere have revealed tangential components
increases with altitude, and this greatly ac- of the electric field which, according to
celerates the dispersion of an electric space Miihleisen (1974), create potential dif-
charge. Thunderstorms, then, cause the ferences up to 60 k V over about 40 degrees
"equalizing layer" in the stratosphere (and of latitude.
with it, the ionosphere) to become posi- The electric field in the air above the
tively charged with respect to the nega- earth's surface varies greatly with time and
tively charged earth. This classic model location. Its direction is primarily toward
(Fig. 2-3) is called into question by more the earth, and thus downward, implying
recent evidence and, at least, must be that the earth is negatively charged. This
altitude/km temperature
10- in the cloud
8-
-20-
-10-
4-
-0-
2-
+ + + +
Figure 2-2. Thundercloud. Left: Flow and distribution of electrical charge. Right: Discharge proc-
ess. After Bartels (1960).
18 Electrophysical Forces of Natural Origin
a - 'onoapht,e
Figure 2-3. Diagram of the global atmospheric electric circuit. After Wilson (1920), cited in dtv
(1970)
Key: a- Ionosphere; b- Earth's surface
field has an intensity on the order of 100 ations of the field industry. In the polar
V1m in fair weather, although values of regions, the field intensity varies every day
50-500 V 1m occur. Because the basic com- in fair weather in accordance with weather
ponent usually changes very slowly, the activity over the entire globe.
field is often described as "electrostatic." A constant interaction exists between the
During precipitation and bad weather, the atmospheric electric field and the ionized
electric field values deviate considerably particles present in the atmosphere. The
from the fair-weather values, varying over a result is a vertical atmospheric electric cur-
range of ±40,000 V 1m. rent (see "Vertical Electric Current in the
In the much larger storm-free regions, Atmosphere" below).
ions (produced in the air by cosmic radia-
tion and radioactivity) migrate under the in-
fluence of this field and create an equaliza-
tion which is manifested by a vertical elec- Terrestrial Magnetism
tric current in the atmosphere. The inten-
sity of the atmospheric. electric field is great- Static Field. In Asia Minor. the ancient
est near the ground, where it averages Greeks knew of mountains of iron ore
about 100 V 1m; it measures about 30 V 1m (magnetite), which attracts iron even in its
at a height of 1 km and about 10 V1m at 10 natural state. About 1600 A.D., W. Gilbert
km. This results in a potential difference be- recognized that the earth itself is a giant
tween the earth and the ionosphere of magnet. European sailors have been using
200-250 kV. the compass for some 600 years. It was
The field intensity is subject to strong originally thought that the compass needle
variations, since near the ground other pointed to true north in all locations; how-
charge transport is caused by point dis- ever, we know today that its direction
charges and precipitation currents, and the deviates from true north by an angle called
heterogeneity of the ions (associated with the magnetic declination D. The line which
varying aerosol conditions such as mois- connects the points where D = 0 is called
ture, smoke and dust) strongly influences the agonic line. It passed through Berlin,
the electric conductivity of the air. More- Germany, in 1975, and is moving about 20
over, space charges in the air set up their km westward each year.
own fields. The charges during a thunder- Other measurable properties of the ter-
storm are manifested in characteristic vari- restrial magnetic field, besides its horizon-
tal direction, are its inclination J, its inten- of stars with pulsating magnetic fields has
sity F, and its components: horizontal H, cast doubt on such theories.
vertical Z, northward X, eastward Y. Fluctuations of the Earth's Magnetic
The total field intensity F diminishes Field in the ULF Range. Besides the slow
from the poles (about 0.06 miIIi- secular variation, the earth's magnetic field
tesla [mT]) toward the equator (about 0.03 is continuously subject to other more or
mT-). It is weak in comparison with some less strong fluctuations (variations). There
man-made fields, which exceed O. I T (1000 are, for example, diurnal variations based
gauss [G]) in electric motors, and 20 T on ordinary solar time. These are more pro-
(200,000 G) or more in the large particle nounced during the day and in summer than
accelerators used in nuclear physics. at night and in winter. If we examine these
Since the time of Gauss, it has been pos- diurnal variations over the entire globe, it
sible to measure the earth's magnetic field appears as if a gigantic horeshoe magnet
with a high degree of accuracy. The unit I y were suspended vertically above the earth
= 10- 5 G = 10-9 T (V s/m 2 ) is used to at about 10:30 local time (Fig. 2-4). The
describe small deviations from the average poles of this imaginary magnet are formed
value (with both time and location). For ex- by large, horizontal current eddies of many
ample, a direct current of 1 A flowing in a thousands of amperes flowing at a height of
long, straight wire sets up a magnetic field about 100 km in the ionosphere.
of 10-9 T (1 y) perpendicular to the wire at Besides these diurnal solar variations,
a distance of 200 m. called S variations, there are also variations
The poles of the earth's magnetic field associated with lunar influence, called L
are not symmetrical. The distance of the variations. Being lunar in origin, these vari-
antipode of one magnetic pole from the ations occur about 50 min later each day
other pole is about 2300 km. and have the character of tides. Like the S
Geophysics cannot yet entirely explain variations, however, they are observed
the origin of the terrestrial magnetic field. It only during the day. The L variations are
is known that the field is generated by elec- also magnetic effects of electric current sys-
tric currents in the earth's interior. It is tems flowing at an altitude of about 100 km
unclear, however, how these currents are in the ionosphere. The strength of the Sand
maintained. Connections have been postu- L variations varies systematically from
lated between the rotation of the earth and place to place with the season and with the
the earth's magnetic field, but the discovery II-year solar cycle. During the sunspot
Figure 2-4. The variations in the earth's magnetic field caused by solar activity can be likened to the
effect of a giant horseshoe magnet (left). Its "poles" are actually formed by current eddies in the
ionosphere (right). After Bartels ( 1960).
Key: a-Rotation of earth; b-South pole; c-North pole; d-90,000 A; e-Equator
maximum, the daily Sand L variations are which emits electromagnetic waves with
almost twice as large as they are in the ab- this period that could reach the earth along
sence of sunspot activity. The ionosphere interplanetary lines of magnetic force.
contains more electrons then due to the Other measurements show the existence
stronger ionizing radiation emitted by the of ULF electromagnetic phenomena with a
sun. wave nature on the earth's surface. Data
are presented in Fig. 2-5 on mean ampli-
tude values of the electric field component
ULF Waves E in VIm (circles) and the magnetic field
component B in 'Y = 10-9 T (triangles) of
It is certain that ionospheric processes play specific signals which can be measured
a role with regard to ULF variations of the over a broad band of frequencies (increas-
electric field at the earth's surface. In gen- ing the bandwidth of the measuring in-
eral, it is difficult to measure those electric struments would not lead to a significant
field variations which are attributable to increase in amplitude values) for the range
ionospheric current systems in connection from 50 kHz to static fields. It can be seen
with systems of closed current loops in the that in the range from f = 2 kHz down to a
ionosphere or disturbances in the magneto- period T of several hours, the field intensity
sphere: this is due to very strong, local values apparently increase in proportion to
disturbances caused mostly by weather (l/j)l.l or Fl, and everywhere exhibit the
phenomena. However, Siebert (1964a,b) EI H ratio (wave impedance) that is typical
has found evidence linking electromagnetic of electromagnetic waves in free space, W
field variations in the ULF range with = 370 n.
hydromagnetic processes in the exosphere,
the outermost region of the atmosphere.
Other investigations indicate that elec- Electric and Magnetic Field
tromagnetic waves with a period of about Fluctuations
10-20 s, which apparently originate from the
sun, reach the earth's surface. Schumann et As explained elsewhere in more detail, pure
aI. (1966) attribute this to resonance prop- field fluctuations are observed primarily in
erties of the sun as an isotropic radiator, signals of extremely low frequencies. These
E {V/ml
BI rl a· elektrisches Feld und - - - 0 - - -
V---" magnetisches Feld-----v-----
natOrlichen Ursprungs
103 ~-....... 'X"X in der Atmosphare
',V'Y..,
"" i
X ' . . . ." V'" V'V:;
. . . ., 'Av" "
.......
....... " ' ,
......."V"
10-3 " 'V.....
t b- T-<---+--+f"'~"!l",,~
10- 6 sl t. I'.~'
"td. I min. Isec 10 Hz 1O~ ~; "H
"
0 k Hz
c- ,'1> '0'\00 . .If<· ,/t 'O'OS' ,~\'f;~'P-«.1- 611q,~'" 178 712 M; 22,8 k
Figure 2-5. Intensity values of natural ULF, ELF, and VLF electromagnetic fields as measured
over a broad frequency band. Circles: electric field (E) in VIm; triangles: magnetic field (B) in 10-9 T
(1 gamma). The E/H ratio corresponds to that of electromagnetic waves. After Oehrl and Konig
(1968).
Key: a- Electric field and magnetic field of natural origin in the atmosphere; b- 1 hr; c - 13 hr
phenomena are not wave-like in character surface from processes in higher air layers,
and so do not propagate in the sense of an much in the manner of a Faraday cage.
electromagnetic wave. They must therefore The situation is different with respect to
be regarded as field fluctuations of a local local magnetic field fluctuations of natural
character. origin in the frequency range around 1 Hz.
The ULF and ELF ranges are especially If we are speaking strictly of local effects,
predisposed to such phenomena because of meaning phenomena that are practically un-
their frequency. They may be associated in detectable beyond a range of 100 km, we
some instances with a thunderstorm near may consider only the low-frequency com-
an observation point, since lightning dis- ponents of the magnetic fields which can
charges possess some spectral components occur in connection with the flow of current
in the range below 1 Hz, but local phenom- during lightning discharges. But such phe-
ena of this type are most often observed in nomena are limited primarily to the ELF
connection with electrically charged range, since lightning discharges can be ob-
clouds, whose turbulence is apparently served for a maximum duration of a few
manifested outwardly in the form of corre- tenths of a second, and considerably
sponding low-frequency electric field fluc- shorter processes lead to the formation of
tuations (see Fig. 2-12, signal types II and electromagnetic waves.
III). There must also be magnetic field fluctu-
Certain observations also suggest that in- ations in the ULF and ELF ranges that are
version layers playa role in the phenome- associated with electric currents primarily
non of field fluctuations (Konig, 1959). If in the ionosphere. But the magnetic fields
these layers are suitably charged elec- produced by such currents cannot be called
trically as the result of different air flows at local fields in the true sense, for they occur
the inversion boundary layer in the air, the over a relatively large area. As a result,
air flows will lead to rhythmic variations in these magnetic field fluctuations lead to
the distance between the ground and the in- easily detectable electric fields in the
version layer, or corresponding variations ground, where they can be measured as
in the conductivity of the intervening layer "earth currents" (Garland, 1960; Lokken,
of air. To an observer on the ground, these 1964; Hopkins and Smith, 1966). The for-
phenomena will be interpreted as electric mation of these currents has to do with the
field fluctuations whose frequency ap- properties of the upper portion of the
parently lies at the lower end of the ELF earth's crust, which is an excellent conduc-
range or even lower (see Fig. 2-12, signal tor of signals in the ELF and ULF ranges,
type III). since the normal conduction current is
A stable, stationary, electrically charged greater than the displacement current.
inversion layer can also have the opposite Processes of this type are thus intermediate
effect-signal-screening, rather than signal- between electromagnetic waves and local
producing-with respect to signals from field fluctuations, because while the interac-
higher altitudes (a familiar occurrence tion between magnetic and electrical phe-
under foehn conditions*). A low-lying layer nomena gives them a greater-than-Iocal
of air with a suitable electric conductivity scale, they do not satisfy all the require-
can have a similar effect. Under extremely ments of electromagnetic waves.
stable weather conditions, such as those oc-
curring in central Europe in the fall, high
fog layers, which can exert such a screening Atmospherics
effect, often form. This shields the earth's
The term atmospherics is used interna-
tionally to denote electromagnetic process-
* Foehn is a special weather situation occurring on the
lee side of the Alps, which produces depressing effects es that are observed in connection with
on people. lightning discharges. Atmospherics consist
primarily of electromagnetic waves in the nent, in the early morning (48%) and at
ELF and VLF ranges, and exhibit a consid- night (28%). The space between the ground
erable amplitude over a broad frequency and ionosphere acts as a waveguide for
band, especially in their electrical compo- lightning-generated signals (atmospherics),
nent, in the vicinity of thunderstorm in which they propagate as electromagnetic
centers (Konig et ai., 1964). The reason lies waves with varying degrees of attenuation,
in the time course of the lightning discharge according to their frequency and the state
itself. Recent studies by Mtihleisen (1974), ofthe ionosphere (AI'pert and Fligel, 1970;
for example, show that rise times of Bernstein et ai., 1974; Selzer, 1970). So
1- 10- 1 s for cloud lightning and many atmospheric signals may be received
10 - 2_ 10 - 4 S for ground lightning predom- at a measuring station, depending on the
inate during the discharge process, with momentary propagating conditions and
processes 10 - 5_ 10 - 7 S in duration super- general or worldwide thunderstorm activity
imposed over both types of lightning. (see also Fig. 2-20) that the sum of all the
The typical time course of atmospherics, signals within a given bandwidth is re-
recorded with broad-band measuring equip- corded as "noise." This is especially true
ment not far from the point of origin, is for a certain "baseline" level of ELF at-
illustrated in Fig. 2-6. In general, atmo- mospherics, which can apparently propa-
spherics contain two main components (Fig. gate about the entire globe and whose sig-
2-6) (Tepley, 1959; Mikhailova, 1962; nal activity thus represents a certain mea-
Hepburn and Pierce, 1954; Hepburn, sure of global thunderstorm activity (Keefe
1957; Lieberman, 1956; Kimpara, 1956; et ai., 1973; Polk, 1969; Ogawa et ai.,
Belyanskil and Mikhailova, 1961; Hughes, 1969; Sao and lindoh, 1974). VLF signals
1967 a,b). That portion of the signal which can also be detected after propagating
consists of waves in the frequency range of about the globe (Watt and Groghan, 1964),
1-30 kHz and is emitted during lightning but thunderstorm activity at intermediate
discharges is called the high-frequency sig- distances (500-2000 km) produces much
nal component (VLF atmospherics). It stronger incoming signal intensities at mea-
often takes the form of a quasi-periodic suring stations (which are also clearly
damped oscillation with an increasing received because it is easier to take a bear-
period on the order of 0.5-1 ms (Fig. 2-6, ing on storm centers at these frequencies),
left). The maximum energy of this compo- with the result that VLF atmospherics are
nent occurs in the frequency range of 5-10 also recorded as isolated, discrete signals.
kHz. The high-frequency signal component ELF Atmospherics. Most of the electric
is followed by another slow rise in ampli- and magnetic field phenomena measured
tude which represents the low-frequency over the earth's surface, at least in fair
component of the signal, consisting of wave weather, which have a frequency of several
processes below 1-2 kHz. The energy peak hertz are neither local nor extraterrestrial in
of this portion of the signal lies in the range origin. They result, rather, from the excita-
of 10-200 Hz. This second component of tion of the earth-ionosphere cavity resona-
atmospherics is normally composed of one tor by thunderstorms of distant origin. This
or two half-periods and lasts up to a few phenomenon, called Schumann resonance,
tenths of a second (Fig. 2-6, right). It is the is a consequence of the fact that the space
principal source of ELF atmospherics. between the electrically conducting earth
Tepley reported (1959) that in 98% of and the electrically conducting ionosphere
cases, atmospherics contain low-frequency surrounding it constitutes a cavity resona-
signal components that extend over two tor, whose circumference (once around the
half-periods. In contrast, Belyanskil and earth) is approximately equal to the wave-
Mikhailova (1961) found that only 35% of length which an electromagnetic wave with
atmospherics have a low-frequency compo- a frequency of about 7.8 Hz would have in
z
Figure 2-6. The high-frequency component (left) and low-frequency tail (right) typical of "atmospherics" signals. After
ea
AI'pert and Fligel (1970), t!!
Key: a - Time ~
....o
a
3
~
~
....
n'
"r1
~'
c:
rJl
N
....
Magnetic pole
Geographic pole
Figure 2-7. Propagation of electromagnetic waves between the earth and the ionosphere, as well as
outside the ionosphere along the flux lines of the earth's magnetic field.
Key: a-Earth; b-Ionosphere
free space (see also Figs. 2-7 and 2-9). Tak- nal intensities are 0.6 pT/(Hz1l2) for the
ing into account a finite conductivity of the horizontal magnetic flux density (magnetic
ionospheric boundary layer and its specific induction), and 0.1 mV f(m x HZlI2) for the
structure and form, the various resonant vertical component of electric field. (Nor-
frequencies fo for this resonator can be mally voltages on the order of a few
computed as: millivolts can be measured over a broad
band with suitable receiving antennas.)
f,o 78 .
= · ~ n (n2+ 1) H z, The Schumann resonances can be in-
terpreted as "standing waves" that undergo
a relatively slight attenuation in the
for the orders (or "modes") of resonance earth-ionosphere cavity. Tran and Polk
n = 1, 2, 3.... The resonances can be (1972) found an attenuation of 0.5 db/lOOO
clearly seen in measurements of the power km at 20 Hz for the signals during the
spectrum, such as that by Toomey and course of their propagation from the point
Polk (1970) (Fig. 2-8). The different har- of origin (lightning). By comparison, the val-
monics (modes) are not harmonic multiples ues in seawater are considerably less favor-
of the fundamental wave, in this case due to able, though they improve with lower
the proportions of the cavity (Fig. 2-9). frequencies. Studies by Soderberg and
Schumann and Konig (1954) reported on Finkle (1970) and Bernstein et al. (1974)
initial measurements of the resonance os- show a mean attenuation of about 0.1 db/m
cillations, while Balser and Wagner (1960) in this medium (Fig. 2-10).
were able to show the modes. Typical sig- For electric waves in free space, a certain
t 1'\
a- 8. Jul; 1972-
I
19.35-19.52 Uhr, U.
"\
\
1 r\
/ \.J V \ A
V ~ "
,./
o 10 20 30
~
b- Frequenz [Hz J ~
Figure 2-8. Relative power spectrum of the vertical electric field (E2 re1 ) of natural signals in the
ELF range. Lightning excites so-called Schumann resonance oscillations-electromagnetic radia-
tion in the form of "standing waves"-in the spherical earth-ionosphere cavity resonator. After
Toomey and Polk (1970).
numerical ratio exists between the electric between the electric and magnetic field
and magnetic components; this is the components and their modes. If these rela-
"wave impedance," E/H = W = 376 n. tionships are determined by measurement,
This ratio holds in ELF atmospherics if conclusions can be drawn regarding the
these signals are measured sufficiently dis- geographic location of the signal origin.
tant from their point of origin. Much research has been devoted in recent
But the formation of standing waves years to utilizing this principle as a means
leads to quite specific field configurations of monitoring global thunderstorm activity
for the various modes, as shown in Fig. 2-9 from a few isolated stations (Keefe et aI.,
for the electric field. A certain ELF signal, 1973; Toomey and Polk, 1970; Ogawa et
then, distributed over the entire globe, pro- aI., 1969; Sao and Jindoh, 1974).
duces at all points a predictable relationship Occasionally the Schumann resonances
Figure 2-9. Field configuration of the electrical component of the Schumann resonance oscillations
occurring as "standing waves" for the modes n = 1 and n = 2. After Toomey and Polk (1970).
Key: E" earth.
I
10.0
b- Diimplung = -.IV Neper/meter
~0.00199 ii ii Naper/meter
~0.0173 l'i Y1 db/meter
! 1.0 d- 6' in Siemens/ meter
~
.c
"0
C>
C
~
.
E
' 0.1
'"
a-
0.01
0.1 10 100 1000 10000
C- Frequenz ( H z ) _
Figure 2-10. Attenuation of waves in seawater as a function of frequency for various water conduc-
tivity values. After Soderberg and Finkle (1970).
Key: a-Attenuation (db/m); b-Attenuation a = ... neper/meter; c-Frequency (Hz); d-In mho/meter.
are masked by other irregular signals wave characteristics, the signals have a
(noise) above the third resonance (at about practically sinusoidal time course for the
20 Hz), but in experimentally obtained fixed observer (in Fig. 2-12, signal type I),
spectra they are never observed above the whose envelope may be steep (in signals
fifth resonance (about 32 Hz). This is consisting of few oscillations) or flat (in sig-
mainly because the resonant quality of the nals which extend over several oscilla-
earth-ionosphere cavity is too low at tions).
higher frequencies, and so the resonance In recordings of wave trains, the
peak in the spectrum is too flat. The quality frequency often shows a tendency to de-
of the resonance, Q, tells us something crease toward the end of the signal. This
about the structure of the ionosphere decrease may be up to 30% of the initial
(Handa et al., 1971; Keefe et al., 1973; value. The degree of this decrease varies
Ogawa and Tanaka, 1970; Ogawa and greatly from one signal to another. Howev-
Murakami, 1973), as well as about certain er, it has been determined that wave trains
sunspot phenomena (Polk, 1973). which attain a very large amplitude, and
As a result of disparities in the properties thus have a steep envelope and relatively
of the ionosphere-Tran and Polk (1973), short duration, usually undergo very
for example, investigated its conductivity marked changes in their frequency. Longer-
with respect to signals in the ELF and VLF lived signals with a smaller amplitude and
ranges-different diurnal variations are flat envelope show practically no frequency
found in mean received signal intensities as change. The signals are greatly favored by
a function of frequency. While the signal in- fair weather and as a rule can be easily
tensity is greatest at night in VLF atmo- recorded under such conditions. It is proba-
spherics, it is greatest during the day in the ble that the signals in question, which are
ELF range. The transition occurs at about not measured in bad weather, are simply
120 Hz (Fig. 2-11). masked by other phenomena of greater in-
More precise observations and theoreti- tensity during storm periods. As stated ear-
cal analyses (Konig, 1959; Chapman and lier, signals of this type are considerably
Jones, 1964; Keefe et al., 1973; Rycroft, less intense at night than during the day.
1965; Ogawa, 1973; Polk, 1973) of atmo- The ratio of day to night intensities ranges
spherics in the Schumann resonance region from about 3: 1 to 10: 1 (Fig. 2-13).
have shown that, due to their resonant and The measurement of signals with
frequencies below 100 Hz is extremely dif- periods of 30-0.025 s (40 Hz). Magnetic
ficult. It is necessary in such cases to field oscillations with a period of 4.5 and in-
employ a suitable filtering technique to tensity on the order of 10-12 T (milligamma)
suppress interference from man-made sig- were especially marked. Besides these
nals (e. g., 50-Hz or 60-Hz power current, purely geomagnetic phenomena, the mag-
16 2/3-Hz railway frequency, 25-Hz tele- netic components of the Schumann reso-
phone ring) whose intensity usually far nance oscillations in the 10Hz range were
exceeds that of natural fields (Konig, 1959; also evident from the earth current mea-
Konig and Behringer, 1970; Keefe et aI., surements.
1973; Ogawa, 1973; Sao et aI., 1973). VLF Atmospherics. Electromagnetic
These low frequencies pose special an- phenomena of natural origin in the VLF
tenna problems in the case of both electric range, which are caused by lightning, show
(Clayton et aI., 1973) and magnetic fields all the properties of electromagnetic waves
(Konig, 1968b). Nevertheless, a close cou- after propagating a relatively short dis-
pling has been established between ELF tance. Thus, signals with a frequency of 10
phenomena associated with wave-propaga- kHz have a wavelength in free space (30
tion phenomena on the one hand, and with km) which approaches the spatial magni-
magnetospheric or geomagnetic field fluctu- tude of the lightning flashes which pro-
ations on the other (Polk, 1973). This is duced them.
clearly shown by earth current and geomag- The VLF electromagnetic waves
netic field measurements by Fournier triggered by electric discharge phenomena
(1960a,b), who reports on oscillations with in the atmosphere undergo a change of
178t---t---t--7+---=-f---+--,.........!-+--\-J~
252+----+---+--1+.,.----1-----+---1--+1
13 17 21 ·01 05 09 13
b- lok.le Uhrzeit ----.
Figure 2-11. Comparison of daily variations of natural signal amplitudes measured in various
frequency bands. After Holzer et al. (1957), with additions.
Key: a-Center frequency (Hz); b-Local time
I' ~ 1 sec
~ t
I"'
1< 1sec ~I
Figure 2-12. Electromagnetic processes of natural origin in the ELF range. I Schumann resonance
oscillation, approx. 8 Hz. II Local electric field fluctuation, 3-6 Hz. III Local electric field fluctuation,
approx. 0.7 Hz. IV Electric field during thunderstorm: (a) thunderstorm not yet visible on horizon, (b)
thunderstorm visible on horizon (amplitude greatly reduced). V Sunrise effect, electric field.
waveform for the fixed observer as they ted over a greater range in Fig. 2-16 (Watt
propagate farther from their point of origin and Maxwell, 1957; Bernstein et aI., 1974).
in the earth-ionosphere waveguide (Fig. By comparison, Fig. 2-10 (Soderberg and
2-14). Rhoads and Garner (1967) devised a Finkle, 1970) shows a mean attenuation
measure for estimating the attenuation of rate in seawat,er of about 2 db/m for a
propagating VLF signals: between about 10-kHz signal.
200 km and 2000 km, the signal amplitude It is also well known (AI'pert and Fligel,
diminishes by about 15-18 db/1000 km. At 1970; Storey, 1953) that a considerable
greater distances the attenuation of IS-kHz portion of the energy of low-frequency
signals is approximately 4 db/ 1000 km (Fig. waves, especially those emitted by light-
2-15) or 2 db/1000 km (Fig. 2-16). The at- ning strokes, penetrates out through the
tenuation as a function of frequency is plot- ionospheric layers and into space. In the
- - - Jahresmittei b-
a- P', . . .
,,
: '0,
,
,,
I
I
,
I
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
e- Lokaizeit
Figure 2-13. Daily variation of relatively strong ELF atmospherics (8-Hz Schumann resonance).
Key: a-Relative intensity; b- Yearly average; c-June/July; d-December/January; e-Local time
a- Zeit secI' a- Zeit /lse

~-10~10-~2~b~0--3~6~0--4-0~10--5~06~1---1+bo---2~~~-3~b~0---4~bo~~~±i~
D~5000 km
0~50 km
0~6000 km
0-2000 km
-b ebe".,r Welienieiter c- sphAr1acher WeUenieiter
Figure 2-14. Waveforms of VLF atmospheric signals at various distances D from the point of origin
(lightning) between 50 and 15,000 km for plane and spherical waveguides. After Al'pert and Fligel
(1970).
Key: a-Time; b-Plane waveguide; c-Spherical waveguide
"
~
\ r-~
'V
1\
\ft
Antipode
~
V\ n
~
~
\
to ~
\.
'\
6 8 10 D, km
Figure 2-15. Result of field-intensity measurements at signal frequencies of 16.6 kHz (circles), 17.5
kHz (squares) and 14.7 kHz (triangles) over very great distances D with the special case of the mag-
netic antipode. After Watt and Groghan (1964).
frequency range of 1- 10kHz and above, nected by corresponding magnetic field

this leads to the formation of "whistlers," lines (Fig. 2-7). This also accounts for the
which propagate along the lines of force of high signal level at the "magnetic antipode"
the earth's magnetic field between two (Fig. 2-15).
points on the earth's surface that are con- There is another important phenomenon
100
I
r
I
~ 10
~c
0
~
~
0.1 .J--+-+---+-~~--+--4---+--I----+---+--
10 10' 10'
frequency (Hz) - . . . . .
Figure 2-16. Mean attenuation under various conditions in the ELF range (below 1 kHz), after Bern-
stein et aI., and in the VLF range (above 1 kHz), for atmospherics as a function offrequency, at dis-
tances d ::: 1000 km; during the day; - - - - at night/over sea; -------- at night/over
land. After Watt & Maxwell (1957).
10
9.0
8.0
a- 7.0
6.0
~
i!! 5.0 , c-
.c /
'l! 4.0 I \ erwarteter Durchschnittswert
"
III
N
3.0 I
I
/
,,
\von Haupt- und Vorentladung
\kombiniert
I I
~ I
'j;
.c 2.0 /
I
b- "
/ '--!~,
/
~
:::E
1.5 / -...-~
~> --- '-
1.0
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.80
d-
0.50
lFrequenzraum der
0.40 ,.. Vorentladung
0.30
0.20
0.15
0.10 1
1,5 2 3 4 5 10 15 20
Figure 2-17. Frequency spectrum of the radiative component ofa lightning stroke; field intensity at a
distance of about 1.6 km from the point of origin. After Watt and Maxwell (I 957).
Key: a- Volt/meter at 1 kHz bandwidth; b-Mean value for 9 main discharges; c-Expected average
value for main and predischarge combined; d - Frequency spectrum predischarge; e - Frequency (kHz)
associated with the natural geomagnetic atmospherics into groups according to in-
field. It has been shown in a number of ex- tensity. They can be classified further by
periments that the reciprocity principle is making the recordings in different
violated within the earth-ionosphere wave- frequency bands.
guide. Thus, a VLF wave propagating Since VLF signals have shorter wave-
over a great enough distance from east to lengths than ELF signals, they can be
west undergoes a greater attenuation than it measured with more modest equipment. By
would if it propagated from west to east utilizing DF systems and data on the propa-
(Watt and Groghan. 1964; Taylor, 1960a,b; gation of VLF atmospherics, a bearing can
Hanselmann, 1964; Martin, 1961; Crom- be taken on thunderstorm centers. Inves-
bie, 1958, 1963). tigations by Heydt (1971) have produced
Near-field observations of lightning dis- very promising results in this regard for the
charges have revealed very high field inten- African and American continents.
sities (Fig. 2-17). It is not surprising that
these atmospherics can be recorded as
discrete signals whose intensities far ex- Experiments with Models
ceed the ordinary general signal level. Elec-
tric field intensities are plotted as a function One method of investigating the physical
of frequency in Fig. 2-18. properties of atmospherics under labora-
In correlational studies on the biologic tory conditions is to construct scale models
effects of such naturally occurring VLF sig- of the earth and the ionosphere and perform
nals, it is customary to record the number experiments with the aid of microwaves.
of VLF atmospheric pulses which are in- Polk (1969) used this method to study the
cident per unit of time (second). Also, effect of the day~night boundary in the
special instruments are used to divide the ionosphere on the propagation of ELF at-
~
:I:
".
~ 10-1 ~
" ,~
.§.
W
I.......
\\ J ~~ ~
..... ~I
1\\
\
\
\
\~\
.....'b. ...... .,o.,sJ
10-'
"
10 10 5
a- Frequenz [Hz] ~
Figure 2-18. Frequency spectrum (intensity of vertical electric field E) of ELF and VLF atmospher-
ics (open circles: all day, at distance of 6000 km; filled circles: Alaska, summer, 16:00 to 20:00). After
Galejs (1970).
Key: a- Frequency (Hz)
mospherics. In connection with environ- question, what are the physico-technical

mental influences of physiologic interest, reasons that such effects are observed in
Ludwig et al. (1968) investigated VLF at- both ranges?
mospherics to study physiologic influences Biologic effects of VLF electromagnetic
of an electric climate. They also utilized a fields are reported primarily in connection
microwave model in order to obtain more with signals of at least intermediate inten-
detailed information on the influence of sity, and thus with atmospherics which
conductivity jumps in the earth-ionosphere propagate over distances of around 1000
waveguide and on the effects of moun- km and can be detected as individual
tainous terrain (orography) on wave propa- events. As mentioned earlier, the number
gation over great distances. The model ex- of atmospheric pulses (1 wave train = 1
periments showed that with each conduc- pulse) per unit time is recorded, and the
tivity jump, a region with standing waves resulting "pulse repetition frequency" is
develops, giving rise to characteristic field used as the parameter. Correlations be-
and reception changes. tween biologic factors and the occurrence
of VLF atmospherics are found principally
when the pulse repetition frequencies of
Connection between ELF and VLF these phenomena are in the ELF range,
Signals that is about 1-50 Hz. If we further take
into account the nonlinear electric proper-
As will be discussed later in more detail, ties which are typical of biologic systems,
studies have shown that electromagnetic we find that every VLF pulse creates a rec-
fields in both the ELF and VLF ranges tifying effect in such systems, producing a
exert effects on living forms. This raises the pulse of one polarity which (according to
Fig. 2-19) has almost the duration of the however, they must be equated with corre-
total original VLF pUlse. sponding wave processes. Their geophysi-
So it appears that biologic systems are cal significance also appears to be minimal,
influenced not only by the higher-frequency aside from certain special questions con-
VLF energies, but also by ELF processes nected with lightning research.
which result from nonlinearities or rectify-
ing effects connected with the pulse repeti-
tion frequency of the VLF signals. Thus, High-frequency Atmospherics
when judging the initial physical state of the
causes of VLF atmospherics (or of corre- As mentioned previously, the reception of
sponding VLF fields), it is necessary to atmospherics is dependent upon highly
take into account the lower-frequency ELF complex processes. Reception at a fixed
components of the total signal information station, for example, is influenced both by
as well. global thunderstorm activity (spatial distri-
bution and intensity) and by the type of
lightning the storms produce. It is impor-
VLF Field Fluctuations tant to understand that lightning as a trans-
mitter is composed of a spectrum of elec-
Based on certain processes in the atmos- tromagnetic processes. Depending on the
phere, signals with a more or less local frequency distribution of its energies, a
character would also be expected to occur lightning stroke can emit signal components
in the VLF range. As biologic indicators, of various frequencies (including HF) and
E,;
E!
3
Figure 2-19. VLF atmospherics can have a signal information content based on their pulse repeti-
tion frequency corresponding to that of ELF signals due to nonlinearities. (1) Time course of a VLF
atmospheric signal (expanded time scale). (2) A pulse sequence of VLF atmospherics, which
produces a DC component i in a nonlinear system. (3) The DC pulses of i correspond to a mean DC
value imean on which are superimposed low-frequency signals (ELF range), corresponding to the
pulse repetition frequency of VLF atmospherics.
Key: a - imean
energies, regardless of the spatial configu- ural noise level in the atmosphere in-
ration of the lightning. The fate of these creases.
emissions is determined by the propagation The continuously decreasing contribu-
conditions they encounter, which vary with tion of galactic noise leads to a noise
distance. It can be readily appreciated, minimum at about 6 G Hz. This is followed
therefore, that the reception of atmospher- by a sharp rise of measured noise intensity,
ics at a certain point on the earth's surface because the antenna has the radiation tem-
is essentially a statistical problem. perature of the surrounding air. Noise
In areas near the site of lightning dis- reception in this frequency range is in-
charges, the electric field component of the fluenced primarily by the moisture content
atmospherics can attain a magnitude of 10, of the atmosphere in all its varied forms and
100 or even several thousand V1m at by the configuration of the antenna.
frequencies close to 10kHz. Since we are The energy flux associated with emis-
dealing here with a more or less broad-band sions from space (radio stars) at a
phenomenon, VHF signal components can frequency of 100 MHz is on the order of
also be observed in atmospherics. Their in- 10- 16 (W/m2) 1M Hz. The intensity of these
tensity falls off steadily as their frequency emissions varies with the time of day, since
increases, however (Fig. 2-20a). The con- it is correlated with the rotation of the earth
siderable decline after 100 MHz, for in- in relation to the position of the emission
stance, is one reason why this frequency source.
range is used for the largely interference- Results of radio astronomy studies have
free VHF radio reception. According to been presented at the IEEE International
Mattern (1973), this range is also recom- Symposium on Electromagnetic Compati-
mended for close-range observations of bility (1969). According to these results,
lightning strokes. sky background noise for frequencies
W.H. Fischer (1966) investigated the above 1 MHz is generated within our
noise level of natural signals over an ex- galaxy by a combination of unresolved
tremely broad frequency range from ELF discrete sources and an almost continuous
to EHF. He found that in the range from spatial distribution of emission, part of
several hertz (ELF) to about 10kHz which has a noticeable concentration in the
(VLF), the level is subject to only slight galactic plane.
fluctuations. However, from 10 kHz to During periods of high solar activity, in-
about 1 MHz the noise level decreases by tense visible bursts of energy are emitted in
four powers of ten and remains at this leve~, the vicinity of the sunspots, often as
except for a few fluctuations, up to 1 G Hz frequently as twelve times per day. These
(1 ()9Hz). At still higher frequencies, the nat- flares are accompanied by a sharp rise in
0.1 1 10 100 8 12 16 20 24 [hJ

frequency (MHz) time (Greenwich)
a b
Figure 2-20 •.· a Signal level in frequency range between 10kHz and 100 MHz based on processes of
natural origin for day and night, and for a local thunderstorm. b Daily variation for area affected by
thunderstorm activity, (1) global thunderstorm activity, (2) Asia and Australia, (3) Africa and Europe,
(4) America. After Presman (1970).
Linear polarization
-160
Atmospheric
noise
~ -180
100 -0- - - - -0-0. -0-0.0- Sola, fla,. type IV
~
~ ."r::r' -
-________ -- - 0-.- _ ---0
!g - - - - - ______ Sky background _ ... ~
ui
i: qJupite, ~ .... (til _&--auietsun
. '.'. - 1').oo-::.-g-~----
.~
..,
GO
..n,..- 0 0 Noise storm Moon
.... --0
~
ii" -220
Frequency MHz
Figure 2-21. Variation of solar, planetary, and stellar noise flux density with frequency.
solar radio noise, which varies in spectral noise source. It emits a nonthermal, lin-
content, duration and polarization depend- early polarized spectrum with an intensity
ing on which of five types of flare predomi- exceeding that of the quiet sun in the HF
nates. Skomal notes that the type IV flare and lower VHF band. HF /VllF radiation
shown in Fig. 2-21 is not the largest of the from Jupiter is nonthermal, linearly po-
five classes, but it emits a stable, very in- larized noise produced by accelerated elec-
tense broadband noise output which may trons trapped by the Jovian magnetic field
last for days. In Fig. 2-21, we see that type and emitted at regular intervals corre-
IV solar flares exceed in noise other natu- sponding approximately to the planet's ro-
ral radio sources in the upper HF band tation period of about 10 hours.
and above.
Quiet-sun noise emission generates the
least solar noise and occurs during periods Light and Radio Emissionsfrom the
of very low sunspot activity. A solar noise Sun and Space
storm, which is of intermediate intensity,
produces short-duration bursts of narrow The notion that disturbances due to atmos-
noise impulses. Neither solar noise storm pherics diminish with increasing frequency
nor quiet sun emissions exceed the sky above 100 MHz neglects the emission of
background noise levels below the SHF radiation from the sun and from outer
band, but either can be important in deter- space, which was first discovered about 20
mmmg receiver performance during years ago. This radiation also occurs over a
periods of low sunspot activity when the very broad band, about 10 MHz-lOG Hz,
beam of the receiving antenna is directed although these figures are only preliminary
away from the galactic equator. and are based more on the capabilities of
Of the remaining cosmic radio noise modem measuring instruments than on
sources, only the moon, Jupiter and Cas- physical reality.
siopeia-A are significant in the bands from The intensity of solar emissions in this
VHF-SHF. Lunar emission at SHF is that frequency range has been described by
of a black body whose temperature varies Presman (1970) (Fig. 2-22) both for a quiet
with the lunar cycle between lOOK and 300 sun period and for a solar eruption or flare.
K. The solar radiation peak under flare condi-
Cassiopeia-A, a supernova remnant, tions occurs at A = 21 cm (wavelength of
represents the most intense extra-solar hydrogen emission). A variation in solar
d-
Frequenz, MHz
10' 10 3 10' 10 5
Figure 2-22. Solar radiation for a quiet sun and a solar flare. After Presman (1970).
Key: a-Intensity (W/m 2/MHz); b-Flare of 17 February 1950; c-Quiet sun; d-Frequency (MHz)
emissions with a periodicity of 27-28 days The sharp cut-off of short-wave radiation
(correlated with solar rotation) and one fol- by window I is achieved by the breakdown
lowing the II-year cycle of solar activity of ozone. The ozone absorbs all UV radia-
have also been established. tion with a wavelength shorter than 0.29
It is convenient for research purposes to j.Lm. As a result, sunlight reaching the
characterize high-frequency processes not biosphere is cut off at 0.29 j.Lm. At a wave-
in terms of their frequency f, but in terms of length of 1.4 ILm, water vapor begins to ab-
the wavelength A. of their propagation in sorb large amounts of incident radiation
free space. It can be easily calculated by and thus cuts off the solar spectrum on the
the formula A. (wavelength in m) = 300// long-wave side. Within this range is the first
(MHz). When we consider the higher- spectral region of high atmospheric trans-
frequency (i. e., shorter-wavelength) radia- parency, which is called the optical win-
tions from space, we first encounter the vis- dow, or window I.
ible light emitted from the sun at wave- Radiation with wavelengths from 1.4 j.Lm
lengths of 0.38-0.78 j.Lm (1 j.Lm = 10-6 m). to about 1 cm is strongly absorbed by the
It is within this range of wavelengths that molecules of atmospheric gases. Beyond a
the sun emits most of its energy. This wavelength of about 100 m, absorption by
energy diminishes toward the longer wave- ionospheric electrons begins. The range be-
lengths (infrared radiation, which is per- tween 1 cm and 100 m is called the radio
ceived as heat) as well as toward the window, or window II.
shorter-wave UV region (Fig. 1-4). It may
be a coincidence or a consequence of
evolution that the eyes of man and most X-ray and Ultraviolet Radiation
species of animals are sensitive to the very
range of wavelengths in which the sun Proceeding toward wavelengths shorter
emits most of its radiant energy. It is signifi- than visible light, we encounter the UV and
cant, however, that it is this range of solar X regions of the spectrum. These radia-
emissions which is capable of penetrating tions from the sun are made up of three
the earth's atmosphere and reaching its sur- components. The first is formed concur-
face. Only a small fraction of the radiations rently with cosmic radiation, the second
from the sun and space reaches the earth's consists of temperature radiation from the
surface, (Fig. 2-1). This takes place through chromosphere and corona (10 6 K), and the
two "windows" in the atmosphere: window third consists of temperature radiation from
I and window II. the photosphere (6 x 103 K).
X-rays and short-wave UV radiation are tion which depends primarily on their sur-
absorbed in the upper layers of the atmos- face temperature. Like atmospheric radia-
phere, where they lead to the dissociation tion, these infrared rays have wavelengths
of nitrogen and oxygen molecules and to ranging from 6 to 60 /Lm. Their intensity is
the ionization of these molecules and the also comparable, amounting to about 0.4
free atoms formed by dissociation. "Ab- kW/m2 on cloudy days and about 0.5
sorption layers" develop, associated with kW/m2 on cloudless days.
the selective absorption bands of the The natural radioactivity of the ground
various dissociation and ionization proces- and the radioactive isotopes in the atmos-
ses. The UV component emitted by the phere lead to the formation of 1-2
photosphere penetrates the atmosphere al- ions/cm 3s in our living environment. By
most unhindered to heights of 30 km, where coincidence, the intensity of this radiation
its short-wave component contributes to corresponds closely to that of cosmic rays
the formation of the ozone layer. Ultravio- (10 -13W/m 2 or 0.1 roentgen/year). Al-
let radiation with a wavelength of 0.3 /Lm though this ionization rate is low, it is of
can penetrate the atmosphere virtually sufficient magnitude to ensure a continuous
unhindered. supply of ions.
Cosmic Rays I nfrared Emissions from the

Atmosphere to the Biosphere
Cosmic rays basically consist of electrons,
mesons, protons, neutrons and photons The infrared emissions from water, carbon
which enter the earth's upper atmosphere dioxide and ozone molecules in the atmos-
from deep space. The neutrons and photons phere to the biosphere constitute what is
are not deflected by the earth's magnetic called the atmospheric counter-radiation. It
field and can penetrate the atmosphere spans the aforementioned range of wave-
even at low energies. The neutrons decay lengths from 6 to 60 /Lm (see Fig. 1-4). The
into electrons and protons, which are cap- intensity of the atmospheric counter-radia-
tured by the earth's magnetic field and are tion is 0.3 kW/m2 on the average, approxi-
found primarily in the terrestrial radiation mately equals the radiation emitted into
belts. H. Schulz (1970) reports that the space. Besides varying with the tempera-
earth's atmosphere attenuates cosmic rays ture of the lower atmospheric layers, this
to about the same degree as 10m of water value also depends on cloud conditions: on
or 90 cm of lead. It is noteworthy that clear winter nights it may fall to 0.16
nearly all particles are absorbed in the kW/m2, while on overcast summer nights
upper layers of the atmosphere by a selec- with low-hanging clouds it may increase to
tive filtration effect, and only high-energy 0.45 kW/m2.
photons and a few electrons are left to An interaction thus exists between infra-
reach the earth's surface. As a result, only red radiation from the ground and that from
about 30 fast electrons/m 2 s are found at the the atmosphere. For the latitude of middle
earth's surface despite the powerful current Europe, it is known that only about 25% of
of material which enters the atmosphere. the radiation impinging upon the earth's
surface during the course of a year is at-
tributable directly to solar radiation; the
Earth's Surface As an Infrared remaining 75% is due to long-wave infrared
Radiation Source radiation from the atmosphere. Up to 84%
of the radiant energy thus imparted to the
The earth's surface and the sea's surface, earth's surface is radiated back again in the
like the atmosphere, emit an infrared radia- same form. Of the remainder, about 14% is
expended in evaporation, and only 'l% is 0.1 ion pair/cm3 /s at a height of 10 m. Even
expended in heating the ground and air. more important are the gamma rays, be-
cause they come from still greater depths,
and so from a larger reservoir of radioactive
Interaction of Radiations substances. Their ionizing power is es-
timated to be 3 ion pairs/cm3 s near the
In the range of wavelengths between UV ground, 1.5 ion pairs/cm3s at a height of
and infrared radiation, an interaction exists 150 m, and 0.3 ion pairs/cm 3s at a height of
among extraterrestrial solar radiation, long- 1 km. The contribution made by potassium
wave emissions from the earth's surface, radioactivity is probably greater than that
and atmospheric counter-radiation. The rel- of the "classical" radioactive elements
ative wavelengths and intensities of these because of the high potassium content of
radiations are illustrated in Fig. 1-4. the earth's crust.
Radium, thorium, and actinium release a
gaseous product into the atmosphere, es-
Natural Radioactivity, Ground pecially when the air pressure falls, which
Radiation undergoes radioactive decay and leads to a
measurable level of natural radioactivity in
Natural radioactivity originates in the at- the air. According to available data, the
mosphere and in the earth's crust. Cosmic unusually high fluctuations in natural radio-
rays, during their absorption in the atmos- activity can be interpreted as follows.
phere, trigger the formation of isotopes When the air pressure falls, more ground
with infinitely long half-lives (period in emanations are released than during a pres-
which total activity is diminished by halt), sure rise. Rain, moreover, washes natural
which make possible a continuous diffusion' radioactivity out of the air. The vertical air
of radiation from the atmosphere into the currents generated by solar radiation also
living environment. act to remove natural radioactivity from the
The radiation emitted from the ground is air layers near the ground. At night, on the
produced primarily by the radioactive sub- other hand, the natural radioactivity in the
stances present there (uranium, thorium, biosphere is replenished by new emana-
actinium). These substunces in tum trigger tions from the earth's crust. Various values
the release of radioactive radium, thorium are given in Fig. 2-23 for the radon content
and actinium emanations, both by direct ir- of the air. The unit 1 curie (Ci) corresponds
radiation (alpha, beta, and gamma rays) to the activity of a radioactive nuclide with
and by ionization. Direct measurements 3.700 x 1010 disintegrations/s, while the ra-
have shown a mean ionization rate near the diation dose unit 1 R (roentgen) indicates
ground of 2-10 ion pairs/cm3s, which is the production of 2.0822 x 109 ion
consistent with measurements of the con- pairs/cm3 in air at 0° C temperature and
tent of radioactive elements in the upper 1013 millibars air pressure.
ground layer. The ionization rate may be
more than 20 times the normal value in
some places, because of a high radium con- Summary
tent in the ground.
Alpha rays originate in a very thin sur- Radiation which may be of significance
face layer of the ground. Because their with respect to biologic processes can be
range is only a few centimeters, their con- classified according to its origin as (1) radia-
tribution to ground radiation is negligible. tion originating in space, and (2) radiation
Beta rays originate at greater depths, have a originating in the atmosphere and the
greater range, and produce an ionization of earth's surface. Table 2-1 outlines these
about one ion pair/cm3 s near the ground to forms of radiation.
Air Ionization Aerosols 39
1000 1----------------1 100000
100 ~~Oler~~naCh Rajewsky ~D~~~n_

10000
,f- uber i- in . 15.10 Radi~ktiyjtiit
EruPttVges.~.~:]n,Bad Gaste," in der Erdkruste
.;:;' J-vor dem Regen (in 1m Tiefe) .
10 f---g:ober f 9.20 I 1 ~~~r~:~- 1000
Festiand :.:. 1 1 n-
.,:: _ k 1 1
:.:. - 1 I
"---!"""";--!} f--!sandste" 100
/ 1 I O-
f
r-;-
9.45 1 I
h-
O.1~
~ l.':i., 1_ After ra~~05: 10
M[ir L......-JSand
0.01
Figure 2-23. Radon content of the air in 10- 13 Citl over the ocean and over land; the height of the col-
umns indicates the fluctuation of the radon content (heavy line: mean value); right: washout of radon
from the air during rainfall; far right: radioactivity of the earth's crust at depth of I m. After_R.
Schulze (1970).
Key: a- Radon content of air in 10- 13 Ci/l; b- In tunnel. Bad Gastein. Austria; c- In dressing room,
Bad Gastein. Austria; d-Ci/l air; e- Tolerance dose for prolonged exposure, according to Rajewsky
(1956); f-Over igneous rock; g-Over mainland; h- Over the ocean; i-In Bad Gastein; j-Before rain;
k-Time; I-After rain; m-Radioactivity of the earth's crust (at depth of 1 m); n-Igenous rock; 0-
Sandstone; p-Sand; q-IO million
Air Ionization, Aerosols ground is 100-1000/cm3 • Long-term obser-

vations indicate a declining trend: from
The degree of ionization of the air is a 1900 to 1970, the particle density de-
major determinant of its conductivity; it creased from 850 to 500 small ions/cm3 .
also strongly influences the vertical electric Large ions are positively or negatively
current in the air and the electric fields charged aerosol particles. Their concentra-
there. Thus radioactivity, which is pri- tion is normally lOLI04/cm3 but may
marily responsible for the ionization of the reach 105/cm3 in the air around large cities
air (see also Fig. A-7 in Appendix A), indi- and industrial areas. The term aerosol
rectly influences electrostatic conditions, refers to a group of colloids which is char-
the vertical atmospheric electric current, acterized by a mist-like dispersion of solid
and low-frequency electric fields. An or liquid substances in a gas. If the particles
awareness of this influence is especially im- are too small, that is, of atomic or molecular
portant in the study of biologic processes in dimensions, they simply mix with the gas in
connection with electromagnetic phenome- the ordinary manner. If the particles are too
na for which local effects are suspected or large, "coarsely dispersed systems" are
known. formed, such as damp fog, rain or snow.
Air ions are typically classified as small Particles with a diameter in excess of 10
or large atmospheric ions (Fig. 2-24). Small ILm sink through the air at a rate of 0.5-5
ions consist of up to 10 molecules with a cm/s. Thus aerosols include all gaseous, liq-
positive or negative elementary electric uid or solid substances that are suspended
charge. The density of small ions near the in a gas as physicochemical entities 1-10
Table 2-1. Radiations of significance to biological processes.

Radiations from the atmosphere
Radiations from space and earth's surface
1. Corpuscular radiation 1. Infrared radiation
Almost completely absorbed A: 6-60 /-tm
2. Cosmic radiation 102 W/m 2
0.1 r/yr Life-sustaining effect
Slight biologic effects Compensates for radiation deficiency
3. 'Y radiation (greenhouse effect)
Almost completely absorbed 2. High-frequency radiation
4. X-radiation A: 1-100 km
Completely absorbed Pulses up to 10 V 1m
5. Ultraviolet radiation Transmitter of processes in the upper
6. Visible light, window I atmosphere to man
7a. Infrared radiation, short-wave 3. Low-frequency radiation
On 5, 6 & 7a: ELF Schumann resonance
A: 0.3-2 /-tm ULF radiation from the ionosphere and
103 W/m 2 magnetosphere
CO 2 assimilation 4a. Natural radioactivity (resulting from radium
evaporation content of the earth's crust)
heating 0.1 r/year
selective biologic reactions Tolerance acquired
7b. Infrared radiation, long-wave No significant biologic effects
Completely absorbed Biologic concentration slight
Sa. High-frequency radiation, ultrashort wave; 4b. Artificial radioactivity (resulting from
short wave; window II nuclear detonations)
A: 10- 2-10 2 m Radiative intensity low at present
10- 9 W/m2 Danger of biologic concentration
No particular biologic effects
8b. High-frequency radiation, long wave;
medium wave
Completely absorbed
9. Lowest-frequency radiation
ULF radiation from the sun
(ELF radiation from quasars not yet
explored)
#Lm in diameter, or as clusters of 103 to 10 18 detect an electric impulse for each individ-
atoms. Electro-aerosols-particles, sus- ual drop. It is obvious that variations in rain
pended in a gas, that have been given a density will lead to certain fluctuations in
unipolar electric charge-have found appli- local electric fields. However, this phenom-
cations in medicine. enon is not always observed. If a uniform,
In connection with the phenomena dis- prolonged rainfall occurs, practically no
cussed here, we should mention the phe- electric charge can be detected on individ-
nomenon of ionized rain, or electrically ual raindrops after a certain period of time.
charged raindrops. The meteorologic or The so-called Lenard, or waterfall, effect
electrophysical processes which account is observed whenever water is spattered
for the electric charge that occurs on rain, into small particles by the action of a water-
especially after prolonged dry periods, fall, pounding surf or even a bathroom
remain somewhat obscure. Nevertheless, it shower. Lenard discovered that a charge
is possible under certain circumstances to separation takes place under such condi-
detect electric charges on individual rain- tions. The larger drops acquire one
drops by the use of special measuring appa- charge-positive for distilled water, nega-
ratus. An antenna struck by raindrops can tive for salt solution-while the smaller
Vertical Electric Current in the Atmosphere 41
10'
H)'
f"\
f\ f',
1
If\
~
small
ions
large/small
medium ions
I
"
0
.2
0
.~
go
j
\\
ultralarge
ions
Aitken' nuclei Ilarg~i\

nuclei
giant
nuclei
, J
nUCI.;~
initial nuclei
coagula1;on
I\M""-
dispersion nuclei
10'
,-
",
10-, "
\\
0
m "'-
&"E,
~~
1:=
& .!!m
~ g. e
!z;9
; .~
,
10~ 10 • 10 . 10 -, 10-,
--.-.~ radius in em
Figure 2-24. Survey of natural aerosols in air with a high nucleus concentration. with corresponding
details. After Israel (1957).
droplets and the air acquire the opposite the conductivity of the air. However, they
charge. It appears, however, that the Len- do carry space charges which drift with the
ard effect plays only a minor role in thun- wind and cause time variations in the field
derstorm electricity. intensity at a given location. Due to the
electric conductivity of the air, both space
charges and charged solid or liquid surfaces
Vertical Electric Current in the are discharged with half-value times of
Atmosphere lOO-lOOO s. The concentration and mobili-
ty of the small ions, and therefore the elec-
tric conductivity of the air, increase with al-
Electric charge carriers, or air ions, give the titude. For example, the conductivity at 1,
air a weak electric conductivity. The posi- 5 and 10 km above the ground is 2.5,10 and
tive and negative small ions, with a concen- 25 X lO-14 S/m, respectively. At a height of
tration of 100-1000/cm3 , produce a con- 15 km, about 5000 small ions/cm3 produce
ductivity of 0.5-5 X lO-14S/m (mho/m) a conductivity of 100 x 10-4 S/m.
near the ground and about 0.3 x lO-14 Slm From the field intensity E and the con-
above the sea. Air ions are formed almost ductivity (J" of the air, we can compute a
exclusively by the ionizing action of cosmic vertical conduction current density j (from
radiation and radiation from substances in j = (J" E) of approximately 1(J 12
the air and ground. In the upper tropo- A/m2. This can be confirmed by measure-
sphere and stratosphere, of course, cosmic ments with a collector plate on the ground
radiation is the sole ionizing agency. Inter- surface. This current density, which is
mediate and large ions contribute little to more or less altitude-dependent over fair-
weather regions, would correspond to a earth. The strength of these currents de-
current on the order of 1800-2500 A pends on time variations of magnetic distur-
toward the entire earth surface. bances. Earth currents produce a voltage
The formation of strong space charges in drop across the earth's surface which,
precipitation clouds, and especially in thun- measured over some distance, amounts to
derclouds, has not yet been adequately several volts. In the auroral zone, however,
explained. such as in northern Norway, voltages of al-
most 1000 V are commonly observed over
distances of up to 100 km. These lead to
such strong currents that the drop-indicator
Earth Currents switchboards formerly used in telegraph of-
fices frequently heated up or burned out.
As mentioned earlier in connection with Transatlantic cables from Europe to
electromagnetic processes in the ULF and America sometimes developed end-point
ELF ranges, electric currents of natural ori- voltages of 1500 V. These earth currents
gin, which are causally related to processes are not distributed uniformly over the
in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and earth's surface, of course, and so are a
to the earth's magnetic field, flow in the source of localized electromagnetic effects.
3
Man-made Electromagnetic Fields and
Ionizing Processes
The increasing use of electricity accom- rooms must in any case be related to such
panying the growth of industry and technol- circumstances.
ogy and the rapid expansion of the radio
and television industries have created many
new and varied sources of electromagnetic
fields. The introduction of modem, highly
Low-frequency Field Fluctuations
insulating building materials has also led to
the formation of electric fields by the build- Static conditions are disturbed by changes
up of electrostatic charges. in geometric conditions, which play an im-
portant role where electrostatic charges are
concerned. These charges may result from
a change in position of the objects serving
Static Processes as charge carriers, certain changes in the
environment of the charges which in effect
The annoying electrostatic charges which transfigure the field space, or from field in-
build up on clothing of synthetic material tensity changes connected with the inflow
and on shoes with insulating soles can lead or outflow of charges. These time-depen-
to spark discharges over a distance of sev- dent processes do not normally occur at an
eral centimeters. The troublesome effects extremely high rate, but on a time scale of
accompanying spark-overs from the hand minutes, seconds or perhaps fractions of a
can be avoided by holding a metallic object, second (neglecting the extreme case of a
such as a key, tightly in the hand and letting spark discharge). They are then regarded as
the discharge take place through this ob- electric field fluctuations lying in the ULF
ject. The build-up of charge on highly or ELF range.
insulating materials, curtains, carpets and Fluctuations of relatively strong man-
similar objects can also exert a permanent made magnetic fields are less common.
influence on the air-ion balance in oc- However, in large cities electric transpor-
cupied rooms. A burning candle or cigarette tation systems that are powered by direct
smoke also has this effect. The formation or current (e.g., subway, streetcars) set up
breakdown of electric fields in closed powerful magnetic fields which are subject
44 Man-made Electromagnetic Fields and Ionizing Processes
to the same fluctuations as the current Railway systems are also powered by
which produces them. high-tension wires which carry electric cur-
Of less significance are magnetic field rents with a frequency of 16 2/3 Hz. There is
variations caused by the movement of field- no problem with stray currents in this case,
altering bodies, such as automobiles, in because both the supply and return lines
their vicinity. are suspended from high-tension poles and
so are well isolated. The individual circum-
stances determine whether the electric field
in the vicinity of such high-tension lines is
Railway Current relatively intense due to the higher trans-
mission voltage, leading to appreciable
In Germany and other European countries, electric field intensities at some distance
electric railway systems are powered by from the lines. This problem will be dis-
current with a frequency of 16 2/3 Hz, cussed in more detail in connection with the
usually conducted by overhead lines and supply of electric power (see "Electric
rails. Due to the high operating vol- Power Supply" below).
tage-I5,000 V -that the contact wire has
with respect to the rails and thus the
ground, the electric field produced by the
overhead line extends relatively far beyond Telephone Bell Current
the limits of the track. This effect is ampli-
fied if an entire network of overhead lines is The current which is used to activate the
present, as is the case near train stations. telephone bell in telephone lines lies in the
The lines must be separated by many same frequency range as railway current. It
hundreds of meters before the electric has a frequency on the order of 25 Hz. Of
fields they generated are reduced to values course the voltage and current of this bell
below 1 mV1m. signal are considerably weaker than those
Much more critical are the magnetic used in railway systems. But because tele-
fields associated with the operating current phone lines are channeled into living areas,
of railway systems. Since the rails are used the distance between the cables and per-
as current-return lines and are not insulated sons living in the vicinity of the telephone
from the ground, a portion of the current may be quite small. If a telephone connec-
flows underground parallel to the rails. tion is installed next to a bed, the electric
These currents, called stray currents, flow and magnetic fields originating in the tele-
in paths below ground which are deter- phone cables must also be taken into ac-
mined primarily by the ground conduc- count under some circumstances. There are
tivity, as well as by the momentary operat- also signals in the voice-frequency range, of
ing conditions of the train. Our own mea- course (about 300 Hz-3 kHz), and possibly
surements have shown the great distances stray fields picked up by the lines from out-
over which stray currents can propagate side sources (external lines or switching
from the rails. In one instance, magnetic pulses).
field intensities measured at a perpendic-
ular distance of 2 km from the rails were
about 1000 times greater than those of cor-
responding natural phenomena determined Electric Power Supply
at the to-Hz Schumann resonances. Even
at a measuring point located at least 20 km The supplying of households and busi-
from the nearest railway line, the magnetic nesses with light and power current at a
field intensities were found to be signifi- frequency of 60 Hz (or 50 Hz in Europe)
cantly greater than the comparable Schu- represents a special problem. A far-ranging
mann resonance signals. network of power supply lines ensures that
Electric Power Supply 45
electric current, one of the most important damental frequency) are usually different
technical achievements of the 20th century, for voltage and current.
is carried everywhere it is needed or finds Due to the finite insulation resistance of
application. This power network distributes the insulators, caused by the presence of
electric energy from the producer (power surface impurities or by moisture under
plant) to the consumer via high-tension and certain weather conditions, it is to be ex-
low-tension lines according to an elabo- pected that some stray currents will flow in
ratelyengineered system. To avoid unneces- the ground in the vicinity of high-tension
sary energy losses during distribution, the poles or between them. Moreover, the in-
energy is transmitted at various working ductive or capacitive coupling between the
voltages. High-tension transformers ensure wires and ground can lead to earth currents
that electric energy is carried from the plant whose frequency spectrum generally differs
to distant points of consumption via trans- from that of the line currents or line volt-
mission lines at voltages far in excess of ages.
100,000 V. For further distribution, the In the event of corona discharges, signals
voltage is reduced in stages until an electric may arise which are completely indepen-
current with a working voltage of 110 V dent of the frequency of the alternating line
(with respect to ground) arrives in our current and must generally be assigned to
homes (220 V in Europe). A private builder higher frequency ranges.
would balk at the idea of building a house If high-tension wires are also moved by
directly below or near a high-tension power the wind, changes occur in the overall spa-
line. But if high-tension lines must be tial conditions in their vicinity, with corre-
routed through areas which are already sponding changes in the electromagnetic
densely populated in order to meet growing fields. This means that the electromagnetic
energy demands, problems arise. fields arising from the current-carrying
Regarding the fields which may be gen- wires undergo an amplitude modulation in
erated by a high-tension line, the following rhythm with the mechanical motion caused
should be noted. An electric field-whose by the wind.
intensity depends both on the operating Another factor to be considered is that
voltage of the high-tension line (conductor- the voltage and current in high-tension lines
conductor, conductor-ground) and on the do not strictly follow a periodic sinusoidal
overall line geometry (spacing of wires, the curve with respect to time. Instead, short-
environment in which the electric field is of lived voltage or current surges produce an
interest)-forms in the space around the additional pulse-like field superimposed on
lines. As long as current flows through the the main field. High-tension lines are also
line, as is normally the case, a magnetic capable of transmitting over great distances
field also exists whose intensity is deter- certain atypical signals which they have
mined by the magnitude of the flowing cur- picked up by induction or capacitance
rent, the arrangement of the conductors, (from radio transmitters, television trans-
and the properties of the environment, mitters, etc.) or even by the direct absorp-
which also transfigure the magnetic field. tion of energy (lightning).
Since the voltage and current in the lines It is extremely difficult in theory to
have a frequency of 60 Hz (or 50 Hz), this predict the intensity of the electric and
is also true of the fields generated by them. magnetic fields which develop in the vicin-
In addition to this fundamental frequency, ity of high-tension lines, because the highly
signal components of higher frequencies variant operating voltages, operating cur-
also exist in high-tension lines, as in all rents and geometric factors would all have
other networks which transmit electric to be taken into account. To obtain more
energy. The amplitude ratios of these "har- accurate values, measurements must be
monics" (processes having a frequency made on a case-by-case basis. A detailed
which is an integral multiple of the fun- study of this question is presented by
Schneider et al. (1974). Certain order-of- V (with respect to ground), it must first pass
magnitude figures can be given, however. In through transformers that lower its voltage
the immediate vicinity of a 110-kV high- to the desired value and that are usually
tension power line, electric field intensities located in the immediate vicinity of the
with a frequency of 60 Hz (or 50 Hz) and consumer dwelling (often enclosed in trans-
values ranging from 0.5 kV 1m to 2 kV 1m former housings). Experience has shown,
can be expected above the ground. At a however, that the stray fields produced by
distance of 30-50 m from the high-tension such low-tension transformers are very
line these values fall to a few percent of the weak, at least in normal circumstances, and
values directly below the lines, and at fall below detectable limits even at very
100-200 m to a few tenths of a percent. short distances.
The harmonic components of the fun- We must not fail to mention the electric
damental oscillation, which may amount to wiring in occupied rooms, which is installed
a few percent or a few thousandths of the in a variety of forms and can thus lead to
fundamental wave signal, occur together highly diverse field intensities. Especially
with the fundamental wave and with the unfavorable in this regard are twin leads
same degree of attenuation. The relatively (two parallel conductors covered by plastic
sharp decrease in field intensity with dis- insulation to form a flat, relatively wide,
tance from the lines has to do with the fixed flexible cable), for they give rise to rela-
phase relation of the fields of the individual tively intense 60-Hz (50-Hz) electric fields
wires, which is typical of such systems. If in their vicinity. Far superior to twin leads
this relation is not present, as during corona is electric wiring encased in metal tubes, for
discharges or other decoupled interference the metal sheathing makes an excellent
pulses or signals, the decrease in intensity shield for the electric field. As great as this
with distance from the lines will be less difference may be between the different
abrupt. In the region directly below the types of wiring with respect to electric
high-tension line, these signals have an in- fields, the difference is very slight for mag-
tensity on the order of 10-2- 10-4 V1m, and netic fields. Only the coaxial cable (Fig.
this decreases to only several percent of 3-1) offers an ideal solution to this problem,
these values at a distance of 100 m. for it has no external electric or magnetic
As with electric fields, the intensity of field and so prevents the propagation of
magnetic fields depends strongly on the ge- these fields from the cable into occupied
ometry of the high-tension system. Due to rooms. Cables of this type are not yet a vail-
phase coupling of the currents in the indi- able commercially for electric wiring in
vidual wires, the magnetic field also dimin- rooms, however.
ishes with distance, so that even in the A final source of fields in the home is the
vicinity of high-tension lines the magnetic extension cord. These cords, which are
field intensity amounts to only a few 10-5 T used for standard lamps, television sets,
(0.1 G). radios, etc, and often lie about loose, must
Before electric energy is delivered to the be regarded as a significant source of 60-Hz
consumer at its usual voltage of 110 or 220 (50-Hz) fields in occupied rooms.
Figure 3-1. Coaxial cable. From the center outward: internal conductor, insulation, external conduc-
tor (which may serve as shielding), insulation.
Shielding of Electromagnetic Processes 47
High-frequency Fields reflective surfaces lead to the formation of

standing waves in rooms. As a result, the
fields present in the room cancel in some
As stated earlier, radios and television sets
places and add in other places, leading to
radiate electric and magnetic energies at a
frequency of 60 Hz (50 Hz). Owing to their local variations of reception within the
mode of operation, however, these devices same room. When an indoor antenna is
also emit still higher-frequency electromag- used, reception from a weak transmitter
netic fields ranging from 625 Hz or 16.25 can be improved by finding the most favor-
kHz (image formation) to about 40 MHz able location for the antenna. A knowledge
of the spatial variations (maxima and min-
(intermediate frequency) depending on the
ima) of the electric and magnetic fields can
TV system employed. Added to this are the
also be of help in this regard. The proper
direct transmission frequencies of VHF
and television transmitters in the range of orientation of the antenna and the possible
about 100-500 MHz. The result is that reception of reflected signals (the cause of
such devices emit electromagnetic radia- "ghosts" on the TV screen) are other im-
tion over a very broad range of frequencies. portant factors.
It has also been found that radiation in the In summary, it can be said that man is ex-
X-ray region of the spectrum is emitted posed to a mixture of many natural and ar-
from the picture tube itself. General Elec- tificial electromagnetic processes in his en-
tric, for example, was compelled to recall a vironment (Fig. 3-2).
series of about 100,000 television sets in
1967 because tests had revealed an unac-
ceptably high level of X-ray emission.
Shielding of Electromagnetic
According to regulations of the U.S.
Department of Health, the radiation dose Processes
rate measured at any point outside a tele-
vion set may not exceed a value of 0.5 The shielding of electromagnetic energies is
mR/hr. The Union of German Electrical a relatively complicated physical process.
Engineers tolerates the same maximum It depends upon whether the shielding of
dose up to a distance of at most 50 mm electric, magnetic or electromagnetic fields
from the cabinet, a standard which was also is involved. Moreover, the electric proper-
adopted in the Radiation Protection Orders ties of the shielding material, as well as its
of March 1973, issued by the West German structural form (plate or grid), play an im-
Labor Ministry. More recent investigations portant role. Both lead to a frequency-
of measurable dose rates have shown that dependence of the shielding effect.
the industry has apparently succeeded in The penetrating ability of electromagne-
solving this problem, for no unsafe radia- tic waves varies with the conductivity of
tion levels could be detected. the medium. For example, electromagnetic
Electromagnetic waves that carry radio waves cannot penetrate far into metals.
and television signals penetrate readily into This fact is utilized in the Faraday cage: a
occupied rooms (most readily through win- space surrounded on all sides by metal
dow openings), as is demonstrated by por- remains free of electromagnetic fields (Fig.
table sets and similar devices with indoor 3-3). By contrast, a considerable depth of
antennas. U sing a small, portable transistor penetration is achieved when nonmetals
set, it can be shown quite simply that the in- serve as shielding materials. The shielding
coming signal strength, and thus the recep- effect, or depth of penetration, is a function
tion conditions, varies greatly at different of (1) the frequency ofthe electromagnetic
points in a room. Reflections of these rela- wave ("skin effect"), (2) the specific con-
tively short-wave electromagnetic waves ductivity of the material, and (3) the perme-
(-0.5-3 m wavelength) from the walls and ability of the material. The depth of
especially from mirrors and other highly penetration refers to the depth in the mate-
~
00
==
~
:3
~
(1)
tIl
w ........ngth 'V 10'" lOt 10' .0- 10 I 10 • '0 "W 10 • '0 .. 10 •• 10 II 10 ... i'r
(")
In mel.f 8t ....
i 'i ~ i
3 - '0' . 3 10'" 3 10" ,()1-
3 I, '0- 3 , 1()i 3 ,, '0 ' 3 , 10" 3 , 10" 3 ,· 10" 3, '()I'
' i,or'
3I 3, 3, ,er'
frequency , oo" , , a3
In he"t
cr6
::s
(1)
::to
I (")
'"Tj
('D.
~
• 0:
en
~ &.1 ....
~ i ; Ii ;... ~
~ ~
~
i
~ • G .. f
.
~ i ~
;!
§ ~
Q..
i~ f •• f t: • ~ ~~ ~
~
......
; ~ ; ~ i ~ H o
~
i "2g § ;! i~ ::s
t: ~ !
...~
.j
w I ~
. .. !
.
.j
... ..e i-
> -0
~ I!
>
=
I...
E e m ~ S "! J!
1~
~ .. it. ~
N·
Jg.
\,
,, a'"
, (")
(1)
,, " " en
~... <.-- en
(1)
'/' en
JJ--t \it,!)DID f telephOne '-'10 televl$IOn radar
,
IMfma' rad,altOn uIU.""lOle' I.. mp
~ooel r.-4IOICOpy nuclea' physic;.,
Figure 3-2. The various forms and applications of electromagnetic energies over a broad range of frequencies; the principal
ranges are designated.
Shielding of Electromagnetic Processes 49
Figure 3-3. The automobile as a Faraday cage.
rial at which the amplitude of the wave has siderable energy residual will remain. Ac-
fallen to the 1/ e part of the initial amplitude cording to Wessel (939), the permeability
(e = 2.72, the base of the natural loga- of a wire grid to electromagnetic waves
rithm). (percentage permeability D) is given by the
The depth of penetration of electromag- formula,
netic radiation is dependent upon the elec-
trical conductivity of the ground and the 2d d
D = (- \ 0 & , - -
)2
frequency of the radiation. At a conduc- A 27Ta
tivity of 10- 1 0/!1 . m), corresponding to
that of moist clay, electromagnetic waves at (d = mesh size of grid; a = radius of grid
5 Hz have a penetration depth of about bars or wires; A = wavelength).
1000 m; at 50 Hz, 100 m; at 5 kHz, 10 m; Table 3-1 gives the shielding efficiency
and at 50 kHz, about 1 m. Thus, even elec- (SSHF) of brass grids with various mesh
tromagnetic waves with a frequency of 50 sizes in the decimeter range of wave-
kHz are capable of penetrating a dry, non- lengths.
metallic wall with no significant attenua-
tion. S = ~ (power without shielding)
If a space is shielded on all sides by a net SHF P A (power with shielding)
or grid, rather than by solid surfaces, the
wave will be strongly attenuated, but a con- Even this brief discussion shows the
Table 3-1. Shielding efficiency (SSHF) of a brass ture (whether natural or man-made), and to
grid with respect to JO-cm waves. After Presman some extent for those produced by wiring
(1970). within the structure. We shall return to this
Wire diameter Mesh number point later when discussing the environ-
(mm) (per cm 2 ) SSHF mentally determined, localized effects of
0.53 16 9X 102 electromagnetic processes on man.
0.43 25 7x 103 In order to study separately the signifi-
0.35 64 3x 104 cance of specific biologically active para-
0.25 81 6x 10 3 meters, it is often necessary to create
0.20 169 9x 104 shielded areas so that at least the effects of
0.14 186 9x 104
0.075 441 8x 104 undesired and uncontrollable electromag-
0.08 559 104 netic fields can be reduced to an absolute
minimum. With emphasis on the low-
frequency range, Ludwig (1973b) studied
this problem in detail. Figure 3-4 illustrates
numerous problems involved in the shield- the shielding efficiency of a structure with
ing of electromagnetic processes. It is obvi- given dimensions and various wall materi-
ous that the shielding properties of large als with respect to electric and magnetic
buildings with respect to external fields can fields in the frequency range of 10-3- 105
be influenced by the proper selection and Hz.
use of building materials. But the serious The permeability of various structures to
question remains, Which fields should be 10-kHz electric and magnetic fields is
screened out for biologic reasons, and described in Table 3-2, which shows that
which should not? Indeed, some natural even a copper-lined sleeping bag is suf-
electromagnetic processes in the human en- ficient to shield a person, at least at night,
vironment are very probably desirable, from electric fields. For shielding an entire
while others-mostly man-made-are best laboratory, it is best to use grids arranged in
screened out as potentially hazardous. multiple layers. Practice has shown that
Steel-concrete structures have excellent magnetic fields, even in the ULF range, can
shielding properties, both for electromagne- be reduced to 1% or less by this arrange-
tic processes which exist outside the struc- ment.
a- Eo. Ha.
B'HI
b-
107 ______ . " .. __ . ~ische Gr~ _-~~o
10
6 E ........ ' "
..•••.••••
c- ,/
....... ~. Kupfer /'
105 ... -••...•. __ • d- E Stahl'., ............ _._ . /'
104 e- E Kafig·.-.-... -............__ .:-.~,..

10
3
f- H Kupfer.... / ' ·~1fKiii~-g-~---------
10 2 , ....
H / " " ............. Stahl
10
h-
-=-=====:::-.. .-
I [Hzl
10 10' 10 3 10 4 10 5
ELF IVLFILFI
Figure 3-4. Practical values of shielding factors (external over internal value) for the electric (Ee/Ej)
and magnetic (HeIHi) components at relatively low frequencies for a special container made of copper
or steel (design width 1 cm). After Ludwig (l973b).
Key: a-Ee/Ej He/Hi; b-practicallimit; c-E copper; d-E steel; e-E cage; f-H copper; g-H cage; h-H
steel
Rhythmicity, Periodicity 51
Table 3-2. Shielding efficiency of various planted deep within plant and animal tis-
objects with respect to the electric (E) and sues have shown that in the ULF range, the
magnetic (H) field. After Ludwig (1973). internal fields usually pulsate in synchrony
Permeability with the external fields, although on oc-
casion they pulsate with a phase shift of
Object
1800 (the internal fields are then in phase
Faraday cage (r = 50 opposition to the external fields). It is
cm), mesh wire of presumed that peripheral receptors sense
iron material the external field, and that the internal field
(d = 0.1 cm), mesh
size 3 cm 0.5 65 is a type of response to the external stimu-
Faraday cage as lus. The role played by dielectric displace-
above, mesh size ment currents must also be considered,
0.3 cm <0.1 10 because such currents will be present as
Volkswagen 1.0 50
Sheet-iron garage <0.1 50 long as the external field is not electrostatic.
Steel bungalow <0.1 8 In contrast, an irregular or slowly vary-
Steel-reinforced ing magnetic field penetrates to every part
concrete bunker of the human body. In this case, the mag-
(wall thickness 60 netic field can be reduced only be means of
cm) «0.1 0.1
Sleeping bag with external artificial shielding designed es-
copper lining <0.1 90 pecially for magnetic fields.
Table 3.3 outlines the depths of penetra-
tion of high-frequency electromagnetic
waves in various tissues.
Of particular interest in this regard is the
shielding effect of organic tissue in the
ULF, ELF and VLF ranges, because it is
energies of these frequencies to which Rhythmicity, Periodicity
physiologic effects are ascribed. The elec-
tric conductivity of the human body or a Our discussion of electromagnetic para-
plant (CT = 10-4 I/O . m) is high enough to meters with respect to their effects on man
diminish very strongly the electric field would be incomplete unless we addressed
within the body. Even in peripheral tissues the problem of the time variations of these
the value of the electric field is about one processes, which almost always have a
order of magnitude smaller than that of the rhythmic or periodic character. Short-term
external field surrounding it. Nevertheless, and long-term effects can playa significant
measurements made with electrodes im- role in this respect. Regardless of whether
Table 3-3. Penetration depth in cm (attenuation to lIe) of high-frequency electromagnetic waves in

various tissues at typical frequency values. After Presman (1970).
Frequency (MHz)
Tissue 100 200 400 1000 3000 10,000 24,000 35,000
Thin bone 22.90 20.66 18.73 11.90 9.924 0.34 0.145 0.073
Brain 3.56 4.132 2.072 1.933 0.476 0.168 0.075 0.0378
Lens of eye 9.42 4.39 4.23 2.915 0.500 0.174 0.0706 0.0378
Living body 2.17 1.69 1.41 1.23 0.535 0.195 0.045 0.0314
Fat 20.45 12.53 8.52 6.42 2.45 1.1 0.342
Muscle 3.451 2.32 1.84 1.456 0.314
Whole blood 2.86 2.15 1.787 1.40 0.78 0.148 0.0598 0.0272
Skin 3.765 2.78 2.18 1.638 0.646 0.189 0.0722
electromagnetic radiations have a positive the study of periodic processes attests to

or negative impact on human health, it must the importance attached to them. Dewey
be understood that these processes can (1971) reports the results of a Foundation-
occur either randomly (i.e., showing com- sponsored study on cycles in every con-
pletely irregular behavior as a function of ceivable area. Among the findings:
time) or with a certain rhythm or period.
Experiments at the Max Planck Institute stock prices in the United States have
for Behavioral Psychology, the results of fluctuated in a 4-year cycle over the
which will be discussed later in more detail, last 122 years;
have shown that man would adopt a daily
the population of field mice has fol-
rhythm somewhat longer than 24 hr in the
lowed a 4-year cycle over the last 74
absence of external influences. However,
years;
the rhythmicity and periodicity connected
with nature and the course of natural events the number of sunspots has followed a
makes it extremely difficult for us to adopt 5.9-year cycle for the last 212 years;
a longer day. In any case, the 24-hr period the incidence of warfare, observed for
associated with the earth's rotation has the last 2557 years, follows a 6-year
become decidedly dominant in human af- cycle;
fairs and coexists with various other cycles, the amount of precipitation at various
many devised by man himself. The week, points in the United States, measured
for example, is a man-made periodicity over many decades, fluctuates in an
which has nothing to do with natural cycles. 8-year cycle;
As studies have shown, certain physical
potato production in the U.S. has
and mental states are subject to a 7-day
shown a periodicity of 8 years during
rhythm for which there is no parallel in na-
the last 97 years;
ture.
The climatic and day-night differences the mortality rate in the state of Mas-
characteristic of the latitude of middle sachusetts has followed a 9-year cycle
Europe are another typical example of the for the last 103 years;
problem of periodicity. A yearly periodicity the number of sunspots has shown a
is dictated by the earth's orbit about the 9.3-year rhythm during the last 203
sun, of course, but man adapts to seasonal years;
variations only to a limited degree. For ex- rainfall in London and air pressure in
ample, the work day generally starts at the New York have each followed a
same time in both summer and winter, re- 9.5-year cycle during the last 100
gardless of the amount of daylight present. years;
But man is subject to a great variety of ex- the temperature in New Haven has
ternal periodic influences which may recur fluctuated in a 9.9-year cycle over the
at intervals ranging from a fraction of a sec- last 184 years;
ond to minutes, hours, days, years, and
even decades. The periods of astronomic the growth rings in trees have shown a
processes can be virtually limitless when 16 2/3 year periodicity over the last
viewed on a human time scale, for astro- 1000 years;
nomical cycles lasting many thousands of for the last 1341 years, unusually
years are quite common. heavy Nile floodings have been ob-
The fact that a special institute* has been served every 17 1/3 years;
created in the United States expressly for the incidence of earthquakes in China,
observed for 1598 years during the
*Foundation for the Study of Cycles, 124 South Middle Ages, shows a rhythmicity of
Highland Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15206,
U.S.A. 17.7 years;
Technique of Measuring Electric and Magnetic Fields 53
sunspot activity has varied in a 22-year Finally, recent studies by Dorland and
cycle for the last 265 years; Brinker (1973) show that the human "mood
the air pressure in Edinburgh varied in barometer" is also subject to a periodic
a 22-year cycle in the 19th century, ac- rhythm. From a long-term observation of
cording to measurements made over a 1500 consecutive days, these researchers
period of 112 years; found clear evidence of cycles from 2.4 to
57.8 days in human mood, ranging from
the thickness of growth rings in trees
happy to extremely unhappy.
has varied in a 54-year cycle during the
last 1070 years;
sunspot activity has also exhibited a
54-year cycle during the last 266 years. Technique of Measuring Electric and
Magnetic Fields
So far a total of 19 cycles which apparently
influence certain events on earth have been In the previous sections we discussed in de-
identified. These are 4.0, 5.9, 6.0, 8.0, 9.0, tail the various types of electric and mag-
9.2,9.5,9.6, 9.8, 11.2, 12.0, 12.6, 16 2/3, netic fields which occur in our environ-
17 1/3, 17.7, 18.2,22, 54, and 164 years. ment. It is now time to deal briefly with the
Even this very small sampling from avail- problems involved in the detection and
able numerical data shows that the course measurement of such fields. In our discus-
of all events in our environment is partly sion of fields, the frequency of the fields
dependent on periodic processes, or cycles, was used as a systematically ordered ele-
although the causal connections remain ment, for it allowed us, at least in purely ab-
largely obscure. stract physical terms, to introduce a certain
Besides these relatively short-term order into the variety of phenomena dis-
cycles, there are other cycles which are cussed. Moreover, frequency provides a
measured on an astronomical time scale. framework within which the biological ef-
The associated characteristic variations fects of electric and magnetic fields can be
have no immediate effect on man, of more meaningfully discussed.
course, although there may be some links But the frequency range of a field also
between them and evolutionary processes. gives us an indication of the technology and
Of interest in this context are climatic instrumentation needed to obtain informa-
cycles, whose existence during the past tion via the field, especially if it is relatively
35,000 years has recently been discovered. weak. For example, a considerable tech-
Marner (1973) reports the following: nical effort is needed to detect static elec-
There appear to be three main clima- tric fields or magnetic fields if they are in
tic cycles, as shown in [Fig. 3-5]. One the range of J.L V1m or 10-7 T (mG), respec-
is struck by the fact that the two cycles tively. This effort is reduced only slightly if
with the shortest periods are not con- processes with frequencies up to about
stant, but fluctuate between 230 years 20-30 Hz are involved. The next higher
and 1000 years in one case, and be- frequency range facilitates measurement
tween 1000 years and 3600 years in the considerably, and even low-intensity fields
other. In technical terms, one might say in this range are not difficult to detect. The
that the climate-related temperature frequency range employed for radio and
vanatlOns on earth undergo a
television in particular makes it possible to
frequency modulation with time. The
climatic cycle of longest duration has a obtain useful information at low field inten-
period of 21,000 years. It is apparent sities, even with a modest antenna system.
that our period of observation is still At higher frequencies, in the range above
too brief for us to discern the existence 1000 MHz, the technology again becomes
of similar cycles. more complex. This is due less to antenna
VI
....
s::
~
l
~
o
b-
a- klimatische Zyklen t [Jahrexl0001
as 30 25 15 10 5 0
a3
:;
A
AlA A1UIHU AAAHmAAAUUIAA AAA AHAUl! g.
7VV-VVYVllVlVVVVYVmVV vmmvv vvvvvmm
'T1
cii"
B
f\
1\ 1\ A A A~ /\ /l /\ J1 i\AA;J JAI c:en
V'J V V VVV\TvITlTITV I{V VVV 8.
o
-e.
~.
c ~ ~
T--- ~ "" l
oen
~ ~ ~ ffi ro en
I • I
roI ---' I I
5•
o
en
Figure 3-5. Climatic cycles. Time scale in 103 years. Warm is shown above the line, cold below. Cycle A has a period of
230-1000 years, cycle B 1000-3600 years, and cycle C approximately 21,000 years. After Momer (1973).
Key: a-Climatic cycles; b-t (years x 1000)
Technique of Measuring Electric and Magnetic Fields 55
d-
fOr Koronatemperatur
\ -1O'' 'K
An!e"ne""·",." \
.. \
.... \
\
\
10 1010
I I e-
lmm 1 km Wellenlange (i'm)--
Figure ·3-6. Spectral distribution of a black-body radiator at 6000 K, for dA/A = 0.1, in W/m2;
roughly equal to the radiative intensity of the sun at the boundary of the earth's atmosphere. Broken
line: lower limit of measurability; shaded area: measurable range. After R. Schulze (1970).
Key: a- Intensity of radiation (W/m2) (dA/A); b-Counter tube; c- Antenna; d-for corona temperature
- 106 K; e- Wavelength
problems (the antenna size decreases with band, signal of a certain intensity. But
increasing frequency) than to the increasing measurements can also be made selec-
complexity of the amplification system. tively, that is, limited to a very specific,
Particular difficulties are involved in the perhaps very narrow, range of frequencies.
measurement of electromagnetic processes This leads to additional complications be-
in the infra-red and adjacent long-wave sides those mentioned above, which may
region. For light waves and higher make it difficult to satisfy all requirements.
frequency ranges, equipment requirements Continuous progress is being made in this
again become more modest (Fig. 3-6). area, however, and new outlooks and possi-
The terms measurement and measuring bilities are emerging which were inconceiv-
technique as used here refer to the detec- able even a few years ago.
tion of an arbitrary, and thus often broad-
4
Biologic Activity of Static and Low-frequency
Fields
Researchers have long been performing ex- The attempt to keep even the simplest
periments, studies and calculations in an ef- environmental conditions (room tempera-
fort to learn more about the biologic activi- ture, humidity, lighting, drafts, etc) con-
ty of electromagnetic fields. If we consider stant over a certain period of time is an ex-
the entire frequency spectrum from static tremely laborious task. Added to this are
fields to fields of extremely high frequen- such factors as irritation of the subject
cies, we begin to appreciate the technical caused by noises and floor vibrations. The
difficulties involved in the treatment of such subject should also be shielded or protected
questions. Moreover, biologic systems are against all electromagnetic influences
highly complex and, in many respects, dif- which lie outside the controlled conditions.
ficult to analyze, for the researcher must This is extremely difficult over the entire
deal not with processes which can be frequency range, especially in the case of
reproducibly measured and observed, but extraneous static magnetic fields and high-
with variable modes of behavior and rela- frequency electromagnetic fields. It may
tively slight alterations in the processes of even be necessary in such cases to conduct
interest. This necessitates a statistical treat- the experiment in underground bunkers
ment of the subject. with walls fabricated from the necessary
shielding materials. Ionization of the air is
yet another factor to be considered, for it
could exert effects on electric conditions in
Experimental Possibilities the air. In practice, however, the influence
of air ionization caused by cosmic radiation
In experiments which are meant to show cannot be eliminated, because these rays
whether certain observable biologic proces- readily penetrate all ordinary shielding and
ses are caused by electromagnetic fields, it continuously produce new charged air par-
is possible to work with artificially pro- ticles in the vicinity of the experimental
duced fields. If results are to be absolutely subject.
reliable, however, all extraneous influences So the production of a so-called zero field
must be excluded. This is seldom possible is not really possible in practice. For this
in practice. reason a second approach is usually taken
Electrostatic Fields, Electric Air Current 57
in such experiments. The experimental sub- past 25 years, on both man and other living
jects are exposed to different experimental forms. For example, Busch (1961, 1963)
conditions either simultaneously or in suc- reports on growth experiments with bacte-
cession. A skillful comparison of the results rial cultures under the influence of a
can yield meaningful relative data. 50-400 kV/m field, in which increasing
The experimenter must also be aware of field intensity resulted in a slowing of the
the initial state of his subject. Even in com- mortality rate, and so in the inhibition of
parative investigations, nonlinear subject cell autocatalysis. The author attributes
responses cannot be ruled out. this effect to the depolarizing and repolariz-
A residual stimulus level can also influ- ing action ofthe electric field on living cells.
ence the experimental result. It is evident In another experiment, cultures exposed
that the presence of a stray 50-Hz electric to an electrostatic field maintained a surviv-
or magnetic field in a laboratory area in al rate of about 65%-7rP1o, while smears on
connection with an artificially produced a zero-field plate showed only relatively
field of approximately equal intensity which light, poorly staining cell shadows.
does not have the same frequency but lies Hahn (1963) exposed smears of bacterial
in the same frequency range, can lead to cultures on blood plates to an electric field
false conclusions. Extreme caution is also of 6.7 kV1m. The colonies thus treated did
advised in the statistical evaluation of the not grow, a kind of "sterilizing effect" hav-
experimental results in order to avoid in- ing occurred due to dissociation of the bac-
correct conclusions. teria through ion flow. The results of the
These brief remarks give some idea of bacteriologic studies prompted Hahn to
the difficulties which the researcher must recommend the installation of relatively in-
overcome in this area. tense electrostatic fields in occupied rooms,
for this would reproduce the electroclimatic
conditions found in nature. However, Hahn
Electrostatic Fields, Electric Air neglected to consider that the natural static
field does not have a constant value over a
Current 24-hr period, as does the artificial field, but
rather undergoes sizable fluctuations in in-
Because of its relatively high intensity, the tensity during the day.
natural electrostatic field has often been A similar effect is described by Becker
used in experiments and investigations of and Kraus (1964). Bacterial colonies in a
biologic effects. The simplest approach to constant electric field of about 13 kV/m
this problem-making observations and exhibited less growth than colonies outside
measurements of this field over a 24-hr the field. This would indicate sterilization
period followed by a statistical comparison through a bactericidal action of the field.
with certain biologic processes-holds lit- A study by Wehner (1964) illustrates the
tle prospect of success. The experimental problems that can arise in biologic experi-
result will be adulterated by the presence of ments of this kind. Agar plates with E. coli
too many other parameters which have a smears were introduced into a 55 kV/m
similar time course, and whose influence on electric field. The colonies that developed
the progress of the experiment cannot be on the treated plates were about 2.6 times
excluded. Thus any biologic effects of the larger than those that developed on the con-
electrostatic field cannot be reliably corre- trol plates. The field had a growth-promot-
lated with the natural field. ing effect in these experiments. The author
To obtain meaningful results, the experi- attributes this to an acceleration of metabo-
ments must be performed with artificially lism due to polarization by the field.
produced fields. A large number of such ex- Finally, Sale and Hamilton (1967) ex-
periments have been conducted during the posed bacterial and yeast preparations to
58 Biologic Activity of Static and Low-frequency Fields
an electric field with the relatively high in- static field and superimposed alternating
tensity of 2500-3000 kV/m. The field ex- field to the effects observed.
posure in this case was pulsed and had a Nevertheless, the experiments showed
killing effect, which the authors attributed that direct exposure to fields below 200
to damage to the cell membrane by the kV 1m generally intensifies growth, while
field's action. higher field intensities tend to retard
Observations by Hicks (1957) also show growth. In all fields up to 750 kV/m,
that growth processes in trees are acceler- gaseous byproducts (C0 2 • O 2 • N 2) led to an
ated in the presence of high-intensity elec- initial increase in growth. This gain was
tromagnetic fields, and retarded under ar- later lost, and overall growth patterns re-
tificial shielding. turned to normal after 150 hr.
Backmann and Reichmanis (1973) stud- The effects on growth produced by an
ied the growth rate of barley seedlings electrostatic field polarized opposite to the
under vertical electrostatic high-tension natural (negative-ground) field and by an al-
fields of 50-400 kV/m and the gaseous ternating field were analyzed by Murr
byproducts of such a high electric field (1966). He found that the growth of corn
stress. To produce this field, they used a and bean plants apparently depends in large
meshed electrode (mesh size 0.6 cm) mea- measure on the magnitude of the current
suring 25 x 75 cm, charged to + 15 kV actively flowing through the plant. Al-
with respect to ground. It was mounted in though plant growth in the electric field
the form of a slanted roof over a container remained unaffected by the nature of the
with the barley seedlings, thereby exposing field or current (static or dynamic), it was
the plants to varying electric field intensi- generally retarded by leakage currents over
ties due to the steadily increasing electrode 10-5 A and stimulated by currents of 10-8
spacing. However, this arrangement did not A. Current strengths of 10- 16 A or less had
create ideal conditions for static field exper- no measurable effect on plant growth.
imentation. Any inadvertant change in the Wilhelmi (1962) investigated the effect of
distance between electrode and ground thunderstorms on the radial growth of
would cause a change in the electric field in woodland trees, prompted by similar bio-
the environment of the plants. For ex- meteorologic problems. Although nu-
ample, a change in spacing of only 0.1 % at merous internal and external factors are in-
the point of the smallest electrode spacing volved in the growth of a tree, and no single
(8 cm) means a variation of 0.08 mm. Even element can be isolated as the biotropic fac-
the slightest ground vibrations or air move- tor, thunderstorms were presumed to have
ments could cause such a change unless some effect on growth rhythms. Measure-
special precautions were taken. But these ments confirmed that strong electric dis-
variations in spacing also impress a low- charges do produce a physiologic effect in
frequency alternating field onto the electric trees. This effect has two components. One
field whose amplitude (voltage-wise) is on component involves a disturbance of sap
the order of 15 V PP' and whose frequency flow, resulting in a gradual growth-altering
results from mechanical vibration proces- process. The probable agency of this effect
ses, placing it in the ELF or VLF range. Of is bound nitrogen, which is formed under
course, the results obtained with such an the influence of electric discharges, carried
arrangement are not diminished in their into the soil with precipitation, and ab-
general significance, at least as far as the ef- sorbed by the roots of trees. Though the
fect of electric fields on barley seedling electrically induced formation of nitrogen is
growth is concerned, but it is impossible in an immediate event, the absorption of ni-
this instance to determine with certainty trogen is dependent upon the uptake of nu-
the respective contributions of the electro- trients by the tree. The second component
is an immediate physiologic response which acid-Ninhydrin color complex as a func-

can be observed in the daily radial growth tion of duration of exposure for migratory
of trees and is probably due to an electric locusts, water frogs, and the white house
stimulating effect which is expressed in an mouse, supplemented by activity measure-
immediate growth response. Wilhelmi ments in the white house mouse and para-
(1962) confirms this on the basis of electric keet. In every case it was shown that
air current recordings, although his data do biologic parameters could be influenced by
not indicate the role played by ELF and exposure to electrostatic fields. Haine
VLF processes. (1961) demonstrated similar effects on the
Experiments were also done on the ef- activity of small insects.
fects of the electrostatic field on animal Experiments by Dowse and Palmer
physiology. The results reported by Alt- (1969) showed a change in the daily activity
mann (1959, 1962, 1969b) must be consid- rhythms of mice exposed to electrostatic
ered of particular interest in this regard, for fields. The effects of electrostatic fields on
he clearly observed an increase in oxygen rats were explored by Mayasi and Terry
consumption and metabolic rate in various (1969). In two age groups of male and
animal species under the influence of the female rats, they used three different elec-
field. For example, bees showed a substan- tric field intensities (zero field, 1600 VIm
tially higher oxygen consumption in the and 16,000 VIm) as well as two noise inten-
static field than control insects in a Faraday sities (30 db and 90 db) in order to test the
cage. The higher metabolic rate was accom- learning ability of animals during swim-
panied by an increase in food consumption ming. The criteria were the time taken and
(sugar solution). A higher mortality rate number of errors made in the attempt to
was also observed. leave the water. Evaluation of the results
Altmann (1969a) also experimented with by an analysis of variance showed:
guinea pigs exposed to both static (420
V1m) and alternating electric fields. A clear 1. Adult rats which had previously been
increase in metabolic rate was found in exposed to electric fields made far fewer
animals exposed to the static, constant errors than young rats, regardless of sex
field, while the animals exposed to the alter- and noise conditions.
nating field (2-10 Hz) showed no changes 2. All rats swam more rapidly after ex-
relative to the Faraday controls. posure to electric fields than untreated
Altmann (1968) showed, on the basis of controls.
oxygen consumption measurements in 3. Following exposure to noise, female rats
goldfish, that aquatic organisms are not im- took a significantly longer time to ac-
mune to the effects of electric fields. Field- complish the task than male rats under
exposed fish exhibited a higher oxygen con- the same conditions and without regard
sumption than specimens protected by a for age.
Faraday shield. A similar observation was 4. When the rats were exposed simulta-
made for oxygen consumption in frogs. neously to electric fields and noise, the
This increase was observed only as long as males took less time to perform the task
the animals were exposed to the field. Oxy- than the females, regardless of age.
gen consumption quickly normalized after a
brief recovery period. The stimulating ac- Strampfer and Geyer (1974) obtained
tion of the direct current could be enhanced preliminary results on the effect of an elec-
considerably by interrupting it at intervals. trostatic field and a 10-Hz pulsed field on
Similar results on oxygen consumption the psychic behavior of human subjects.
were obtained by colorimetric measure- For a period of 21 days, 8 men under psy-
ments of the extinction of the amino chiatric treatment were exposed for a total
of 14 hrlday to a static field of approxi- increase of immunization was observed in

mately 800 V1m, upon which a rectangular comparison with the controls. Based on
field of 250 V 1m was impressed. The be- these findings, it is suggested that the natu-
havior of the test subjects was compared ral electrostatic field of the earth is an im-
with that of a control group. In reaction portant factor in promoting and maintaining
tests, subjects exposed to the field showed the immune system.
a smaller incidence of false and delayed Fischer (1973) discussed the biologic sig-
reactions, and evaluation of an adjective list nificance of the electrostatic field in general
showed that they felt less confused, fearful terms. Previous experimental results, con-
and passive. firmed and expanded by research in Graz,
Mose et al. (1970, 1972) published Austria, indicate that cellular respiration,
various studies on the effects of the elec- and thus oxidative metabolism as a whole,
trostatic field on the sensitivity of the can be strongly influenced by atmospheric
smooth muscles to stimulating drugs. Their electric processes. The implications of this,
investigations showed a clear decrease in especially with regard to the climatization
the excitability of the ileum in guinea pigs of occupied rooms, are discussed.
and the uterus in rats exposed to the field According to Kemmer (1967), studies on
for several days in response to histamine, the biologic effects of direct electric current
acetylcholine, bradykinin and serotonin. on aquatic animals are of general impor-
Mose and Fischer (1972) also report on ex- tance with regard to both direct and alter-
periments with white mice exposed to a nating currents, because alternating fields
static field of approximately 24 kV/m. can also produce displacement currents in
Based on control comparisons, some statis- organisms, even if there is no direct gal-
tically significant increases were found: vanic contact with any external energy
running activity increased 55%; food con- source. Kemmer reports that all previously
sumption increased 19%; drinking water studied vertebrates exhibit positive gal-
consumption increased 15%. The body vanotaxis (the tendency of an organism in
temperature also rose by 0.3 C. Hepatic
0
water carrying a direct current to position
oxygen uptake in the animals showed a itself in a certain direction relative to the
much smaller scatter than in the controls. field lines). A series of experiments was
In mice exposed to the static field for 4 1/2 conducted to isolate the cause ofthis effect:
months, an initial normal litter series was
followed by an inability to bear further off- 1. If the tactile organs of the frog are
spring. blocked by anesthesia, the galvanotactic
Mose et al. (1973) dealt with im- response remains unaltered. Hence, the
munologic responses in the electrostatic current penetrates through the body sur-
field compared with Faraday conditions. face at all points and does not depend
For this purpose, mice were pretreated upon superficial receptors.
with ovine erythrocytes and exposed to 2. The brain also plays no apparent role,
fields of various intensities (40 V/m-24 because the galvanotactic response is
kV1m). The degree of immunization was unaffected by its blockage.
determined by the direct plaque technique. 3. If its spinal cord is drilled out or de-
The highest plaque formation values were stroyed by electrocoagulation, the frog
found in the spleens of animals exposed to still performs its convulsive swimming
the static field. The same was found for movement toward the anode despite the
spleen weight, splenocyte count and he- absence of the normal motor reflexes
magglutination titer. Interestingly, the field controlled by the spinal cord.
had the greatest effect on plaque values at 4. The peripheral motor nerve fibers can be
intensities between 1 kV/m and 5 kV/m. blocked by the injection of curare
But even at 200 VIm, a considerable (blockage of the transmitter ace-
tylcholine at the motor end-plate). Even This problem also applies to some well-
then, the frog still swims a short distance known experiments with humans. Frey
toward the anode with each current (1949), for example, reports on experi-
pulse at the same current strength which ments with an inhalation mask whose inspi-
elicits the galvanotactic response in the ration hose was fitted with a copper ring 10
intact animal. cm before the nasal opening. This ring was
5. It was thus shown that the electric cur- charged to a voltage of +411 V, -411 V or
rent directly excites the musculature, -90 V, which affected the ion content of
which performs a movement imposed the inspired air. But the resultant electro-
upon it by this current. Galvanotaxis, static field can also exert certain direct ef-
then, is the result of an electrical stimu- fects, at least on nearby portions of the
lus which, like the action potential of the head, which are quite independent of the in-
motor nerve fiber, acts directly on the spired air.
muscle (via the chemical transmitter A positive charge (411 V) on the copper
acetylcholine ). ring led to an increase in systolic blood
pressure, heartbeat, and cardiac output,
It was assumed that the frog always with a simultaneous decrease in the periph-
turned toward the anode, and that the current eral flow resistance of vessels. A negative
thus exerts a polar effect. However, it can charge (90 V) can have the same effect, but
be shown in the curarized animal that this it sometimes produces an opposite reaction
assumption is no longer true. If the frog is initially before the aforementioned symp-
placed into the experimental vessel at an toms supervene.
angle to the field lines under constant cur- Kritzinger (1957) reports improved per-
rent density conditions, it will exhibit a formance in the Pauli test (working simple
swimming response only in the direction of arithmetic problems over a long period of
the anode. But if the current density is time) under the influence of an electrostatic
increased, the animal swims suddenly to- field. In his experiments, subjects were ex-
ward the cathode with each current pulse, posed to a field intensity of 1800 V 1m in the
which apparently contradicts all previous region of the head. Compared with a nor-
experiments. Kemmer (1967) believes that mal performance increment of about 10%
the explanation for this lies in the different relative to initial performance, the field-ex-
distribution of ions inside and outside the posed subjects showed an increment of
membrane of each cell, including the mus- 180/0- 25%. Kritzinger also produced a
cle fiber, which results in the presence of a calming effect on the respiration of subjects
40-80 mV electric resting potential at the by the use of 1 kV 1m fields in connection
membrane. This leads to different effects with other experiments. Although the Krit-
for currents of different polarization. If the zinger experiments might not withstand the
current density is increased sufficiently, the closest scrutiny and his results should be
current will become active against this rest- accepted with some reservation (see "Ar-
ing potential, thereby disrupting the specif- chitectural Biology") they correlate very
ic orientation of the animal with respect to well with other available material. Daniel
the current direction. (1965) also reports a calming of respiration
There is no doubt that electrostatic fields and pulse (reduction of pulse rate by about
influence the ionization of the air, but this 10%) in experimental subjects as a result of
has almost never been taken into account in exposure to 1 kV 1m electrostatic fields.
experiments reported in the literature. As a Varga (1968a) confirms this decrease in
result, it is difficult to determine whether pulse rate as a function of field intensity in
reported biologic effects are triggered by the range from 1 to 100 kV/m.
the direct action of the electrostatic field or Reinders (1964) claims, based on experi-
by associated changes in air ionization. ments with electrode voltages of about 10
62 Biologic Activity of Static and Low-frequency fields
kV, that electrostatic DC fields are, sity values for the months of April through
beyond a certain point, capable of "in- December were correlated with the total
fluencing certain vital functions in such a number of medical visits made by the peo-
way that weather phenomena which have ple living on Kerguelen.
an adverse effect on the health of many per- A striking association was found be-
sons can be largely compensated. Pro- tween the number of medical visits and the
longed and regular exposure even appears intensity of the electrostatic field. Another
to reduce weather sensitivity in susceptible connection was revealed by the Schneider
persons, thereby improving their overall test, which is essentially a cardiac output or
state of health. " fatigue test to which the nonathlete is es-
Lueders (1968) also showed by statistical pecially sensitive. An inverse propor-
and objective studies that electrostatic tionality was found between the atmo-
fields exert an effect on human resistance spheric electric field intensity and the
and the human autonomic nervous system. Schneider test. As the field intensity in-
He made use of data obtained by K.-H. creased, the Schneider test values declined,
Schulz (1965) in measurements of the elec- meaning that the functional capacity of the
tric conductivity of the skin under the influ- test subjects became increasingly poorer.
ence of an electrostatic field. The blood sedimentation rate was also in-
Schulz (1967) conducted additional ex- versely proportional to the electrostatic
periments with electrostatic fields. His sub- field intensity. Higher sedimentation rates
ject was seated on a plate, insulated from were always associated with very low at-
the ground, which was charged with either mospheric electric field intensities. A cer-
a positive or negative direct voltage of up to tain correlation could also be established
500 V. The effects of the field were again between field intensity and the number of
monitored by measuring the various con- blood corpuscles present.
ductivity values, which in most cases de- On the whole, these results indicate that
creased steadily with the field. The conduc- a connection exists between certain patho-
tivity values measured during the course of physiological reactions and the value of the
several days showed a pronounced down- electric field gradient in the immediate
ward shift, while the subject clinically human environment. It is necessary, how-
showed an improvement or normalization ever, to conduct more precise investiga-
of disordered functions. Schulz sees in this tions in order to obtain better information
a simple and suitable means of determining in this area of biophysics.
the effect of static electricity on the human One word of criticism must be added at
body and its purposeful therapeutic use. He this point with regard to experimental
found that apparently not every person design. The necessary improvements and
reacts in this way, however, and that there refinements should not be limited strictly to
appear to be various reaction types. The the biologic testing methods, but should
initial state of the SUbject, which can vary also include certain technical refinements
widely with external factors, also plays a as well. With the technique employed, it is
role. not entirely clear whether it was always the
Callot et al. (1973) reported on interest- electric field which the authors cited as the
ing observations of electrostatic field ef- presumed parameter. While it is true that
fects in persons who spent the winter on the radioactive probe attached to the an-
Kerguelen (southern hemisphere). Using a tenna ionized the surrounding air and thus
horizontal antenna attached to a radioac- facilitated measurement of the electrostatic
tive probe with radium D (220 Ra) or field, it must be considered that the move-
americium-241, the electrostatic field was ment of air in the immediate vicinity of the
measured at a height of about 1 m above the antenna was indirectly recorded along with
ground, and then the mean recorded inten- the electrostatic field.
It cannot be claimed that the report be selected with certainty only if clearly
presented here on the biologic activity of defined personality traits are used as cri-
electrostatic fields is complete, of course. teria. Therefore, he used only two dimen-
In any case, a survey of the literature sions in his selection of subjects: extrover-
shows a considerable diversity of results sion and psychic lability (neuroticism), as
both in psychological tests and in physio- determined operationally by questionnaire
logical measurements. Certain systematic (Eysenck, 1959).
connections have been established between Schulz (1970) began his experiments
the action of electrostatic fields and the be- with a total of 60 subjects. They were
havior or subjective state of man, but they divided into four groups of 15 each for his
are few in number. Although the biologic preliminary experiment, which was pre-
effects of the electrostatic field are con- paratory to his main experiment. Three of
firmed by most authors, a comparison the four groups were exposed to three dif-
shows that many results are contradictory. ferent electric field intensities: I k V1m, 2
The most probable reasons for this have k V1m and 3 k V1m (measured at the level of
been mentioned: inadequate technical re- the head). The fourth group was exposed to
sources, incomplete knowledge in the area no electric field and served as the control.
of electrophysics, incomplete knowledge of The experiments took place in a partly
the potential biologic activity of ELF and climatized chamber whose walls, floor and
VLF fields, quite apart from purely biologic ceiling were covered with metal foil, which
aspects. As a result, it is rare for a re- provided good shielding against external al-
searcher to allow for the possible occur- ternating electric fields of natural or ar-
rence of ELF field fluctuations, for ex- tificial origin. The room temperature varied
ample, due to mechanical vibration of the between 20° and 23° C, the relative humidi-
electrodes (variation of spacing). ty between 50% and 60%. The ionization
However, one must give special recogni- strength of the experimental chamber could
tion to the work of H. Schulz (1970), who not be monitored due to a lack of in-
was able to show on a scientific basis a strumentation. The experiments them-
means of clarifying at least one aspect of selves were conducted on an individual
this somewhat confusing situation. Every basis by the double-blind method. Neither
expert in the field of bioclimatic research the subject nor the experimenter were in-
knows from experience that individuals fall formed as to the conditions in effect. The
into various types according to their reac- preliminary experiment yielded the follow-
tion to changes in environmental para- ing results:
meters (e.g., "vagotonics" or "sympathet- 1. The reaction time to a simple acoustic
icotonics," or "W types" and "K types"). signal was apparently improved at a field in-
This is reported by Curry (1946), Hansche tensity of 1 kV/m compared with zero-field
(1963), Hartmann (1967), Reinders (1964), conditions and higher intensities of 2 kV/m
K.- H. Schulz (1967), Schuldt (197 4b), and and 3 kV/m. Thus the field effect showed
many others. H. Schulz knew that similar an intensity dependence, which was con-
principles were employed in psychophar- firmed by subsequent findings.
macological studies. He therefore made 2. Long-term performance was mea-
use of this well-proven personality-specific sured by the Pauli test, in which the sub-
working model in his investigations of the jects continuously added together single-
psychological effects of one bioclimatic digit numbers and wrote down the sum.
parameter, the electrostatic field. Schulz The result of the test, shown in Fig. 4-1, led
maintained that, for procedural reasons, Schulz to conclude that the performance of
the study should be limited to a few well- the groups in the Pauli test is systematically
established dimensions of the human per- influenced by the intensity of the static
sonality, because homogeneous groups can electric field; specifically, a low field inten-
700 Zahl der Additionen a-
.",.,.--------------
680
b- Zahl der Pauli-additionen in fOnf 12 Minuten-Intervallen __ 1 KV/m
66
640
620 ,/'/
600 //
580 _ _- -......- - - - O V I m
560
540
////..-
520
500
480
460
440
420
400
380
Figure 4-1. Mean number of Pauli additions for four groups in different electrostatic fields during five
12-min intervals. After K.-H. Schulz (1970).
Key: a-Number of additions; b-Number of Pauli additions in five 12-minute intervals; c) Minutes
sity (1 kV/m) tends to improve perform- 4. In the speed "dotting test" the subject
ance, while higher intensities (3 kV 1m) tend was given a pencil and paper and told to
to impair it. make as many dots on the paper as possible
3. In another test the subject's task was in 15 s, with no regard for the placement of
to determine the "flicker fusion frequency." the dots. With the increase in the electro-
Analysis of the test results showed no ef- static field a trend toward an increase in the
fect of the static electric field on test-related number of dots was observed, as shown in
fatigue in the subjects. Fig. 4-2.
b-
Geschwindigkeitspunktierungen
C- vor nach vor nach

o VIm 1 KV/m 2 KV/m 3 KV/m
Figure 4-2. Mean number of dots made in speed dotting test before and after a dual task under
various electrostatic field conditions. After K.- H. Schulz (1970).
Key: a-Number of dots; b-Speed dotting test; c-Before After
8- EWL -Skalen
b- Kontakt c- Emotionale Stabilitat d- Stimmuna e- Aktivitat f- Dominanz
+t4 IIIi!iIIIIIIIlI ~yor g-

+12 c::::::::J "" nach h-
der
Doppelaufgab
+10
+8
+6
+4
"11 ~ ~ I~ il h
.~- I~ ~~u
•
-2
-4
-6
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
KV/m
Figure 4-3. Self-assessment offour groups subjected to various electrostatic field conditions, before
and after a dual task_ After K.- H. Schulz (1970).
Key: a-Adjective list scales; b-Contact; c-Emotional stability; d-Mood; e-Activity; f-Dominance;
g- Before; h -After the dual task
5. Each subject's self-evaluation of per- average difference between the 2- and

formance showed a covariation with field 3-kV/m groups and the control group with
exposure conditions. regard to the concentration scale.
6. An adjective list developed by Jahnke Based on the results of this preliminary
(1961) was used to evaluate the momentary experiment, which are of considerable im-
subjective state of the test subjects. Analy- portance in themselves, Schulz (1970) con-
sis of the data obtained by this method in- ducted his main experiment, designed to
dicated a clear effect of the time factor on all yield more personality-specific findings.
five scales (Fig. 4-3), as well as distinct For this purpose the subjects were divided
group differences for three scales (readi- on the basis of psychological tests into four
ness for contact, emotional stability, and groups: extroverted/stable (ES), ex-
activity), and a significant interaction be- troverted/labile (EL), introverted/stable
tween field exposure and the time factor for (IS), and introverted/labile (IL). Only one
two cases (contact and activity). field intensity, 2 kV/m, was employed in
7 _ Besides the adjective list, the subjects the main experiment. The following results
were presented with five evaluation scales were obtained:
to determine their subjective state. These 1. In the case of the adjective-list scales,
five-point scales, designed for the experi- the subjects also reacted sensitively to the
ment, measured freshness, concentration, experimental treatment in the main experi-
work enjoyment, tension, and talka- ment; there were personality-specific reac-
tiveness. This test represents a direct scal- tion modes to the experimental treatment in
ing of the corresponding dimensions by the all five scales (Fig. 4-4). The effect of ex-
subjects themselves. It was found that self- troversion on the reaction of the subjects to
evaluation according to these scales was the static electric field is equidirectional in
also time dependent, with the exception of four of the five scales (contact, emotional
the "tension" scale. The subjects in the stability, mood, and activity). These group-
field-exposed groups (1,2 and 3 kV/m) felt specific reaction modes were found to be
both fresher and more talkative on first statistically significant for the scales in-
measurement than did the subjects in the dicated. Moreover, extroverted subjects
control group. There was also a significant proved to have a greater readiness for con-
a- ELW-Skalen
b- Kontakt C- emotionale Stabilitat d-Stimmung e- AktivitAt f- Dominanz
+18 IIIIIIII!lIII!I o VIm
+16 c:::::::J 2KVlm
f+14
+12
+10
-t-8
111 III
4
1 II
-2
-4
~ IIJ I
-6
gOES EL IS IL ES EL IS IL ES EL IS IL ES EL IS IL ES EL IS IL
Gruppen
Figure 4-4. Self-assessment of four personality groups (ES, extrovert-stable; EL, extrovert-labile;
IS, introvert-stable; IL, introvert-labile) on five scales of an adjective list under control and experi-
mental conditions (electrostatic field of 2 kV/m). After K.-H. Schulz (1970).
Key: a-Adjective list scales; b-Contact; c-Emotional stability; d-Mood; e-Activity; f-Dominance;
g-Groups
tact than introverted subjects in both the "mood," "activity," and "emotional stabi-
control and main sessions. lity" scales by the end of the two-hour ex-
2. The pulse rate, as an index of physio- perimental session than did the control sub-
logic activity, was recorded by random jects and thus showed signs of a mild
sample at the beginning, during the middle "euphoria," as was also observed in the
and toward the end of the two-hour experi- first adjective-list tests in the preliminary
ment. As Fig. 4-5 shows, the physiologic experiment. Extroverted subjects, on the
response of the four personality groups to other hand, reported a slight impairment of
the experimental treatment varied. While their subjective well-being at the end of the
the EL group reacted to field exposure with 2-hr session_
a slowing of the pulse rate, the IL group Schulz summarizes the results of his pre-
showed a quickening of the pulse. liminary and main experiments as follows:
3. The excretion of epinephrine and
norepinephrine (Fig. 4-6) in the urine ap- 1. Static electric fields have an effect on the
peared to be altered by two hours' exposure subject well-being of test subjects.
to the static electric field, although this ef- 2. The effect has a relatively rapid onset
fect could not be verified statistically. and is probably complicated by the pe-
In discussing his results, Schulz stated ripheral parameters of the experimental
that the hypothesis that a static electric situation.
field (2 kV/m) exerts a general effect on the 3. Personality traits must be taken into ac-
subjective well-being of man is supported count when judging the effect of the
by the fact that self-evaluation on most of field.
the adjective scales was influenced by the 4. It cannot be shown with certainty that
experimental treatment. Personality- objectively measurable physical per-
specific differences could also be found in formance is affected.
the effect of the field. Introverted subjects 5. Individual differences are present in the
achieved higher values on the "contact," degree to which the subjects are irritated
8- Pulsfrequenz jeweils nach

I
5 MinSO Min.110 Min 5 Min.60MinJl0Min5 Min. SO Mln.ll0 Min 5 Min.SOMin.ll0 Min
80
64
60~ ________-L________- i__________~________~
c- Gruppen ES d- EL IS
e- IL
- - - Kontrolle - - - - - - -elektrostatistisches Feld
Figure 4-5. Mean cardiac pulse rate of four personality groups (ES, extrovert-stable; EL, extrovert-
labile; IS, introvert-stable; IL, introvert-labile) under control and experimental conditions (electrosta-
tic field of 2 kV/m) at three points in time. After K.-H. Schulz (1970).
Key: a-Pulse rate after: b-Pulse, beats/min; c-Groups; d-Control; e-Electrostatic field
by the fields, as indicated by pulse rate static electric fields on the test subjects
data. Catecholamine secretion does not again be detected on repeated exposure, or
change significantly on field exposure. were the subjects' reactions unique and
nonreproducible? He also wished to learn
In a follow-up experiment, Schulz (1970) whether the effect of the field, which ap-
investigated the question, Can the effect of parently has a very rapid onset, terminates
ng/mln.
a- Noradrenalin
60
30
20
o Ko. Exp.
b-
Gruppen ES EL IS IL
Figure 4-6. Mean norepinephrine secretion in four personality groups (ES, EL, IS, IL) under control
and experimental conditions (electrostatic field of 2 kV/m). After K.-H. Schulz (1970).
Key: a-Norepinephrine; b-Groups; c-Control Experimental
as soon as the field is switched off, or simple psychomotor test. The EL and IS
whether after-effects persist. He found the groups each made more dots during the sec-
following: ond measurement than during the first. For
1. The adjective-list evaluation yielded the other two groups, ES and IL, the op-
no useful results, probably due to an insuf- posite observation was made.
ficient random sampling. Schulz (1970) concluded his report by
2. Pulse-rate measurements again con- stressing the need for personality-specific
firmed the spontaneous action of the field planning in the majority of tests employed.
on this circulatory parameter. He also Studies by Bisa and Weidemann (1955) on
found that a certain interaction exists be- the effect of electro-aerosol therapy on the
tween the experimental treatment and psy- flicker fusion frequency confirm this. A
chic stability; the pulse rate of labile sub- comparison of the control and experimental
jects rose during field exposure. In the sta- conditions in all patients showed no signifi-
ble subjects, a difference was found be- cant threshold changes in optical resolu-
tween the extroverts and introverts: while tion. However, when the patients were
the ES group showed a fall of pulse rate divided into homogeneous subgroups ac-
during field exposure, the IS group reacted cording to their reactions in various physio-
with a slight increase in pulse rate, like the logic measurements, typical effects of uni-
labile groups. In the ES group the pulse rate polar positively- or negatively charged
clearly slowed under control conditions, electro-aerosols on the fusion frequency
while it remained at roughly the same level could be determined.
under experimental conditions. In the IL Tromp (1963) pointed to connections be-
group, on the other hand, the pulse rate was tween air pollution (smog) and death rates
relatively constant under control conditions (see also Fig. 1-8). Fisher et al. (1977) in-
and fell considerably under experimental vestigated the significance of the natural at-
conditions. The results of the pulse-rate mospheric electric field in this regard:
measurements were also of interest with
regard to the question of the onset of the The atmospheric electric potential (E)
field effect, however; for even more clearly was evaluated statistically with smoke
than the main experiment, the follow-up ex- and sulfur dioxide as a predictor of
periment showed differences between the excess mortality during the London air
control measurements and measurements pollution episodes of the 1950s. E, as a
surrogate of respirable aerosols, in
within the field, especially in the first
combination with S02 proved to be a
measurement five minutes after the static better predictor of excess episode mor-
electric field was started. tality than smoke.
3. The flicker fusion frequency test was
confirmed as a suitable means of in vesti gat-
ing the field effect. It revealed significant
differences between the two personality Static Magnetic Fields
factors, while the treatment factor played
only a subordinate role. Barnothy (1964, 1969) presents an ex-
4. The dotting test showed the most dis- cellent survey of studies dealing with the
tinct field-related effects in the follow-up biologic effects of magnetic fields, although
experiment. The test subjects made more he confines his attention to static magnetic
dots under the influence of the static field fields. (Time-varying magnetic fields induce
than under control conditions. The overall an electric current in biologic systems, so
performance of the stable subjects changed that the effects of these currents generally
little on exposure to the field, while the mask the biologic effects of the magnetic
labile subjects responded to field exposure field itself.) The various values of the
with an improvement of performance in this biologic effects observed by Barnothy
Static Magnetic Fields 69
Table 4-1. Values at which various biologic objects and phenomena respond to magnetic fields or
magnetic field gradients. After Barnothy (1969).
Field-sensitive phenomena Field-gradient-sensitive phenomena
(kA/m) (kA/m2)
Snakes 0.12 Dowsing reflex 10-5
Magnetophosphenes 16 Cast-off of tumors 4,800
Central nervous system (rabbit) 64 Cessation of bacterial
Plant growth (wheat) 80 growth (logarithmic phase) 18,400
Embryo resorption (mouse) 240 Magnetotropism 40,000
Developmental retardation 320 Lethal effect (mouse) 40,000
Hematologic changes, wound healing, Lethal effect (fly) 48,000
pathologic changes, altered enzyme Cessation of tumor growth 80,000
activity 400
Altered oxygen consumption and
degeneration of cancer cells 640
Cessation of bacterial growth (static
phase) 1,125
Oxygen uptake in potatoes, survival
of leukemic mice 1,440
(1969) are given in Table 4-1, arranged ac- gradient of 0.5 Tim, and to an induction of
cording to field intensity or the gradient of 0.36 T and average gradient of6.5 Tim was
the field intensity (local variation of mag- compared. The growth of the mice was re-
netic field intensity). tarded much more strongly in the more
Bamothy found that the growth of mice homogeneous field than in the relatively
is substantially retarded if a magnetic in- inhomogeneous field (Fig. 4-7). In experi-
duction of about 0.6 T (6000 G) with an ments with transplanted tumors, the bodies
average gradient of 1 Tim is installed in of mice in a magnetic field of about 0.3-0.4
their cages. Besides the absolute field inten- T were able to cast off the tumor, in COn-
sity, the gradient of the field also appears to trast with control animals. Similar experi-
play an important role, for in another exper- ments are reported by Gross (1960), who
iment the growth of mice exposed to a field showed statistically that the life expectancy
with an induction of 0.42 T and average of tumor-bearing mice would be prolonged
b-
1,0,5
....c-................ --...-----.---... - ...... - .... -......
, ............. .!..~omogen
"",,,,
..
~ -1,0
~
'0
~ -1,5
u
.~ 4200 oe -50 oe/crn
~
(!l 3600 oe ·650 oe/em
a- ·2,.~----_+_----_+_----+------+-
o 10 15 20
d- Tage 1m agnetfeld
Figure 4-7. Growth retardation (weight difference between experimental and control animals) in
mice exposed to a homogeneous and inhomogeneous magnetic field. The action of the static
homogeneous field is stronger than that of the inhomogeneous field. The most marked effect is ob-
served in both cases after 10 days' treatment. After Barnothy (1969).
Key: a-Weight difference (g); b-Inhomogeneous; c-Homogeneous d-Days in magnetic field
70 b- control
60
~
a- ~ 55
'ii
N e-
50
45
40~-----------r----------~----------
1 2 3 d- Zeit [hI
Figure 4-8.The effect of a static magnetic field <about 600 kA/m, or 0.73 T, in air) on cell bodies of a
tumor suspension. The cross-bars indicate the scatter. After D'Souza (1969).
Key: a-Cell bodies; b-Control; c-In the field; d- Time (hr)
by exposing the mice to a magnetic field intensity (up to 800 kA/m) produced no sig-
before implantation of the tumor. This ef- nificantly greater effect than the 640 AIm
fect presumably has to do with a leukocy- field.
tosis caused by exposure to the magnetic Barnothy (1969) also conducted exhaus-
field. Unfortunately no successful experi- tive studies on the effects of magnetic fields
ments are yet known which confirm these on the growth and development of organ-
positive findings with regard to the treat- isms. Experiments with 680 mice yielded
ment of tumors in man. the following results:
Souza et al. (1969) performed experi-
ments with tumor suspensions. The suspen- 1. In all cases, exposure to the magnetic
sions were exposed to a magnetic field at field produced a retardation of growth
600 kA/m for 1-3 hr and compared with compared with the control animals.
corresponding controls. As Fig. 4-8 shows, 2. The field with a smaller gradient (640
the researchers found a statistically signifi- kA/m2 or 0.42 TIm at 336 kA/m) had a
cant reduction in the number of cell bodies greater effect than a field with a larger
in the suspensions exposed to the magnetic gradient (5200 kA/m2 or 0.36 TIm at 29
field. kA/m).
Cook et al. (1969) reported on the effects 3. The mean difference in body weight be-
of magnetic fields on cellular respiration. tween the two groups of animals (treated
They found that at field intensities of 640 and untreated) was greater in young
AIm or higher, respiration. was corre- animals than in adults, although the rela-
spondingly diminished. Fields of lower in- tive weight reduction was more pro-
tensity had no effect, while those of higher nounced in the adult animals.
4. The treated group exhibited greater indi- from the mean value of four generations
vidual differences than the control took place in the magnetically treated cul-
group, indicating that the action of the ture than in the control culture. It is
field is different in different individuals. presumed that the magnetic field deflected a
5. On the second day of field exposure, a portion of the blast-generated radiation
marked weight loss was observed re- from the experimental container. Another
gardless of the nature of the field. possibility is that the magnetic field pro-
duced a protective effect which was trans-
A high-altitude atomic test on July 9, mitted from the original population to the
1962, apparently influenced electric and first generation of offspring, which then
magnetic conditions on the earth's surface. grew up outside the field.
Simultaneous worldwide measurements of The static magnetic field has also proved
all known electric and magnetic parameters capable of producing genetic effects. The
showed considerable disturbances in many animal most often used in such experiments
areas, which were apparently caused by is the fly Drosophila. The field intensities
this explosion. The question of whether generally range from 60 kA/m to 560 kA/m
such nuclear tests can also produce biologic (Barnothy, 1969). Interestingly, experi-
effects was investigated by Levengood ments with higher intensities (11 ,200
(1967b), who experimented with two kA/m) led, in the case of Drosophila, to no
groups of flies in separate containers. discernible genetic effects. Apparently
Mounted to the outside of one container there is an optimal range of intensities for
was a permanent magnet which produced a genetic effects.
magnetic field of about 0.035 T (350 G) Electromagnetic field effects have also
within the container. The flies in the second been demonstrated in the growth of plants.
container served as controls. The effect of a static magnetic field of 100
The curves tracing the production of off- kA/m on the roots and plants of barley
spring by the two separate cultures each seedlings is shown in Fig. 4-9, which
show a discontinuity associated with the clearly indicates an acceleration of growth.
nuclear test. However, a smaller deviation Based on available results from the ex-
2.0
I
I " ,
I
t5 I
I
I
I
I
I
to I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0,5 I
I
I
I
I
O.L.-_ _-+-_ _-+___+--_

50 100 150 b- Zeit, h
Figure 4-9. Effect of a static magnetic field of 100 kA/m (0.12 T, in air) on the roots (I) and plant
body (II) of barley seedlings. Broken line: plants in the magnetic field; solid line: control. After
Merikle et aI. (1964)
Key: a-Growth rate (mm/hr); b- Time (hr)
periments of N ovitskii et al. (1965, 1966 to draw nutrients, resulting in better and
a,b,c), Presman (1970) draws the following more rapid growth. Other experiments with
conclusions: grain and other seed com exposed to ar-
tificially produced magnetic fields even in-
1. The stimulating effect of weak magnetic dicate an increase in plant growth.
fields (1.6-6.4 kA/m) on plant growth is The effect of water treated with elec-
especially marked in the first 2 or 3 days tromagnetic fields on biologic systems is
of seedling growth. another interesting question. Presman
2. Field intensities of 6.4 kA/m lead to ac- (1970) reported changes in the physico-
celerated leaf movements and alter- chemical properties of water exposed to
ations in the electric resistance of the magnetic fields. According to his findings,
plant substance. such properties as surface tension, viscosi-
3. Strong magnetic fields (360 kA/m for 1 ty, and electric resistance can be strongly
hr) influence the magnetic properties of influenced by a field intensity of 0-800
plants. kA/m. The dielectric constant of water or
distilled water is also changed by a factor of
In his study on the biologic activity of 3 to 4 exposure to a magnetic field of
magnetic fields, Edmiston (1972) used mus- 80-160 kA/m.
tard seeds, whose germination, measured in Effects of magnetically treated water
4-day periods, allowed observation of the (80-120 kA/m) on plants are mentioned by
effect of a static field (field intensity 27 Dardymov et al. (1965). Sunflowers, com,
kA/m, corresponding to a magnetic induc- and soybeans exhibit a significantly greater
tion in air of about 0.034 T or 340 G). Ad- plant growth and thicker stems than compa-
ditional experiments with seedlings ar- rable control groups when the plants of the
ranged on a rotating platform in a magnetic experimental group are watered with such
field, as well as follow-up experiments magnetically treated water.
under weaker static field conditions (185 Studies by Varga (1973) contribute much
AIm) showed that seedlings that are rotated to clarifying the mechanism of the observed
in a magnetic field exhibit more rapid biologic effects of nagmetic fields. He first
growth than the rotating or stationary con- repeated well-publicized experiments on
trols outside the field. Stationary seedlings the effect of magnetic fields on the growth
in a magnetic field grow more slowly than of bacteria. The exposure of bacterial sus-
the controls. pensions (E. coli, Bac. subtilis) to a static
Astonishing results are reported in con- magnetic field and to a 50-Hz field led to an
nection with the terrestrial magnetic field. average increase in the growth rate of 27%
Pittmann (1967), for example, noticed that and 33%, respectively, a shortening of the
winter wheat plants in an experimental field duplication time by about 18% and 22%, re-
grew better in rows planted in an east-west spectively, and an average increase in yield
direction than in rows planted in a of about 20%-60% and 40%-80%, respec-
north-south direction. He was surprised to tively. The effect of the magnetic field on
learn in subsequent research that almost all the growth rate was optimal at about 7 mT.
root systems grow from north to south, par- Investigations of the frequency-depen-
allel to the earth's magnetic field. If wheat dence of the growth effects of magnet-
seeds are sown in furrows oriented in this ic fields of about 10-5 T showed that the
direction, the germinating plants must ap- effect of the field increased with frequency
parently compete with each other for nu- in the range from 1 Hz to 1 kHz, doubling
trients in the soil. But if they grow in fur- the growth rate over this range. A minimum
rows running from east to west, they do not occurred at 10kHz (return almost to the
penetrate the root systems of other plants, value at 1 Hz), followed by a flat maximum
and each plant has its own zone from which between 100 kHz and 1 MHz.
Investigations of the optimal duration of Beischer (1969) did a study on the effects
exposure of the bacteria to the field showed of extremely strong magnetic fields
no measurable difference over the range be- (8 x 106 AIm) on the ECG of monkeys.
tween 1 sand 1 hr. The change is clearly evident in the traces
Further experiments produced the fol- in Fig. 4-10.
lowing, very illuminating result. The A Japanese team of internists headed by
growth of microorganisms can be acceler- Prof. Noboro Kimura (1967) reported on
ated simply by exposing the culture medi- the therapeutic effect of a magnetic arm
um to a magnetic field. In other words, no band on shoulder stiffness. For experi-
microorganisms need be present during mental purposes, the patients were issued
field exposure in order to achieve the two types of arm bands (Fig. 4-11). One
described effects. It was also found that was fitted with permanent magnets ar-
only about 3% of the total solution need be ranged so that the magnetic lines of force
treated with the magnetic field to produce penetrated into the arm. In the other, the
growth acceleration. magnets were arranged on the outside so
Directly related to these results are expe- that the wearer was not magnetically in-
riences reported by Weissenborn (1968) fluenced. All bands were identical in ap-
with strong magnetic fields. He reports on pearance, and none of the patients knew
some 600 applications of a permanent mag- which type he wore. The patients were
net with a magnetic flux of 17-20 x 10-5 given the choice of wearing the band on the
V sec (17,000-20,000 maxwells) directly at side with the greatest pain. Many patients
its 60-cm2 surface. In his experiments, the wore them on both arms. The experiment
permanent magnet was held near the heart lasted about 4 weeks. If shoulder stiffness
of patients for a period of several seconds. did not improve after one week, the case
After a few minutes a clear reaction could was recorded as a failure. Statistically, the
be seen in the form of changes in the ECG result was as follows: 41% of the patients
and pulse-pressure curves. He even reports with the "therapeutic" arm bands reported
some instances of unconsciousness occur- improvement, while 59% reported no im-
ring immediately after a brief exposure or provement. In the control group with the
several minutes later. In any case, the treat- "nontherapeutic" bands, the results were
ment reportedly effected an alteration of 7% success and 93% failure.
circulatory function toward more normal Because the improvements were ob-
values. served only subjectively, it is premature to
A B
.A
~
sec
~~
LA.
IV- 'v-
A
'If'
sec
~
mV
1
...., n Ir
'v
"" /"- Ih
r~ J'
l'
0.1
ec
Figure 4-10. Excerpts from the vectorcardiogram (ECG) of a monkey. (A) Control outside the
magnetic field; (B) animal in a static magnetic field of 8 X 106 AIm, or 10 T. After Beischer (1969).
Figure 4-11.
Japanese armband with permanent magnets, used in the treatment of shoulder stiffness.
From Kimura (1967).
conclude that the use of the magnetic arm would be encountered there. Table 4-2
band cures disease. But since the band was presents an overview of the wide range of
effective in 41 % of the cases, it would ap- magnetic field intensities that occur in
pear that it is as sensible a therapy for space.
shoulder stiffness as any of the more ortho- Conley (1969) reports on experiments
dox symptomatic treatments. conducted with mice in magnetic fields of
less than 0.065 A/m (corresponding to 80 'Y
in air). He found a lower acid phosphatase
Effects of Extremely Weak activity in cellular solutions from the ani-
Magnetic Fields on mals kept in these weak magnetic fields
Biologic Systems during incubation than in the control ani-
mals. These in vivo experiments could not
Barnothy (1969) quotes a study by Conley be successfully reproduced in vitro, howev-
(1969) done in connection with manned er, Barnell and Brown (1961) also inves-
space-flights, because similar conditions tigated the biologic effects produced by
Table 4-2. A comparison of representative values of

static magnetic fields. After Beischer (1969).
AIm Tesla
Al-Ni magnet surtace -8.10 4 =0.1
Solar flares -8.1O:! = 10- 2
Quiet sun surtace -80 = 10- 4
Earth's surtace (at the
pole) -80 =7.10- 5
Interplanetary space
during magnetic
storms -0.08 = 10- 7
Moon, Mars, Venus <0.08 < 10-8 (Moon)
Interplanetary space,
normal - 8.10- 4 = 5.10- 9
Extremely Slow Field Fluctuations 75
relatively weak magnetic fields. They dem- 5 x 10-6 G and a frequency of 0.1-40 Hz
onstrated the ability of snails to orient (Fig. 4-12).
themselves in magnetic fields of 80 AIm.
Table 4-3 presents a partial survey of the
biologic effects which have been produced
by very weak magnetic fields, along with Extremely Slow Field Fluctuations
the authors to whom the observations are
attributed. In the transition zone between static and
In a comprehensive study, Busby (1968) ELF fields lie the extremely slow field fluc-
explored in detail the problems of the tuations in the ULF range. In investiga-
biologic activity of magnetic fields. Based tions of the biologic activity of such fields,
on an extensive survey of the literature, the the experimental object is introduced into
author dealt both with the effects of ex- "rotating" magnetic fields, produced by ro-
tremely weak fields on the order of about tating magnets.
100 l' (10-7 T) and with the effects of very Persinger (1969) studied the open-field
strong fields, which may occur in connec- behavior of rats exposed prenatally to a ro-
tion with space flight. tating magnetic field of low intensity and
Schneider (1974) also studied the orient- low frequency of rotation (field intensity
ing ability of animals in magnetic fields. He 0.3-3 mT, corresponding to 3-30 G;
found that june beetles are able to avoid frequency of rotating field 0.5 Hz). To
certain fields produced by permanent mag- monitor the movement of the 21- to 25-day-
nets. old animals, he measured the number of
Miericke (1972) devoted a study to the times they crossed squares painted in an
action of magnetic fields on humans. His open field. The animals exposed to the ro-
work led him to the general conclusion that tating magnetic field exhibited more move-
biologic effects-Qn both man and' ani- ment than the control animals. However,
mals-can be demonstrated for almost all the treated male rats crossed the squares
magnetic fields which differ in any respect much more frequently than the treated
from the natural geomagnetic field. Despite female rats. Young rats which were ex-
the fact that no serious illnesses or deaths posed prenatally to the rotating magnetic
have yet been observed in connection with field but were nursed postnatally by a con-
magnetic fields, the author recommends trol mother did not differ in behavior from
that man not be exposed unnecessarily to similarly treated animals which grew up
magnetic fields, regardless of their inten- with their own mother. In connection with
sity. these investigations, and to offer a hypo-
Injudging the degree to which the human thetical explanation for the observed bio-
body can be influenced by external magnet- logic effect of these fields on rat embryos,
ic fields, it would be helpful to know the in- Ludwig (1971) showed by calculation that
trinsic magnetic field of the human body it- the field intensities used in the experiment
self. Cohen (1975) investigated this prob- were sufficient to alter the ionic environ-
lem with the aid of a highly sensitive ment at synaptic membranes so as to
measuring device with an intrinsic noise on increase membrane permeability. The
the order of 1.6 x 10- 10 G . HZ-1I2. The shielding effect of steel structures against
principal sources of these endogenous mag- magnetic field fluctuations in this frequency
netic fields are apparently the currents range proved to be at least theoretically
generated by muscles and nerves. Magnetic negligible. As for possible mechanisms of
fields on the order of 5 x 10-8 G emanate action, it is presumed that so-called ELF
from the human brain. The magnetic fields waves exert central effects on the organism,
associated with cardiac activity are consid- while VLF waves exert peripheral effects.
erably stronger, with an intensity of about But this does not take into account the ELF
Table 4-3. Summary of selected reports on biologic studies of the effects of extremely
low-level static magnetic fields. After Barnothy (1969).
Object of Part Process Special
study investigated observed parameters measured
Algae (Euglena, Cells Growth Growth rate
Chlorella)
Bacteria Cells Growth Size and number of

(Staph. Albus) colonies
Winter wheat Entire plant Growth Root orientation
(seedlings)
Protozoa Entire Motor activity Direction of

(paramecium) organism locomotion and
number of
direction changes
Birds (sparrow) Entire Behavior Amplitude and
organism character of
motor activity
Mouse Entire Aging, growth, Life span, litter
organism reproduction size, activity,
and behavior behavior
Man Entire Behavior Number of
organism psychiatric cases
Man Entire Behavior and Psychological tests,

organism clinical EEG, ECG, body
data temperature and
weight, blood
Man Entire Behavior, Psychological tests
organism nervous function,
various functions
Wechseltelder a.. b- erdmagnetische SICirpegel in dor Sladt C-
Geturn
«-Ahylhmus
Id- FlO ktuationcn
(01-100 Hz)
(0.1-100 HZ)
Gehlrn bei St,;hlaf e- I

Muskulatur(1-100 Hz) 1-)
He'ZIQ,I-40Hzj g-
I
GloicIl'elder h-
krankes Hefz i-
I n- 51.:uiscnes
I
bdrlldgnt!'tteld
\IOOl Unlof1eib j-
von Staublunge k-
.!:..~Ios_ Mellbereich
. . m- k l _ o r Mellbereich
.
10- 10 10- 8 10-· 10 -4 10-' 100
0- MagnotfeId IGauB]
Figure 4-12. Measured intensities of the magnetic field emanating from various organs, compared
with corresponding geophysical data. After Cohen (1975).
Key: a-Alternating fields; b-Geomagnetic fluctuations; c-Noise level in the city; d-Alpha rhythm of
brain; e-Brain during sleep; f-Musculature (1-100 Hz); g-Heart (0.1-40 Hz); h-Static fields; i-
Diseased heart;j-From the lower abdomen; k-From lungs in pneumoconiosis; I-Range now accessi-
ble to measurement; m-Classical measuring range; n-Static geomagnetic field; o-Magnetic field (G,
or 10- 4 T)
Extremely Slow Field Fluctuations 77
Magnetic field Duration of

intensity treatment Effects observed Author and year
0.08-8'10' AIm 1 to 3 weeks Growth accelerated in Halpern (1966a, b)
very weak fields,
retarded in strong fields
4 AIm 72h Reduction in size and Becker (1963b)
number of colonies
Horizontal component Period of growth Orientation parallel to Pittman (1964)
of geomagnetic geomagnetic or artifi-
field 0.02 T (16 AIm) cial field in all cases
100 AIm Several seconds Statistically significant Brown (1962)
change of direction
when magnetic field
applied
about 50 to 135 AIm 2-9 h Increase and change in EI'Darov and
motor activity Kholodov (1964)
80 ± 40 mAIm 1 year Shortened life span (6 van Dyke and

mo.), diffuse tissue, Halpern (1965)
cannibalism, supination
Geomagnetic 1 month Positive correlation Becker et al.
fluctuations with intensity of (1961)
geomagnetic field
about 40 mAIm 10 days Lowering of threshold in Beischer and
flicker fusion test, Miller (1964)
other tests showed no
significant changes
<40 mAIm 10 days Lowered threshold in Beischer et al.
flicker fusion test, (1967)
p < 0.001
components produced by VLF waves due decrease in relative testicle weight during
to nonlinearity effects in biologic systems, exposure up to 26 days. Differences in the
even though the importance of such effects number of circulating eosinophils and the
is considerable both from the theoretical relative weight of the adrenal glands were
standpoint and on the basis of experimental insignificant.
findings. In another experiment with younger rats,
Persinger et al. (1972) worked with simi- which were only 80 days old at the start of
lar experimental conditions. In three exper- the experiment, no differences were found
iments they exposed male, 115- to 150-day- after 21 days' exposure relative to the con-
old rats to either a 0.05-0.3 or 0.3- 3 mT trol group. The physiologic changes ob-
(0.5- 3 or 3-30 G) rotating magnetic field served in the older animals are attributed to
with a frequency of 0.5 Hz for 5, 10 or 26 effects on the thyroid gland, including an al-
days. The rats exposed for 10 and 26 days teration of its liquid and crystalline struc-
showed a clearly higher water consumption ture.
than the control group. The same was ob- Persinger et al. (1978) also report the fol-
served for the 5-day rats, although these lowing, based on experiments with rats in
animals also showed a progressive decrease low-intensity 0.5-Hz magnetic fields:
in relative thyroid weight. At the same
time, a significant weight gain was observed Forty-eight adult female rats were
during exposure up to 10 days, and a caged in groups of 3 or 4 individuals
under normal lighting conditions for cies in the ELF range) are similar to cardiac
120-140 days. They were then ex- signals in the intensity of the E and H field.
posed in pairs to one of 6 different vari- The question arises, whether natural ELF
ation intensities (0.001 to 10 G, i.e., fields could influence electric and magnetic
10- 7 to 10-3 T) of a 0.5-Hz rotating processes in the heart under certain circum-
magnetic field (RMF) or to one of 3
stances. Such considerations are of interest
sham field positions for 10 days while
under constant 45 lux illumination.
primarily in connection with reports that
Post-mortem examination and histo- relate myocardial infarction to the passage
logical analyses demonstrated that of weather fronts (prior to changes in air
RMF-exposed rats show no significant pressure and temperature). Susceptible per-
changes in thyroid follicle numbers, sons would not be protected from such in-
perifollicular mast cell numbers, wet fluences by the "controlled" climate condi-
adrenal and pituitary weights, body tions of a house. Extremely low frequency
weight changes, or water consumption signals would precede ordinary meteo-
either between intensity groups or rela- rologic stimuli and penetrate readily into
tive to sham-field controls. Significant buildings.
interactions existed for thyroid and
The effect of VLF magnetic fields on
spleen weights between exposure in-
tensities and pre-exposure caging con-
human reaction time was investigated by
ditions for the 10-5 T to 10-6 T groups; Friedman et al. (1967). For this purpose
the effect was not linearly related to they constructed a Helmholtz coil arrange-
field intensity. Rats that had been main- ment (two air-core coils which, due to their
tained in the 4/cage situation showed spacing, produce a region with a nearly
significantly lighter body weights and homogeneous magnetic field) with which
more thyroid follicles; the significant they could produce magnetic fields of the
alterations in thyroid, adrenal and desired intensity and time variation. They
spleen weights were related to body found that the test subjects exposed to a
weight. 0.2-Hz field showed a statistically signifi-
cant increase in reaction time relative to the
Persinger (1973) also studied the possi- two comparison groups (0.1- Hz and static
bility of controlling cardiac activity by an fields). The same result was obtained in ex-
external 0.5-Hz rotating magnetic field with periments with only one group of subjects
an intensity of 0.001-0.002 T 00-20 G). who were subjected to the three experi-
For this purpose he performed two experimental conditions in succession.
ments to determine whether such fields
could playa role as a control factor in the
weakening (barbiturate-induced) of cardiac
function in rats. Animals that received sodi- ELF Fields
um pentobarbital at 30-min intervals and
were exposed to the rotating field for 4 hr In 1936 Schmid published a comprehensive
exhibited significantly slower cardiac con- summary of the literature on the biologic ef-
traction rates before extinction of the QRS fects of low-frequency natural and artificial
complex than the control groups. No dif- electromagnetic vibrations. We shall report
ferences were found between the groups at on more recent findings in this area, draw-
the end of the experiment with regard to ing on such works as the survey compiled
serum transaminase, serum iron or oxyhe- by Sheppard and Eisenbud (1977).
moglobin levels. Persinger (1973) sees a
connection between the ELF electrical sig-
nals of the heart and labile weather systems Effects on Man
as well as associated solar eruptions, and
states that natural fields in the ELF and The possibility that biologic effects are as-
VLF ranges (with pulse repetition frequen- sociated with ELF electric and magnetic
ELF Fields 79
fields has been recognized independently The infrared body measurements made
by numerous researchers in connection by Schwamm (1957) in a sawtooth oscilla-
with various experiments and on the basis tion field should be mentioned in this con-
of special observations. For example, Hart- text. He was one of the first to use the infra-
mann (1957) reports on individual experi- red (IR) emissions of the human body to
ments known since 1939. In 1951 he began develop an IR-emission diagnostic tech-
to work with Farenkopf and experimented nique, and found changes in the body's
with sawtooth electric field oscillations at emission spectrum under various external
frequencies of 1-20 Hz. He found very def- conditions. Hartmann (1958) adopted the
inite frequency-dependent biologic effects, method of Schwamm in order to demon-
which appeared to be type-specific. Saw- strate the biologic activity of sawtooth os-
tooth oscillations of 1-15 Hz apparently cillations by the spectrum of IR emissions
are biologically active. In man they can from the human body. Figure 4-13 shows
both trigger and alleviate disorders in the the time course of the sawtooth oscillations
space of a second. They reportedly have an employed and the corresponding infrared
anti-inflammatory and spasmogenic effect spectrum. The greatest differences are seen
in the lower-frequency range, and an anti- between the all-positively and all-nega-
spasmodic and phlogogenic effect in the tively polarized fields: the IR spectrum
higher-frequency range. Patients should be shows a clear shift from emission predomi-
treated with the field frequency most favor- nantly at 30 /Lm to peak emission at 6 /Lm.
able for their individual reaction type. Pre- Studies by Konig and Ankermiiller
sumably oscillations with specific frequen- (1960) originally dealt with the purely
cies can be associated with specific dis- geophysical measurement of ELF atmos-
eases, organs, parts of organs and parts of pherics, as described in Chapter 2. For it
the body. Fields at 1.75 Hz are reportedly was found on analysis of signal activity that
effective against acute inflammations, while various signals occurred in the range of
fields at 10Hz have a spasmogenic effect 1-25 Hz which were apparently related to
on the body. local weather phenomena. This was es-
a- Art der Kippschwingung b- Ultrarot- Spektrum
"A
0.1 sec. if;
!14.-~:"::"'_.!
Figure 4-13. Effect of various ELF sawtooth-like waves on the infrared emission from the human
body. After Schwamm (1957) and Hartmann (1958).
Key: a-Waveform; b-Infrared spectrum
pecially true of the so-called "type II" signals these 10 cases by the "n method" (critical
(see Figs. 1-10 and 2-12)-irregular proc- hour n), and the mean reaction times were
esses in the frequency range of 3-6 Hz-as calculated for the half-hour intervals before
well as more or less sinusoidal processes of and after the critical hour n (n ± t, where
0.5-2 Hz (type III). There were also days t = 0, 30, 60 and 90 min). The time at which
with extremely low signal activity, as was the recording of the type II signals began
known from observations of VLF atmos- was taken as n.
pherics of 4-50 kHz by Reiter (1953). The reaction-time curve during the criti-
Prompted by bioclimatic studies on the ef- cal period (Fig. 4-14), was obtained by tak-
fects of VLF atmospherics on man and by ing the arithmetic mean of the corre-
our own observation that certain signal sponding reaction times during the 10 cases
types frequently coincide with more or less in which type II signals were recorded. The
typical local weather conditions, which are points making up the curve result from a
known to have general health effects, we per- total of 2000-3000 individual reaction-time
formed various experiments. values. The "type II signal intensity" curve
The main question was, are the elec- shows the mean variation of signal intensity
tromagnetic processes of 1-25 Hz that for the 10 cases of interest. The mean time
occur naturally in the atmosphere of purely of the onset of the type II signals was cal-
geophysical significance, or are they also culated at 2:30 P.M. For this point in time
important biologically, especially for man? the "normal mean reaction time" curve
To answer this question, we attempted to shows the reaction time pattern and scatter
find certain correlations by comparing sig- typical of the exhibition as a whole. The
nal recordings with the occurrence of points composing this curve result from
events, and to reproduce the atmospheric about 45,000 individual reaction-time mea-
signals artificially in the laboratory. The surements.
laboratory experiment allowed us to test The reaction times lie practically within
the biologic activity of these signals so that the scatter up to the critical time n (Fig.
results obtained by the comparative 4-14). After the appearance of type II sig-
method could be substantiated if necessary. nals, the reaction time of the subjects
Comparative investigations. A large increases considerably and lies well outside
number of reaction-time measurements the scatter. It attains a maximum between
were made among the visitors to an au- n + 30 and n + 60 min, while the signal in-
tomobile exhibition in Munich in 1953, as tensity steadily declines from its greatest
reported by Reiter (1954). Reaction time value at n to n + 90 min.
was determined by measuring the time Reaction times and type I signals. The
required for the subject to respond to a light undisturbed reception of type I signals was
signal by pressing a button. The extensive possible for 18 days during the month of
numerical material obtained in these mea- September 1953. The mean signal intensi-
surements provided an ideal data base for ties and mean subject reaction times were
comparing reaction times with signals re- computed for this 18-day period. The
corded simultaneously in the ELF range resulting curves are superimposed in Fig.
(Konig and Ankermiiller, 1960; Konig, 4-15 to show the parallel between them.
1962). The reaction times entered in the graph per-
Reaction times and type II signals. Since tain to the time between the half and whole
observations suggested that type II signals hour, each point representing about 4500
would have the most marked effect, our in- individual reaction-time measurements.
vestigations were begun in this area. Re- Type I signals apparently have an effect op-
cordings of atmospheric signals during the posite to that oftype II signals, for the reac-
course of the exhibition showed the pres- tion times shorten as the intensity of the
ence of type II signals in 10 usable cases. type I signals increases (Fig. 4-15).
The reaction times were determined for Despite statistical evaluation problems,
ELF Fields 81
a- Reaktionszeitvertauf
wAh rend dar Stichzeit
16 260
b- -
J., 255
~-]ld-
E
.s:::
250
as
c:
i
c:
:>
245
e
-.;
~ 240
........ --- _ - - - - U5
n-90 n-60 n-3O n+90 t [min]
fi
'iij
55=
e- :5 ~
Oil-
c:
CI
iii
n-90 n-60 n-30 n n+3O n+60 n+90 t [min]
Figure 4-14. Relationship between the reaction time of test subjects and type II ELF signal activity
(3-6 Hz). Reaction time measurements made during a traffic exhibition. Number of key cases: 10;
mean time of key hour: 14:30. Number of measure values per point on curve: (a) about 2500 during
the key hour, (b) about 40,000 for the normal, mean reaction time.
Key: a- Variation of reaction time during key period; b- Decreasing performance, reaction time (ms);
c - Normal, mean reaction time; d -Scatter; e -Type II signal intensity
the significance of these findings was recog- Electric Fields. The results of the previous
nized immediately, for they clearly pointed investigations prompted us to conduct ex-
to the biologic activity (possibly frequency- periments with artificially produced fields
dependent) of atmospheric signals. similar in character to natural type I and
Experiments in Artificially Produced type II signals. Electric voltages supplied
1.1 244
II
u;
I \
246
,''
1,0
.s
,,
\
0,9 248 \\
N \
0,8 a: 250 \
/I g-
0,7 iiN
f/)
c:
252 I~zd- t
\
--0._
0,6 254
\.
0
a-
0,5 b-g:
~
256 II ,"
a: "IS
:1 l.
0,4 258
~
0,3 ~ 260
'E.,
\\
0,2 262
0,1
c- CI
264 ';;.l
0 ~ ~
e- 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 Tageszalt
Figure 4-15. Relationship between the reaction time oftest subjects and the occurrence of type I sig-
nals (8-9 Hz). Reaction time measurements made during a traffic exhibition. Number of days on
which only this type of activity was recorded: 18; number of reaction time measurements per data
point: about 4500.
Key: a-Relative intensity of type I signals; b-Increasing performance; c-Mean reaction time (ms);
d_Reaction time; e-IO:00, 12:00, (etc.); f-Time of day; g-Type I signals
t
-400
-200
U
ill 0
.E.
l-
....
I!:
+200
+400
+600
Figure 4-16. Typical effect of a vertical electric field (plate spacing 2.5 m) with a frequency of 3 Hz
and a strong harmonic content corresponding to that of natural fields (type II) on the reaction time of
an individual seated test subject in a single-blind experiment. The voltage measured at the plates and
the duration of exposure to the field are indicated. The deviation of the reaction time (each point rep-
resenting the mean value of 10 successive measurements) corresponds to a scatter of 235 ms.
Key: a- Time (hr)
by a specially designed generator were con- the n method (critical time). The field was
nected to two wire screens, setting up an switched on for an average of 12 min at an
electric field between them. In one case, the intensity of about 1 V1m. An increase in
voltage was sinusoidal with a frequency of reaction time, and thus an impairment of
10 Hz; in another, it was distorted with a performance, is clearly seen after the field
strong harmonic content, with a fundamen- was switched on. The effect of exposure to
tal frequency of about 3 Hz. The screens an artificial type I electric field is shown in
were attached to the ceiling and floor of an Fig. 4-18. Here the average field intensity
experimental chamber and were separated was 2 V 1m and the average duration of ex-
by about 2.5 m. An arrangement was thus posure 8 min for 4 cases. A decrease in
available for introducing individual experi- reaction time (improvement of perform-
mental subjects into an artificial electric ance) occurred (Fig. 4-18). Of course the
field which was known to correspond to nat- numerical material from these two experi-
ural conditions. The reaction times of test ments is insufficient to produce statistically
subjects were determined at 20-min inter- convincing results, but it does confirm the
vals for 8 hr by the same method used at the results obtained at the Munich exhibition.
Munich exhibition. During these tests the Man is evidently influenced in a frequency-
subjects could be exposed intermittently to dependent manner by electric fields of the
the artificial field without knowing it. types described, regardless of whether they
The typical reaction of a single test sub- are natural or man-made.
ject to a type II field is shown in Fig. 4-16. Clinical Tests. To supplement the more
The deviations of reaction time from the SUbjective investigative methods pre-
mean value are clearly seen in the graph. viously described with results of more ob-
The field intensity values were on the order jective techniques, we performed elec-
of 1 V 1m, and the frequency was 3 Hz, trodermatographic (EDG) tests using the
which led as expected to an impairment of same experimental set-up. Whereas the
performance. The scatter, evaluated for the subjects were seated during the reaction-
few data points, was equal to 235 ms. time tests, they reclined for the EDG
The results for 8 cases of exposure to the measurements. Of 10 subjects exposed to
type II field are summarized in Fig. 4-17 by electric field intensities over 5 V1m (3 Hz,
ELF Fields 83
ms 4RZ b-
-20
J:
<>
.~ --+---+-r-+---.;t---"
a-.c
:::J
Figure 4-17. Effect of an artificially produced electric field corresponding to type II signals of natural
origin (3 Hz, strong harmonic content) on the reaction time of test subjects. An impairment of per-
formance was observed.
Key: a-Scatter; b-Reaction time; c-Electric field
distorted waveform), 5 showed a decrease JO-Hz Processes of General Signifi-

in skin resistance after the artificial field cance. Also of interest are studies by
was switched on (Fig. 4-19). Rohracher (1949,1952) and Rohracher and
Subjective Reports of Test Subjects. Inaga (1969), which revealed mechanical
Besides the results just described, some in- vibrations of the human body and ground,
teresting subjective reports were obtained both with a frequency of about 10 Hz (al-
from subjects exposed to the artificially though the latter are somewhat uncertain).
produced type II electric field. The subjects They strongly resemble type I signals in
repeatedly complained of headaches a few their time course. Wiist (1956) also dealt
minutes after short-term exposure. Re- with the human body as a vibrating system
peated exposure led to exacerbation of at these frequencies. Thus it appears that
these complaints or to signs of fatigue. Dis- the frequency of 10Hz occurs in nature in
appearance of the headache was often many forms, and it was apparent even then
followed by fatigue. All complaints, includ- that a type of natural constant was in-
ing a "tight feeling in the chest" or "sweat- volved.
ing of the palms," gradually disappeared General Considerations. Originally the
within a few hours. question was asked, Do atmospherics have
ARZb-
J:
.2
!!!
a- 1l-+--+----+---++--
t[minJ
~ -,,'----
+20
Figure 4-18. Effect of an artificially produced electric field corresponding to natural type-I atmos-
pherics (8-10 Hz, sinusoidal) on the reaction time of test subjects. An improvement of performance
was noted.
Key: a-Scatter; b-Reaction time; c-Electric field
EDG
40 a-
VP 1
36
b-
32 VP 2
28
24
20
16
:~~~~I I--~~h-Ruhe __ I
O----~~---20 min--_r--14 mi~
j- ---<turchschnittliche Zeil_
Figure 4-19. Effect of an artificially produced field corresponding to natural type II atmospherics (3
Hz, strong harmonic content) on the electrodermatogram of test subjects. Field intensity 1 VIm: 12
subjects, 1 positive response; field intensity 5 V1m: positive response in 5 of 10 subjects.
Key: a-S I; b-S 2; c-S 3; d-S 4; e-S 5; f-Average; g-S 6; h- Rest; i- Field exposure;j-Average time
an effect on man? In the light of observa- fold at that time, these signals may play a
tions and experimental data which suggest role in triggering ergotropy in the au-
an affirmative answer to this question, it tonomic nervous system.
would seem appropriate to add some specu- The objection can be raised that the EEG
lative comments to our discussion. would primarily indicate activities produc-
One is struck, first of all, by the results of ing the special waveform associated with
electroencephalographic studies. For ex- motor function, sensory function and atten-
ample, the alpha rhythm of the brain is tion, with no significant involvement of the
remarkably similar to type I signals in autonomic nervous system. Indeed, there
frequency and waveform, while certain dis- may be no direct connection between at-
turbances manifested in electric brain activ- mospherics and this system, even though
ity (delta waves) closely resemble type II experiments by such investigators as Ga-
signals (see Fig. 1-10). In consideration of valas et al. (1970) strongly indicate it (see
this fact on the one hand, and the assump- below). In any event, an alteration in the
tion of bioclimatology that the "biotrophic function of electric brain activity could
factors" of weather phenomena affect the have taken place during the course of
human autonomic nervous system on the evolution. Considerably more experi-
other, it could be argued that atmospherics mentation, research, and analysis are
have an affect on man and should be needed before these questions can be re-
regarded as one of the biotrophic factors. solved.
The connection observed between daily While Hartmann (1957) obtained his
fluctuations in atmospheric signals and the results more on the basis of individual,
daily rhythm of the human organism also unrelated cases, as reported earlier, our
points to an effect of atmospherics on man. studies on connections between atmospher-
Type V signals are of special interest in this ics and human function have succeeded on
regard. These signals can be regularly a more systematic (and natural) basis in
recorded at sunrise. Along with type I sig- demonstrating the biologic activity of such
nals, whose intensity increases about ten- fields.
ELF Fields 85
It was several years before other scien- fields at 2 Hz and 6 Hz, and at 3 Hz and 11
tific institutions concerned themselves spe- Hz.
cifically with this problem. For example, The ideal of a further experiment was to
Hamer (1965) also performed reaction-time reduce the frequency range defined by the
measurements in human subjects in order upper and lower test frequency of the field
to study the biologic effects of electric until a statistically significant difference in
fields in the ELF range. He investigated the the reaction times of the subjects could no
possible frequency-dependence of the ef- longer be discerned.
fects as well as the signal intensities neces- The result of an analysis of the experi-
sary to produce such effects. The capacitor- mental data kindly provided by Hamer
plate arrangement used by Hamer to gener- (1965) is shown in Fig. 4-21. Two series of
ate electric fields is shown schematically in experiments were conducted (upward-and
Fig. 4-20. An alternating electric voltage U downward-pointing brackets in the Fig.
applied to these plates set up a horizontally 4-21) with voltage values between the
oriented electric field to which primarily the capacitor plates that differed in each case
head region of the subjects was exposed. by a factor of 10 (0.2 V, 0.02 V, and 0.002
The frequency-dependent effects of the V). The end of each bracket in Fig. 4-21
electric fields at a plate voltage of 2 V are al- marks the limit which the plate-voltage
so shown in Fig. 4-20; first by reaction-time frequency could approach from above or
differences between 3 Hz and 8 Hz, com- below and still produce a statistically signif-
pared with the reaction time of the subjects icant difference in reaction times. In other
with no field present; and second by reac- words, the brackets show the frequency
tion-time differences between 3 Hz and 12 band within which no statistically signifi-
Hz, also compared with zero-field condi- cant reaction-time difference could be dis-
tions. The experiment confirmed what was cerned. In statistical terms, then, this range
already known: fields of relatively low is associated with a particular uniform reac-
frequencies prolong reaction time, while tion time.
higher-frequency fields shorten it. The Two important conclusions can be drawn
results of a follow-up experiment using from this study. First, biologic effects are
other frequencies without a zero-field con- observed even in laboratory experiments
trol show a reaction-time difference of with the weak field intensities characteristic
about 6% between subjects exposed to of natural electric fields, especially type I
I
b-
kein
Feld iI V
U~2V
~ ~
~
105%
i 0
~53cm4--
l-
0: i
""
100%
, !'
.~
a- ~ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 f [Hz]
~
~ I V
"
i 0
0:
95%
Figure 4-20. Effect of ELF fields on human reaction time as a function of frequency. Comparative
measurements between fields at frequencies of3 Hz and 8 Hz (circles) and 3 Hz and 12 Hz (triangles)
show an increase in reaction time relative to the "no field" situation at the low field frequencies, and a
decrease at the higher field frequencies. Numerical material from Hamer (1965).
Key: a-Reaction time RTmean; b-No field
t
~
::l
~!
0.02
0.002
L--J
r---"1
L-J
r"'I
-
I I I I I I I
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
I [Hz]
Figure 4-21. Reaction-time measurements in human subjects at various capacitor plate voltages U
(see Fig. 4-20). Based on two series of experiments (up- and downturned brackets), the frequency
range was determined in which a statistically significant difference in the reaction time oftest subjects
could no longer be discerned. The "selectivity" increases with diminishing field intensity. Numerical
material from Hamer (1965).
signals (10- Hz resonance signals of the (changing one's sleeping place, for ex-
earth-ionosphere system). This contradicts ample) with the accompanying change in
one of the most important coun- electromagnetic field conditions can often
terarguments regarding the significance of work wonders in such cases.
natural fields: that relatively high field in- An important discovery was made by
tensities are employed in laboratory experi- Hamer (1969) in connection with his study
ments, which are not characteristic of natu- of the effect of sinusoidal electric fields on
rally occurring signals. Second, the appar- the ability of human subjects to estimate a
ent influence of field intensity on frequency time interval of 5 s. The double-blind ex-
sensitivity gives cause for further specula- periment was conducted at a field intensity
tion. It appears, for example, that such of 4 V 1m, and the behavior of the subjects
fields can produce a predictable effect only exposed to field frequencies of 8 Hz and 12
if their intensity does not exceed a certain Hz was investigated and compared. A sta-
value. As the intensity increases, the "re- tistically significant difference was found in
solving power" of the human body with re- the ability of the subjects to estimate the
spect to the frequency-dependent action of passage of time. The 12-Hz electric field
such fields is diminished. This conclusion led to a shorter estimation of the 5-s inter-
has been confirmed by other investigations val than the 8-Hz field.
and so is probably of importance for bio- A conditioned defense reflex is reported
logic systems in general. by Petrov (1952) in subjects exposed to an
One can only conjecture as to the con- electric field with a frequency of 200 Hz.
sequences of such processes in susceptible The field was generated by an apparatus
biologic systems. The possibility cannot be located above the head of the subject. The
ruled out, however, that certain previously reflex observed was found to be unstable,
unexplained complaints may have their ori- however.
gin in stray fields. We are speaking here of We should also mention in this context
headache, dizziness, insomnia, etc. (famil- the observation by Knoepp et al. (1962) of
iar weather-related complaints), as well as an inhibitory effect of low-frequency elec-
complaints associated in some circum- tromagnetic fields on the growth of cultures
stances with man-made electromagnetic of normal and diseased human cells. The
fields (lighting circuits, railway current, cultures were exposed to a field with a
high-tension lines, etc.). Experience in this frequency of 99-1000 Hz and intensity of
area has shown that many complaints of un- 1.1-1.7 VIm for a period of 1-3 h. Al-
known etiology (often diagnosed as "neuro- though this treatment raised the tempera-
dystonia") are environmentally deter- ture of the cultures by 2.3 0 C, their growth
mined, and even a slight change of location was nonetheless retarded, ranging from a
ELF Fields 87
very slight delay to a total cessation of cul- square-pulse electric field with an intensity
ture growth and the death of the cells. The of 2.5 V pp/m was installed in this chamber
fact that these effects occurred only at cer- for the experiments.
tain frequencies specific for individual cell The subjects were informed about nei-
types is of particular interest. ther the shielding nor the artificial field.
Effect of Weak Electromagnetic Fields Since the subjects could not consciously
on the Circadian Rhythm in Man. At the perceive the switching on or off of the field,
Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Psy- the conditions necessary for an objective
chology, Wever (1968) did studies on the study were met. The fact that the subjects
human circadian rhythm (from Latin: cir- had no sense of the duration of their cir-
ca "about" + dies "a day," thus a period of cadian rhythm during the 3 to 4 weeks of
about 24 h), with special emphasis on the the experiment and could notice no changes
question of the origin of the rhythm. This in the length of this sUbjective day contrib-
question is already answered in one sense: uted further to objectivity.
the circadian rhythm is of endogenous (in- To investigate the effect of a permanent
ternal) origin and is simply synchronized to field, the 10-Hz field was switched on and
the period of the earth's rotation by the pe- off for periods of at least one week. The
riodically changing factors in our environ- course of one such experiment is shown in
ment. It is known that in an environment Fig. 4-22. For all experiments, statistical
kept artificially constant, the rhythm (under analysis showed that the accelerating effect
suitable conditions) continues with an un- of the artificial 10-Hz electric field was
diminished amplitude but with a period dif- highly significant (p > 0.00 O.
ferent from 24 h. Another effect of the artificial 10-Hz field
The next question pertains to the physi- was observed in connection with experi-
cal factors in our environment which are ments in which an "internal desynchroniza-
capable of influencing the circadian rhythm. tion" occurred. This refers to a state with
Of particular interest here are not just fac- abnormally prolonged periods of activity,
tors that are consciously perceived, but with simultaneous periods of normal au-
those for which the human body has no tonomic function. Cases were observed in
direct receptors. These include the electric which the rhythm was de synchronized im-
and magnetic fields present in the atmos- mediately after the field was switched off;
phere (excluding light, of course). Wever in one case, a previously manifest de-
(1968) focused his investigation on the ef- synchronization was terminated immedi-
fects of 10-Hz fields. ately after the field was switched on, so that
In experiments on the circadian rhythm, the rhythm was again stabilized. This effect
it is essential to screen out as completely as of the artificial 10-Hz field also proved to
possible all natural and man-made fields, so be statistically significant. The observed ef-
that the investigator will not have to work fect of the artificially produced field on the
with a mixture of intentionally produced period of the free-running circadian rhythm
and other fields. To screen out natural elec- suggests that the same field might be capa-
tromagnetic radiation (especially low- ble of synchronizing the circadian rhythm if
frequency forms), two chambers were set it were switched on and off periodically.
up in an underground bunker specially The results of these comprehensive in-
designed for this investigation of human cir- vestigations showed that if the difference
cadian rhythms. One of the chambers was between the two experimental chambers is
lined throughout with several layers of a indeed based only on the shielding of the
special iron shielding. This arrangement first chamber, then the results of these ex-
reduced the natural static field by at least periments mean that the natural elec-
40 db (factor of 100), and by much more at tromagnetic fields exert the same effect (as
higher frequencies. A vertical 10-Hz least qualitatively) on the human circadian
o 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 Uhr
o f-
2
a-
...
18
a- - ..
20 "c:
~
0 h- T-36,7 Std.
d- Tage
Figure 4-22. Circadian rhythm of an experimental subject without, then with, then without the influ-
ence of an artificiallO-Hz electric field (the period offield exposure is shaded). The activity rhythm is
indicated by bars (filled: activity; open: rest). The body temperature rhythm is indicated by the posi-
tion of its maxima (t,) and minima (\,7). Open triangles indicate same-time repetitions of maxima and
minima already shown. The duration of the period (r) is indicated for each phase of the experiment.
After Wever (1968).
Key: a-Without; b-With; c-lO-Hz field; d-Days; e-r = 26.6 hr; f-Time; g-r = 25.8 hr; h-r = 36.7 hr
rhythm as the artificial 10-Hz field. This ef- revealed for the first time a definite physical
fect can be characterized as follows: environmental factor which influences the
circadian rhythm but does not act via spe-
1. Both fields accelerate the rhythm; the cific sense organs and is not consciously
longer the period without a field, the perceived. They also demonstrated (once
greater the accelerating effect. again) that the human organism can be
2. Both fields prevent internal desynchron- influenced by relatively weak electromag-
ization, which was observed only in the netic fields.
absence of both the natural and artificial The remarkable finding that internal
fields. de synchronization in man can, when it ap-
pears spontaneously, be terminated by
In another discussion, Wever (1967) deals switching on a 10-Hz field prompted Wever
with the shielding of the experimental (1973) to ask whether the effect of a 10-Hz
chambers. The qualitative agreement be- field on the circadian rhythm is limited to
tween the effect of electromagnetic shield- man. Some preliminary experiments with
ing and that of switching off the artificial animals indicate that this is not the case, if
10-Hz field raises the question of whether internal de synchronization is observed in
the shielding effect is based specifically on the animals at all.
the elimination of the natural 10-Hz field.
This question is not answered by the results In experiments with the green finch, the
obtained, first, because the shielding is not free-running activity period could be shor-
selective, but eliminates all static and dy- tened by switching the artificial 10-Hz field
namic fields of terrestrial origin; and sec- repeatedly on and off. When the field was
ond, because the intensity of the 10-Hz turned off, the activity period was pro-
field employed was several orders of magni- longed. This result coincides even quantita-
tude higher than that of the natural 10-Hz tively with the findings for man.
field. Lang (1973a) cites the interesting experi-
Nevertheless, the importance of the ar- mental results of Dowse and Palmer (1969)
tificial field experiments is obvious. They in this area, who de synchronized the cir-
ELF Fields 89
cadian rhythm of mice by means of a the students who had been exposed to the
Faraday shield, and resynchronized it with field conditions. This effect of field ex-
a 10-Hz field. Their experiments are thus posure was even more pronounced in the
similar to those of Wever (1967, 1968, office employees. Attention-loading capaci-
1973). ty decreased by 4.8% after the field was
Special investigations with 10-Hz switched off, and improved by 11.7% after
square-pulse fields. As experience has the field was switched on again. This find-
shown, a field with a square waveform with ing was highly significant statistically
respect to time is of special significance, (p = 0.005). The concentration test con-
presumably due to its harmonic content. firmed this result (Fig. 4-23). Subjective
An electrostatic field modulated by well-being also improved under field ex-
10-Hz square pulses was used in studies by posure: the subjects described themselves
Altmann et al. (1976a) on students as well as significantly less sluggish, unhappy and
as employees in large office areas. Ex- absent-minded, based on responses to a list
posure to the artificial field conditions was of 51 questions. The subjects tended
relatively longterm: 162 students from four (p = 0.10) to describe themselves as more
high-school classes were exposed alter- energetic, happy, cheerful and pleasant,
nately for 3-week periods to the field and to and less sluggish, incapable, anxious, fear-
normal conditions (normal heating and ful, sad, apathetic, careless and distracted.
ventilation). The students were in a seated For some subjects the field conditions had
position, and the field intensities at head a hyperexcitatory effect, manifested in
level were 30 V pp/m for the square-pulse heightened feelings of nervousness and
field and about +50 V1m for the static field irritability.
(negative pole grounded). Two classes An examination of weather conditions
served as controls. At the end of each phase during the course of the experiment showed
of the experiment, the students were given the following correlation: the psychotropic
the d-2 attention-loading test to determine action of the electric field conditions was al-
attention-loading capacity. All the students ways evident (measured by the shift in
had been given the Eysenck (1959) test for average performance), but was statistically
personality structure, as had the 53 office significant only if a moderate to strong bio-
employees. The latter subjects were ex- tropism was present 6 days before and 6
posed for 6 months on the job to a static days after the day of the test. Although no
field (+ 150 VIm at head level, seated), correlation could be found between psychic
modulated by a 10-Vpp/m square-pulse make-up and field effects, the correlation
field; the controls were exposed to no ar- between biotropism and electric field ef-
tificial field. After that time the field was fects can be interpreted in the manner of
switched off for 3 weeks, while the controls Schulz (1970): the organism subjected to
continued to work under normal conditions prior stress from external weather condi-
(full air conditioning, 24°C, 50% relative tions can be optimized in the manner in-
humidity). At the end of each of these test dicated with regard to its functional capaci-
periods and 3 weeks after the field was re- ty and well-being by means of electric
activated, the subjects were tested for at- fields, while an improvement under weather
tention-loading capacity, ability to concen- conditions which are already physiolog-
trate, and subjective well-being. The stu- ically favorable cannot be demonstrated
dents showed a continuous improvement in with statistical certainty.
the attention-loading test over all 3 days of The investigations of Altmann et al.
testing regardless of experimental condi- (1976a) were repeated in a study by the au-
tions-a result of learning. However, this thor (unpublished). Electric fields of the
was accompanied by an additional im- type described above were installed in two
provement of attention-loading capacity in high-school classrooms. Each was switched
a-
Sohule
I
I1100t--~~--------~--------~
c-
,.
BioIropie
o 21 42
d- l[Tage)
e-
b- Gro8Jaumbiiro
~
i
i 105 P < 0.02
1100r--~-------------------
t---{I
o
,
175
,
196
h- d-
,.
217
I ITogo)
...... -.~
~~f. :' ................
g-
KontroIIo ohno Fold
Ittft~1 hoho~
Figure 4-23. Changes in the attention-loading capacity of students (top) and office employees (bot-
tom) under the influence of an electrostatic field modulated with a 10-Hz square-pulse electric field, as
a function of exposure time. After Lang and Lehmair (l977b).
Key: a-School; b-Attention-Ioading capacity (%); c-Biotropism; dot (days); e-Large office area; f-
Field influence; g-Control without field; h-Low biotropism; i-High biotropism
on alternately for about 3 weeks, without ing (1976a) investigated the subjective
the knowledge of the teacher or students. well-being of 16 employees by obtaining
The experiment was continued for about 9 their responses to a list of 20 questions
months, after which time it was found that each day for 10 weeks. Half the employees
the students classified as "labile" showed a were exposed alternately for 5 weeks to the
particularly marked improvement in scho- same type of artificial field described above
lastic performance during the period of field (+ 150 VIm static field and 5-Vpplm
exposure. On a grade scale of 1-6, an square-pulse field, at head level). Kroling
average improvement of 0.5 points in test (1976a) first interpreted the result of his
performance (p = 0.07) was noted in this evaluation of the most important questions
group during field exposure. This corre- to mean that the electric field effected no
sponds to a 13.5% grade improvement in improvement in the well-being of the sub-
the most favorable case. jects. Later, a more differentiated evalua-
In a similar series of experiments, Krol- tion technique showed an improvement of
ELF Fields 91
well-being between 1% and 18% during to the sunvisor of the simulator carried a
field exposure, depending on the method of direct potential of + 1000 V with respect
scoring the answers. to the chassis, with superimposed square-
Improved reaction times and heightened wave pulses (frequency 10Hz, amplitude
subjective well-being were also found by 20 V pp). Field potential measurements at a
Fischer (1973, 1976a,b) and Fischer et al. distance of about 7fcm from the driver's
(1977) in a group of patients exposed to head showed a direct potential of about 60
such fields in 14-day intervals. No improve- V and square-wave potential of about 4 V
ment in attention capacity could be ob- with respect to the vehicle chassis. During
served in these mentally ill patients. the simulated driving sessions, which took
In a joint research project, Anselm et al. place both mornings and afternoons and on
(1976) studied the effect of an artificially days of high and low biotropism, the field
produced square-wave field of the type was automatically switched on for periods
described above on the driving perform- of 10 min, and the self-assessments, reac-
ance and reaction behavior of subjects in a tion times and driving errors of the subjects
driving simulator (Figs. 4-24 and 4-25). A were recorded and evaluated. It was found
group of 48 subjects were selected from that the reaction times remained virtually
about 300 persons as being representative unchanged after the field was switched on,
of three age levels and two personality but that the number of driving errors (e.g.,
types with regard to mental lability or neglect of right-of-way, stop signs, pedes-
stability. A strictly standarized test pro- trian crosswalks, etc.) was reduced by an
gram and fully automatic recording and en- average of 8%-10% (Fig. 4-26). This ten-
coding of experimental data ensured that dency proved to be characteristic of all ob-
the conditions for a double-blind experi- servations. In the mentally labile subjects
ment were satisfied. An electrode attached there was an average decrease of 12% in
Figure 4-24. The driving simulator at the Alliance Center for Technology in Munich: View into open
driver's compartment. In place of the windshield is a monitoring screen with simulated driving terrain
which moves in accordance with the subject's driving actions.
Figure 4-25. Model landscape for the driving simulator in Fig. 4-24. The landscape is mounted on a
conveyor belt, which moves it relative to a television camera mounted on a transverse guide rail (top
left). The speed of the conveyor belt, and thus the apparent driving speed in the simulator, is governed
by the position of the accelerator pedal. Turning the steering wheel moves the TV camera laterally
across the roadway on its guide rail.
speed-limit violations and contacts with the varied in degree between the mentally sta-
edge of the road, but only a 2% decrease in ble and mentally labile subjects. The
the mentally stable subjects. When all driv- overall improvement was 5% in the stable
ing errors were totaled, it was also found persons, and 8% in the labile persons.
that the effect of the artificial electric field The experiment with the driving simula-
-10
_ -----
c-
L
,,
,
- 5 L
.....L
/1
...... '" b-
'.J,
,,
0,..- Ermi..idungskurve
'-.......
Lr-· ..........
/
-:::
'-'-'-.-.
/
a-
+ 5
0
.." ./ 0
0
+ 10
e- 1. Fahrt 2. Fahrt 3. Fahrt 4. Fahrt
Figure 4-26. Effects of an electrostatic field modulated with a 10- Hz square-pulse electric field on
the daily variation of the total number of errors made by subjects in a driving simulator. The deviation
from the fatigue curve is shown with (L) and without (0) field influence. After Kirmaier and Konig
(1976).
Key: a-Driving errors (%); b-Fatigue curve; c-Performance improved; d-Performance impaired;
e-lst drive, 2nd drive (etc.)
ELF Fields 93
tor was followed by a practical test, on most pronounced in the attention-loading

which Kirmaier et al. (1978) reported: test (d-2), i.e., they were highly significant
in most cases (p:::; 0.001). This test
240 male subjects ranging in age from showed an increase of 7.4%, 8.1%, 9.8%
18 to 55 were available for the study. and 5.0%, respectively, in the number of
All applicants were tested for their sui- recognized symbols at the end of drives 1
tability by means of the Eysenck per- through 4 under the influence of the field.
sonality inventory (Eggert, 1974) in a On a daily average, 22.7% fewer errors
session preceding the experiment. Two were made under exposure to the field. No
groups of 50 persons were selected.
field-dependent differences are evident in
These 100 subjects were each tested
for one day (4 per day) according to a drives 2 and 3. If the number of errors is
detailed schedule. They made 2 morn- subtracted from the overall performance,
ing and 2 afternoon drives over a the number of correctly marked d-2 blocks
46-km course near Munich, West Ger- is obtained. Here, too, an improvement was
many. The following tests were per- found in drives 1 through 4 of 11.5%, 8.5%,
formed before and after the drives: 10.1 % and 7.8%, respectively, under the in-
reaction time, attention frequency, self- fluence of the field (Fig. 4-27).
evaluation. Three sign recognition tests 2. The sign recognition test during the
were given during each drive, and the drives showed 3.7%-8.9% better results in
subject had to negotiate a skill course drives 2 and 3 under the influence of the
at the end of the drive. An ECG was
field (in all 3 sign recognition tests).
taken, and the latency of eye-focusing
movements was determined. A two- 3. 15.9% fewer errors were made in the
part medical examination was also skill test of the second drive.
given (including pupillary reflex, visual 4. During the first drive driving times
acuity, blood pressure, pulse, neuro- were 2.9% shorter.
logical coordination, and an interview 5. 4.5% and 3.9% higher average speeds
with a physician). Furthermore, the du- were found in drives 1 and 4, respectively,
ration of the drive, the average and with no change in maximum speed.
maximum speeds, and the economy of 6. 0.7% increase in flicker fusion
the drive were determined. A commer- frequency was found for the morning
cially available device was used to
drives.
generate the necessary electrode po-
tential for a positive electrostatic field 7. After the first drive reaction times
with superimposed to-Hz square-wave were 2.7% shorter.
pulses. The field electrode (about 0.02 8. Field exposure produced no apparent
m2 in area) was attached to the sun change in the various physiologic para-
visor on the driver's side. The direct meters determined in the medical examina-
voltage applied was +60 V, the pulse tion. The reports on subjective well-being
voltage 4 Vpp" A letter-coded device obtained during the physician interview
was used to tum the field on and off in after the third drive (fatigue, headache, ner-
the sequence on-off -off -on, or vousness) were 19.4% more positive
off -on-on-off for the 4 drives. Nei- (p :::; 0.024) under the influence ofthe field.
ther the subjects nor the experimenter
Of the subjects who had made drives 2 and
were informed as to the presence or ab-
sence of the field (double-blind experi- 3 without a field, 26% felt worse afterwards
ment). than during the examination on the pre-
vious day, as opposed to 6% of the subjects
A total of about 700,000 individual bits who had made these drives with the field
of data (excluding ECG and vehicle- and were tired or nervous.
recorder data) were obtained and eval- 9. Self-assessments of well-being ("I feel
uated. The results are as follows: good/bad") were 8.9% and 10.4% poorer at
1. Field-related improvements were the end of drives 1 and 4, respectively.
RIN
390
300
I
370
360
350
330
320
a- 1. Fahrt 2. Eahrt 3. Fahrt 4. Fahrt
b- Verancluung
bei Feld in % + 11,5 + 8,5 + 10,1 + 7,8
*/t}':-*
c- Signifikanmiv. "I""" ..'ft-I'~rt-*
d- ohne Kovariate 0,004 0,018 0,006 0,061

e-mit' Kovarialcn 0,002 0,020 0,006 0,049
f- normicrt o. K. < 0,001 < 0,001 < 0,001 < 0,001
g- normiert Ill. K. < 0_001 < 0,001 < 0,001 < 0,001
h- Linke Saulc: Versuchgrupp(, mit cler Schaltfolgc aus - an - an - aus

i- Rechle Saule: Vrrsuchsgruppe mit der Sch.itfolge an - aus - aus - an
c:Jj-Feld ausgeschaitec ~ Fcld eingcschaltet k-
o. K.: ohne Konriaten, Ill. K.: mit Kovariaten
m-Normiert: diviJiert durch person lichen Mittelwert jedes einzelnen
Probanden
Figure 4-27. Number of correctly marked d-2 blocks in the attention-loading test at the end of the
drive (RIN). After Kirmaier et al. (1978).
Key: a-1st drive, 2nd drive (etc.); b-Change under influence of field, in %; c-Significance level; d-
Without covariants; e-With covariants; f-Normed w.o. cov.; g-Normed w. cov.; h-Left column:
Test group with switching sequence off-on-on-off; i-Right column: Group with switching sequence
on-off-off-on; j-Field off; k-Field on; I-w.o. cOV.: without covariants w. cOV.: with covariants; m-
Normed: Divided by the personal mean value of each individual subject
10. Self-assessments of inner tension ("I of such experiments are just as important
feel tense/calm") after the fourth drive from a scientific standpoint.
were 16.5% poorer. Of interest in this regard are experiments
by Gavalas et al. (1970) with monkeys. The
animals were trained by reward to press a
Animal and Plant Experiments button in regular 5-s intervals, while their
EEGs were recorded by attached elec-
For obvious reasons, humans are not al- trodes. After the animals had learned the
ways available as subjects in scientific in- task required, they were exposed to a weak
vestigations. Consequently, plants and ani- electric field produced by applying a poten-
mals are often used to study the biologic ef- tial of 2.8 Vpp between two metal plates
fects of electromagnetic fields in the ELF that were separated by 40 cm at head level.
range (and other frequencies). The results Thus, the animal's head was always com-
ELF Fields 95
pletely within the electric field. The field experiments were done primarily on white
frequency was either 7 Hz or 10Hz. Dur- mice. Lang (1971, 1972b), for example,
ing exposure to the 7-Hz field, the monkeys reports on changes in the water and electro-
showed in 5 of 6 experiments a significantly lyte balance of white mice exposed to a
shorter interval between presses of the but- 10-Hz square-pulse field compared with
ton. The average difference between the mice kept under Faraday conditions. After
presence and absence ofthe field was 0.4 or 14 days under Faraday shielding, the mice
more. The 10-Hz field had no apparent ef- displayed several anomalies of metabolism.
fect. At the same time, an analysis of the Their oxygen uptake was reduced (1.79 ml
EEG data showed a relative performance 02/g mouse/15 min versus 2.12 ml 02/g
peak at the frequency of the artificial field mouse/15 min at 12° C), and with it, the
(7 or 10Hz) in all experimental animals. oxygen pressure in the blood; the reduced
Reiter (1960) conducted exhaustive ex- energy supply led to a swelling of the cells
periments with guinea pigs. While their (effect of anoxia). The water content of the
conjunctival tissue pH was monitored, the tissue and the body in general was elevated
animals were placed into a capacitor field (see also Fig. 4-29). At the same time, the
which was either static or shielded by a ro- elimination of water was reduced at a nor-
tating metal blade, and thus had the effect mal intake offood and water and normal so-
of an alternating field. The result of the ex- dium and potassium excretion. The in-
periment is shown in Fig. 4-28. One finds creased water content of the interstitial
marked deviations of the tissue pH from space resulting from osmotic equalization
the normal value associated with the alter- between the intracellular space and intersti-
nating fields in the frequency range be- tium apparently caused an isotonic increase
tween 2 and 20 Hz. The reaction during a in the blood plasma volume. The hema-
local thunderstorm is also shown for com- tocrit and hemoglobin level was reduced
parison. per unit volume whole blood, although it
The effect of low-frequency electromag- remained unchanged per unit volume he-
netic fields on the learning behavior of mice mocytes. The sodium content of the whole
was studied by Amineev and Sitkin (1965). blood was significantly increased, while the
For this purpose the animals were made to potassium content was reduced. Thus,
run through a maze that was entered shielding the animals from natural atmos-
through a passage lying along the axis of a pheric electric fields caused not only a vol-
magnetic coil. In this way the animals could ume shift in their fluid systems, but also
be exposed to a 100-Hz magnetic field with corresponding changes in their electrolyte
an intensity of about 24-37 kA/m. While balance. Apparently the organism adapted
this treatment did not influence the learning to the altered environmental conditions.
ability of the animals with respect to run- The whole blood of the mice that were
ning through the maze in a specific direc- shielded from natural fields but exposed to
tion, it did improve by 36%-40% their abil- an artificial 10-Hz pulsed field showed a
ity to relearn (to find the correct path) in somewhat reduced hematocrit relative to
comparison with the animals not previously the normal animals. However, the mea-
exposed to the field. The authors regard sured sodium-potassium concentrations
this as evidence of the disinhibitory effect and the water content of the blood and
electromagnetic forces may have. blood plasma showed that exposing the
Comprehensive and exhaustive studies mice to an artificial 10-Hz square-pulse
on the biologic activity of electric fields in field could largely offset the effects of
the ELF and VLF range have been con- shielding.
ducted at the Zoological Institute of the Since the effects of the Faraday shielding
University ofthe Saarland, Germany. The were not observed in animals exposed to
\0
0\
t;Ij
o·
0"
CJ<l
o·
n
3:
'<
-->-
7,2 2kV _
o
7kV- 17kV_ 32kV- ....
'J)
32kV~
g.
n
a- Gewebs'PH
~
:[~v~ 0..
l"'"'
6,8 o
b- ~,
b- Gewitterfeld Gewitterfeld ::t>
(I)
..0
C
Ruhewert (I)
7,0 ::l
" c- n
a- Gewebs'PH [ '<
6,9 c- 'T1
e- O·
6,8 s:
--;-Zeitveriauf O; ~ :3 J Minuten
'"
Figure 4-28. Top: The conjunctival pH of the anesthetized guinea pig in static (=) and alternating (~) electric fields over the
frequency range from 2 to 20 Hz. Bottom: Behavior of conjunctival pH in the anesthetized guinea pig exposed to transitory
electric field jumps during a local thunderstorm. Arrow = lightning strokes. Resting value = pH value during shielding. After
Reiter (1960).
Key: a-Tissue pH; b-Thunderstorm field; c-Resting value; d-Time; e-Min
ELF Fields 97
,...
UIW [%]
..................~._. __... RF b-
, ............--.... N
.../\
15' ~ ,~~.~••••~
"',..::;...... -
ro ~~ ~~
5
a-
:i-+-+-12r-+-+--+--I-2+-7- - - Tage
-I-+-
Figure 4-29. Urine output (U) of mice over a 3-day period (per 100 g body weight), shown as a per-
centage of water intake (W) under normal conditions (N), Faraday conditions (Fa) and artificial field
conditions (RF). After Lang (1971).
Key: a-Days
the artificial 10-Hz field, they must have oratory animals that the equilibrium state
been completely altered or normalized by controlled by them can no longer be main-
this field. Side-effects were also observed, tained.
however: protein consumption, measured In an attempt to relieve the metabolic ef-
by nitrogen excretion in the urine, was fects in the mice under Faraday shielding, a
reduced, and anomalous though slight shifts 10-Hz square-pulse atmospheric electric
in electrolyte concentration were detected field was artificially produced, and the me-
in liver and kidney tissue. tabolic functions of the animals were
Other investigaticns in this area by Lang tested. If the working hypothesis was
(1972a) also dealt with the metabolic ef- true-that natural 10-Hz fields constitute a
fects of Faraday shielding and an artificial critical component of environmental condi-
10-Hz electric field on white mice. Under tions-the artificial fields should produce
the same experimental conditions as de- largely natural conditions within a Faraday-
scribed above, it was found that sexually shielded space. This logical conclusion was
mature mice consumed less oxygen under borne out by the experimental results. Oxy-
Faraday conditions than under natural con- gen consumption was higher in the mice in
ditions. The water content of individual tis- the square-pulse field than in those under
sues and the body as a whole increased as a Faraday conditions. The water content of
result of water retention. The extracellular the tissues as well as that ofthe whole body
space of the blood increased, while the vol- deviated only slightly from the normal
ume of cellular material remained un- value under natural conditions. The ani-
changed. Thus the blood hemoglobin level mals in the artificial field also showed large-
was reduced while the hemoglobin concen- ly normal values in the other metabolic in-
tration in the erythrocytes remained un- dexes measured.
changed. The sodium concentration in the Studies in behavioral physiology were
blood was increased, the potassium con- also performed on white mice by Altmann
centration reduced. Lang offers the follow- and Lang (1973) at the same institute. Their
ing explanation for these effects: The paper deals initially with the test of the
acid-base equilibrium in the cell system is biologic activity of electric thunderstorm
normally maintained by regulatory sys- fields by Schua (1953) (Fig. 4-30). Schua,
tems. Ifperturbing influences act on the cell who exposed nests of golden hamsters to
system, the organism first tries to compen- electric fields with an intensity of 900 V1m
sate through corresponding changes in the and frequencies of 5 kHz-10kHz, ob-
body's water balance. According to Lang's served that the animals avoided the ar-
theory, the Faraday effect places such a tificial fields and moved their nests out of
stress on the regulatory systems of the lab- the region of the artificially produced at-
h-
a-
Terrarium
Figure 4-30. The nest-moving behavior of golden hamsters varies under the influence of an alternat-
ing electric field (1) and a static electric field (2). After SchUa (1953).
Key: a-Terrarium; b-A-electrode; c-Electric field; d-Nest; e-Food; f-E-electrode; g-to generator;
h-Irradiated region; i-Relocation; j-Shift
mospheric electric field. He interpreted produced within a shielded cage. To pre-

these findings as a physiologic reaction of vent olfactory orientation, all experimental
the animals to the electric fields. apparatus was thoroughly cleaned after
Similar studies were done by Zahner each experiment.
(1964), who pointed out various technical In the first series of experiments, Fara-
details in the experimental set-up which he day conditions were produced in the first
believed weakened the results of Schua cage, electrostatic field conditions in the
(1953). Indeed, the reactions observed by second cage, and an artificial square-pulse
Schua did not reappear when the experi- field at 10 Hz and 3500 VIm in the third
ments were repeated. But the experimental cage. The animals displayed a statistically
results of Mliller-Velten (1966) suggest significant preference for building their
than an olfactory orientation of the experi- nests under Faraday conditions, but pre-
mental animals may have played a role in ferred the cage with the artificial 10-Hz
the studies of both Schua and Zahner. square-pulse field as their exercise area.
Altmann and LaOg (1973) therefore de- In a second experiment the animals were
veloped a preference-testing apparatus in given the choice between a cage with
which both the electrophysical conditions Faraday shielding, a cage with normal con-
and the possibilities of orientation could be ditions, and a third cage with an artificial
strictly controlled, in order to reinvestigate 10-Hz square-pulse field. The mice made
the reaction of small mammals to electric their nests in the cage with normal condi-
fields. Three identical plastic cages were in- tions and often fed there as well, although
terconnected by plastic tubes, and food, the square-pulse-field cage was ultimately
water and nest material (wood fiber) were preferred as the feeding area. The Faraday
available in esch cage. The food and water cage was preferred from the outset for
consumption and the location of the nests drinking, while activity measurements
could be monitored and measured without showed that the cage with the artificial field
disturbing the experimental animals. To was preferred for play activity.
preclude directional orientation by In a third series of experiments, the in-
compass bearings, the entire arrangement tensity of the artificial field was reduced to
was rotated by gearmotor 3600 in 5 min and 180 VIm compared with the conditions in
then back again. Means were available for the second experiment. The animals now
creating normal conditions or shielded con- built their nests either in the cage with nor-
ditions in the three cages, as desired. In ad- mal conditions or in that with the artificial
dition, an artificial electric field could be field, with no apparent preference. The con-
ELF Fields 99
ditions in each cage were reversed several of the electric field. On the other hand, a
times during the experiment, but the ani- reduction of the plate voltage, and thus the
mals did not react to this unless the com- electric field, by a factor of 10 delayed the
partments had not been thoroughly cleaned occurrence of the molting peak by about 1
beforehand. Under the weaker field condi- hr compared with the experiment using a 1
tions, the animals apparently could no V plate voltage. Evidently the field inten-
longer distinguish between the natural con- sity was still sufficient to produce a max-
ditions and the artificial field conditions. imum, but this did not occur as spontane-
In summary, the authors conclude from ously as at the higher voltage. Excessive
their experiments that white mice are capa- field intensities tended to inhibit molting in
ble of orientation by means of suitable at- the plant lice. This was found for an elec-
mospheric electric fields. However, the trode voltage of 10 V: no molting peak was
sense of smell overshadowed orientation by observed in this case, and in fact molting
atmospheric electric parameters in every tended to show a minimum. The result of
case, unless special measures were taken to this experiment may well be of general im-
prevent it. portance, because it shows once again that
Jahn (1977) also reports on the signifi- the intensity of such fields is not necessarily
cance of Faraday shielding: a measure of their biologic activity. It ap-
pears that there is a certain range (and pos-
Experiments on the rearing of Lyman- sibly several ranges) of maximum activity,
tria monacha caterpillars caged under while excessively high field intensities may
Faraday conditions showed that the show no biologic effects, or effects that are
shielding of electric fields had an ad- different from those which experience
verse effect on the first instar larvae,
would suggest.
but a favorable effect on older ones.
This confirmed previous findings that Lott and McCain (1973) report on cer-
electromagnetic forces tend to promote tain effects of static and pulsed electric
vitality in the initial developmental fields on the brain-wave activity of rats.
stages, but retard it in later stages. They divided the animals into two groups.
In the first group, microelectrodes were
Other experiments on the effects of elec- implanted in the hypothalamus in order to
tric fields on animals were conducted by record the electric activity there. In the sec-
Haine and Konig (1960). They observed ond group, electrodes were applied to the
the molting behavior of plant lice exposed scalp to record the EEG before, during and
to an artificial electric field at 3 Hz and 10 after the animals were exposed to either a
Hz. For this purpose the plant lice were ex- static field (10 kV/m) or a pulsed field (20 V
posed to the effects of the field for short at 640 Hz/toO ms); this was followed by in-
times at irregular intervals. The number of tegration of the total brain-wave energies.
moltings was determined on an hourly Each experiment lasted at least 90 min,
basis. Each electric field differed in inten- during which time all pertinent data, such
sity from the next by a factor of 10. A con- as EEG, respiration, rectal temperature
trol group was kept in a Faraday cage or and ECG, were recorded.
was exposed to natural field conditions. It was found that a significant increase in
The result of the experiment is shown in brain activity occurred after the static field
Fig. 4-31; the field was switched on at time was switched on. This increase persisted
n according to the "critical hour" method throughout the period of exposure. After
described previously. An optimal, above- the field was switched off, the activity
average number of moltings was found at decreased in stages to the initial level.
an electrode voltage of 1 V (electrode spac- Surprisingly, the hypothalamic activity de-
ing 20 cm). This maximum occurred more creased during the exposure and the period
or less spontaneously with the switching on that followed.
1,10
1,05
, (h)
1,00t~:--~:---"'o,~:::::::t:=~P="'~~-:--~~1
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 +4
0,95 b- Spannung an den Plattenelektroden U=10 Volt
1,10
~ 1,05
:l
'"c:
.,J:~ 1,0ot---I---+----?'-+----j---+-~:+___::=__~---1
+1 +4
c:
11 0,95
.!i
:; Spannung an den Plattenelektro en U = 1 Volt
j~:;~1
~
" ~ n
!1,00+--_~I-----21----.,-7f---7yf--+-Il--+-+2--+-+3--+-'-j4"")1
~ 1,05
1
~
0 ,95
1,10
O-s-pa-n-nu-(Jng an den Plattenelektroden U=Q,1 Volt
"
£;
~ 1,05
-1 +1
0,95 c- unbestrahlt (Faraday-KAfig und frei im Versuchsraum)
Figure 4-31. Effect of ELF electric fields on the molting of plant lice (Mycus persicae Sulz.), The
field was produced by means of two electrodes with a spacing of d = 35 cm and voltage U, After
Haine and Konig (1960),
Key: a- Relative deviation from average number of moltings; b- Voltage U at the plate elec-
trodes = 10 V (etc.); c-Unirradiated (Faraday cage and normal laboratory conditions)
Exposure to the pulsed field (20 V at 640 weather conditions may be associated with
Hz) also elicited an increase in electrical such natural fields.
brain activity. Moreover, an immediate, Experiments with lactobacilli, rod-
statistically significant and persistent rise of shaped bacilli of the species Bacterium
activity was measured in the hypothalamic casei, showed an increase in bacterial
region during exposure. The activities re- growth when the voltage was applied to the
turned to previous levels after the field was plate electrodes. The plates were metal
switched off. No significant alterations with a spacing of 2.5 cm. The experimental
were found in respiration, rectal tempera- solutions were introduced into the field
ture or ECG during or after exposure to formed between the plates, while control
any type of electric field. solutions were kept separate under equal
Konig and Krempl-Lamprecht (1959) light, temperature and other ambient condi-
report on the effects of low-frequency elec- tions. Although the controls were for the
tric fields on the growth of plant organisms. most part outside the stray field of the ex-
They first experimented with lactobacilli. perimental apparatus, they were apparently
These bacteria were selected because the exposed to interference-field conditions
known biologic activity of low-frequency present in the laboratory. This is evidenced
fields suggested that the souring of milk by the fact that the control group displayed
during abrupt weather changes and certain a growth rate which was higher than that of
ELF Fields 10 1
the specimen with the lowest field intensity. of the experiment, shown graphically in
The treated groups were probably shielded Fig. 4-32, again demonstrates the effect of
from these interference fields by the elec- the electric fields. The cultures treated with
trode plates, so that, on the whole, the field 3.5-Hz fields with a strong harmonic con-
intensity at the lower plate voltages exerted tent apparently displayed the greatest in-
a smaller growth-promoting effect on the crease in growth. The 100-Hz sinusoidal
bacterial solution than that exerted on the fields lay between this first group and the
control groups by the stray field present in untreated cultures. The points of equal tur-
the laboratory. The success of the experi- bidity (shown as circles in the graph)
ments also depended to a certain extent on provide a certain absolute standard for
the shape of the glasses into which the solu- comparison. They indicate that the tur-
tions were introduced. Better results were bidity (a measure of growth) which oc-
obtained with glasses in which the solution curred after 10 days at a 100-V electrode
had more surface area and less depth. The voltage and frequency of 3.5 Hz with a
exact reason for this is unknown. strong harmonic content took 16 days to
The same arrangement was used in elec- appear in the untreated and shielded cul-
tric field experiments on yeast cultures tures.
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or common In another experiment, the effect of low-
brewer's yeast). The increase in the tur- frequency electric fields on the germination
bidity of the yeast solutions served as a rel- of wheat was investigated. Wheat seeds
ative measure of culture growth. The result were planted in Petri dishes using equal
14. 16. 18. 20. 22. 24. 26. 28. 30. 2. 4. I

f- weils 11.00 Uhr g- Dalumslage
Figure 4-32. Treatment of yeast cultures (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) with various electric fields in
the ELF range. The cultures were placed between two electrodes with a spacing of d = 7.5 cm. An
increase in turbidity corresponds to an increase in growth. Points of equal turbidity (circles) indicate
that the unirradiated, shielded controls attained the same state of growth 6 days later than the cultures
treated with a 3.5-Hz, lOO-V electrode voltage (strong harmonic content), which had reached that
state in only 9 days. After Konig and Krempl-Lamprecht (1959).
Key: a-Turbidity increase (deviation from average); b-Average; c- Unirradiated, unshielded· d-
Unirradiated, shielded; e-o = points of equal turbidity; f-at 11:00 on each day; g-Date '
amounts of sterile sand and sterile water. feet on the number of germinated seeds.
Electrodes were attached to the Petri However, the electrically treated ger-
dishes so as to produce a vertical electric minated seeds had attained a 23% greater
field within them. Then the growth of the length on the average by the end of the ex-
wheat seedlings and the number of ger- periment than the untreated seeds. The lat-
minated seeds were compared in three dif- ter had grown to an average length of 67
ferent groups: electrode voltage at 3.5 Hz, mm after one week, compared with 81 mm
strong harmonic content; 10 Hz and 25 Hz, for the seedlings grown in the sinusoidal
sinusoidal. There was also a control. After field, and 84 mm for the seedlings in the
a germination time of one week, it was harmonic field.
found that the fields had practically no ef-
5
Project Seafarer
A large group of scientists in the United water, allowing submarines to remain sub-
States has investigated the biologic effects merged, reducing substantially their vulner-
of electromagnetic fields in the ELF range ability to detection and attack. Because this
of frequencies in connection with a pending is a long-range system with high power, a
defense project. The resulting report ("Re- single transmitter should enable mainte-
port of the Committee on Biosphere Ef- nance of essential communication links to
fects," 1977) provides a detailed survey of strategic ocean areas.
the current state of the science in the The Navy has specified an operating
opinion of the researchers and experts who frequency of 76 ± 4 Hz and maximal field
prepared it. intensities of about 0.1 V1m and
The report was prepared by the Commit- 3.7 X 1O-5T (0.37 G) directly over an-
tee on Biosphere Effects of Extremely Low tenna cables in the grid. The fields would be
Frequency Radiation in response to a less intense at greater distances from the
request from the United States Navy for a cables. For the ground terminal areas, the
study of the possibility that plants, people, Navy has indicated that the maximal fields
and other animals would be harmed by the would be 15 V1m and 1.1 x 1O-5T (0.11
electric and magnetic fields associated with G).
operation of the transmitter of the Seafarer The report deals with the following
communication system proposed by the problems in connection with the electric
Navy. and magnetic fields which would be pro-
Seafarer (formerly Sanguine) is a system duced by the Seafarer system: shock haz-
designed to provide communication with ards; genetic effects; fertility; growth and
submarines and other military facilities development effects; physiology and bio-
from a single transmitting location in the chemistry; cell growth and division effects;
United States. The system would function serum triglycerides; circadian rhythmicity
in the ELF band of the electromagnetic effects; effects on behavior; influence on
spectrum at about 76 Hz, close to the fish, bees and other insects, magnetotactic
60-Hz frequency used in electric power bacteria, birds, plants, and soil organisms.
service. At this frequency, the signal could The Committee on Biosphere Effects of
be picked up below the surface of the Extremely Low Frequency Radiation cites
104 Project Seafarer
a large number of investigations in its sex-linked lethal mutation), whereas all

report and discusses the results. The evi- control cultures contained males.
dence confirms the rather well-known fact Tegenkamp (1969), also working with
that while biologic effects from electromag- Drosophila, reported both specific muta-
netic fields, especially in the ELF range, tions and deviations in the sex ratio in the
cannot be detected in every case, they are offspring of flies exposed to fields of up to
present to a significantly high degree. Ref- 520 oersteds (41,380 AIm) for 24 hr.
erence is made to numerous studies in the Levengood (1966, 1967a) used a magnetic
literature which report specifically on the probe and claimed to find altered develop-
bioactivity of fields. mental times in Drosophila that emerged
from "treated" pupae. This alteration, ex-
pressed only through exposed male pupae,
was said to persist through many (up to 30)
Genetics generations after exposure, but gradually
diminished in importance with time.
Gann and LaFrance (1974) have examined Marino et al. (1976a) examined the effect
the effect of 60-Hz fields on the growth and of continuous exposure to low-frequency
survival of cultures of subcutaneous cells of electric fields over 3 generations of
the rat. They found that exposed cells in- Ha/lCR mice. Three groups were in-
variably died at high field intensities (600 volved; a control, a horizontally exposed
kV/m), but there was no discernible effect group (60 Hz at 10 kV/m), and a vertically
of exposure on the cultures at lower field in- exposed group (60 Hz at 15 kV/m). Ran-
tensities (200 kV/m). dom samples were drawn from each gener-
Coate and Negherbon (1970) studied the ation of animals to produce the next. The
response of wild-type (Oregon-R) cultures authors found no consistent effect on litter
of Drosophila melanogaster to exposure size, but reported an increase in mortality
for 48 hr to 45- and 75-Hz electromagnetic (in the vertical field only) and a decrease in
frequencies at 2.0 G and 20 V1m. Again, weight gain (again, largely in the vertical
the controls were reared under ambient field).
conditions, i.e., 0.6 G and a 60-Hz field of
0.05-V 1m intensity. Three treatment
groups were involved and three corre-
sponding controls of each. Five exposed Fertility, Growth, and Development
males were placed in breeding bottles with
5 virgin Muller-5 females. Their progeny Developing organisms may be more sensi-
were examined, and then 1 heterozygous tive to environmental conditions than
female and 5 Muller-5 males were placed adults. The Committee reviewed reports
together in each of 50 breeding bottles. concerned with possible alterations in ani-
(This technique varies, it will be noted, mal fertility, growth, and development that
from the more common procedure of plac- might be caused by ELF fields. Table 5-1
ing a single exposed male in a breeding bot- summarizes the data from several experi-
tle. The argument against the use of 5 is ments.
that it is not clear how many exposed chro-
mosomes are being tested, because the mat-
ing behavior of the individual flies cannot Exposures to 160 kV/m
be determined.) Both treated groups exhi-
bited effects consistent with the induction In a study by Knickerbocker et al. (1967),
of sex-linked lethal mutations; that is, 22 male mice were exposed to a 60-Hz field
5.5% and 4.7% of the cultures in the 45- and of 160 kV/m for 6.5 hr/day, except on
75-Hz fields lacked males (evidence of a weekends and holidays, for a total of 1,500
Fertility, Growth, and Development 105
Table 5-1. Experiments on ELF effects on fertility, growth, and development.

Effect
Field intensity Animal reported Investigators
160 kV/m (air) Mice No Knickerbocker et al. (1967)
15 kV/m (air) Rats Yes Marino et al. (1976 b)
1-5 kV 1m (air) Rats Yes Dumanskiy et al. (1976)
1.4-3.6 kV/m (air) Chicks Yes Krueger et al. (1972, 1975 b)
0.001-3.6 kV/m (air) Chicks No Durree et al. (1975)
0.1-100 Vim (air) Rats Yes Noval et al. (1976)
2-100 V1m (air) Rats No Mathewson et al. (in press)
100 V1m (air) Rats No Dumanskiy et al. (1976)
100 V1m (air) Mice No Krueger and Reed (1975)
10 and 20 Vim (clay) Rats No Coate and Reno (1970)
12.5 and 25 Vim (water) Tadpoles Yes McKinney (1973)
0.1 and I V1m (water) Tadpoles No McKinney (1973)
hr during the course of 10.5 months. Each Mice exposed to the horizontal electric
male was bred with 2 virgin females per field had decreased body weight for 2 suc-
month, and 8 of the litters produced each cessive generations.
month were studied after being trimmed to
4 pups each. The weight of each mouse was
recorded weekly from birth to 90 days of Exposures to 0./-5.0 kV/m
age. No alterations were observed in the
general health, behavior, or reproductive In a study by Dumanskiy et al (1976), male
ability of the exposed animals. Necropsies rats (strain and body weight not specified)
performed after exposure failed to show were exposed to a 50-Hz electric field at 0,
any pathologic changes. 0.1, 1, 2, and 5 kV /m for 4 months (22
The number of litters per month did not hr/day). The rats were exposed in plastic
differ between exposed and control groups, cages (5-15 rats/cage) between parallel
except for a decrease in the number of lit- electrodes separated by 1 m. Measure-
ters from exposed males in the second ments were made after 1, 2, 3 and 4 months
month of breeding, which did not appear of exposure. Clinical signs included alope-
again when this phase of the study was cia and hyperemia of the mucus membranes
repeated with a new stock of animals. The of nose and eyes. There was a tendency
only other observed difference between the toward increased weight gain. Necropsy
exposed group of mice and the parallel con- revealed "dystrophic" and vascular
trol group was a slightly smaller weight changes in the brain, myocardium, liver,
(4%) in the male (but not female) offspring kidneys, adrenals, and thyroid. "Normali-
of the exposed mice. zation" occurred 2 months after exposure.
In a third study, Marino et al. (197 6a) ex- The authors reported that exposure to 1-5
posed 3 generations of mice to 60-Hz, kV /m affected the "functional state" of the
100-kV/m horizontal or 15-kV/m vertical nervous system, as indicated by reduction
polarized fields. Mice were allowed to mate in blood cholinesterase content and re-
and deliver and rear their offspring for 3 duced number of sulfhydryl groups in the
successive generations while continuously blood, contrary to the authors' assertion, an
exposed to the electric fields. According to altered blood cholinesterase content is not
the authors, mice exposed to the vertical a reflection of modified nerve conduction
electric field had decreased body weight 35 (see also Davidson and Henry, 1969).
days postpartum and increased mortality Dumanskiy et al. (1976) also concluded
rates for three successive generations. that exposure to electric fields (1-5 kV/m)
increased adrenal activity and reduced or magnetic fields estimated at 1.2 G (60
thyroid function. The former conclusion Hz) and 1.4 G (45 Hz) from birth until 28
was based on increased concentrations of days of age. The electric fields were gen-
hormone byproducts (17-ketosteroids) in erated by applying 800 V between an alu-
the urine, and the latter on reduced me- minum cover plate and the metal cage,
tabolic activity of the thyroid (slow iodine- producing a nonuniform field distribution
131 uptake and release) and lowered whose intensity was not readily measured.
thyroxine blood content. They reported that chicks exposed to elec-
tric fields at either frequency had a growth
rate that was slightly, but not statistically
Exposures to 0.1-100 Vim significantly (p > 0.05), lower. Statistically
significant results were found for the 45-Hz
Noval et al. (1976) exposed young rats for magnetic field exposure (p > 0.01). No dif-
30-51 days to 45-Hz electric fields at ference in activity or behavior was de-
0.1-100 Vim to determine whether ex- tected.
posure to ELF fields has any effect on de- Giarola and Krueger (1974) reported that
velopment. Exposed rats apparently had a chicks exposed to 45- or 60-Hz fields of 3.5
23%-30% decrease in weight gain, com- kV/m and at 1.3 G had 5% and 11 % reduc-
pared with controls. The effect did not ap- tions in growth in the electric and magnetic
pear to appear to depend on field strength. fields, respectively. No differences in sur-
Exposed rats appeared to have less ab- vival or behavior were noted. The cage
dominal fat than controls. The activity of design was such that a shock hazard existed
the neuronal enzyme choline acetyltrans- when the chicks moved to the side of the
ferase was lower in some, but not in other, cage to obtain food or water.
portions of the brains of exposed animals. In a later report, Krueger et al. (197 5b)
There was no change in choline acetyl- exposed groups of four hens and one cock
transferase in controls. Liver tryptophan in metal cages (galvanized wire) for 12
pyrrolase activity seemed to be increased in weeks to 60-Hz fields of 1.6-3.6 kV/m at
the exposed animals, but adrenal weight did 1.4.1O-4 T (1.4 G). They found a reduction
not appear to be affected. The authors in egg-laying; weight gain, fertility, hatch-
reported that their findings were consistent ability, and sex ratio were normal.
with those of Marino et al. (1976a). How-
ever, Noval et al. (1976) reported that ex-
posure to a 45-Hz field caused an increase Tadpole Metamorphosis
in plasma corticosterone in this experiment,
whereas the serum II-hydroxycorticoid McKinney (1973) exposed batches of tad-
content was generally decreased in the pole eggs to electric-field intensities of
Marino study. The animals were sacrificed 0.1-25 Vim at 45 Hz in laboratory tanks.
by "brief exposure to ether or halothane," The hatchability, time required for hatch-
both of which have been shown to cause an ing, and mortality were determined. Meta-
increase in corticosterone within 2 min. morphosis was evaluated by the appear-
This may account for the high plasma cor- ance of hind legs, loss of tail, and survival
ticosterone values even in the controls. to adulthood. Tadpole and frog counts were
made at 2-week intervals for 21 weeks; by
that time, all tadpoles had either undergone
Development of Chickens metamorphosis or died. There was in-
creased mortality and decreased metamor-
Krueger et al. (1972) studied the growth of phosis in the 12.5- and 25-V1m groups com-
chicks exposed to electric fields estimated pared with controls. Those exposed to 1
at 3.4 kV/m (60 Hz) and 3.6 kV/m (45 Hz) V1m or less were not affected.
Triglycerides 107
Flatworms illness appeared to be so mild that a fatal

outcome was not anticipated (Adelson and
Marsh (1968) reported that the normal re- Kinney (1956). There are many possible
generation pattern of flatworms was altered causes of sudden unexpected death in in-
by 60-Hz electric fields of 310-420 V1m. fancy. A review of over 100 publications
Center sections (head and tail cut oft) of related to SIDS has failed to reveal an ac-
two species (Dugesia dorotocephala and ceptable cause-and-effect relationship for
Dugesia tigrina) were placed in agar to re- SIDS (Valdes-Dapena 1967).
generate, and some were exposed to 60-Hz The medical journal Selecta (1976) also
electric fields by electrodes in conducting addresses the problem of SIDS in a de-
media. The decapitated, de-tailed piece tailed survey article, with primary emphasis
normally regenerates a head at the "head" on anomalies of respiration; the acid, base
end and a tail at the "tail" end. In the pres- and electrolyte balance; and cardiac activi-
ence of a 60-Hz electric field (310-420 ty during sleep. The analysis of cases of
V1m), this normal regenerative pattern was "near-miss infants" (those who could still
altered, so that "bipolars" were produced be reanimated) shows that in most cases the
(heads at both ends). The current density to children involved were only apparently
achieve this effect was 0.6-0.8 healthy. If technical energy fields actually
mA/cm2 -considerably greater than that trigger a type of stress effect, then a possi-
associated with Seafarer. No abnormal re- ble connection between SIDS and these
generates were produced at lower field fields is entirely conceivable: the technical
strengths (250-300 V1m) and corre- fields could exert a triggering effect by
sponding lower current densities (::: 0.5 overburdening a child already subjected to
mA/cm2 ), which are also considerably a previous stress.
greater than those associated with Seafarer.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Triglycerides
Eckert (1976) attempted to establish a rela- The appearance of two reports in 1973
tionship between sudden infant death syn- caused some concern about whether the
drome (SIDS) and electric and magnetic electric or magnetic fields associated with
fields. The first part of Eckert's paper dealt Seafarer cause increases in human trigly-
with investigations in Philadelphia, Penn- ceride concentration (Proceedings of the
sylvania, and quoted material from three Ad Hoc Committee (1973), Beischer et al.
unrelated references without presenting 1973). One paper reported on men and
any data. The second, and major, part of women at the Wisconsin Test Facility, and
the article reported the author's investiga- another on men at an experimental facility
tions in Hamburg, Germany. Eckert at the Naval Aerospace Medical Labora-
pointed out that close to each area of high tory in Florida.
SIDS there may be electric ground currents Triglycerides constitute one of the three
caused by railroads or well-conducting major lipid groups found in the plasma.
earth resulting from conditions such as high Dietary fat is predominantly triglycerides.
groundwater level. He indicated that in- Approximately 1-2 g triglyceride per kilo-
fants living in higher apartments are less gram of body weight is consumed daily by
vulnerable: 73% of all cases occurred in the average person. These triglycerides un-
cellar, ground-level, and second-floor apart- dergo partial hydrolysis in the intestinal
ments. lumen and are taken up with other lipids
SIDS usually occurs in an infant who into the mucosal cells, where they are
was thought to be in good health or whose reformed and assembled into particles
called chylomicrons. The chylomicrons posed subjects had increased triglyceride

enter the systemic circulation via the lym- 48 hr after exposure (with one above nor-
phatic system and are removed from the mal); both subjects had relatively stable
blood by the action of lipoprotein lipases. values before field exposure. However, the
Chylomicron triglycerides are described as 2 subjects had an argument during the
exogenous in origin. fourth evening, and their increases could be
Triglyceride may also be of endogenous attributed to the stress of the argument and
origin, in the form of very-low density confinement. Two subjects served both as
lipoproteins (VLDL). These are synthe- controls and as experimental subjects, and
sized mainly in the liver from such sub- their values show no consistent pattern
stances as free fatty acids and excess with respect to whether the field was on;
carbohydrate. VLDL are also removed there was considerable and comparable
from the circulation through lipoprotein variability in their triglyceride values. None
lipase activity. This process is associated of the control subjects had any abnormal
with the formation of low-density lipopro- values, but there was considerable variabil-
teins (LDL). ity.
Three experiments were undertaken by
Beischer et al. (1973). In the first, 2 sub-
jects were confined to a chamber together
for 3 days. AI-0 (45 Hz) field was applied Magnetotactic Bacteria
during day 2 for about 10 hr. Preexposure
triglyceride values were obtained 9 days Magnetotaxis in bacteria (i.e., bacterial
before confinement; both subjects' trigly- motility related to magnetic fields) was first
ceride values were higher after the ex- reported by Blakemore in 1975. Bacteria
posure. One subject was a type IV hyperli- responded to weak magnetic fields by
pidemic. There was no dietary control. orienting so as to align themselves with the
There were no control (sham) subjects. field and then swam in the direction in
In the second experiment, 2 persons which they had oriented. Such cells were
were confined and exposed; an additional first found in marine marsh muds and in
subject served as a sham control. One ex- surface layers of muds collected at a depth
periment subject and the sham control were of 15 m in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts.
hyperlipidemic; the second experimental Similar forms were later found in the sedi-
subject was apparently normal. Diet was ments of the Baltic Sea (R. S. Wolfe, per-
restricted to a choice of meals prepared by sonal communication). Magnetotactic bac-
a Navy hospital. Confinement was for 7 teria also occur in freshwater pools and
days, with a 22.5 hr 1-0 (45 Hz) exposure acid bogs on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, at
halfway through. Preconfinement trigly- population densities of 200-1000 cells/ml.
ceride values were minimal in number (one Moreover, a surprising variety of morpho-
or two). One exposed subject showed a logically different forms of these bacteria
large "spike" in triglyceride values 24 hr was observed in each environment. These
after exposure amid otherwise normal val- observations suggest that magnetotactic
ues. bacteria are cosmopolitan, include a variety
The third experiment (7 days long with a of species, and live in environments con-
1-0 exposure for 22.5 hr halfway through) spicuously different in salinity, pH, and
involved several sets of participants. In the other important characteristics.
first exposure set, 2 subjects' triglyceride By reversing the local geomagnetic field
values were ascending before the field was with Helmholtz coils, Blakemore (1975)
turned on and continued to rise until 48 hr demonstrated that the bacteria respond to
after field application, placing them above both the horizontal and the vertical compo-
the "normal" range. The next pair of ex- nents of the earth's magnetic field. In more
Bird Orientation and Navigation 109
recent (unpublished) experiments, Blake- However, the need for answers to some
more and Kalmijn have studied the orienta- questions, including the effects of altered
tion capability of these bacteria as a func- and imposed small fields on the survival
tion of the strength of applied uniform mag- and behavior of magnetotactic bacteria, in-
netic fields up to 10 times as strong as that vites continued experimentation.
of the horizontal component of the local
geomagnetic field. They also found that
magneto static bacteria behave in a manner
expected of permanent magnetic dipoles. Bird Orientation and Navigation
Cells immediately turned and moved in the
opposite direction when a strong To confirm sensitivity to the earth's mag-
(0.03T = 300 G) remagnetizing pulse (1 p,s netic field, Bookman (1977) designed a
duration) was applied. This response was flight tunnel in which unrestrained pigeons
assumed to reflect a change in the polarity could be trained to discriminate between a
of permanent magnetic domains associated simulated field of 5 x 1O-5 T (0.5 G) and a
with each cell. Thus, magnetotactic bacte- strongly reduced field of 2 (± OX 1O-6T
ria are, in reality, magnetic bacteria. (0.02 ± 0.01 G). The flight tunnel, about 3
The instantaneous turning response of an m long and built inside a Faraday cage, ter-
entire cell by a change in the direction of a minated at paired feeding stations with con-
weak applied magnetic field (0.1 G or less) cealed food bins. Birds were trained to trav-
suggests that ferromagnetism is involved, el the length of the tunnel and enter one
and not diamagnetic or paramagnetic feeding bin in the presence of the 0.5 G
forces. Consistent with this, magnetic bac- field and the other in the presence of the
teria from both freshwater and marine envi- reduced (0.02 G) field. Mated pairs showed
ronments were found to possess unusually greater activity in the chamber than single
large amounts of iron. This iron was con- birds, so they were used as test subjects; 3
tained in previously undescribed, struc- pairs were tested. After 2 weeks to permit
tured particles in each cell. The particles stimulus-reward association, a trial was ini-
have not been purified; consequently, their tiated by release of the birds at the tunnel
chemical composition and physical proper- entry; they were observed with closed-cir-
ties remain unknown. cuit television. The first entry of the first
Although the magnetotactic bacteria re- bird into a feeding box was recorded as the
spond to constant magnetic fields as low as datum. Incorrect response was punished by
those associated with the proposed retaining the bird in the box for 30 s before
Seafarer antenna, the effects of alternating, permitting entry to the correct feeding box.
75-Hz, 0.13-G fields have not been studied. The trial ended when both birds had en-
Thus, the possible effect on these bacteria tered and fed and were removed from the
of magnetic fields associated with the correct box. Birds were recorded as either
Seafarer antenna is impossible to assess walking ("no flutter") the length of the cage
from existing data. There might be interfer- or "fluttering" (more than 3 s jumping,
ence with normal cell motility and cell dis- hovering, or in flight).
tribution in the vicinity of the antenna or its Records for all performances suggested
terminals. significant discrimination between coil
Blakemore (1975) speculated that mag- states.
netotaxis might direct these bacteria down-
ward to anaerobic areas more favorable to
their growth. In the absence of evidence of Zugunruhe Experiments
important ecologic changes associated with
test environments, there may be no great An interesting set of experiments has been
cause for concern with respect to Seafarer. carried out by Southern with the ring-billed
I IO Project Seafarer
gull (Larus delawarensis), a gregarious similar size and weight. The "magnet" and
species for which adults and young were "brass" birds had been raised and main-
available in large numbers at a Lake Huron tained in the same enclosures and were ex-
site near Rogers City, Michigan. Banding ercised together; the bars were attached
studies (Southern, 1971) had shown gener- just before testing. The birds were moved
ally southeasterly fall migratory movement in closed vehicles from the loft to the
of adult birds from that colony. Juveniles release site, where they were tossed singly
on their first flight showed a preference for into the air in random directions. Compass
east-southeast (mean angle, 112°; South- bearing of the vanishing point, time to
ern, 1969, 1972) suggesting an innate ap- vanishing point (10 x 50 binoculars were
proximate directional preference deter- used), and homing speed were recorded.
mined by the requirements of a future In a group of tests, experienced birds
migration. Indeed, in work with younger were released under sunny skies, some at
and younger birds, to chicks 2-3 days old, a familiar sites, others at unfamiliar sites.
directional preference for southeast (walk- Within each group, the experimental birds
ing or flying) continued to be demonstrable carried magnets; the controls, brass bars.
statistically. With a non-magnetic 8 ft Both experimental birds and controls took
(2.4 m) orientation cage at the Michigan appropriate homeward bearings, homing at
site, but away from the colony, single similar speeds, although in one test the
chicks were released at the center of the magnet birds took longer to reach the
cage; after 2 min, or at the perimeter, the di- vanishing point. Thus, magnets failed to
rection of the bird relative to the release disrupt homing. Under conditions of heavi-
point was measured. Means for perform- lyovercast skies, in 5 of 7 tests, the magnet
ance clusters were used to indicate prefer- birds scattered randomly (or nearly so), and
ence direction. Southeasterly headings the controls took the proper home bearing.
(mean angles) were selected to a statis- The evidence is now convincing that
tically significant extent by chicks tested some birds are able to sense the presence of
under both clear and overcast skies and magnetic fields whose strength approxi-
during periods of moderate stability of the mates the strength of the earth's field. The
earth's magnetic field (K value 3 or lower limits of detection have not been es-
lower; < 4 x 10-6 0 deviation; Southern, tab Ii shed; the initial finding that systematic
1971, 1975). At greater magnetic distur- deviation of mean orientation bearing in
bance (K value 4-7, 4 x 10-6 G to over homing pigeons is an inverse function of the
20 x 10-6 G), increased dispersion and ran- K value of the earth's magnetic activity
domness of headings were noted, the Ray- suggests sensitivity to some small fraction
leight test being used to demonstrate the of the natural earth field.
absence of statistically significant direc-
tional heading.
Plants
Homing Experiments
Rosenthal (1975) germinated and grew sun-
In later experiments, Keeton (1971) at- flower seeds in greenhouse and growth-
tached a small bar magnet weighing about 3 chamber environments exposed to an elec-
g (magnetic field strengths: at poles, about tromagnetic field of 1 G and 10 V1m in air
0.025 T [250 G]; at bird's head, about at 75 Hz. Measurements were made on
5 X 1O-5 T [0.5 G]) to the back at the base many indexes of growth, such as percent-
of the neck of each pigeon in the experi- age of germination and length and weight of
mental groups. Controls had brass bars of roots and stems. The author concluded that
Optimizing Field Parameters for Behavioral Detection of Weak Electric Fields 111
there were small but statistically significant Many of the other studies that have been
differences in seedling mortality, stem, and done on mammals have revealed only nega-
root length brought about by the ELF field. tive results (de Lorge, 1972, 1973b; Marr
et aI., 1973). However, a careful review of
these studies in the light of some of the in-
formation available within the past few
Behavioral Assays of Possible Weak years suggests that some of these inconsis-
ELF Fields tencies may be readily resolved if two
major methodological issues are consid-
Gavalas-Medici and Sagan (1977) reported ered. The first of these is simply the dif-
that the behavior of monkeys exposed to ferences in field parameters involved in the
weak (1-100 V1m) ELF fields (7 Hz-75 different studies, and the second centers on
Hz) showed minor but systematic perturba- the precise nature of the behavioral assay
tions (shortening of interresponse times, used.
IRTs). Furthermore, there was some in-
dication of dose-dependency within a limit-
ed range of voltages (0-56 VIm p-p). The Optimizing Field Parameters For
lowest threshold appeared for a field
frequency of 7 Hz; other (higher) frequen-
Behavioral Detection Of Weak
cies that were tested appeared to have sub- Electric Fields
stantially higher voltage thresholds. It was
suggested that this reflected the biologic Field parameters may be readily sub-
relevance of the 7-Hz field, since 7 Hz is in divided into frequency (modulation
the range of hippocampal theta for alert frequency and carrier frequency), voltage
monkeys performing this kind of task. An or power, and duration of exposure. The
anomaly in the data was the absence of an data from the ELF monkey experiments
effect for 60 Hz on the one occasion when suggest that behavior may be especially
that field was tested. A second point of am- susceptible to EEG range frequencies.
biguity was the lack of a systematic effect at Results presented elsewhere suggest that
100 VIm; this may be explained by a 24-hr there is a "tuning curve" of modulation
"carry over" effect at that level. frequencies for VHF fields used in elicita-
Recent evidence for subtle but reliable tion of significant changes in calcium efflux
behavioral perturbation as a function of from in vivo chick brains. Similar studies
ELF exposure comes from the work of with ELF fields again implicate frequency-
Williams et al. (1977). They have observed specificity in the interaction.
that migratory birds near the test facility Thus, the background research to date
antenna showed a deviation in flight direc- suggests that frequency may be critical in
tion of 5°-25°when the N-S axis of the an- assessing possible behavioral changes. A
tenna was energized. The field was es- feasible working hypothesis is that the low-
timated to be 0.17 V1m rms at 10m, perpen- est threshold for behavioral change will be
dicular to the antenna. Indications were observed with frequency set at a level
that flight direction was rapidly corrected which is biologically relevant, e.g., within
after the birds passed the immediate area of the EEG range of a given animal during
the antenna. These results appear to be performance of the specified task. Note
very compatible with the monkey ELF that this cautions, for example, that domi-
studies. In both cases, rather small but nant EEG frequencies observed in sleep
reliably measured behavioral changes could may be without effect for an animal in train-
be discovered and in both cases the effects ing for a particular behavioral task.
seem to be short-lived. Voltage levels are a second primary
parameter. In this case, the evidence is not able that has often been overlooked in ELF
clear-cut. In the monkey ELF behavioral studies. In view of the pervasiveness of
studies, there was some evidence for dose- weak ELF fields in human environments
dependency with a larger IRT shift ob- and the absence of catastrophic behavioral
served as voltage was increased. In the cal- changes, it seems to be unreasonable to ex-
cium efflux studies on neonatal chicks, on pect that brief exposure to weak ELF fields
the other hand, there appeared to be a volt- might perturb animal behavior. Yet ex-
age window; no effect was observed at 1 posure durations as short as 1 min have
V 1m or 100 V1m but statistically significant been used in studies cited as negative evi-
changes were seen at 10 and 56 V1m p-p. In dence (Marr et aI., 1973). Our ELF studies
the shark studies of Kalmijn (1971), data have maximum exposure durations of 4 hr.
were also presented that implicated a volt- Few studies have used days or weeks of ex-
age window. These findings suggest that posure. The short exposure times used in
not only is voltage level critical but that one some studies may reflect the fact that they
cannot assume that a negative result with have often been modeled on microwave
relatively high ELF voltages implies no ef- research, in which behavioral effects ap-
fect at lower levels. pear to be more immediate.
Duration of exposure is an obvious vari-
6
Biologic Activity of Higher-frequency Fields
and Chemophysical Reactions
Biometeorology and VLF bances in the static atmospheric electric

Atmospherics field, (2) atmospheric long waves ("in-
fralong waves") in the range from 10-50
kHz (now called VLF atmospherics), (3)
The contributions of Reiter (1953) to bio- atmospheric long waves of 4-12 kHz.
meteorologic research must not be over- Based on correlative studies on the reac-
looked. In studies on the problem of tion time of healthy persons and VLF at-
weather dependency in man, he explored mospherics, Reiter (1954) also gives a sur-
the basic problems of biometeorologic re- vey of the results of investigations (Fig.
search using "biometeorologic indicators." 6-1). The figure clearly shows correlations
Ever since the fundamental work of De between VLF atmospherics and a variety
Rudder (1952) and others, changes in air of parameters based on numerous experi-
masses and the passages of fronts have ments and a large volume of data. As men-
been recognized as the meteorologic basis tioned earlier, a large number of reaction-
of bioclimatologic research. Reiter (1953) time measurements made at an automobile
further claims that apparently quite specific exhibition provided a suitable basis for sta-
atmospheric electric factors should be tistical evaluations. The most important
regarded as biometeorologic indicators and result of these is given in Fig. 6-2, which
cites statistical studies and reaction-time shows the times of the sudden onset of
experiments, notably by Dull (1935), in VLF atmospherics by the synchronization
support of this. It has long been assumed method. An increase in reaction time of
that the higher incidence of deaths and about 20 ms is already seen within a period
suicides on days with chromo spheric erup- of 30 min.
tions on the sun may have to do with the si- U sing data obtained by the recording of
multaneous increase in long-wave atmos- VLF atmospherics, Damaschke and
pheric disturbances. An extremely strong Becker (1964) also did correlative studies
increase in radiation is also known in such on the respiration rate of termites as related
cases. Reiter (1954) also reports on inves- to changes in the pulse repetition frequency
tigations with the following "biome- of atmospherics. A clear connection was
teorologic indicators": (1) temporal distur- found between the O 2 consumption of the
114 Biologic Activity of Higher-frequency Fields and Chemophysical Reactions
r
a-
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Tage
Rei Eb-
C-
Beschwerden von
09
Hirnverletzten
"j
9000 Einz. w.
b-Rel E 08
d-
rl
06 Beschwerden von
Amputierten
• 18 000 Einz. W.
05 Reaktionszeit
des Menschen
185 45000 Einz. W.
e-
% 180 t-
Verkehrsunfallziffer
von 8ayern
120
'00
r
50000 Faile
110
100
% g-
.
90 Geburtenziffer
102 von 8ayern
157000 Faile
101
% 100
h-
99
1
TOdesziffer
von 50dbayern
102
'ro • 52000 Faile
101
100 m- i-
99 Del.lTg. Selbstmorde
in MOnchen
205 Faile
0.5
f6
m- Del.lTg. 0.4
j-
r
0.3
0.5
06 ~ Notzuchtverbrechen
in MOnchen
0.4
% 148 Faile
0.3 k-
Betriebsunfallziffer
120
in Bayern
110 18000 Faile
100 (vorlaufiges Ergebnis)
90
, , , I , , a-
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Tage
1-
t
Stichtag: VLF - Atmospherics (Infra-Langwellen)
Figure 6-1. Survey of various events occurring on days characterized as "biotropic" by infralong-
wave disturbances (VLF atmospherics). After Reiter (1954).
Key: a- Days; b- Relative units; c- Complaints by brain-injured persons, 9000 indiv. values; d-
Complaints by amputees, 18,000 individual values; e- Human reaction time, 45,000 individual val-
ues; f- Rate of traffic accidents in Bavaria, 50,000 cases; g- Birth rate in Bavaria, 157,000 cases; h-
Mortality rate in Southern Bavaria, 52,000 cases; i- Suicides in Munich, 205 cases; j- Crimes of sex-
ual assault in Munich, 148 cases; k- Industrial accident rate in Bavaria, 18,000 cases (preliminary
result); I-Key day: VLF atmospherics ("infralong waves"); m-cases/day
termites and the pulse repetition frequency In a survey, Vndt (1962) makes refer-
of the VLF atmospherics. Increases in res- ence to studies by Wedler which showed an
piration usually occurred when the atmo- unusually high mortality rate in West Berlin
spherics displayed minima independent of from July 10-14, 1959, which could be
the daily cycle, while decreases in O 2 con- clearly correlated with pulsed atmospheric
sumption were observed during maxima. radiation (VLF atmospherics).
Changes in respiration rate were also ob- Ranscht-Froemsdorff (1966b) and Lud-
served in artificial electrostatic fields 10 to wig and Mecke (1968) report on experi-
100 times more intense than the natural at- ments with a golden hamster exposed to an
mospheric electric field. artificial field corresponding to that created
Biometeorology and VLF Atmospherics 115
ms
t 270 b- Einsalz V F-Wellen (S Sld.-Tag)
260
.~
a- ~
~
250 Iu ---- a
m
a:
240
c-
230 2 ',5 , 0,5 0 0,5 , ',5 2 SId
Figure 6-2. Increase in the reaction time oftest subjects during increased VLF atmospherics activity
(passage of 6 cold fronts and 1 trough). After Reiter (1954).
Key: a- Reaction time; b- Onset of VLF waves (8-hr day); c- Hr
by VLF atmospherics during winter phase angle between the two field types 0 0
;
weather. The running activity of the ham- carrier frequency 100 kHz; pulse repetition
ster decreased until the animal fell into a frequency 5 or 10Hz, a range typical of
state resembling hibernation. When the ar- biologic processes. It was found that the
tificial field was later modified to simulate amplitude and carrier frequency of the ar-
the VLF atmospherics characteristic of tificial radiation were of minor importance,
summer, the hamster spontaneously awoke which is consistent with the theory of
and worked off its artificially pent-up motor Ludwig (1968). Based on published data on
energy in a frenzy of activity that lasted 187 the electric properties of nerve cords and
hr (Fig. 6-3). The result of this experiment synapses, Ludwig (1968) suggests a mecha-
is taken as proof that VLF atmospherics nism whereby pulsed atmospheric signals
have an effect on higher nervous activity, at are picked up by the nerve conductors and
least in animals. processed further at special synapses. In
The artificial VLF atmospherics used the case of the hamster, the statistics of the
here were produced in a room shielded repetition frequency (irregular pulse
from about 99.8% of natural long-wave ra- sequence) were of considerable impor-
diation of this type, and had the following tance, with the higher-frequency compo-
characteristics: electric field intensity 1 nents apparently playing a special role. A
VIm; magnetic field intensity 2.65 mAIm; small statistical distribution of the different
Bewegungsaktivitat a-
...
100
1~
40
20
b-
o +-;-,+c2;;+-";3;+--;4-+-'-5+C60+-07..-t-oS+ng+:'"'01-;,'-+,"'12-+-";-'3+--'- Wochen
N KKKKK
Figure 6-3. Motor activity of the golden hamster with and without a program of artificially produced
VLF atmospherics. M: mean motor activity without program; after N: natural atmospherics switched
on; K: artificial atmospherics. After Ludwig and Mecke (1968).
Key: a- Motor activity; b- Weeks
pulse repetition frequencies (i.e., a nearly Certain results were puzzling. The field
constant repetition frequency over a pro- intensity of the VLF atmospherics was
longed period of time) resulted in a pas- found to increase spontaneously over cer-
sivization of motor activity. tain relatively circumscribed points on the
In contrast to the apparently sensitive re- ground. This was attributed to resonance
sponse of mammals to atmospherics, no ef- zones caused by the presence of ground
fect could be demonstrated in human sub- water or rock strata, thereby suggesting a
jects. Only when the subjects were sub- possible new interpretation of divining-rod
divided according to a bipolar scheme phenomena. However, the assumption of
could it be shown that the labile types re- resonance zones could hardly account for
sponded reproducibly to artificial atmo- these anomalies, because of the very small
spherics. In labile vagotonics, for example, scale of the phenomena compared with the
an increasing "giddiness" was observed wavelength of the VLF atmospherics. It
after the artificial field was started. When would appear that the explanation lies
the field was silently switched off, this state partly in the anomalies of ground or air con-
quickly disappeared (reproducibly to Is). ductivity which are known to exist in such
Such significant results prompted areas.
Ranscht-Froemsdorff and Weise (1969) to Lotmar et al. (1969) showed significant
develop portable narrow-band receivers for correlations between VLF atmospherics
measuring VLF atmospherics in the range and the respiratory quotient (Q02) of rabbit
around 10kHz and 100 kHz. Measure- skin on 147 different days of experi-
ments in terrain showed that the field inten- mentation. This led the authors to assume
sity and number of 10- and 100-kHz pulses that pulsed atmospheric radiation (VLF at-
increased with elevation above sea level. mospherics) is not only an indicator, but is
VLF atmospherics were also found to vary also a biotropic weather factor that directly
with orographic conditions: rising ground influences the degree of tissue respiration in
screens out the shorter-wave atmospherics vitro.
(100 kHz) more strongly than the longer- The liver tissue of white mice was simi-
wave atmospherics (10 kHz)-an effect larly tested using artificially produced fair-
known primarily for the ultrashort-wave and bad-weather pulse frequencies corre-
region (Fig. 6-4). sponding to natural VLF atmospherics ac-
a- Orographische Abhangigkeit fOr Sferics-Empfang,

Wiesen tal mit Bach, 300 m hoch, Talverlauf Ost-West,
Wetterphase 5-6, Sommer
c- 100 KHz-Bereich 1-4 10-50 >0.01
d- Feldslarke -12db >20 db o db
Figure 6-4. Measurement of VLF atmospherics over water catchment areas shows a field intensity
increase up to 20 db or more (factor of 10) within a small distance. After Ranscht-Froemsdorff and
Weise (1969).
Key: a- Reception of sferics as a function of orography. Broad valley with stream, 300 m high, east-
west course, weather phase 5-6, summer; b-IO-kHz range; c-100-kHz range; d- Field intensity; e-
5-10 pulses/min; f-80-100 pUlses/min; g-0.1-0.5 pulses/min
Biometeorology and VLF Atmospherics 117
tivity. The experiments were conducted in in three different temperature ranges. Blood
a chamber shielded from this type of radia- samples taken during the experiment
tion. Exposure to artificially produced bad- showed a significant change in blood coagu-
weather signals (3-100 pulses/s, intensity lation under field exposure only at a moder-
0.1 V /m, fundamental frequency 10 ate room temperature on the second and
kHz-I00 kHz, simulating cyclonic weather third days. However, switching off the elec-
conditions) resulted in a significant (42%) trical climate (foehn conditions) caused a
reduction of liver-tissue respiration. A mag- significant change in coagulation values
netic-field program (Lotmar et al., 1969) only at a relatively high room temperature
and programs simulating anticyclonic con- on the second and third days. Blood coagu-
ditions had no effect, however. On the lation was accelerated and delayed with the
whole, the results prove once again that the course of the simulated electroclimatic
atmospherics which are often trivially ideal cyclone, the temperature again play-
termed "weather radiation" must be of sig- ing an important role.
nificance biologically. It remains to be seen, It should be noted, of course, that these
however, whether the effects observed in results of blood coagulation studies in
vitro are analagous to cellular effects in young, healthy subjects cannot be directly
vivo. In any case, the control values were applied to the elderly or infirm. N everthe-
obtained in appropriately shielded experi- less, it can be stated with certainty that as
mental chambers and have important impli- physical lability increases, the blood
cations for the problem of weather sensitiv- coagulstion disturbances caused by elec-
ity and modem construction with metal and troclimatic conditions may reach patho-
reinforced concrete. logic values within a matter of hours, as
Ranscht-Froemsdorff and Rinck (1972) short-term experiments indicate.
report on the biologic effects of VLF at- Tromp (1970) also made observations of
mospherics as a function of the occurrence the biologic activity of VLF atmospherics
of minimum or maximum pulse frequencies over a period of years. He found striking
in connection with their study of the elec- correlations between atmospherics activity
troclimatic phenomenon of the foehn. They and blood sedimentation in human subjects.
begin by stating that the "electric climate" Supplementing these studies are experi-
created by atmospherics is known to have ments performed by Senatra et al. (1978) to
biologic effects when the intensity of the ra- detect a possible effect on in vitro irradiated
diation increases. This suggests that similar human blood samples. The erythrocyte
perturbations may occur when radiation is sedimentation rate (ESR) and the bioim-
deficient. Now, according to Ranscht- pedence of blood samples treated with a
Froemsdorff and Weise (1969) and Reiter low-level 1.59-kHz electric field and un-
(1960), the pulse incidence tends to be ex- treated blood samples were measured. A
tremely low under so-called zero weather statistically significant difference
conditions as well as under conditions of (p < 0.001) was found in the blood sedi-
subsidence or Alpine foehn. As expected, mentation rates between the controls and
the results of a study by Brezowsky and those exposed to VLF field conditions. The
Ranscht-Froemsdorff (1966) showed that most striking result was that for 20% of the
the incidence of myocardial infarctions is blood samples analyzed under the influence
highest when the "electroclimatic radia- of the VLF field, the ESR tests were almost
tion" is at a minimum. stopped by the latter, i.e., no blood sedi-
In further experiments by Rinck (1972), mentation occurred. The bioimpedance val-
young subjects were placed individually ues of "stopped" blood samples were one
into special electroclimatic chambers, order of magnitude lower than those of
where they were exposed to various ar- unirradiated samples.
tificially produced atmospherics programs Jahn and Nessler (1971) report on the ef-
fect of ultralong radio waves (VLF range). caused a much greater change than irradia-
Laboratory experiments based on observation of the liver region; (2) the sugar level
tions in the field show that the mortality and rose at field frequencies from 10 to 100
fertility of the black arch moth can be kHz, while it fell at higher frequencies
influenced by such electric or electromag- (> 1 MHz); (3) in the intervening
netic fields. This is considered surprising by frequency range, the field had practically no
the authors, because the discovery that in- effect. In all cases the blood sugar level
sects react to magnetic influences and are began to return to its normal value 20-30
apparently capable of orientation by mag- min after the end of the experiment and
netic fields is a relatively recent one. It has reached it in 60-90 min. The cause of the
even been shown that the life cycle of the opposite effects of irradiation at relatively
black arch is controlled in part by these in- high and low frequencies is presumed to be
fluences. the different frequency-dependent depths
Besides these observations in the more of penetration of the radiation into the liver
classical VLF range, reports have also and brain tissues. The blood sugar level
been published on investigations of some- could also be influenced by the use of
what higher ranges. Of particular interest in decimeter and centimeter waves.
this regard are observations by Plekhanov Attempts have also been made to show
and Vedyushkina (1966) on the production biologic effects of electromagnetic fields in
of a conditioned muscular reflex by means isolated tissues and cells. Budko (1964), for
of electromagnetic fields at 735 kHz, which example, employed frequency-dependent
required field intensities less than 1 mV1m. irradiation to test the glucose content of the
These intensities are in a range which is liver in the range from 500 kHz to 21.5
characteristic of natural fields. MHz at a field intensity of 1.5 kV 1m. He
Budko (1964) investigated the effect of showed that the glucose level was some-
electromagnetic fields at frequencies from what higher than the control at the lower ir-
9.5 to 9500 kHz on the blood sugar level in radiation frequencies, initially fell to 80% of
rabbits. In these experiments, only the that value with increasing frequency, but
animal's head or liver region was irradiated then rose continuously with increasing
with a 1.5 kV/m (capacitor-produced) field frequency to 100% ofthe control at 1 MHz
for 20 min. The blood sugar values after and even to 120% at 21.5 MHz.
such an irradiation are plotted in Fig. 6-5, The effect of field intensity was also
which shows: (1) irradiation of the head tested at four fixed frequencies: 9.5 MHz,
~ 200 .
~ 180-
:;
z'" • • •
•
0
8> 140
----(}-------- •
b-
0 2 0 neulrale
?ft
0 Vergleichsobjekle
:: 100
0; 0
.<= o 2 ~
'" ; - - ; -~<1
~ 60 c-
""
0
::I
Frequenz, kHz
N 3doo 10000
10 30 100 300 10bo
a-
Figure 6-5. Change in the blood sugar level of rabbits irradiated for 20 min with electromagnetic
fields in the frequency range from 9.5 kHz to 9.5 MHz; (1) irradiation of head region; (2) irradiation of
liver region. After Budko (1964).
Key: a-Sugar level in % of neutral value; b-Neutral controls; c-Frequency (kHz)
High-frequency and Microwaves 119
730 kHz, 85 kHz and 29 kHz. An inten- troduced into the specimen under a water-
sity-dependent effect was found with regard jet pump vacuum. The water remained in
to the glucose level. Values from 1000 to the sealed specimen throughout the dura-
4000 V1m served as comparative field in- tion of the experiment, generally 4-6
tensities. At the highest frequency, a glu- weeks. After checks were made by means
cose maximum could be shown at about 1.5 of additional trial runs, the actual experi-
kV1m, which exceeded the other values by ment began: activation of the specimen by
6%-7%. At all other test frequencies, a capacitance-coupled high-frequency energy
glucose minimum (10%-15% below other (generally for about 1 min). In some cases
values) was observed at the same field in- the activation was repeated several times in
tensity (1500 V1m). intervals of a few minutes. The power input
was about 20 microwatts to 100 milliwatts.
Over 200 such experiments were per-
formed over a 3-year period using two tor-
High-frequency and Microwaves sion balances, one of which carried only
ballast. No coincidence was observed in
Since high-frequency energy and water can any case.
apparently be of importance in connection It was found that activation led to max-
with location-dependent biologic effects, imum deflections of the torsion balance
we shall begin our discussion with experi- with torque values up to 10-7 N x m, but
ments by Peschka (1974) which deal with that most deflections were in the range of
dynamic effects in test specimens consist- about 25 X 10-9 N X m. These deflections,
ing of high-frequency oscillating circuits or which persisted for 1-2 hr at minimum
circuit elements, with water as the dielec- power imput even after the high-frequency
tric. energy was switched off, can be attributed
Essentially, the specimens represent os- to no previously known effects: neither
cillating-circuit elements (i.e., inductances electrostatic, magnetic, nor hydrodynamic
and capacitances for high frequency) or influences can satisfactorily account for
high-frequency circuit components such as them. Moreover, it is unclear whether the
quarter-wavelength waveguides. The os- deflections occur solely on the basis of a
cillating circuits or circuit components force or solely on the basis of a turning
were set up in a water medium and, moment. The energy frequencies suitable
together with a container of insulating ma- for use (which lie in the range of electronic
terial (generally Plexiglas), comprised the frequencies characteristic of the experi-
entire experimental appangement. The ob- mental apparatus) must be kept constant to
ject was to demonstrate that the specimens about 10-100 Hz for 1 min. Evidently
show dynamic effects during the inductive there are several critical frequency ranges
or capacitive coupling of high-frequency which appear to be discrete and can pro-
energy to them. Each specimen was at- duce a response in the specimen. These are
tached to a torsion balance, so that any dy- 30-40 MHz, 120-130 MHz and 200-350
namic effects would produce a deflection. MHz. A pure sine-wave input produced no
As a precaution, extensive trial runs were dynamic effects; apparently harmonic com-
carried out with two torsion balances prior ponents are necessary.
to the actual experiment. No coincidence A record of the experimental results
was found either with temperature fluctua- revealed previously unexplained phenome-
tions or movements of the building. Elec- na in activated specimens. Specimens ac-
trostatic effects were also ruled out. tivated once or several times still show ef-
In the actual experiment, de-aerated fects even after several weeks, notably a
water (primarily tapwater, but also desali- strong response to high-frequency distur-
nated water) at room temperature was in- bances (caused by the switching on of
fluorescent lamps, resistor overloads, spark implications. The production as well as the
discharges at great distances, high- absorption of electromagnetic energy of
frequency oscillators located outside the such low intensity is possible in the molecu-
laboratory, and lightning flashes). The as- lar structure of the cell and may well have
sociated phenomena, which result primarily played a key role in the evolution of life.
in deflections lasting from 1-2 s, are called According to papers published in the
short-term effects. Long-term effects can U.S.S.R. on this subject (Presman, 1970),
also be observed in activated specimens, this would enable cells to exchange infor-
however. In such cases the torsion balance mation by the use of electromagnetic
undergoes periodic deflections about 12 s in waves. Popp et al. (1979) deal with this
duration, upon which are superimposed problem in detail. They report that biologi-
other short-term effects which may origi- cal systems can emit electromagnetic
nate from external sources of high- waves and also show sensitive responses
frequency disturbances. In many cases throughout the whole spectral range, from
(60%-70% probability) the mere presence the extreme long-wave "slow fluctuations"
of persons in the room containing the ac- up to the short wave UV area. Resonance
tivated specimens is sufficient to cause activity serves as a basis for· com-
deflections of the torsion balance, which munication in several ways: biological sys-
may persist for up to 2 hr. tems communicating with each other and
Moreover, the feeding of high-frequency their environments; communication with
energy to activated specimens is accom- the organism itself; communications on an
panied by mood changes in some experi- inter- and intracellular level. We thus see
mental subjects which are clearly percepti- the beginnings of a science which lies in the
ble but difficult to describe (feelings of irri- borderline area between physics, psychol-
tation, slight disturbances of concentration) ogy and biology, and which might well play
and which are not at all comparable to the a central role in the future.
effects observed in subjects exposed to Other reports and discussions on the
high-power, high-frequency generators. biologic significance of high-frequency en-
The phenomena observed are undoubt- ergy have also been published. Blanco and
edly associated with electromagnetic en- Romero-Sierra (1973) examined the possi-
ergies that cause changes in matter by ble role of microwave radiation as a means
various possible mechanisms of action. A of communication in biologic systems. Ac-
lower limit for the necessary high- cording to these authors, biologic systems
frequency power would appear to be are highly complex generators and re-
present when the high-frequency power ceivers of various forms of energy and
input reaches the portion of the thermal produce electromagnetic fields spanning a
noise output falling in the frequency inter- large portion of the electromagnetic spec-
val of the half-value width. At half-value trum as well as the static electric and mag-
widths of several hertz, these powers are on netic field. These systems employ a variety
the order of 10-20 W. In view of these very of methods to communicate with one an-
low powers, it is unlikely that further light other and glean information from their envi-
will be shed on the problem until extremely ronment. Besides the ordinary methods of
narrow-band receivers are available which communication, such as sight, hearing and
respond to extremely weak signals below smell, other unusual methods would be
the thermal noise level. employed, such as the use of microwave ra-
The importance of these findings, which diation, to transmit bioinformation. Their
according to Peschka (1974) may open the reasoning was based on the premise that all
door to entirely new and unexplored bodies in our physical universe with tem-
regions of human knowledge, is increased peratures above absolute zero are charac-
still further if one considers their biologic terized by an electromagnetic radiation.
Table 6-1. Penetration depth in cm (reduction of intensity to I/e) of electromagnetic waves in

various types of tissue. After Presman (1970).
Reflection coefficient Frequency (MHz)
K for the following
transitional layers: 100 200 400 1000 3000 10,000 24,00 35,000
Air-skin 0.758 0.684 0.623 0.570 0.550 0.530 0.470
Skin-fat 0.340 0.227 0.321 0.190 0.230 0.220
Fat-muscle 0.355 0.352 0.3004 0.261
For theoretical reasons, an appreciable por- Some values of the reflection coefficient
tion of this energy must be emitted in the K are given in Table 6-1. Presman (1970)
microwave range. This radiation from the also investigated the percentage absorption
human body was the subject of further in- of electromagnetic energy in various tissues
vestigations, therefore. It was found that of the body. The results of his calculations
radiation from the body in this frequency (Fig. 6-6) show that high-frequency energy
range increases strongly as a function of en- beyond 4000 MHz is almost completely ab-
vironmental conditions. Further prelimi- sorbed by the skin.
nary results justifiably raise the question of The depth of penetration of electromag-
whether such radiation could not supply an netic waves into various types of tissue
answer to the questions surrounding bioin- refers to the depth at which the intensity
formation transmission between biologic decreases to 1/ e = 1/2.7. In the skin, for
systems in normal and pathologic states. example, the depth of penetration is 3.8 cm
Presman (1970) conducted an intensive, at 100 MHz, but only 0.07 cm at 24,000
detailed study of the biologic effects of MHz. In fatty tissue, by comparison, the
high-frequency electromagnetic fields in penetration is 20 cm at 100 MHz and 0.3
particular. One phase of his study dealt cm at 24,000 MHz. In the brain, 3.6 cm at
with the reflection of such energy. Accord- 100 MHz and 0.04 cm at 35,000 MHz are
ing to Presman, the biologically active typical values.
power Pecan be described in terms of the Also of interest in this regard: standing
power flux density Po at the surface of an waves may form between individual tissue
object as P e = Po x (1 - K). layers as a result of reflections due to dif-
I
50
b~im Mittel { - - i n Haut absorbiert-c
-·-·-im aLJ/leren Teil des Gro!3hirns-d
absorbiert
40 - - - - i n tieferen Teilen des GroJ3hirns-e
------.....,
...... __ f-Ratten absorbiert
~
c 30
'..... ....................g-Kaninchen " ,
'..... ..........
0
C.
~ 20 -...........,
\\
,
\
"
D
'"
Q)
.~ \
Q) 10
c
'" 0
100 200 400 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 10000 20000
i-Frequenz, MHz
Figure 6-6. Frequency-dependence of the absorption of high-frequency energy by brain structures

during irradiation of the head with electromagnetic energy in man, in rabbits and in rats. After Pres-
man (1970)
Key: a-Energy absorption (%); b-Mean values for energy; c-Absorbed by the skin; d-Absorbed by
the o~ter portion of the cerebrum; e-Absorbed by the deeper portions of the cerebrum; f- Rats; g_
RabbIts; h-Man; i-Frequency (MHz)
ferences in parameters. This phenomenon were irradiated with I-decimeter, lO-cm,

is explored in greater detail by Fleming et 2-cm and I-mm waves at 1 mW/cm2 for 1
al. (1961), who demonstrates the possible hrldayand the reaction of the animals to an
formation of standing waves in the tissue audible signal was observed. In all cases
layers of man and large animals under the the sensitivity of the rats to the audible
influence of electromagnetic radiation stimulus was diminished. The degree of this
above 3 GHz. effect decreased with the wavelength.
Where very high-frequency electromag- Presman (1970) gives the threshold val-
netic fields are involved, there is always the ues for thermal effects in the tissue of
problem of distinguishing whether the ob- various living organisms (Table 6-2).
served biologic effects are caused directly Considerable discrepancies have been
by the action of the field, or by thermal ef- found between the theoretically estimated
fects. In the present case, of course, non- and experimentally determined magnitude
thermal effects are of principal interest. This of the electromagnetic forces necessary to
presupposes energy values which do not produce responses in biologic systems.
exceed a certain maximum. According to This is pointed out by Persinger (1973),
Presman (1970), highly diverse reactions among others. For example, electrostatic
are observed in animals, which in every field intensities of 10-5 V1m are sufficient
case can be produced by nonthermally ac- experimentally to elicit electroreceptor re-
tive radiation as well. Interestingly, it could sponses in fish. This contrasts with values
be shown in experiments with dogs that the of about 106 V1m that considered necessary
reactions observed at very high field inten- in theory. Static magnetic field values of 50
sities are opposite to those observed in the AIm have proved sufficient to increase
presence of correspondingly weak fields. motor activity in birds experimentally, as
In another experiment, reported by opposed to values of IO L 107 AIm deter-
Pressman (1970) selected groups of rats mined theoretically. Only in the high-
Table 6-2. Intensity threshold of electromagnetic energies for thermal effects

in the tissue of living organisms at various frequencies. After Presman (1970).
Frequency Type of Intensity
range Organism thermal effect threshold
500 kHz Rat Rise of rectal 8 kV/m
Rabbit temperature 160 AIm
14.88 MHz Rat Rise of rectal 2.5 kV/m
69.7 MHz Rabbit temperature 200 VIm
Decimeter Rat Rise of rectal 40 mW/cm 2
Rabbit temperature (390 VIm)
10-centimeter Man Sensation of warmth 10 mW/cm 2
Heating of irradiated lO mW/cm 2
region (190 VIm)
Rat Rise of rectal
temperature lO mW/cm 2
3-centimeter Man Sensation of warmth 1 mW/cm 2
(61 VIm)
Rat Rise in rectal 5-10 mW/cm 2
temperature (135-190
VIm)
Rat Heating of the irradiated 1.5 mW/cm 2
region (75 VIm)
Millimeter Rat Rise in rectal 7 mW/cm2
temperature (170 VIm)
Table 6-3. Lethal effect of electromagnetic radiation of various frequency ranges in animals. After
Presman (1970).
Electromagnetic Field Duration of Temperature % lethal
parameters Animal intensity exposure, min. increase, °C outcomes
Constant Fly 9600kA/m 60 100
magnetic
field
50-500 Hz 650,000 Vim 60-120 70-90
50 Hz Mouse 650,000 Vim 270 50
500 Hz 650,000 Vim 90 50
14.88 MHz Rat 9000 Vim 10 100
Rat 5000 Vim 100 80
Rat 4000 Vim 100 25
69.70 MHz Rat 5000 Vim 5 100
Rat 2000 Vim tOO 83
200 MHz Dog 330 mW/cm 2 15 5 50
Dog 220 mW/cm 2 21 4.1 25
Guinea 590 mW/cm 2 20 5.9 100
pig
Guinea 410 mW/cm 2 20 4.2 67
pig
Guinea 330 mW/cm 2 20 4.1 100
pig
Rabbit 165 mW/cm 2 30 6-7 100
2000-3000 Dog 165 mW/cm 2 270 4-6 100
MHz pulsed Rabbit 300 mW/cm 2 25 6-7.5 100
Rabbit 100 mW/cm 2 103 4-5 100
Rat 300 mW/cm 2 15 8-10 100
Rat 100 mW/cm 2 25 6-7 100
Rat 40 mW/cm 2 90 100
frequency range are the theoretically pre- based on values given by Presman (1970).
dicted field intensity values on the same The lethal outcome of the experiments was
order of magnitude as the values derived independent of thermal effects up to about
experimentally. In the microwave range of 70 MHz. Only at frequencies from 200 to
frequencies, large discrepancies again arise. 24,000 MHz was death obviously as-
The intensity of 10 mW/cm 2 considered sociated with the generation of heat within
necessary in theory to produce thermal ef- the body. Power densities of several
fects contrasts with the 2 x 10-2 mW/cm 2 hundred mW/cm 2 were sufficient to pro-
necessary to produce a change in the rabbit duce this effect.
EEG experimentally. Presman (1970) also observed that elec-
The question of the biologic activity of tromagnetic fields can perturb the regula-
electromagnetic fields is not easy to an- tion of blood composition. In dogs, for ex-
swer. The main reason for this is that in ample, a single exposure to a relatively
many cases "biologically active" is equiva- strong field (2800 MHz, 100 mW/cm 2 and
lent to "injurious." Electromagnetic fields 200 MHz, 165 mW/cm2) for 6-8 hr led to a
are considered injurious in themselves if 25%-55% increase in the leukocyte count
their use leads to the injury, if not the de- 24 hr after the start of exposure. At the
struction, of biologic systems, and thus the same time, the lymphocyte and eosinophil
death of living organisms. Corresponding count fell immediately after the start of ex-
experiments were performed with animals. posure, but rose to higher than normal val-
The results are compiles in Table 6-3, ues after 24 hr. The hemoglobin content un-
derwent similar relative changes. Other ex- Based on these experimental results,
periments with dogs using a similar ex- Presman (1970) states that, at least under
posure (100-300 mW/cm2) for 25 min led high-frequency irradiation, the death of the
to a two-phase alteration of the leukocyte animals cannot be attributed simply to an
count: a reduction immediately after the overheating of the body. It appears that
start of exposure followed by an increase pronounced disturbances also take place in
after 2-4 hr. the body's regulatory processes which
According to Gorodetskaya (1964), the depend not only upon the quantity of heat
irradiation of rats with shorter waves generated by the radiation, but also upon
(10,000 MHz) at 400 mW/cm2 for 5 min ef- the frequency of the radiation, the region of
fected a reduction in the leukocyte and the body irradiated, and the physiologic
erythrocyte count which persisted for 5 state of the animal.
days after the irradiation ceased. Exposing Finally, Presman (1970) gives a survey
rats to still shorter waves (24,000 MHz) at of the effects of microwave electromagnetic
20 mW/cm 2 for 7.5 hr led to an increase in radiation on malignant tumors in connec-
the erythrocytes and the hemoglobin level, tion with gamma radiation. An astonishing
but to a reduction in the leukocyte count cure rate was achieved in experiments with
immediately after the start of the irradia- mice, although experience indicates that
tion. However, all blood indices began to this therapy is still unsuitable for use in
increase slowly aafter 16 hr and again humans.
reached normal levels within 14 days. Electromagnetic energy was found to
The following results were obtained with have an effect on the blood pressure of rats
regard to the thermal effects of high- even at a frequency of 500 kHz. Over a
frequency radiation: lO-month period, Nikonowa (1964) ex-
posed a group of animals for 2 hr/day to an
1. Rectal temperature exhibited 3 phases electromagnetic field whose electrical com-
during irradiation: (a) a rise of tempera- ponent was predominant (1.8 kV/m). In a
ture by about 2°C during the first 25 second group, the magnetic component was
min; (b) maintenance of this elevated predominant (50 A/m). In the first group
temperature for about 40 min; (c) sus- the blood pressure began to fall after 5
tained irradiation apparently leads to an months' exposure and reached a level about
irreversible breakdown of thermoregula- 5% below that of the control animals. In the
tion, and the continued rise of body tem- second group the blood pressure fell only
perature results in death after another 20 after 7 months' exposure, reaching a 10%
min. lower value. This pattern of change in a
2. Irradiation with increasing intensity pro- single phase suggests that the nature and
duces a greater thermal effect at 2800 degree of the effect of electromagnetic radi-
MHz than at 200 MHz. ation on the cardiac muscle and thus on cir-
3. Anesthesia heightens the sensitivity of culatory function depends primarily upon
the animals to the irradiation. whether the peripheral or central nervous
4. If only the head region is irradiated for a system is acted upon by the field.
certain period of time, the same rise in More precise information on this ques-
body temperature occurs as when the tion was provided by pulse rate measure-
body is subjected to a 25% higher ir- ments in rabbits, when various regions of
radiation intensity for an equal period of the body were exposed to a field (Presman,
time. 1970). In an initial series of experiments,
5. Long-term irradiation (3-6 hr) with field the animals were exposed to pulsed fields of
intensities of 100-165 mW/cm2 in- lO-cm waves (1 JLS in duration, 700
duces leukocytosis. pulses/s) with an intensity of 10-12 and
3-5 mW/cm2 (average power). This treat- evident until some time after the cessa-
ment caused the pulse rate to fall (negative tion of exposure.
chronotropic effect). By contrast, exposure 5. The occurrence of spasmodic, epileptic
of only the dorsal side of the body or of discharges (relatively high frequency
both sides of the head had the effect of ac- and amplitude).
celerating the pulse rate (positive chrono-
tropic effect). Two special observations These EEG changes associated with ex-
were made: (1) the negative chronotropic posure of the head to fields ranging in
effect appappeared immediately after the frequency from a few hundred kilohertz to
start of irradiation; (2) pulsed irradiation 2000-3000 MHz are similar to the effects
had a greater effect than continuous irradia- observed in connection with a constant
tion, even though the field intensity was magnetic field.
somewhat higher in the second case. An Various investigations have shown that
important conclusion can be drawn from high-frequency fields also influence the de-
these results: the negative chronotropic ef- velopment of chicken embryos. Van Everd-
fect is probably caused by an action on the ingen (1940) reports on the exposure of
peripheral nervous system, and the positive eggs with 5-day-old embryos to high-
chronotropic effect by an action on the cen- frequency fields at 1875 MHz. The metab-
tral nervous system. olism of these embryos was subsequently
Such considerations also point to the reduced by a factor of 1.5, which resulted in
importance of Presman's survey of the ef- their death. Exposure during a later stage of
fect of electromagnetic fields on the brain embryonal development had less effect on
and on the sensitivity of the central nervous metabolism and caused no deaths. In 11-
system to other stimulants. Various EEG day-old embryos, no effects were observed.
studies were performed primarily in ani- High-frequency fields also influenced the
mals; the principal result was that elec- pulse rate, which declined from
tromagnetic fields influence the electrical 90-110/min to 10- 20/min. In addition, the
activity of the brain as evidenced in the amplitude of the ECG peaks was somewhat
EEG over a very broad range of frequen- greater than normal.
cies and intensities. Specifically, Presman Based on further experiments with
observed: pigeon embryos using fields at 2450 and
24,000 MHz as well as weak magnetic
1. Increased synchronization: an increase fields (320-560 AIm), and with frog em-
in the number of high-amplitude slow bryos using magnetic fields at 560 kA/m,
waves. This change could be detected Presman (1970) concludes that magnetic
within a fraction of a second after ex- and microwave fields exert a general per-
posure was begun. turbing effect on normal embryonal devel-
2. Prolonged de synchronization: a de- opment. They adversely affect metabolic
crease in the amplitude of the main processes and interfere with cell multiplica-
rhythm of the biopotentials and an tion and differentiation.
increase in the number of higher- Presman also used one-cell organisms to
frequency spectral components of the investigate the effects of electromagnetic
currents. This change appeared after fields. At frequencies of 5-7 MHz, the ex-
some delay. periments showed that one-cell organisms
3. Short-term de synchronization, which apparently orient themselves along electric
appeared soon after field application or field lines. The prolonged exposure of one-
the termination of exposure. cell organisms to alternating currents at
4. An after-effect that was similar to in- various frequencies and voltages led in
creased desynchronization but was not stages to three different types of movement
a- VerhAltnis der Titrlerungen von behandelten zu nichtbehandelten Proben
~.c IIlU UE';' ;;-

u,
., _ III oo!. Ill,
.. e jCl E
..... 1.
lIlu :i.e
01
::I
~
iii.
oj
·iii
e
IIlN
:>eE_
.2
of- "'.-
::I
"COl
OlD
~.,
oj 5jai 0., ::Ie

6
~N
'0:r '" ...~
e
'111
:5~ "C~
e III ~~ ;;e
g'u ~~
"iii ~~ III ::I
~~ 00.,
"5 'iii ~III .9!fij
Co "5 :2 ~E 1Il"C ::I
~~
.§ S~
Co
.§ 01
IL E
CO g ...J
o
-CO
III
I1-m 525 60 130 2.11 20 5680 0.9 38
JL
8
4 230 10 40.0 0.013 30 63 0.8 4.5
0
8
0 ..mfk. 100 10 40.0 0.005 30 24 0.8 1.8
8 10 20.0 .0025 30 11 0.8
g mlh.lh 200 3.6
0 mJI, 300 10 13.3 p.oo1E 30 7.8 0.8 5.4

32 ,
24
III 13.3 0.54 10 875 0.8 600
~
6 ~
8 .2 CD
;;:e
~ 1Il::l
8
0
4
Jl "; :E
:S~
ern
0111
6.7 0.135
4.7 0.07
30
30
655
330
0.8 1800
0.8 1800
~
-"CO
0
Figure 6-7. Changes in the gamma globulin activity of human blood caused by high-frequency fields
at specific frequencies. After Bach et aI. (l961a,b).
Key: a- Ratio of titrations of treated to untreated specimens; b- Pulse frequency, Hz; c- Pulse length,
ILsec; d- Field intensity, Vfcm; e- Mean intensity, mW fcm2; f- Duration of treatment, min; g- Total ab-
sorbed energy, J; h -Volume of solution, C m3; i-Total duration oftreatment; j - Continuous irradiation;
k - Frequency (MHz)
and finally to death. A broad frequency wave radiation with a power density of
band (20 Hz-3000 MHz) was employed in about 10 ILW/cm2 on biologic systems. In
these experiments. The high-frequency growth experiments with yeast cultures in
fields were pulsed. the 40-60 G Hz range, small frequency dif-
Of particular interest are experimental ferences of 41.667 GHz, for example,
results which point to a resonance-like be- resulted in significant growth differences of
havior of biologic systems. Thus, Bach et - 20% to + 12% relative to the controls.
al. (1961a,b,c) reports on a change in the Calculations based on a thought model for a
gamma globulin activity in human blood possible explanation of such phenomena,
(after titration of irradiated and unir- taking proteins 5 nm in size as an example,
radiated solutions) brought about by high- open at least theoretically the probability of
frequency fields (Fig. 6-7). These fields are oscillating processes in such molecular
especially active within a very narrow combinations, excited by the applied micro-
frequency range, and the effects observed wave radiation. This offers an approach to
were evident even at relatively low intensi- interpreting the surprising experimental
ties. In this case, the action of the field as results from a biologic standpoint.
such is apparently dominant, and the en- Based on experimental results in the
ergy absorbed in the experimental solution high-frequency range, Presman concludes
is insignificant. that the direct action of such high-
Genzel (1978) also dealt with the ques- frequency electromagnetic forces on the
tion of the non thermal effects of millimeter- central nervous system-either via the pe-
ripheral elements of the nervous system or It is known that this type of change is typi-
directly via the brain structure-must be cal of vagotonic changes in autonomic
accepted as fact. This is a consequence of neuroregulatory processes, assumed to
experiments with electromagnetic fields of occur from the action of various factors on
various frequencies and inferences drawn the regions of the superficial receptors. Ex-
from the depths of penetration known for periments with animals confirm this hy-
these frequencies. At the same depth of pothesis.
penetration, different nerve centers are Exposure to microwave radiation modi-
reached in small animals than in large fies the behavior and physiology of animals
animals. This also explains the differen- and humans. This is a foregone conclusion
tiated reactions of animals of different sizes that has been proven beyond any doubt.
to waves of the same frequency. Radiofrequency and microwave radia-
A second characteristic feature is the tion at sufficiently high intensity and ex-
connection between the effects of fields on posure duration can produce harmful bio-
the central nervous system, and the field in- logic effects. To protect the general popula-
tensity necessary to produce them. In some tion and the persons occupationally ex-
cases a low field intensity led to much more posed to microwave radiation, two types of
pronounced effects than a high intensity, standards are promulgated: personnel pro-
while in other experiments an opposite ef- tection guidelines (exposure standards) and
fect was observed when the intensity of the device performance regulations (emission
field was correspondingly reduced. standards). An exposure standard refers to
A third and very essential point is the the maximum permissible exposure level to
cumulative effect of low-intensity radiation, the whole body or body parts, and generally
which occurs on multiple exposure. Ap- incorporates a safety factor of at least 10.
parently the phases of opposite reactions An emission standard refers to equipment
are involved: an increase in the excitability and specifies the maximum emission (radia-
of the central nervous system after the first tion leakage) from a device at a specified
exposure and a decrease in excitability distance. The maximum permissible emis-
after subsequent exposures. sion (or leakage) is such that the exposure
Field effects have also been convincingly resulting from it is usually several orders of
demonstrated in studies on the effects of magnitude below the personnel exposure
high- to ultrahigh-frequency electromag- standard. The standards for device emis-
netic fields on cardiac function. A large sion and personnel exposure are designed
number of clinical studies on persons ex- to protect the general public and the
posed to such fields are available, and these worker, but do not apply to the utilization
have shown similar changes in cardiac of microwave energy for medical purposes
function, such as a reduction of blood pres- (e.g., microwave diathermy).
sure, pulse rate and intraventricular con- Stuchly (1978) discussed in detail the
ductivity. However, these changes are pro- problems of "Microwave bioeffects and ra-
nounced only if centimeter waves play a diation safety" in a special volume of the
role during the irradiation, that is, if elec- Transactions of the International Micro-
tromagnetic energy is absorbed in the sur- wave Power Institute. Stuchly and co-
face of the tissue of the human body. Ac- workers present papers on "Radio waves
cording to Presman (1970), this is evidence and microwaves-basic definitions and
that the changes are caused by the direct concepts," "Microwave biophysics," "Bio-
action of electromagnetic forces on superfi- logic and pathophysiologic effects of ex-
cial receptors. This assumption is consis- posure to microwaves," "Microwave and
tent with our knowledge of the physiology radiofrequency protection standards,"
of the neural regulation of cardiac function. "Control of microwave exposure in Can-
ada," and "Quantifying hazardous micro- Association and American National

wave fields." The following is reported on Standards Association all give essen-
emission standards: tially the same recommendations as the
ANSI C95.1 standard.
The latest version of the ANSI
Emission or performance standards re- C95.1 of November 1974 applies to
strict the emission of radiation from frequencies from 10 MHz to 100 GHz
devices that are used in large numbers, and states that, for normal environ-
often in uncontrolled environments. A mental conditions, and for incident
typical example of emission standards electromagnetic energy of frequencies
are the microwave oven regulations in 10 MHz to 100 GHz, the cw radiation
Canada and the United States. protection guide is 10 mW/cm 2 and the
The U. S. regulations apply to micro- equivalent free-space electric and mag-
wave ovens used in homes, restaurants, netic field strengths are approximately
food vending and similar establish- 200 Y /m rms and 0.5A/m rms, respec-
ments which operate at frequencies be- tively. For modulated fields, the power
tween 890 MHz and 6 G Hz in the density and the squares of the field
allocated ISM bands. The power den- strengths are averaged over an 0.1 hour
sity of the microwave radiation emitted period; that is none of the following
by a microwave oven at a distance of 5 should be exceeded, when averaged
cm from the oven must not exceed 1 over any 0.1 hour period:
mW/cm 2 prior to acquisition by a pur- Mean squared electric field
chaser, and not more than 5 mW/cm 2 strength 40,000 y2/m2
thereafter. For the tests 275 ml of Mean squared magnetic field
water is placed in the oven. Addi- strength 0.25 A2/m2
tionally, the regulations require several Power density 10mW/cm2
other safety features, such as in- Energy density 1 mWh/cm 2
terlocks, to protect against possible ex- The maximum permissible levels in
posure due to malfunction of the oven. this standard are to serve as the guide
Human exposure levels that may numbers appropriate for moderate en-
result from a microwave oven having vironments. Under conditions of mod-
leakage of 5 mW/cm 2 can be deter- erate to severe heat stress the guide
mined reasonably accurately. The numbers should be reduced.
power density in the vicinity of a leak- In 1971 the American Conference of
ing microwave oven decreases rapidly, Governmental Industrial Hygienists
approximately as the inverse square of recommended the following limit val-
the distance from the oven. At a dis- ues for occupational exposure to the
tance of 30 cm from an oven that frequencies from 100 MHz to 100
operates at 2450 MHz, the power den- GHz:
sity is about 0.1 mW/cm 2 while at 1 m it I. For power density levels not
decreases to 0.01 mW/cm 2 greater than 10 mW/cm 2, the total
Exposure Standards exposure time shall be limited to
the 8-hour work day (continuous
Despite the recognition of a need for exposure).
unified, internationally accepted ex- 2. For power density levels from 10
posure standards, and substantial ef- mW/cm 2 to 25 mW/cm2, total ex-
forts in achieving an international posure time shall be limited to no
agreement, there still exists a great dis- more than 10 minutes in any 1 hour
crepancy between the standards in period during an 8 hour work day.
Western countries and those in the 3. For power density levels in excess
USSR and East European countries. of 25 mW/cm 2, exposure is not per-
Standards issued by the U. S. Army mitted.
and Air Force, United Kingdom,
France, Germany, Canadian Standards For comparison, Stuchly (1978) also
sites the lower limits of permissable power sible effects of the external experimental
density in certain other countries: Sweden, fields on the central nervous system, and it
1 mW/cm2; U.S.S.R., 10 p,W/cm2; is hypothesized that the amplitude-
Czechoslovakia, 10 p,W/cm2; Canada, 1 modulated VHF fields may influence the
mW/cm2. excitability of neuronal membranes.
Reiter (1960) reports on the effect of me-
tric-wave radiation (diathermy device) mo-
Modulated High-frequency and dulated with 50 Hz on the pH values of
Microwave Fields conjunctival tissue. The effect is clearly
seen in Fig. 12-4 (see Chapter 12 for more
Combining the knowledge of biologic ef- details).
fects of the low-frequency (ELF and VLF Gordon (1964) found an effect of long-
range) electromagnetic fields and those of term exposure to pulsed centimeter-wave
high-frequency or microwave fields, one is energy on blood pressure in experiments
able to use high-frequency fields modulated with rats. Two hundred twenty animals,
by low frequencies. By this method it is divided into four experimental groups and
possible locally to apply energies at the low one control group, were subjected to ir-
biologic frequencies by the use of a selected radiation with decimeter-range, 10-cm, 3-
high-frequency carrier as described by cm and I-mm waves. The intensity for all
Hartmann et al. (1967). groups was 10 mW/cm2, the duration of ex-
This possibility was apparently also re- posure I hr/day. The treatment was con-
cognized by Bawin et al. (1973), and so tinued over a period of 6-8 months. Blood
their investigations must be considered of pressure exhibited a two-phase response to
particular importance. To explore the bio- decimeter- and centimeter-wave irradia-
logic effects of weak (1 mW/cm2 or less) tion: a rise in the first weeks of irradiation,
electric fields, they combined a high- followed by a continuous fall from the
frequency carrier (147 MHz) with signal in- twentieth through twenty-fourth week. In
formation at frequencies of 0.1-100 Hz. the case of the 3-cm and I-mm waves, how-
The effects of such amplitude-modulated ever, only one phase was observed: a fall of
fields were investigated in cats. These blood pressure, which began during the first
animals were conditioned to produce a spe- week of irradiation. When the effects pro-
cific brain impulse, which was recorded by duced by pulsed and continuous 10-cm
EEG, at 30-s intervals in response to a light waves were compared, no differences were
flash. The action of the field was monitored found. However, in the case of continuous
by comparison with a control group. It was exposure the change appeared much earlier
found in these experiments that the ir- (during the eighth week) and consisted of
radiated animals showed a marked dif- only a single phase. After irradiation was
ference from the control group in terms of terminated, the blood pressure returned in
functional capacity, accuracy of the rein- stages to its normal value within 8-10
forced patterns, and resistance to their ex- weeks in all cases.
tinction (at least 50 days versus 10 days in There was no difference between the
the controls). A study of the specific effect millimeter- and centimeter-wave radiation
of the modulation frequency in a further ex- with regard to the intensity employed. Ir-
periment clearly showed that fields act as radiation with 3-cm waves produced no
"reinforcers" (increase the number of man- marked effects either at 1 mW/cm2 , or when
ifestations of spontaneous rhythms) only if the intensity was increased from 10 to
the modulation frequency is close to the ex- 40-100 mW/cm2 • Decimeter and centime-
perimentally related, biologically dominant ter waves, on the other hand, produced
frequencies of the natural EEG. The paper reactions even at 1 mW/cm 2 • One peculiar-
concludes with a discussion of various pos- ity was the diminished effect of lO-cm
waves when their intensity was increased gave an average intensity value of 46
by a factor of 10. mW/cm 2 •
The effects of pulsed microwave radia- The following reactions were observed in
tion were also studied by Tanner (1966) in both young and full-grown chickens. Later-
birds. He proceeded from the assumption al irradiation led to no wing or leg move-
that microwave radiation not only pro- ment on the exposed side, but produced an
duced thermal effects, but also influences extensional effect on the contralateral side.
the activity of the animal nervous system The birds raised their heads and oriented
by way of induced electric currents. Animal them in the direction of the strongest point
tissue absorbs microwave radiation dif- in the field. If the animals were already ex-
fusely, and since such tissue contains inter- cited as a result of previous handling, they
mediate membranous layers which possess tended to run part way along the edge of the
semiconductor properties, a polarization ef- focused beam, keeping one side of the body
fect can occur. If the microwave radiation tangent to it. The diverse reactions of the
is pulsed, then the resultant electric cur- animals depended on which part of the
rents are modulated by the corresponding body surface had come into contact with
pulse duty factor. There is a possibility that the beam. Only when irradiated from below
the microwave radiation will exert an influ- did the animals display little or no response.
ince on the nervous system that is depen- Otherwise a stimulative effect always gave
dent on the penetration depth of the radia- impetus to a change of position, which
tion. could cause an alteration of flight or even a
To investigate this problem in more de- type of collapse in birds.
tail, 14-week-old chickens were exposed to Kamenskii (1967) reports exhaustive
microwave radiation at an intensity of studies on a neuromuscular preparation ex-
10-30 mW/cm2 and a frequency of 16,000 posed to 3000-MHz fields. He employed
MHz, with a pulse modulation of 8000 both a continuous field with an intensity of
pulses/so With the aid of a horn antenna, it 10-1000 mW/cm 2 and a pulsed field with a
was possible to irradiate the animals with pulse duration of 1 IJ-S and a pulse repetition
microwaves from above, from the side and frequency of 100-700 Hz with a mean in-
from below. It was found that the radiation tensity of about 10 mW/cm 2 • He also used
was effective only if directed from above. DC pulses with a duration of 0.1-1 IJ-S and
Regardless of whether the head or the body a frequency of 2 pulses/so He obtained the
was shielded during exposure, the chickens following results:
always reacted to the irradiation within 1 s 1. The continuous high-frequency field
by extending a wing or leg. heated the nerve by 2°C within 30 min,
Flocks of birds constitute a well-known which led only to an increase in the velocity
hazard to air traffic in the vicinity of airport of stimulus conduction in the nerve. This
runways. In an effort to solve this problem, effect increased at higher field intensities.
Tanner et al (1967) conducted experiments Further research showed that, contrary to
to determine whether birds could be driven expectations, the effect is not thermal in na-
from such critical areas by the use of ture.
microwave radiation, and how the radiation 2. Experiments with pulsed high-
could be optimally applied to evoke an ef- frequency fields, which also heated the
fective flight response. For test purposes, nerve by 2°C within 30 min, led to an
chickens were irradiated with a pulsed increase in excitability (lowering of the
9 .3-G Hz field (416 pulses/s at a pulse width threshold of excitability).
of 2.3 ms). The peak output of the horn an- Presman (1970) investigated the genetic
tenna was 94 kW, with an average output of effects of modulated electromagnetic fields.
90 W. Calibration of the field intensity in a He showed that garlic chromosomes are af-
test cage situated 15 cm above the floor fected by 5-min exposure to fields with a
frequency of 5-40 MHz, pulse length of but can be measured by special techniques
15-50 ILS, pulse frequency of 500-1000/s developed for radio astronomy. A correla-
and intensity of 250-6000 V1m. He also tion exists between radiation intensity and
found in a larger series of experiments that body temperature. A comparison of mea-
such electromagnetic fields affect bacteria sured temperatures showed that microwave
at a frequency of 31 MHz and the spores of thermography is capable of revealing tem-
certain penicillin strains at frequencies of perature structures and changes beneath
2-11 MHz. the body surface.
When mature fruit flies (Drosophila) Questions on the biologic activity of
were treated with fields at approximately microwaves were addressed at a meeting of
25 MHz, the first generation contained 8 the U.S. National Committee of the URSI
times more female offspring than male, (1975). Cain and Rissmann reported on the
while exposure to 30-MHz fields led to a effects of microwaves on mammals at 3
change in the second generation. In this GHz; West and Regelson on biologic ef-
case there were twice as many males as fects of pulsed electromagnetic high-
females. frequency radiation (27 MHz); Lin on ef-
All these effects occurred primarily when fects of microwave radiation on mammalian
the field parameters lay within certain cells in vitro; Varma and Trabculay on
ranges: frequency, 1-250 MHz; pulse dominant lethal tests and DNA studies on
length, 1- 10 ILS; pulse frequency, mutations induced by non-ionizing radia-
30-10,000 pulses/s; and field intensity (of tion 0.7 G Hz); Lotz and Michaelson on
the pulses) between several hundred V1m adrenocortical reactions in rats exposed to
and several tens of kV/m. The parameters microwaves (2.45 GHz); Oscar on effects
were selected such that no significant heat- of electromagnetic radiation on the brain-
ing would occur in the specimens. The blood system in rats (1.3 GHz); and Kri-
frequency and intensity were applied in ac- tikos and Takashina on non thermal effects
cordance with the desired effect. The fields of electromagnetic fields (frequency 2.45
were produced in air, and the specimens GHz, pulse frequency 1-30 MHz) on the
had no direct contact with the field-generat- central nervous system. Effects of ELF
ing electrodes. fields on biologic systems were also dis-
A very comprehensive survey of the cussed: Bawin and Adey reported on the
state of research in the U.S. with regard to influence of weak low-frequency electric
the biologic effects of nonionizing radiation fields on calcium loss in the isolated
is given by Taylor (1975). He reports on ef- chicken and cat brain (frequency range
fects involving the nervous system, special 6-30 Hz); Greenebaum et at. on long-term
sensors, biochemical and biophysical proc- effects of weak electromagnetic fields
esses, genetic parameters, developmental 45-75 Hz on the mud salamander; Bliss
processes and the behavior of systems. A and Heppner on effects of zero-field condi-
special chapter is also devoted to the tions on the daily activity rhythm of the
problem of dosage. house sparrow; Mathewson et al. on effects
Measurements of the centimeter waves of a 45-Hz electromagnetic field on rats;
that are emitted from the interior of the Durfee and Plante on the treatment of
body were made by Barrett and Myers chickens with electric and magnetic ELF
(1975). According to their study, elec- fields at frequencies of 45-75 Hz; Medici
tromagnetic waves in the centimeter and on the effects of weak elecxtric ELF fields
decimeter range not only penetrate into on the monitored behavior of monkeys
organic tissue (as in the application of (frequency range 7-45 Hz); and Sugyama
diathermy), but also follow the opposite and Mizuno on the effects of alternating
path. The waves are extremely weak (on electric fields on the visual threshold in man
the order of 3 x 10-12 W/cm 2 at 3 GHz), (frequency 20-60 Hz).
132 Biologic Activity of Higher-frequency Fields and Chemophysicai Reactions
We shall conclude this section by point- UV range, which can penetrate quartz glass
ing out an interesting observation. A but not ordinary glass, are capable of trans-
chance discovery made by American scien- mitting metabolism-regulating information
tists during the course of an experimental from cell to cell.
study on the danger of high-frequency radi- In conclusion, they make the following
ation to man indicates the importance that statements:
further research on the biologic effects of
electromagnetic fields may have in the fu- 1. The ultraweak photon emission from
ture (M edizin-Elektronik, 1970). One ex- biologic systems really exists and shows
perimental subject reported that he was in the spectral range from visible radia-
able to sense, unaided, the presence of 3.6- tion to the UV wave range intensities in
and 10-cm electromagnetic waves. This the order of 10-104 photons/(s.cm2).
prompted the investigators to perform ex- 2. As experiments on yeast cells suggest,
periments with I-mW pulses (modulation proliferating cell cultures exhibit a more
frequency 100-1000 Hz) with several sub- intense photon emission than those un-
jects; copper plates were used as shields to treated cultures for which an increase of
"switch" the radiation on and off. Accord- the cell number could not be proved.
ing to reports, the subjects not only were 3. At first, the photon emission from dying
aware of a humming or hissing sound, they cell cultures increases to about a
could also sense the exact moment at which hundred times the intensity of untreated
the copper shield was used or the frequency cells. Later on, it drops according to a
of the pulse modulation was altered. quasiexponential decay with increasing
decay constant. The total number of
photons emitted is in the order of the cell
Light and Cosmic Radiation number of the poisoned cell population.
The decay time amounts to at least some
Amazing results that suggest that living 10 min and may not depend on the
cells may be capable of transmitting infor- frequency of the mode under examina-
mation by photons-specifically by light in tion.
the ultraviolet (UV) range-were reported 4. The spectral distribution shows reso-
by Kasnatschej et al. (1973), Ruth and nance character, that is: it has certain
Popp (1976), and Popp and Ruth (1977). peaks which do not necessarily shift
Living cells were cultured in two quartz after treating the cells with toxic agents,
glass vessels containing suitable nutrient although the peak intensities show a
media. The walls of the vessels were placed considerable increase to about the factor
in contact. Then one of the cell cultures 10L103 •
was infected with a virus. Almost simulta- 5. The photon emission fiucturates over
neously the cells in the neighboring colony longer periods of time.
also showed signs of viral infection. The
same thing happened when the cells re- A very interesting study was done by
ceived lethal doses of UV radiation or were Bonka (1975) on the radiation dose re-
poisoned with sublimate (mercuric chlo- ceived by persons in the Federal Republic
ride). In each case the neighboring cells of Germany. As explained earlier, radioac-
were afflicted with precisely the same tive nuclides in the earth's crust which emit
symptoms, even though the quartz glass alpha, beta and gamma rays are the source
should have protected them from the ef- of this radiation, as well as primary cosmic
fects of the poisoned cells. Only when ordi- radiation which penetrates the atmosphere.
nary glass was used in place of quartz glass In studying the radiation dose to man, it
did the neighboring cells remain unaffected. is useful to divide natural radiation accord-
The authors surmise that photons in the ing to its origin into cosmic, terrestrial and
Chemical and Physical Reactions 133
internal (endogenous) components. Cosmic

Chemical and Physical Reactions
radiation includes that caused directly by
charged particles from space or by second-
ary charged particles (such as electrons) Piccardi has studied the effects of extrater-
which arise from reactions of primary par- restrial radiation on chemical reactions
ticles with the air. The terrestrial compo- since 1935. He observed that a copper
nent includes that portion caused by screen placed over a reaction vessel can al-
gamma radiation emitted from the ground. ter the chemical reactions occurring within
Finally, the internal component includes ra- it, presumably because certain rays which
diation caused by the decay of natural can influence the course of the reaction are
radionuclides (tritium, radiocarbon, potas- absorbed. As proof, Piccardi (1970) inves-
sium-40, etc.) incorporated into the body tigated the precipitation of a polymerization
through food intake and respiration. product from a solution of monomeric
At the latitude of the Federal Republic of acrylonitrile in water. The solution was
Germany, the cosmic radiation dose de- poured into several flasks, and half the
pends almost entirely upon elevation above flasks were covered with a copper screen
sea level. It is equal to 31 mrem/a at sea 0.1 mm in thickness. It was found in 80 of
level, 36.5 mrem/a at 500 m (Munich), 54 108 experiments that the weight of the pre-
mrem/a at 1400 m, and 164 mrem/a at 3000 cipitated polymer was less in the screened
m. The mean terrestrial radiation dose out- vessels than in the unscreened vessels.
side of cities fluctuates between 30 and 45 In a further series of experiments involv-
mrem/a (e.g., in Upper Bavaria, Lower ing 1000 separate tests, Piccardi (1970) ob-
Bavaria, Wiirttemberg and the Frank- served the precipitation of bismuthyl chlo-
furt/Cologne area), with maximum values ride. In 1000 control tests a Gaussian dis-
of 105-150 mrem/a (Bavarian Forest, tribution curve was obtained when it was
Black Forest); the mean value for the popu- measured how often the sedimentation of
lation as a whole is approximately 55 bismuthyl chloride occurred more rapidly
mrem/a. The mean natural radiation dose to in 10 red-tagged reaction vessels than in 10
the population ranges from 95 to 125 blue-tagged control vessels. When the red-
mrem/a, with extreme values of 65 and 300 tagged vessels were covered with a copper
mrem/a. screen, however, sedimentation occurred
Searle (1966) reported on the importance more rapidly in about 70% of these vessels
of particle radiation with regard to the sus- than in the blue-tagged vessels. According
ceptibility of genes. In a series of experi- to Piccardi, these experiments show that
ments with 100,000 mice, he found that chemical reactions are influenced by exter-
mutations were 20 times more frequent nal (and perhaps extraterrestrial) environ-
after neutron bombardment than after pro- mental factors. These investigations
longed gamma irradiation, and 5 times more prompted other researchers to investigate
frequent than after X-ray irradiation. The the extent to which a simple chemical reac-
animals were exposed to the neutrons for a tion (corresponding to Piccardi's test) can
period of 3 months. Dominant mutations be influenced by artificially produced elec-
occurred in 1 out of 2000 mice. These con- tromagnetic radiation of various wave-
sisted mainly of changes in coat coloration, lengths in the laboratory. Eichmeir and
curled fur, a ringed tail, deformed ears and Biiger (1969), for example, studied the ef-
extremities, and unusual eye colors. If fect of infrared (IR) radiation, visible light,
carriers of mutations were crossbred, the UV, X-ray and gamma radiation on the co-
offspring were invariable stillborn. In ani- agulation rate of BiOCI corresponding to
mals exposed to short-term but high-dose Piccardi's test reaction and conducted addi-
neutron irradiation, considerably fewer tional experiments with copper and lead
genetic defects were noted. shielding. They found the following: The
coagulation of BiOel is accelerated by IR trophoretic mobility of silicon dioxide (sili-

radiation and by copper and lead shielding, ceous earth).
but delayed by UV, X-ray and gamma radi- A test of specific electric resistance was
ation. Visible light had no apparent effect. also conducted. When water was treated
These observations can presumably be with electromagnetic fields at frequencies
explained by the influence of electromagne- of 10 Hz-tO kHz, it showed a minimal
tic radiation on the formation of a hydrate electrical resistance in the range of
shell on the surface of the BiO + ions 100-5000 Hz. This was followed by a pro-
formed by the reaction. Since it is this shell nounced maximum at 10kHz, then another
which controls the coagulative mechanism, flat minimum at about 1 MHz. Another,
the coagulation rate is correspondingly af- relatively sharp conductivity maximum was
fected. observed when the water was treated with
Prompted by the precipitation reactions fields at about 200 MHz. These findings are
reported by Piccardi (1970) in various consistent with the results obtained by
colloidal systems, and in order to explore Presman (1970), Dardymov et al. (1965)
further the effects of electromagnetic radia- and Varga (1973) in similar experiments.
tion of natural origin, Fischer et al. (1968) In summary, it can be said that elec-
performed selected experiments with ar- tromagnetic and electric alternating fields in
tificially produced fields. It was hoped in the intensity range of 1-104 V1m or around
this way that new knowledge could be ob- 3.75 mT (37.5 G) that act on colloidal sys-
tained on the reaction processes which un- tems or their suspension media apparently
derlie the phenomena described. For this lead to an increase in the sedimentation
purpose, the sedimentation of silicon diox- rate, electrophoretic mobility, specific elec-
ide in potassium lye was observed under tric resistance, viscosity and shock-freezing
the influence of various electric and mag- temperature, while magnetic fields and stat-
netic fields (as well as bismuth chloride). ic electric fields tend to slow the sedimenta-
Maximal effects were found in the range tion rate. Plaksin (1966) published informa-
around 10kHz and between 10 and 100 tion on the effect of higher-frequency fields
MHz, followed by a minimum at 500 MHz. on the physical properties of water. Treat-
This was followed in turn by an increasing ing the water with fields at 100 kHz-8
effect up to frequencies of about 50 G Hz MHz for 30 min led to an increase in its op-
(wavelength - 6 mm). tical density in the range of 380-691 nm
In further experiments, only the water (10-9 m). Valfre et al. (1964) further re-
used for the precipitation reaction was ex- ported a weight decrease in guinea pigs and
posed beforehand to an electromagnetic mice that received only water that had been
field, and the resultant effect on the precipi- activated with a IO-kHz electromagnetic
tation reaction was observed as a function field in comparison with animals that re-
of frequency. A distinct minimum was ob- ceived normal water. A similar effect was
served near 10kHz, followed by a pro- seen in the second generation of the ani-
nounced maximum extending up to 100 mals, even if it was given normal water.
kHz. Then came a broad minimum from 1 Moreover, the effect produced by the
to 10 MHz. Finally, the effect showed an treated water was particularly marked dur-
increasing tendency from 10 to 500 MHz, ing periods of solar activity.
which probably stems from the elec-
7
Biologic Activity of Electromagnetic Energies:
General Considerations
Action of Fields The former is a very fast-reacting periph-

eral system that responds to a certain
Presman (1970) makes the following state- parametric range of electromagnetic distur-
ments on the basic actions of (high- bances (the main parameter being field in-
frequency) electromagnetic fields as deter- tensity). This passive system could be re-
mined experimentally. The experiments sponsible for the two or more "optima" ob-
lead in most cases to disturbances in the served for field effects, and may be related
regulation of physiologic processes. Such to the resulting biologic disturbances and
disturbances are particularly marked during the intensity of the biologically active elec-
embryonal development and during growth, tromagnetic fields. If this passive system is
and thus during periods when resistance is overburdened, the active system is called
nonexistent or not yet fully developed. An upon. The fast-reacting peripheral system
analysis of the precise nature of these dis- signals the arrival of disturbances to the
turbances indicates that the actions of elec- slow-reacting, central system (which regu-
tromagnetic fields are manifested primarily lates physiologic functions). The latter then
in the electromagnetic processes associated protects itself by lowering the body's sensi-
with the regulation of physiologic func- tivity to such disturbances. Another, higher
tions. stage of the defense reaction is attained
In most experiments, unfortunately, the when the central system modifies physio-
selection of electromagnetic field para- logic processes so as to produce a counter-
meters is influenced mainly by the type of reaction to the undesired, externally
generator available to the experimenter, evoked reaction of the organism. This
rather than by biologic requirements. Nev- thought model is apparently confirmed by
ertheless, certain conclusions can be experimental data on the response of ani-
drawn. mal organisms to the action of electromag-
Every living organism effectively pro- netic fields on the central or peripheral
tects itself against external natural and ar- nervous system or of whole-body irradia-
tificial electromagnetic disturbances, ap- tion on both systems.
parently employing two different defensive To explain the mechanism of this action,
systems, one passive and the other active. it is justified to assume that the cerebral
136 Biologic Activity of Electromagnetic Energies: General Considerations
cortex and diencephalic (between-brain) forces on certain properties of the blood in-
structures, especially the hypothalamus, re- dicates that information or a certain noise
spond very sensitively to electromagnetic signal may be stored there (as well as in
fields (Presman, 1970). The action of elec- other biologic systems).
tromagnetic fields on the nervous system is The mechanism of action of electromag-
apparently based either on a stimulation of netic fields on the regulation of physiologic
nerve cells or on a change in the parameters processes in the organism as a whole can
of their functional state (excitability, ampli- also be viewed from a different standpoint,
t\lde of biopotentials, propagation velocity however. External electromagnetic fields
of impulses, etc.). may determine the internal electromagnetic
But what are the physico-chemical pro- regulation which is active in various
cesses that underlie the action of elec- frequency ranges. According to this hy-
tromagnetic fields on nerve cells? Because pothesis, electromagnetic fields are capable
relatively little is known as yet about the of influencing or disturbing the function of a
physico-chemical nature of nerve excita- certain branch of this regulatory sys-
tion, available theoretical and experimental tem-by increasing its activity, for ex-
material is still insufficient to provide an ample, in cases where the frequency of the
exact answer to this question. Neverthe- external field is close to the natural
less, several points have been established frequency of this special biologic structure,
based on the experimentally demonstrated or by damping or reducing the activity of
sensitivity of nerve cells to electromagnetic the system when it is initiated by a signal
fields over a broad range of frequencies: with an uncharacteristic frequency that is
1. Electromagnetic fields can be de- foreign to the system.
tected in the membrane of nerve cells. As Based on his experimental results on
a result, a direct component of the rectified neurohumoral regulatory processes, Pres-
current which is produced by external man (1970) makees the following general
fields may lead to a stimulation of the cells points regarding the effects of electromag-
or to a change in their excitability at various netic forces on the body as a whole:
frequencies. 1. Changes in the organism resulting
2. Electromagnetic fields can influence from exposure to electromagnetic fields are
the mobility of ions involved in the process nonspecific.
of nerve excitation. Vibrations of the ions 2. The cause of the changes based on
at the frequency of the external field will af- electromagnetic forces apparently lies in
fect their ability to penetrate neuronal their effect on various parts of the nervous
membranes, with a corresponding change system.
in neuron excitability. 3. When an electromagnetic field acts on
3. There is evidence to indicate that a specific part of the nervous system, the
changes in the physico-chemical properties nature of the resulting change is practically
of the aqueous medium of the nerve cell independent of frequency.
playa role. 4. The nature and magnitude of the
4. This change in the aqueous medium changes effected by the exposure of periph-
could alter the permeability of neuronal eral parts of the nervous system to elec-
membranes. tromagnetic fields is practically indepen-
5. Electromagnetic fields may also influ- dent of field intensity. However, if internal
ence the "spontaneous activity" of recep- parts of the body are acted upon by the
tors. Little is known about this effect as yet, fields, the resulting effects apparently de-
but it is apparently related to thermal dis- pend chiefly on the intensity of the fields. It
turbances of ionic processes in the mem- is characteristic of the central nervous sys-
brane. tem to respond more strongly to relatively
6. The additive effect of electromagnetic low field intensities than to higher ones. In
Significance of Fields 137
some cases this was true to the extent that a by means of electromagnetic fields. This
response was evoked only at a certain low hypothesis is in agreement with the specu-
field intensity, and was absent when the in- lations of Konig and Ankermiiller (1960)
tensity was increased. with regard to the 10-Hz Schumann reso-
5. When electromagnetic forces or fields nance oscillations observed in nature as
act on both the central and peripheral por- well as in certain biologic rhythms in the
tions of the nervous system, there are same frequency range (EEG, ECG, muscu-
usually certain optimal intensities (nor- lar vibrations, etc.).
mally two) at which the response to the This hypothesis is supported by nu-
field is strongest. The strength of the re- merous experimental results that show sta-
sponse varies in a simple manner with the tistically valid correlations between solar
duration of exposure. activity and certain biologic processes. For
6. Responses to field exposure under example, a connection has been shown be-
equal conditions have two phases, which tween solar activity and the incidence of
depend on the intensity and the duration of meningitis in New York, or the recurrence
exposure. At low intensities (or a short ex- offever in the European U.S.S.R. There is
posure time) the changes in the organism also a probable link between magnetic
are opposite to those occurring at high in- storms and mortality from neural and circu-
tensities (or a long exposure time). latory diseases in Copenhagen and Frank-
7. The effect of multiple exposure to furt. The connection between the "biologic
fields is cumulative. Exposure to strong clock" and natural electromagnetic fields is
fields normally leads to an adaptation dur- as firmly established as the orientation of
ing the course of subsequent exposure. living organisms by the daily cycle of the
Correspondingly weak fields, by contrast, earth's magnetic or electric field, the motor
produce gradually increasing changes in the activity of snakes in electrostatic fields or
organism, which frequently exhibit two typ- the geomagnetic field alone, the link be-
ical phases. The entire process depends ul- tween reaction time and the daily variation
timately upon the number of exposures, of natural ELF signals, the orientation of
however. root growth in seedlings in the natural mag-
netic field, and the statistically significant
dependence of chemical reactions on astro-
nomical data and constellations. All these
Significance of Fields factors point to a coupling between external
electromagnetic fields and internal "recep-
Summarizing the findings on electromagne- tors" in biologic systems that are ap-
tic fields and the regulation of the vital ac- parently capable of responding to them.
tivity of organisms, Presman (1970) states Much is known already about the role of
that there are sufficient experimental obser- other physical parameters (sound, ul-
vations and theoretical arguments which di- trasound, pressure, light, heat, etc.) as
rectly or indirectly point to the existence of agencies of information transfer between
three types of information-transfer links in organisms, but here, too, radiations play a
nature: (1) the transfer of information from role. Planaria, for example, are capable of
the environment to the organism; (2) the orientation even in weak gamma radiation
transfer of information within organisms; fields (only 6 times more intense than the
(3) the transfer of information between or- natural radiation level) and are capable of
ganisms. perceiving the radiation source. Experi-
Apparently these links can have devel- ments with ants demonstrate the possibility
oped only during the course of evolution, of intercommunication based on ionizing
giving biologic systems the ability to re- radiation.
ceive, transmit and transform information In any case, the assumption that elec-
tromagnetic fields at a variety of frequen-

cies are utilized for signal transmission by a
living organisms on a much broader basis N
than had been previously supposed is jus- N->J:

tified. This is evidenced by several facts: ui
E
2
., :>1 10- 7
1. Organisms are extremely sensitive to a- (/)
Q.
most electromagnetic fields, which in .,"' "C
particular can serve as a conditioned ~

-iii
10-8
stimulus for producing reflexes. c:
.l!l
2. Persons exposed to electromagnetic £<
fields experience various sensations. 10-·

•••
b< 'b~""C
"'C ~",,<S> ~&",&
Moreover, some animals possess special b- Frequenz, Hz
receptors for such fields.
3. Electromagnetic fields in various b
frequency ranges have been observed in N
the vicinity of isolated organs and cells N->J:

as well as near complete organisms. "'E
One phenomenon supporting this claim is 2
., :>1 10- 11
the phosphenes (discussed further in a- (/)
Q.
Chapter 12) which appear under the influ- .,"' "C

ence of electromagnetic fields. ;§ 10-1
"iii
Acoustic sensations are also produced by .,c:
electromagnetic energies. Thus, persons E
exposed to a pulse-modulated electromag- 10- 13
netic field have reported hearing various '" ~
b- Frequenz, Hz
"'c ,,&",,& ",r;:,o
sounds. Similarly, it is known that certain
fish respond to various types of electric
fields. C
It has been shown that electromagnetic N

10.'
fields form at times in proximity to organs J:
N-
>
and cells. For example, an electric field will ui
E
form about a nerve that is stimulated while 2 10-15
.,
:>1
in a conducting medium. Direct-contact Q.
a-
.,"'
(/)
measurements showed low- and high-

"C
frequency emissions ranging from 10 to 150 ~ 10-16
"iii
kHz during muscular contractions. The .,c:
greatest effect was noted in the small E
muscles. The results of noncontact field
measurements made with an antenna lo-
cated about 1 em from the specimen are
shown in Fig. 7-1.
Very convincing measurements were Figure 7-1a-c. Measurement of the spectral
carried out by Gulyaev et al. (1967). Using characteristics of electric field energies of living
a specially developed probe amplifier, they organisms by antenna at a distance of 1 cm; a
were able to measure electromagnetic fields tensed forearm muscle; b dragonfly earlobe; c frog
brain (circles: dark-adapted eyes; crosses: illumi-
in the vicinity of active nerves, muscles and nated eyes). After MaIakhov et al. (1965).
the heart in frogs, as well as near the human Key: a-Intensity of spectrum (V 2/Hz); b-
heart and muscles. They measured the Frequency (Hz)
Harmfulness of Environmental Factors 139
"electroauragram" of an isolated frog nerve tances. Typically, such navigational powers

at a distance of 25 cm (where the voltage, are dependent upon the emotional state of
presumably with respect to reference po- the animal.
tential, was about 1 mV), that of an isolated
frog muscle and heart at a distance of 14
cm, and that of the human heart and
muscles at a distance of 10 cm.
Harmfulness of Environmental
There is also clear evidence to indicate Factors
that transmission of information between
organisms takes place by means of elec- In discussing the biologic effects of an envi-
tromagnetic forces. For example, the group ronmental factor on man, it is often unclear
maneuvers of flocks of birds or schools of whether health-impairing effects are meant,
fish plainly indicate that a certain signal or simply any biologic effects, which may
must be given by a lead animal, which, in even be positive. The transition from ad-
view of the circumstances, can only be of verse effects to general biologic effects with
an electromagnetic nature. no far-reaching consequences is a smooth
The synchronous maneuverings often one. The transition zone is determined by
observed in various bird species, particu- two main factors. One is the nature of the
larly the starling, led Heppner and Haffner external influence or environmental factor.
(1973) to suspect that electromagnetic Where the biologic effects of electromagne-
fields were used as a means of com- tic fields are concerned, the field intensity is
munication within flocks-for studies had most critical; but the frequency of the field,
shown that birds sometimes execute flight its modulation and other parameters also
maneuvers within 5 ms when flying in appear to playa significant role.
flocks. Since flocks of starlings may be The second main factor is the sensitivity
hundreds of meters across, the question of of the biologic system in general, and of
how the birds flying at the outer edge of the man in particular. This sensitivity varies
flock are able to receive the appropriate in- from object to object, from system to sys-
formation so quickly occurs. Signal trans- tem, and from person to person. But the ini-
mission by sound would be much too slow; tial state of a system or person, as well as
sight of the lead animal is obscured by the other environmental parameters (the
other members of the flock; and a type of weather, for example) are continually
chain reaction passing from one bird to the changing, continually exhibiting both long-
next is ruled out due to the quickness of the and short-term effects. Also to be consid-
measured reaction times. Evidence of the ered is the location factor, or the location-
ability of birds to navigate by the terrestrial dependence of a response, which is known
magnetic field led to the hypothesis that the to play a major role. In view of the many
flight maneuvers in flocks may be coordin- variables involved, it is no wonder that a
ated by means of electromagnetic signals. specific experiment with a certain person
Such a signal could reach all the birds in a may yield an entirely different result when
flock instantaneously, regardless of their repeated the following day. This naturally
position relative to the signal source, and makes it difficult to conduct such experi-
would also contain sufficient information ments-a fact which is known, or should be
for flight maneuvers. known, to every experienced doctor, psy-
Besides this rapid form of signal trans- chologist and biologist, but which some-
mission, there is another mode of bioinfor- times causes problems for the unversed
mation transfer which is relatively slow. It physicist or technician due to his essen-
is exemplified by the ability of animals to tially different way of thinking.
find their way home over very great dis- The critical importance of the "transition
zone" between harmfulness and harm- the current state of knowledge in the area, it
lessness with regard to certain environ- appears that this research can be effectively
mental factors is well illustrated by the continued only on an interdisciplinary
problem of "noise pollution." basis. Moreover, increased public interest
Effenberger and latho (1973), for ex- in such scientific problems has produced an
ample, report that the number of persons in increasing demand for information by the
the Federal Republic of Germany suffering mass media.
noise-related hearing impairment is re- The following remarks can be made on
ported at 500,000-800,000. Surveys point the current state of knowledge in this field
particularly to street noises that are per- of research:
ceived as being unpleasant. 1. Previous experiments clearly indicate
It is now known that noise tends to in- that electric, magnetic and electromagnetic
duce ergotropy in the autonomic nervous fields exert significant biologic effects, even
system. The peripheral blood vessels con- at low field intensities.
tract, the blood pressure and pulse rate 2. Prompted by previous results, re-
increase, the skin temperature falls, metab- search efforts should be continued and in-
olism is accelerated, the adrenal cortex tensified on a broad basis, making use ofthe
secretes more hormones, and electric mus- most modern technical facilities and inter-
cle activity increases spontaneously. In disciplinary cooperation. The increasing in-
most cases these autonomic responses terest in obtaining scientific evidence and
(some of which are transitory) can be the desire to learn more about man's natu-
evoked by acoustic signals of very short du- ral and technical environment are a further
ration, such as an automobile horn. impetus.
One of the most important findings of 3. The highest possible standards should
recent EEG studies in sleeping persons is be applied in the publication of such scien-
the observation that the depth of sleep is tific results, in order to satisfy the custom-
significantly decreased by noise. If disturb- ary strict rules of classical science.
ing noises are repeated at intervals during It should be added, however, that the
the night, deep sleep can be entirely pre- courage to publish still-unproved findings
vented, in fact. Persons so affected are and results can sometimes serve to advance
chronically tired, listless and susceptible to research. Charles Darwin once remarked
disease. Here is a case of an environmental that erroneous facts, which often persist for
factor which can clearly have adverse many years, are a great hindrance to scien-
health effects, even though the cause, noise, tific progress. Erroneous theories, on the
is not consciously perceived (the disturbing other hand, cause less trouble due to the
noises being much too weak to awaken the great pleasure derived from their refutation.
subjects). Despite their harmfulness, how- Furthermore, the new paths that are often
ever, it is unlikely that the conscious per- opened up in this process will aid in the
ception of such noises by healthy persons is search for the facts.
associated with such a pathogenic effect. The problem of the biologic effects of
electromagnetic fields can be approached
from various standpoints. On the one hand
the natural electromagnetic fields existing
Conclusions in our environment can be regarded as
given factors. But there also exist internal
The problem of the biologic activity of elec- fields within organims, which are utilized in
tric and magnetic fields has been explored the coordination of physiologic processes
by numerous researchers for many de- and especially in the transfer of information
cades. The basic difficulty with such re- between individual organisms. The elec-
search is that it is highly complex and given tromagnetic forces present in the environ-
Conclusions 141
ment can be subdivided even further into It is becoming increasingly evident the
those of natural origin and those which are extent to which nature has utilized elec-
man-made. tromagnetic fields during the course of
Presman (1970) is surely correct when he evolution to enable organisms to perceive
postulates that the natural electromagnetic changes and processes in their environ-
climate must have played a role in the ment-for of all the geophysical factors,
evolutionary development of living organ- electromagnetic forces represent the most
isms. Of special significance in this regard reliable agency of information transfer.
are natural electromagnetic processes in They allow information to be transmitted
the ELF range, which show a remarkable through any medium where living organ-
similarity to signals of "biologic frequen- isms dwell, under all meteorologic condi-
cies" in terms oftheir frequency and ampli- tions, during any time of the day or night,
tude. in rivers, seas, within the earth's crust, and
Presman points out that in some cases finally in the tissues of organisms them-
living organisms respond to electromagne- selves. It is necessary only that the appro-
tic forces only at certain optimal intensities, priate frequency range and field type be
while in other cases the effects increase employed.
when the intensity of these forces is re- Previous research results justify the as-
duced; or, exposure to low and high intensi- sumption that the diverse manifestations of
ties may lead to opposite effects. Cumula- the biologic activity of electromagnetic
tive biologic effects were also produced by forces in living organisms have specific
repeated exposure to electromagnetic fields properties that were shaped during the
whose intensity lay below the known bio- course of evolutionary development. The
logically active threshold for a single ex- experimentally observed high sensitivity of
posure. It was also found that at the same organisms to electromagnetic forces-from
mean energy absorption by organic tissues, protozoans to man-can be explained only
the nature of an organims's response de- on the basis of this hypothesis. This is also
pends largely on the specific modulation of true for the reactions of most biologic sys-
the field. The same applies to the direction tems and the sensitivity of living systems to
of the electric and magnetic field vector changes in natural environmental condi-
(with respect to the body axis of the organ- tions brought about by electromagnetic
ism, for example). Such questions and fields.
problems are especially pertinent with One further observation should be noted.
regard to high-frequency irradiation. The regulatory effect of natural electromag-
It was also found that periodic changes in netic fields on living organisms, and the
the natural electromagnetic climate could various disturbances of regulation and of
exert a regulative effect on vital functions, communication links in the organism result-
such as the rhythm of the major physiologic ing from mismatched artificial electromag-
processes, the ability of animals to become netic fields, were observed in connection
oriented in space, etc. Normally the inter- with intensities that preclude any kind of
nal systems of living organisms which energy effects in the tissue. It is now clear
transmit information by means of elec- that the nature of an organism's response to
tromagnetic forces are largely shielded such fields depends not only on the quantity
from natural electromagnetic phenomena of electromagnetic energy absorbed by the
and the attendant disturbances. In patho- tissues, but primarily on the modulation
logic states, however, spontaneous changes and time-behavior of these fields and on
in external electromagnetic conditions which parts of the organism are affected by
(solar flares, lightning discharges, etc.) can them. Drawing on experience, we know,
severely disrupt the regulation of physio- for example, that the strength of a certain
logic processes. response is not proportional to the intensity
of the acting field forces, but actually biologic standpoint with little regard for
decreases significantly, in some cases, critical physical and technical factors.
when the intensity is increased. 4. Conversely, there is an equal danger
There is, of course, no dearth of scientific that biologic investigations will be ap-
reports on failures in studies of the biologic proached from a purely physico-tech-
activity of electromagnetic fields. De Lorge nical standpoint. But biologic systems
(1973a, b, 1975) and de Lorge and Grisset cannot be measured in the same way as
(1977), for example, report on experiments physico-technical quantities, which is
with two monkeys that were exposed to the why purely technical thinking with
effects of extremely low frequency magnet- regard to the quantity measured, energy
ic and electric fields of low intensity. These conditions, reproducibility, the effect of
authors employed a magnetic field at 10-3 T external circumstances on the quantity
(10 G) concurrently with a corresponding measured, etc., will almost always lead
electric field at a frequency of 60 Hz or 10 to erroneous results.
Hz. Neither animal displayed the slightest 5. Aside from this, the difficulties involved
anomaly in either blood analysis or general in such research have not yet been com-
state of health during the various experi- pletely clarified scientifically. This ap-
ments performed. plies in particular to biologic mecha-
The "Report of the Committee on Bio- nisms of action. Experimental failures
sphere Effects" (1977) made in connection whose causes stem from biologic func-
with Project Seafarer also deals with the tion cannot be ruled out; but they do
biologic inactivity of electromagnetic fields. provide incentive for investigating these
The position is taken in this report that causes more thoroughly. In any case,
electromagnetic fields are innocuous, and these failures in no way cast doubt on
corresponding evidence is presented, in an the great many reports on successful ex-
effort to vindicate the planned Seafarer periments that have been published.
project. However, an objective, scientific
appraisal of the facts, shows:
1. There is an overwhelming body of evi-

dence, gathered by a large and diverse Summary
body of international scientists in many
fields, that electromagnetic fields are It was demonstrated in our survey that, on
biologically active. All these researchers the basis of indisputable experimental evi-
cannot be wrong. dence, a variety of biologic effects exist in
2. Unsuccessful experiments do not con- connection with electromagnetic fields over
tradict these results, but merely show the entire frequency spectrum. These ef-
that the fields are not biologically active fects are observed at all levels in the plant
in all cases. and animal kingdom, in fact, in all biologic
3. In the light of current knowledge, such systems from macromolecules to complete
failures can only be seen as indications organisms.
that such research work, which is ex- Field intensity represents a special prob-
tremely delicate and complicated, can be lem in this regard. As the field intensity
properly interpreted only by a team of increases, biologic effects become more
researchers possessing years of experi- pronounced only within certain ranges.
ence in this complex area. The danger of Very intense fields often evoke no re-
overlooking essential points is great, sponse, or an entirely unexpected one. In
indeed, and many such experiments are many cases there apparently exist one or
conducted primarily from a medical or more optimal ranges in which electromag-
Summary 143
a- ..;-:....:.:.:.:.;.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:..
Magnelfeld, Stat.
1CT"Tesla ELF
b-
eleklr. Feld, stat. 3
Vim ELF
c-
niederfrequenle
Felder (1-10 kHz) ...............:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:....
HOchfre~uenz -
felder (1-10 MHz)
10 10' 10 3
Figure 7-2. Intensities of natural electromagnetic fields (shaded areas) and lowest response threshold
of biologic systems as a function of various frequency ranges: (1) increase in the motor activity of
birds; (2) turn of the divining rod; (3) conditioned reflexes in fish with electric organs; (4) reaction time
effects in man; (5) conditioned reflexes in fish without electric organs; (6) conditioned muscular
reflexes in man. Baseline: Magnetic field in G (10- 4 T), electric field in Vim. Data from Presman
(1970), with additions.
Key: a- Magnetic field; b- Electric field; c- Low-frequency fields; d- High-frequency fields
netic field effects are maximal (Bachmann can be seen, biologic systems show sensi-
and Reichmanis, 1973; MUff, 1966a; Mose tivities that are on the same order of magni-
et aI., 1973; Schulz, 1970; Levengood, tude as the intensity values of natural fields,
1967b; Varga, 1973; Haine and Konig, and are even better in most cases.
1960; Gordon, 1964). These data on the biologic effects of elec-
Agreement between observed sensitivity tromagnetic fields and forces thus indirectly
values and the field intensities occurring in confirm the hypothesis on the important
nature is not absolutely necessary, for role played by electromagnetic fields during
many systems may have altered during the the course of evolution and their important
course of evolution. With this in mind, con- influence on the vital activity of organisms.
sider the graph in Fig. 7-2. It shows the in- Both direct and indirect evidence supports
tensity range of natural electromagnetic the hypothesis of Presman (1970) and Popp
fields in various frequency ranges and the et ai. (1979) that electromagnetic forces
lowest threshold of intensity at which a re- play an important, hitherto-unrecognized
sponse has been experimentally evoked in role in the transmission of information to
biologic systems at various frequencies. As and between living organisms.
8
Small Air Ions As Biologically Active Agents*
The concept of air ion effects on living man. These ideas continued to surface from
forms is based on an unusual pattern. It has time to time as natural philosophers from
a "long past and a short history." The ob- the ancients on studied the world around
servation that "certain winds occasion them, but it wasn't until the publication of
disorder and sickness" (Petersen, 1946) Lord Kelvin's paper of 1859 that electric
dates back to 400 B.C. and Hippocrates's phenomena associated with atmospheric
Greece. Failing to identify the specific me- conditions became truly amenable to scien-
diators of weather sickness frustrated medi- tific investigation. "History" was immi-
cal practice at the time, but does account nent. Thomson (1898) in England, and
for the long past of air ions. Their history Elster and Geitel (1899) in Germany, dis-
was to wait another 2000 years. For it covered air ions, and their conduction of
wasn't until that property of air identified electricity in air became apparent. Suf-
with biologic activity was formally speci- ficiently reliable apparatus for their quan-
fied and recorded in some fashion, that the tification became available early in this cen-
phenomenon would be accorded any true tury, making the recorded history of air
history. It began in the mid-1700s when, on ions scarcely seven decades old. The suc-
opposite sides of the Atlantic, Benjamin cessful generation of small air ions free
Franklin (1752), in America, and d'Alibard from oxides of nitrogen and ozone was not
(1752), in France, independently demon- achieved until the 1950s (Krueger, 1969).
strated the existence of atmospheric elec- Once equipment was developed for gen-
tricity. Very shortly thereafter, Becarria eration and quantitation of air ions, labora-
(1775), Gardini (1782), and Bertholon tory studies of their properties were under-
(1783), again independently, were moved taken. Biologists initiated research on their
to view electric phenomena as one of na- effects on living forms and physicians
ture's modes of stimulating plant growth. started to use them in treating disease. In
L' Abbe Bertholon also theorized that it af- general, physical research progressed with
fected the course of various diseases in dispatch and entailed few critical episodes.
On the other hand, great controversy at-
*This chapter is co-authored by A. P. Krueger and tended the biologic and clinical investiga-
S. Sigel. tions. While the volume of work ac-
Origins and Properties of Small Air Ions 145
complished by the biologists and physicians mental procedures is called for. However,
is a tribute to their industry, the results the criticism that charged ions are present
were not clear-cut. Much of this ambiguity in too dilute an ambient air concentration to
arose from defects in experimental design, be biologic agents (Andersen, 1972) con-
e.g., experiments performed with corona travenes the acknowledged sensitivity of
discharges as ion sources neglected consid- certain biologic sensors: naturally refined
eration of the ozone and oxides of nitrogen systems often initiate physiologic re-
inevitably produced along with the ions; ion sponses which far exceed the intensity of
concentrations, temperature and relative the environmental stimulus. For example:
humidity were not monitored; experimental 1. The threshold value for eliciting a re-
subjects were not grounded; as a rule the sponse in a male silkworm (Bombyx mor;)
air was not purified and combination of ions with the sex attractant pheromone of the
with pollutants led to widely fluctuating ion female is 2600 molecules: the concentra-
densities. Physicians, assessing the value of tion required is less than 200 mole-
air ions as a therapeutic modality, faced the cules/cm3 of air (Bossert and Wilson,
additional problems of placebo effect, the 1963). Ion densities in clean country or
usual difficulty of case selection and appli- mountain air fluctuate around 2000/cm3 or
cation of a double-blind technique. Because 10 times that concentration.
of these formidable roadblocks, a consider- 2. Amoebae exhibit shifts in shape and
able body of data in the literature is open to mobility when exposed to fields of approxi-
question. Nevertheless, there remains a mately 10-15 V /cm at 10Hz (Friend et aI.,
rich vein of evidence, both old and new, 1975), an electromagnetic frequency for
capable of withstanding critical scrutiny. which biologic sensitivity was not pre-
In addition to the technical elements of viously known. Ion and atmospheric distur-
uncertainty, the evaluation of air ions has bances can generate potential gradients on
been hampered by the construction of con- the order of 50,000 V /m and these phenom-
ceptual barriers. The study of air ions as bi- ena have been implicated in stimulating
ologically active agents has not been under- plant growth. Ions have already been iden-
taken in a neutral atmosphere. The very tified as conductors of atmospheric electric-
term "ion" has historically evoked incredu- ity, but of even greater interest is that the
lity. Arrhenius, who proposed an ion con- field effect can be separated from the ionic
cept to his doctoral committee to account influences on plant growth (Krueger et aI.,
for the migration of aqueous molecules in published in 15B, 1978).
an electric field, was granted his degree 3. Prenatal exposure of rats to an ex-
with the greatest reluctance and the lowest tremely low frequency (0.5 Hz) rotating
possible grade. The idea was condemned as magnetic field with intensities ranging from
bizarre. In spite of a slow start, he went on 1 to 30 G results in diminished ambulation,
to become the father of modern physical increased conditioned suppression and in-
chemistry and the concept of charged par- creased weights of thyroid glands and tes-
ticles in solution is no longer derided. In ticles (Persinger, 1969; Ossenkopp, 1972;
fact, it is the basis upon which much of Ossenkopp et aI., 1972; Persinger and
modern physical science is founded. These Pear, 1972). Though the mechanism of ac-
days, there is no disagreement about the tion has not been established, the findings
disparate physical nature of air ions and once again demonstrate biologic effects
nonionized gaseous molecules. However, mediated by previously unassumed modali-
that such particles in ambient air are biolog- ties.
ically active elicits the same kind of resis- 4. The human eye can detect a flash of
tance encountered by Arrhenius almost a light when a single active quantum reaches
century ago. We have already indicated the retina (Pirenne, 1958).
that prudence with regard to early experi- 5. Anthopleurine, the alarm pheromone
146 Small Air Ions As Biologically Active Agents
of the sea anemone, has a median effective adhered to on at least some implicit or em-
concentration of 3.5 X 10- 10 molell of sea piricallevel. Air ions are unique in that they
water or about 1 molecule of active agent to have a history of transecting the boundary
1.6 x 1011 molecules of water (Howe and lines of several disciplines. They are natu-
Sheikh, 1975). This speaks for an analogy rally occurring electrophysically charged
between the "oceans of air" that surround particles, capable of altering electro-
us and potentially effective ion concentra- chemical processes, including serotonin,
tions where an air ion is dispersed among a "powerful neurohormone" implicated in
1-3 X 10 16 nonionized gaseous molecules. the modulation of emotional, psy-
These and other physiologic responses chochemical states. In so doing, air ions
are indicators of the heretofore unexplored tend to violate several territorial impera-
limen of biologic sensor systems. In light of tives, that is, implicit rules or paradigms
these examples, it is difficult to dismiss the (Kuhn, 1962). Not only does this invasion
capability of small air ions to affect living (of territory) create confusion, it may, as
forms solely on the basis of their presence any ethological observer may affirm, elicit
in low concentrations. There remain, how- aggression from those whose boundaries
ever, more subtle barriers to their accept- have been encroached upon. Thus air ions
ance as biologic agents. Air ions are enig- upset the applecart and a vigorous response
matic entities for other reasons. They do to the challenge is appropriate if scientific
not fit into categories of the classical dis- disciplines are to resist the vagaries of fad.
ciplines, and for this failure they run askant The onus of proof falls on the challenger
of currently acknowledged scientific para- and one must respond to the question, are
digms. History has given us some fascinat- the putative biologic effects of air ions in
ing examples of systems in interface: elec- the same category of phenomena as Blond-
trophysical, electrochemical, psychochemi- lot's illusory discoveries? Our purpose here
cal events; bizarre phenomena whose char- is to determine whether sufficient evidence
acteristics led in sequence to phases of ex- exists to respond to the question in the af-
tensive experimentation, heated con- firmative or the negative, though it is the
troversy and finally to recognition of their "peculiar difficulty of every synthesis that
spurious or veridical nature. Roentgen's its end is already implicit in its beginnings"
X-rays instigated a dramatic paradigmatic (Teilhard de Chardin, 1959).
shift and ushered in the era of small particle
physics, an electrophysical field whose
limits are yet to be specified. Blondlot's
N-rays similarly defied existing phenome-
Origins and Properties of Small Air
nologic explanation, but the failure to Ions
define criteria for the establishment of a
new discipline doomed Blondlot and Small air IOns are commonly formed by
N-rays to historical obscurity (Blondlot, several processes in nature. For example,
1904, 1905). Eccles's (1953, 1957) demon- radon and thoron produced in the soil are
stration of the transmitter properties of released and carried into the atmosphere by
ACh firmly established the electrochemical eddy diffusion. At the molecular level,
nature of the nervous system, paving the emissions from such radioactive sources
way for the age of psychopharmacology displace an electron from a molecule of one
and the study of psychochemical events, in of the ordinary atmospheric gases and
the middle 1950s through 1970s. Though leave the nucleus with a positive charge.
there are still unresolved conflicts (just how The freed electron is promptly captured by
does a drug, a material entity, effect an adjacent molecule, which then becomes
changes in ideation, by definition, a non- negatively charged. In a cubic centimeter of
physical event), its value as a model is air, where there are about 2 x 10 19 mole-
Origins and Properties of Small Air Ions 147
cules present, ions collide with neutral mol- Table 8-1. Comparison of ions with other
ecules at a rate of about 109 impacts/so This particles encountered in the air. From Vasiliev
interaction readily leads to charge transfer (1966).
with the result that positive charges eventu- Size in cm
ally reside on molecular species of the low- 10-8
Molecules
est ionization potential, while electrons are Light, or normal, air ions 10- 7
held by species of greatest stability. Over A verage, or intermediate, air
dry land, in each cubic centimeter of air ions 10- 6
Heavy, or large, air ions 10- 5
about 10 pairs are formed in 1 s. Within 1O-LIO-3
Fog particle
2 X 10- 7s after this molecular ion formation, Raindrops 10- 2 - 10- 1
1-8 neutral molecules, including water, the Limits of visibility to the eye 5 X 10- 3
common gases and trace gases cluster Limits of visibility to the
about and the whole molecular aggregate is microscope 2 X 10-5
now properly called a small air ion. These
ionic "rafts" are not uniform in composi-
tion or size and are subject to further many classes of particulates, aerosols and
changes during aging; recently there has pollutants. In both instances the biologic
been emphasis on the fluctuating incorpo- activity of small air ions is considered to
ration of trace gases and on the potential of be lost. Additional circumstances may also
small air ions to serve as catalysts in the reduce their biologic activity, such as
conversion of trace gases into chemical when their ionic nature is lost or deflected.
compounds possessing varying degrees of For instance, when positive and negative
toxicity. However, since the size of the mo- ions collide, their charges are neutralized
lecular cluster does not vary excessively and they cease to be ions. Or, ions of like
and ions do carry a unit charge of charge (unipolar ions), by repelling on
1.6 x 10- 19 C, they are considered to ex- another, tend to force the charge flow to
hibit a mobility of .01-1 cm 2 S-1 V-I. Thus enclosing surfaces where again their ionic
ions are categorized by charge and mobili- nature is dissipated. Finally, since ions are
ty. small and carry a charge, they are readily
There are other sources of energy in na- deflected by electric fields. All of these
ture that are also capable of producing characteristics make it difficult to maintain
small air ions, e.g., the shearing of water high ion concentrations during a biologic
droplets in waterfalls or the pounding of the experiment; in practical terms this means a
surf (the Lenard effect; Lenard, 1892), cos- maximum concentration of 5 x 105 to
mic rays, corona discharges, etc. In areas 1 X 106 small air ions/cm3 •
remote from foci of pollution, small air ion
densities will approximate 1200 positive
ions/cm3 and 1000 negative ions/cm3 • The Air Ion Measurement
concentrations may be considerably greater
in some locations, e.g., on White Mountain It is useful to have available a means of
in California at the 14,000 foot (5,200 m) measuring the numbers of ions emitted by a
level careful measurements have yielded generator or the concentration of ions im-
averages of 2500 positive and 2200 nega- pinging upon a given surface per unit of time.
tive ions/cm 3 • In contrast, the total of A simple device with this capability was de-
small air ions in an industrial area has b~en veloped by Beckett (Fig. 8-1; Beckett and
found to be less than 80 ions/cm 3 • The ion Krueger, 1961). The disc, which is sur-
deficit in commercial zones is attributable rounded by a grounded wire shield to pro-
to two properties of small air ions. They tect against distortion of the electrostatic
readily unite with (1) condensation nuclei field, is attached to a well-insulated and
to form large (Langevin) ions, and (2) shielded conductor for connection to a fem-
148 SmaIl Air Ions As Biologically Active Agents
Krueger, 1961). consists of 4 parallel alumi-

num collecting plates 7 cm wide, 33 cm
long, spaced 1 cm apart and grounded.
Located between and on the outside of
these collecting plates are five polarizing
plates of the same size. The collecting
plates are set on Teflon insulators so placed
that they are well protected from surface
charging and contamination. The plate
collector assembly is enclosed inside a rec-
tangular metal duct which serves as a shield
against stray electric fields and provides a
channel for the air containing the ions. A
motor-powered blower mounted at one end
of the duct moves the air through the duct
at a velocity of75 cm/s. Ions traversing the
Figure 8-1. Schematic of air ion target probe
areas between the charged polarizing plates
as designed by John C. Beckett. and the grounded collecting plates move to
the latter, where the current thus developed
is measured with a femtoammeter. Since
toamnwter. Ions reaching the target are ion mobility is inversely proportional to
measured in terms of numbers of ions size, three different potentials (22.5,67 and
cm- 2s- 1 according to the equation: 200 V) provide a choice corresponding to
minimum mobilities. Only small air ions
will be collected at the lowest voltage, small
N=~ and medium-sized air ions at the second
qA
voltage and small, medium and large ions at
where: N = number of ions cm- 2s- 1 the highest voltage. The equation for volu-
I = ion current in amperes metric measurement is identical with that
q = charge of one ion: 1.6 x 10- 19 C for the ion probe, except for the inclusion of
A = area of probe in cm 2 • air velocity in the denominator. The overall
accuracy of the equipment is about 15%.
Air ion density, i.e., numbers ofions/cm3 ,
can be measured with collectors of various
types, all based on the assumption that each
ion has one unit charge; Loeb has demon- Air Ion Generation
strated that this is highly probable for small
air ions. A simplified type of collector We have noted that a variety of processes
designed by Beckett (Fig. 8-2; Beckett and in nature operate to produce small positive
Figure 8-2. Air ion collector viewed in longitudinal section. One of the four collector plates and one
of the five polarizing plates are shown. The motor-powered blower is at the right end of the duct.
Action of Small Air Ions 149
and negative air ions. For purposes of ob- on bacteria, fungi and some bacterial
taining relatively high concentrations of viruses. Beginning in 1933, Tchijevsky and
ions to be used in laboratory experi- his associates at the Central Laboratory for
mentation, or in clinical tests, two energy the Study of Aeroionification in Moscow
sources are generally employed: corona conducted a long series of experiments with
discharge or radiation from isotopes such agar plate cultures of Staphylococcus
as 3H or 210PO. Among the former, notable aureus, Vibrio cholera and Salmonella
advances in design and performance have typhus. In all instances, concentrations of
been made since the 1930s when equip- 5 x lO L 5 X 106 small air ions inhibited
ment was bulky and often produced unac- colony formation; negative ions were mea-
ceptable amounts of 03. There are now surably more effective than positive ions,
available generators operating at only a few while electrical fields of 300-1000 V /cm
kilovolts and capable of maintaining a con- were ineffective. They also observed that
centration of 1OL 104 negative ions/cm3 in a small air ions reduced the viable cell count
room of about 100 m3. They are conven- of the normal microflora of air in enclosed
iently small and have almost no ozone spaces and had a similar effect when the air
by-product. was enriched with artificially generated
For laboratory experiments we have bacterial aerosols. Lethal effects of air ions
depended upon tritium-powered ion on the mold Neurospora crassa were re-
sources. Tritium is a low-energy (0.0185 ported by Fuerst in 1955. Pratt and Bar-
Me V) pure beta emitter. Fifty mCi is sealed nard (1960) had comparable results with
in a foil of zirconium mounted on a stainless Penicillium notatum. About this same time,
steel disc. Unless the disc is charged the Kingdon (1960) observed that negative or
ions formed by beta emanation in the positive air ions generated by a corona
plasma next to the foil recombine and no discharge killed Escherichia coli. Biro et al.
ions emerge. However, when the disc is (1969) and Biro and Svab (1970) reported
negatively charged with a direct current of marked lethal action of small negative air
about 900 V, positive ions are neutralized ions on Staphylococcus aureus and on four
while negative ions are ejected into the ad- bacteriophages of the T group.
jacent atmosphere. The rate of ion forma- Phillips et al. (1964) used sophisticated
tion is about 109 ions/s and due to the na- techniques to expose Serratia marcescens
ture of radioactive decay, it is constant. An in droplets of less than 5 JLm to positive or
additional advantage is the long half life of negative air ions in a chamber holding 365 1.
3H, about 13 yr. We have not found 3H gen- The exponential decay rate was 23%/min
erators to be an effective ion source for for untreated air, 54%/min with positive
maintaining high concentrations in large, ions and 78%/min for negative ions. Their
enclosed spaces. For this type of experi- data led Phillips et al. to conclude that posi-
mental use, corona discharge is a preferred tive ions act chiefly by increasing the rate of
ion source. precipitation of aerosol particles. In the
case of negative ions, such particulate loss
is supplemented by a significant amount of
biologic decay.
Action of Small Air Ions In 1964 numerous reports on the lethal
action of air on microorganisms were pre-
Microorganisms sented at the All- Union Conference on
Aeroionization in Industrial Hygiene which
Microorganisms offer a convenient means convened in Leningrad (Boyco et aI.,
of demonstrating air ion action and over the 1964). In essence, there was general agree-
years many investigators have found that ment that the viable cell count of the natu-
small air ions exert a moderate lethal effect ral microflora of the air or of artificially
created aerosols was quickly reduced by treated water. The lethal action of ions
85%-93% by introducing concentrations of could be demonstrated only when the cell
small negative air ions ranging from suspensions were stirred sufficiently to
5.2 X 104 to 9.5 X 104 ions/cm3. bring about direct contact of cells and ions.
Sharp (1967) examined the effect of In both sets of experiments we took steps
small air ions on the uredospores of Puc- to avoid certain potential sources of error:
cinnia striiformis, the fungus which attacks 1. Direct action of radiation on the cells
wheat, barley and related grasses. He in the case of 3H or 210PO. To avoid this the
found that small air ions consistently in- sealed foils were placed well beyond the
creased the rate of germination. maximal ranges of alpha or beta radiation.
Elkiey et al. (1977) report on the effects 2. Agglutination of bacteria resulting in
of small air ions on net blotch disease in reduced viable cell count. Direct micro-
barley: scopic examination revealed no cell ag-
gregates. Further, the lethal effect was
Small positive air Ions significantly reversed by exposing the cells to intense
reduced the number of lesions and per- light of the visible spectrum; this is typical
centage of leaf area covered by lesions of many instances of cell damage and does
of net blotch disease of barley. Appear- not occur in simple agglutination. Finally,
ance of disease symptoms was delayed the time required to produce a lethal effect
by 3 days when plants were exposed to was much less than the minimal time of
an atmosphere of positive ions. No agglutination predicted by the von Smolu-
such effect was observed for negative
chowski equation:
air ions. Height and dry weight were
significantly stimulated by unipolar
ions.
Our first studies in this area involved ex-

periments with Staphylococcus aureus sus- in which: t = time in s;
pended in droplets of distilled water suf- r = radius of particle;
ficiently small to provide a high ratio of sur- Yo = number of particles/mi;
face area to volume. When ion generators D = R T / N x (;1T'Y/r
1 ..
(the Einstein
consisting of sealed foils of 3H or 210pO
were used to produce about 1.6 X 109 nega- equation for the diffusion coefficient).
tive ions s- l cm- 2 on each of these droplets,
the death rate was significantly accelerated. 3. Bactericidal action of ozone produced
This result was obtained only if the droplets by the ion generators. Under the conditions
were constantly stirred with a vibrating fine prevailing in our experiments, no measur-
quartz fibre in order to bring the cells to the able amounts were generated by either ra-
air-water interface (Krueger et aI., 1957). dioisotope or by the corona discharge ion
Subsequently we conducted another set source.
of experiments to determine whether the Recently Kellogg et al. (1979) presented
lethal effect was due to a biologically active experimental evidence that the superoxide
radical formed when small air ions react ion O 2 - is involved in the bactericidal ef-
with water or to direct contact of air ions fects of negative air ions on microorga-
with the suspended cells (Krueger et aI., nisms. Cells of Staphylococcus albus ex-
1975). In these tests a corona discharge posed to a high flux density of negative
type of negative ion generator was em- ions showed a total loss of viability after 5
ployed and supplied 3.7 x 1011 small nega- hr of treatment. Addition of superoxide
tive ions s- l cm- 2 at the surface of the suspen- dismutase to the suspension resulted in full
sion opposite the generator. The death rate retention of viability after 5 hr.
of Staphylococci was not affected by ion- The data reviewed above, representing
the experimental observations of some 25 oats could best be explained by diurnal

investigators, are sufficient to establish the variations in the concentrations of air ions
lethal effect of small air ions on vegetative in the ambient atmosphere.
bacterial cells, some fungi and bacterial It is not generally recognized that plants
viruses. The action is not limited to a single respond to less obvious means of adminis-
species or genus, it can be demonstrated tering electromagnetic forces, yet as noted
when bacteria are growing on solid media in the introduction, Beccarria, Gardini, and
or when the organisms are suspended in Bertholon long ago theorized that the exis-
small drops with a high ratio of surface to tence of electricity in the air even in fine
.cell volume. Stirring is always necessary to weather might influence the growth of
bring the cells to the air-water interface plants. Each succeeding generation wit-
unless the water drops are very small. So nessed exploration of this possibility with
far as we are aware, no one working with results that, taken together, were affirma-
this phenomenon has obtained other than tive, but not entirely conclusive because of
positive results. While the mechanism un- lack of available information about some of
derlying the lethal action remains to be clar- the factors involved and deficiencies of ex-
ified, one may hypothesize that it could in- perimental design. The situation was appre-
volve increased oxidative reactions, such ciably changed for the better by two devel-
as those occurring in other types of cells opments: the introduction of a satisfactory
(Kotaka et aI., 1965). method of artificial overhead electric dis-
charge by Lemstrom in 1885 (Lemstrom,
1904) and the discovery of air ions 15 years
Action of Small Air Ions on Plants later.
The way was then paved for more defini-
Plants are known to react to the direct tive experimentation and for improved the-
application of electric stimuli; for example, oretical analysis of the results obtained. In
Bose (1913) applied small currents to the first instance, Lemstrom's innovation
members of the genus Mimosa and ob- led to the development of "electro-cul-
served that growth was accelerated by ture," a subject well described in Sidaway's
cathode "break" and anode "make" shocks paper of 1975. Briefly, a number of scien-
and was retarded by cathode "make" and tists, notably in Britain, found that wheat,
anode "break" shocks. He also noted defi- maize or barley plants grown in pots ex-
nite mechanical effects, such as contraction posed to electric discharges from overhead
of pulvinar cells with resultant downward wire networks carrying low currents at
displacement of the leaves. Several inves- about 1600 V exhibited increases in dry
tigators have tested the hypothesis that in weight varying from 18%-27%. On a larger
such cases growth stimulation takes place scale with field crops of oats, wheat and
because of induced translocation of the barley, wires strung 7 feet above the soil
growth hormone auxin (Brauner and Bun- carried 40,000-80,000 V and a current of
ning, 1930; Went, 1932; Kogl, 1933; Koch, 0.5-1.0 rnA/acre. In 18 experiments, 14
1934). On the whole, the experimental evi- showed increases in crop yield; of these, 5
dence supports this concept although there were greater than 30%. Marked physiologic
is doubt that the shifts take place through effects on flowering and root dry weight
simple cataphoresis of auxin as an electro- also were recorded. The data from a wide
lyte. Cholodny and Sankewitsch (1937) range of experiments were collected by the
concluded that the displacement involves Electro-Culture Committee of the Board of
more complex factors in the living pro- Agriculture and Fisheries, which was es-
toplasm. Interestingly enough, Kogl's work tablished in 1918. Hicks (1957) made simi-
led him to the idea that some of the results lar observations in the United States. He
obtained with decapitated coleoptiles of enclosed pelargonium, rhododendron and
bean plants with Faraday cages which each test group varied from 36 to 72; ran-
served as growth controls. When similar domization was practiced in sampling and
cages were charged with 120 V DC marked all the data were examined for statistical
stimulation of growth and blooming oc- significance. The methods employed in
curred with a positive electrostatic field and these experiments are summarized by
somewhat less stimulation with a negative Krueger et al. (1962a).
field. It was found that ions of either charge
Our own work in this area began in 1960 generated in pure air produced statistically
and during the ensuing years we have inten- significant increases in growth rate as
sively studied the influence of air ions measured by stem length, integral elonga-
on the growth of seedlings under con- tion, fresh weight and dry weight. The
trolled conditions. Most of our tests were growth stimulation roughly paralleled the
conducted with barley (Hordeum vulgaris), ionic density and was accompanied by a
although similar results were obtained with proportional increase in the flow of current
oats (Avena sativa), lettuce (Lactuca sa- to ground. Analysis ofion-treated plants for
tiva) and pea (Pisum sativum). Seedlings total nitrogen, protein, total sugars and
were grown in washed sand infused with a reducing sugars revealed no deviation from
chemically defined nutrient solution. Our normal composition (Krueger et aI., 1963).
earlier experiments were performed in We also tested the effects on higher plants
cubicles of 3.2 x 103 capacity supplied with of exposure to air containing a minimal
air purified by passage through an electro- number of air ions: about 30 positive and
static precipitator, an activated carbon filter, 30 negative ions/cm3 • Air ion depletion
an absolute filter and an air conditioner resulted in a statistically significant reduc-
(Krueger et aI., 1962a). Uniform conditions tion in integral elongation, fresh weight and
of lighting, temperature and humidity pre- dry weight (Krueger et aI., 1965). Chloro-
vailed. A positively ionized atmosphere phyll production was unchanged, but the
was maintained in one cubicle, a negatively plants developed soft leaves and lacked
ionized atmosphere in the second, while the normal rigi~ity.
third cubicle served as a control environ- We found that unipolar ionized atmo-
ment with an average ionic background of spheres exerted a profound effect on the
250 positive ions and 200 negative biosynthesis of cytochrome C. This work
ions/cm3 • The ion generators were tritium began with the observation that the devel-
powered; ion densities, temperature and opment of iron chlorosis in barley seedlings
humidity were monitored. Electric field cultivated in iron-free nutrient solution was
controls were included to determine the ef- markedly accelerated by exposure of the
fects of the positive and negative potential plants to air ions of either charge (Kotaka et
gradients in the absence of artificially en- aI., 1965a). Chlorosis is a condition in
hanced ion densities. which the leaves of the plant tum yellow
Later experiments were performed in a because of interference with chlorophyll
greenhouse supplied with pure air and the formation. As the amount of chlorophyll in
seedlings were grown in tanks of 15-1 capac- the plant tissue falls with the onset of
ity, filled with chemically defined medium chlorosis, there is a marked rise in the con-
and covered with inverted clear plastic centration of cytochrome C. In our experi-
boxes with ion generators mounted in the ments, when seedlings were grown in an
top (Krueger et al., 1963b). Planter units iron-containing medium, and were exposed
were rotated in position at least twice a to positively or negatively ionized atmo-
week to avoid effects due to variation in in- spheres during growth, the typical ion-in-
cident light. The minimum temperature was duced acceleration in growth rate was ac-
25°C, but maximum temperature varied companied by stimulation of cytochrome C
with the season. The number of seedlings in synthesis, but no chlorosis developed and
there was no essential difference in chloro- in the dark at 4°C and swell again when il-
phyll content of the exposed and control luminated. The rates of swelling and shrink-
plants. ing were increased by exposure to air ions.
Subsequently studies were made on the Treatment of the chloroplasts in the pres-
effect of gaseous ions on the active and re- ence of A TP with negative or positive air
sidual iron content of barley seedlings dur- ions at 4°C in the dark increased their
ing the course of iron chlorosis (Krueger et swelling/shrinking and ATPase activities,
al., 1964). Active iron is located in the indicating that air ions stimulate A TP me-
chloroplasts, participates in the biosyn- tabolism of isolated chloroplasts (Kotaka
thesis of chlorophyll and is soluble in 1N et aI., 1968).
HCI. Residual iron occurs outside of the In analyzing the situation which prevails
chloroplasts and is not concerned with when plants are exposed to atmospheric
chlorophyll production, nor is it soluble in electricity, both fields and products of
IN HCI. Positive or negative air ions in- corona discharge including air ions must be
duced a significant decrease in active iron considered as potential factors. Most of the
content of the seedlings as the chlorophyll experimental reports in the literature deal
content declined. At the same time there with field and air ion effects separately,
occurred an increase in residual iron and in neglecting the possibility that they may
the cytochrome C fractions of the seed- work in conjunction and are not altogether
lings. There is evidence that the rise in re- mutually exclusive forces. When field con-
sidual iron content involves not only cy- trols are incorporated in the experimental
tochrome C, but other cytochromes and design of an air ion experiment it is often
iron-containing enzymes as well. In addi- done without considering the ubiquitous air
tion, we found that the uptake of exogenous ions in the background, where their migra-
iron (55Fe) was increased during the treat- tion in the electric field conveys a current to
ment of very young seedlings with positive the plants. For example, Murr (1966b)
or negative air ions (Kotaka et al., 1965b). studied intensively the biophysics of plant
We developed a hypothesis that incorpo- growth in electrostatic and electrokinetic
rates these observations and identifies a fields, and concluded that growth is in-
major site of air ion action as the regulatory fluenced largely by the magnitude of active
systems responsible for the iron metabo- current flow. Sidaway (1976) reported that
lism in the seed and young seedling. It exposure of certain plants to a l-kV field in-
should be pointed out that other investiga- duced a polarity-dependent inhibition or
tors have demonstrated the capability of a promotion of flowering. In both these cases
range of potential gradients to affect the in- air ion concentrations were not measured
corporation of iron, aluminum, zinc, man- and there is no way of telling in retrospect
ganese and copper (Zhurbitskii, 1958; to what extent they participated in the ob-
Zhurbitskii and Shidlovskaya, 1967; Murr, served results.
1963, 1964, 1966b). Zhurbitskii and Shid- If the assumption is made that an electric
lovskaya noted that artificially increased field per se can influence the physiologic
densities of light air ions enhance this pro- processes of a living organism, one would
cess. expect it to do so by exerting force on those
As our program of experimentation with constituents which carry an electric charge
plants progressed, we found that air ions of and are located at or near the surface. The
either charge increased the oxygen con- direction of the force will be determined by
sumption of barley seedlings (Kotaka et al., the sign of the charge. Dipolar compounds,
1965c). Additional evidence concerning the because of the positive and negative
mode of action of air ions on plants was ob- charges they carry, will become oriented
tained from experiments with isolated chlo- along the lines of the force field. With
roplasts. Chloroplasts shrink when stored strong enough fields they will be disrupted,
the charges will move in opposite directions the growth of barley seedlings (Krueger et
and a current will flow with resultant aI., 1978). Basic conditions consisted of
production of corona. That this condition adequate populations of seedlings, pollu-
develops in plants exposed to relatively tant-free air, constant temperature and
weak electrical fields is demonstrated by light~ relatively constant low humidity and
the experiments of Bachman et aL (1971), an ion-depleted background of 60-85
who investigated the extent to which ozone small negative or positive ions/cm 3 • The
and air ions accompany the biologic appli- essential element of this work was the
cations of electric fields. U sing barley functioning of tritium foils as bias elec-
seedlings, they observed that in the area trodes at appliied voltages of 67.5-955 V,
close to the leaf tips electric fields may be which provided field strengths of 4.5-90
intensified to a degree sufficient to produce V Icm and produced concentrations of
corona even in the low ranges character- small air ions of 2.7 x 10 4 to 1.7 X 105
istic of fine weather at the earth's surface, ions/cm 3 • These were sufficient to yield a
about 100 V1m. Applying this mechanism statistically valid increase in growth rate
to the tip of a blade of grass, the natural when compared with seedlings exposed to
electric field may be increased more than equivalent electrical field in ion-depleted
1000 times, i.e., well in excess of the air. There was no detectable difference in
strength required for production of corona. growth rates of seedlings treated with (1)
Barley leaves have spikes along their edges ion-depleted air with no electrical field and
with diameters of about 1/1000 of the diam- (2) ion-depleted air with fields of 4.6'-6.8
eter of the tip. Intensification of the fields in V/cm.
their proximity will result' in formation of Apparently the corona discharge result-
corona with applied potentials of only a few ing from the field intensification on small
hundred V1m. Accompanying these events plant structures did not produce enough air
will be transmission of current to the plant, ions to stimulate growth. Growth stimula-
generation of air ions and formation of tion occurred only in the presence of a suf-
gaseous products such as ozone. ficient concentration of small negative air
Bachmann and Reichmanis (1973) ex- ions and was associated with a flow of elec-
plain the results obtained when barley tricity through the plants to ground, about
seedlings are grown in high positive electric 10- 11 A/plant. This value closely approxi-
fields as follows. There are two field-re- mates that observed in the experiments of
sponsive intrinsic factors, one stimulating Blackman and Legg (1924) for single plants
growth and one retarding it. At 200 kV 1m in pot culture and by Krueger et aL (1962a)
the opposing forces are in equilibrium. At for groups of plants. Although these data
lower fields the enhancing component as- clearly indicate that the low electric fields
sociated with by-products of corona pre- themselves did not serve to enhance growth
vails, while at values greater than 200 under controlled experimental conditions,
kV/m the retarding constituent predomi- it is equally evident that in nature electric
nates. The latter appears to be dependent fields and air ions are intimately associated
upon current flow through the plant. This is because of the ease with which corona
compatible with the earlier findings of forms on the surface of plants.
Cholodny and Sankewitsch (1937) and To summarize this discussion of the ef-
Lund et aL (1974), who noted that current fects of atmospheric electricity on plant
flow from base to apex stimulated plant life, we believe it is fair to say that laborato-
growth while the reverse flow inhibited it. ry, greenhouse and field studies have dem-
During 1976 and 1977 Krueger and col- onstrated measurable and reproducible
leagues conducted a long series of experi- physiologic changes associated with ex-
ments designed to assess the roles played posure to a wide range of air ion densities
by air ions and electric fields in stimulating and potential gradients. The most obvious
plant response is growth stimulation, in the research on ions via biochemical simi-
which air ions presented at low voltages larity, an organism whose life cycle also
can serve as proximate agents. As potential made demands on cytochrome C metabo-
gradients increase, there is more and more lism had to be found. Such a creature is the
likelihood that the fields themselves will silkworm (Bombyx mori). In this species,
operate to produce corona discharge with development is dependent on a hormone
inevitable formation of ions. As Bachman called "growth and moulting hormone." Its
et al. (1971) have concluded on the basis of primary function is to stimulate the bio-
their own experiments and those of others, synthesis of cytochrome C and, possibly,
"Biological effects hitherto attributed to related components. If there were an ion ef-
electrical fields must in fact be attributed to fect on cytochrome C, its expression would
the synergistic effects of the by-products of be in developmental systems. Exposure
the corona produced by such fields." While produced these effects: (1) a marked in-
considerable progress has been made in crease in the rate of larval growth, (2) an
elucidating the biochemical mechanisms in- increased biosynthesis of catalase, perox-
volved in these phenomena, much remains idase, and cytochrome C oxidase, (3) earli-
to be done. er onset of spinning, and (4) an increased
Does the work accomplished so far on a weight of cocoon and silk layers (Krueger et
relatively small scale have any wider signif- aI., 1966b). Each of these outcomes was
icance? The answer would appear to be statistically significant and readily reprodu-
yes. Atmospheric scientists have found that cible. Other researchers have also reported
the earth's electric field varies from about ion effects in insects (Edwards, 1960;
100 V1m in fair weather to about 50,000 Haine et aI., 1964; Helson and Penman,
VIm under disturbed conditions, e.g., snow 1970), but the above results are of particu-
and rain carry to earth a precipitation cur- lar interest because they specifically dem-
rent of fluctuating magnitude along with onstrate a cytochrome C-linked effect.
enhanced ion production (Chalmers, 1967). While such biochemical probings do not
Worldwide electrification of the atmo- constitute a decisive assault on the arcane
sphere is a thoroughly documented phenom- mechanisms involved in air ion action, they
enon (Shewchuk and Iribarne, 1970), do serve to establish that air ions are re-
which means that the work carried out so sponsible for important changes in cellular
far has broad significance not only geo- metabolic processes, and that these
graphically, around the world, but biologi- changes have the virtue of being reproduci-
cally as well. All living organisms are sub- ble. Moreover, they demonstrate the con-
ject to atmospheric influences. Thus, even firmation in an insect of a hypothesis
though the mechanisms of action for elec- predicted from plants.
tric phenomena have not been wholly Once the gap between plant and insect
specified, and this applies for air ions too, effects had been successfully bridged, the
some common threads have been cited that transition to increasingly complex life
tie insect, animal and human literatures to forms was greatly facilitated. For mam-
the plant studies. mals, the influence of ions on the respira-
tory chain was not directly pursued; how-
ever, their influence on respiration was. In
Action of Small Air Ions on one experimental series rabbit tracheal tis-
Animals sue was used. Though other receptor sites
could have been examined (Vasiliev, 1960),
Air ions, it will be recalled, act on the regu- experience and accessibility predisposed
latory systems of plants and affect the A TP this choice. Furthermore, with this prepara-
respiratory chain through a direct action on tion the site and mechanism of action could
9ytochrome synthesis. In order to broaden be studied simultaneously, since ions are
probably deposited on tracheal tissue dur- protective mechanisms of the mucosal sur-
ing normal respiration. Experiments were faces it traverses, and the amount of active
carried out on the tracheal mucosa in situ viruses persisting in the tracheobronchial
and in excised strips. The results were clear tree or surviving to penetrate into the lung
cut. Positively charged ion complexes de- parenchyma will be inversely proportional
creased ciliary rate, contracted the posteri- to the efficiency of these functions.
or tracheal wall, induced a state of exagger- It was then time to study their biochemi-
ated susceptibility to mild mechanical cal mechanisms of action. Interest was cen-
trauma, caused vasoconstriction in the tered once again on the cytochromes. That
tracheal wall and increased respiratory cytochromes play an important role in the
rate. Negative complexes increased ciliary biological response to air ions is suggested
rate, reversed the positively induced con- by the findings that (1) negative ions in vitro
traction of the tracheal wall, did not alter enhance the action of cytochrome oxidase
the mucosal response to mild trauma, did in converting succinate to fumarate
not change the normal vascularity and (Krueger and Smith, 1959), and (2) cy-
decreased respiratory rate. All functions tochromes and other iron-containing en-
were charge dependent, demonstrating on- zymes are involved in the accelerated
again-off-again responses to reversed coun- growth which occurs in higher plants ex-
terbalanced testing conditions (Krueger posed to abnormally high concentrations of
and Smith, 1960a, b, 1962; Krueger, 1962). negative or positive air ions (Krueger et al.,
It should be pointed out that in this early 1966a). The question posited was whether
study the high water vapor saturation or not similar mechanisms would be ac-
required to keep the tissue viable may have, tivated in tracheal tissue, where mono-
at times, yielded the production of electro- amine oxidase (MAO) is responsible in part
aerosols (Andersen, 1972; Krueger, 1962). for the metabolic breakdown of serotonin
However, work executed since in labora- (5HT) and may be an indicator of overall
tories around the world does suggest that a mitochondrial function. If, like other ox-
primary site for air ion action in mammals idase systems reviewed, tracheal MAO
had been demonstrated. Supporting data consisted of a dehydrogenase linked to a
from influenza experiments may be sum- respiratory chain that included cy-
marized as follows. When measured doses tochromes, then ions, at least negative
of influenza virus or of Klebsiella pneumo- ones, could be expected to have an effect on
nia or the arthrospores of Coccidioides im- the cytochrome-linked oxidation of 5HT.
mitis are administered by the intranasal This turned out to be the case and the new
route to mice previously treated with small task became to determine if other empirical
positive ions, there is a significant increase demonstrations supported the inference of
in the cumulative mortality rate. Small neg- serotonergic involvement. They did.
ative air ions had the opposite effect in ex- Smooth muscle contraction, respiratory
periments with influenza virus. Air ion distress and diarrhea had already been
depletion, treatment with negative or posi- noted in animals exposed to positive ions.
tive air ions had no observable effect when Inasmuch as 5HT was a known vasocon-
the challenged dose of influenza virus was strictor and patients ill with carcinoid
administered as an aerosol of 2 /-Lm diame- syndrome suffer frequent bouts of diarrhea,
ter. Particles of this size tend to clear the 5HT emerged as the likely mediator of air
nasopharynx and less than 10% are depos- ion effects, and the 5HT hypothesis was de-
ited in the tracheobronchial region. An veloped. It suggests that while positive ions
average of 15% of such particles are re- induce 5HT release, negative ions seem to
tained in the lung parenchyma. Influenza speed up the rate at which 5HT is oxidized.
virus introduced into the respiratory tract Accordingly, intravenous injections of
by the intranasal route is subject to all the 5HT should duplicate positive ion ef-
fects-e.g., decreased ciliary rates, cause question that has been considered but not
vasoconstriction in the tracheal wall, in- subjected to direct testing. Future studies
crease respiratory rate, etc.-which is the at the University of California, San Fran-
case. And negative ions should cause a rise cisco, will undertake this assignment.
in 5HIAA, a 5HT metabolite, which again The effects of small negative air ions on
is the case. Furthermore, experiments in the oxygen uptake of isolated mouse liver
which animal tissue stores of 5HT were cells were studied by Bhartendu and
depleted by reserpine pretreatment failed to Menon (1978) by exposing the liver cells to
demonstrate typical positive ion effects varying ion concentrations:
consequent on normal 5HT release. In cor-
ollary, pretreatment with iproniazid, a mono- For concentrations of the order of
amine oxidase inhibitor, rendered animals 1-2 X 105 ions/cm3 , the oxygen uptake
resistant to negative ion conditions effected was always higher than in the normal
in previous protocols by the accelerated atmospheric conditions of 3-8 X 102
conversion of 5HT to 5HIAA by MAO. ions/cm3 • For intermediate concentra-
There being limited MAO and therefore a tions varying effects of activation and
reduced medium to accelerate, no negative inhibition were observed. A statistical
analysis showed that the oxygen up-
ion effect was demonstrated. Reversal of
take increased by approximately 14%
conditions in drug/ion or ion/drug combina- when liver cells were exposed to ion
tions were experimentally realized. As the concentrations of values 1-9 times the
effects of intravenous injections of 5HT are normal, by approximately 9% when ex-
reversed by exposure to negative ions and posed to 10-99 times the normal, and
so forth, indirect confirmation of the hy- by approximately 38% when exposed
pothesized mechanism of action is ten- to 100-999 times the normal.
dered. So far, it has appeared that the two
charged complexes have disparate mecha- The result of two experiments is shown
nisms of action. Positive ions release sero- in Fig. 8-3.
tonin and negative ions enhance its oxida- In summary, the observation of tracheal
tive deamination (Krueger, 1974). Whether tissue has provided evidence relative both
positive ions operate directly on MAO by to a primary site of action for air ions and,
reducing its availability for catabolism is a via analysis of the tissue-ion interface,
-- ...-
EXP7
,
~----
,, ,
,
10' 10' 10'

Air ions/cm~
Figure 8-3. Relationship between oxygen uptake of mouse liver cells and small negative air ions in
experiments 1 and 7.
their mechanisms of action. The advan- has been implicated in the modulation of
tages of this preparation over previous several consummatory behaviors, as well
studies were at least twofold. First, the as emotion and sleep cycles. While a cer-
isolation of a physiologic system with a tain pharmacologic specificity is demanded
short response latency provided an oppor- of a transmitter relative to putative receptor
tunity to study direct and immediate ion ef- interactions, its behavioral manifestations
fects rather than relying on an increase in are in no way bound by the same con-
death rate, as in the case of bacteria and straints. This potentially fragments any
molds. Second, unlike microorganisms, review of the literature on air ion effects in
tracheal tissue is made up of cells that de- mammals. However, some order may be
mand a complex intercellular com- discerned if the complexity of behavior is
munication system. The network is neuro- collapsed under the rubric of adaptive sig-
humoral and the transmitter has already nificance. In this context behavioral diver-
been identified as 5HT. The primary signif- sity is reduced to a response system at-
icance of an air ion influence on this system tuned to environmental stimuli, e.g.,
is that it provides a link to other complex light/dark cycles, seasonal nutrition, or
organisms which have functions modulated fluctuating ion densities. Its analysis is con-
by 5HT and with due circumspection, in- ducted with respect to these adaptive or
ferences may be drawn. The basis for this is selective dimensions. Unfortunately, much
that during the course of nervous system behavioral animal testing to date has been
development, as single cells aggregated carried out under "deprivation" conditions;
they assumed increasingly complex propor- conditions under which response display
tions. As they massed, structural limits may fail because an appropriate target is
were imposed and layering, rather than not in the experimental field. For instance,
progressive linear expansion, occurred. years ago, when early intracranial stimula-
When this convoluting occurred, cells tion (ICS) researchers failed to confirm
once localized on the surface then were topologic correlations with specific behav-
pushed toward the interior. From this posi- iors, it was assumed that stimulation had no
tion they could no longer experience or re- effect. Only much later did it become evi-
spond to the environment directly (as can dent that "animals don't emit feeding re-
the single-cell amoeba, for instance). Con- sponses if there is nothing to eat" (Valen-
tact with the outside world was quite literal- stein et al. 1970). That is, appetitive re-
ly lost. However, the necessity of receiving sponses may fail to surface if there is little
input about it remained. To fulfill this func- probability of their consummation. Such is
tion, an intercellular information network the message conveyed by a stark experi-
was required and it became expressed mental environment. A second, and related,
neurochemically. Nervous function, axons, difficulty stems from the nature of con-
dendrites, internuncials, etc., evolved then trolled studies. Precisely because labora-
as a means for representing the external tory work exercises control, behavioral
world internally. Transmitters are among variability may be reduced beyond the
the agents of exchange and 5HT appears to point at which any relevant response, phys-
be one of several specific information mod- iologic or behavioral, can emerge. In the
ulators. Tracheal tissue studies allow for an field, variability is a prerequisite for surviv-
examination of these events; and while this al. Selection pressures must have a range of
medium excludes behavioral confounders, expressions on which to operate. Though
its significance is not limited to respiratory the general advantages of laboratory work
function alone. are clear, effects on dependent variables
Given the demands of physiologic econ- may be totally obscured under some condi-
omy, it is not altogether surprising that a tions of control. Too stable a field may sim-
single, diffuse system evolve to index rather ply fail to force the expression of other than
disparate environmental stimuli. Thus 5HT dominant mode patterns, yet other re-
sponses in the repertoire may be the true in- sion, defecation, and sleep) having been
dicators of an independent variable. In linked previously to 5HT effects, but the
some sense, such is the case with air ions, notation of dose/response relationships is
Evidence is accumulating that demon- significant. Serotonin, often considered a
strates their particular influence on elderly, behavioral modulator, has been known to
infirm or otherwise stressed organisms. But effect physiologic changes in a nonmono-
unless testing conditions somehow match tonic, often biphasic fashion. This suggests
environmental demands, such effects may a complex phenomenon, the mechanisms of
not become manifest. So, in reviewing a be- action for which have not been evinced.
havioral literature in general, and with air Consistent dose/response determinations
ions specifically, the relevance of experi- across protocols could go far in reducing
mental conditions with respect to treatment the interlaboratory disparity results for air
and reported outcome must be carefully as- ion effects and 5HT function.
sessed. Relative to and perhaps not altogether
Relevant animal work in the air ion field distinguishable from changes in gross motor
is scarce, limited further still by the above activity are reports of enhanced aggression
caveats. However, the work warrants con- or emotional responsivity. Frits et ai.
sideration because ion effects can be ob- (1963) administered cholesterol to rabbits
served in complex organisms, similar mech- and noted that positive ions reversed the
anisms of action may be operative in cholesterol-induced nervous system de-
humans, animal behaviors are of interest in pression and increased aggressive displays.
their own right, and because the old lore of Nazzaro et ai. (1967) demonstrated dif-
animals as meteorologic indicators may ferential effects of positive and negative air
find support in a new wave of investiga- ions on conditioned emotional responses
tions. For instance, in a series of experi- (CER). Results were suggestive: negative
ments where performance was used as a ions reduced anxiety and facilitated learn-
learning criterion, Duffee and Koontz ing, whereas positive ions may have in-
(1965) were able to demonstrate improved creased anxiety and interfered with learn-
maze learning in rats under both negative ing. Strong individual differences, a ten-
and positive ion conditions. Negative ion dency for positive ions to enhance variabil-
conditions were of greater efficacy than ity and a small number of experimental
positive in improving performance, particu- animals somewhat confound interpretation.
larly for older rats living in a predominantly Frey's work (1967), however, supports the
negatively ionized atmosphere. Jordon and general experimental conclusion. In this
Sokoloff (1959) reported similar findings: study, lever-pressing behavior of rats sub-
old rats (20-27 months) exposed to a nega- jected to paired associations of a buzzer
tively ionized atmosphere performed to cri- sound followed by an electric shock was
terion (escape from a water maze) faster studied. Animals developed the traditional
and with fewer errors than a control group. conditioned anxiety response to the buzzer
Again, the pronounced effect of ion treat- sound. This CER, indexed by a suppres-
ment in older experimentals was noted, sion of lever pressing, was reduced when
though Terry et ai. (1969) cite sex rather animals were treated either with reserpine
than age as the significant variable. Others or negative ions. (Reserpine, long used
reported gross motor changes in rats con- clinically in the treatment of anxiety, essen-
sequent to exposure to ions of either tially depletes tissue stores of 5HT by in-
polarity (Bachman et aI., 1966). Effects on ducing release of bound 5HT, whereupon
aggression, urine output, defecation, sleep- MAO terminates its action. Negative ions
ing periods and respiration were recorded. are operationally similar, inasmuch as they
Responses were dose-related. In these ex- yield a net depletion of free 5HT.) General-
periments, not only are the observed be- ly, results such as Frey's lead one to
haviors of interest, several of them (aggres- suggest a tranquilizing property of negative
air ions. Certainly, the evidence suggests Gilbert (1973) indicates that this may be
that this is the case, supported again by the case. His research has the added advan-
Olivereau's report (1973) on their anxioly- tage of examining the chemical substrate of
tic effect in rodents. However, this explana- the behaviors measured. Citing Korn and
tion may be somewhat limited. An alterna- Moyer's work (1968) that animals reared in
tive, though not contradictory, interpreta- isolation were more reactive to handling,
tion focusing on pain is available. Gilbert sought to "determine the effects of
Early in the 1960s 5HT had been both continual and intermittent negative ion
heralded by some as a new "learning drug. " inhalation on the emotional level and brain
Studies observing performance to criteria 5HT content of rats experiencing pro-
in standard testing apparatus and learning longed isolation." He hypothesized that
paradigms indicated that indeed many ani- rats exposed to a negatively ionized atmos-
mals treated with 5HT learned faster phere and reared in isolation will display
(Woolley, 1967). This work was comple- less emotional behaviors and have lower
mented by studies indicating that p- levels of 5HT than will animals subjected
chlorophenylalanine (p-CP A), a powerful to isolation only. Results were in accord-
serotonin inhibitor (Koe and Weissman, ance with the hypothesis. Negative ions
1966) retarded learning (Stevens and lessened emotionality and induced a con-
Fechter, 1969). These claims were chal- comitant reduction in brain 5HT. Again,
lenged by an equal number of reports to the observations reported were consistent with
contrary, whereby 5HT inhibited, and an interpretation broadly relative to pain.
p-CPA enhanced learning (Tenen, 1967; That is, animals with higher 5HT levels
Weissman, 1973). Over time, it became exhibited signs of heightened emotionality,
clear that it was the interaction between e.g., startle response, vocalizing and escape
sensory experience and emotional reac- attempts, behaviors frequently indexed in
tivity that determined the experimental out- the context of pain measurement.
come for a given animal strain in a given Though pain is clearly a complex phe-
context. If an animal's threshold for pain nomenon and studies have been done to
were lowered, learning appeared to be facil- raise some fundamental questions about its
itated as negative reinforcers were respond- perception, the work cited here nonetheless
ed to as more punishing. But, if emotional supports demonstrations of the biologic ac-
responses such as freezing competed with tivity of air ions. Animals in a free choice
avoidance or escape behaviors, a learning situation do select residence in negatively
deficit was assumed (Tenen, 1967; Stevens ionized atmospheres (Bonnevie, 1966), a
and Fechter, 1969; Wise et aI., 1970). As choice presumably based on their posi-
these insights were advanced, 5HT and tively reinforcing properties. * As is typical,
p-CP A were spared capsulization and com- however, along with the advancement of
mercial exploitation as the newest in a long
line of panaceas.
*Some caution must be exercised to avoid the repe-
What this suggests relative to air ions is tition of classic errors in scientific "insight". In the
that to the extent that negative ions func- early 1900s D.L. Gunn studied organisms in another
tionally reduce 5HT, they may be tranquil- free choice situation. Wood lice were placed in a long
tube with a humidified gradient. They were expected
izing and would therefore logically attenu- to congregate in one of the extremities and indeed they
ate conditioned emotional responding. The did. However, the site was not based on preference
more proximate locus may, however, be in per se. What had actually transpired, as Gunn reports,
was that during their explorations, the wood lice mean-
the modulation of pain. Pain, depending on dered into a dense moisture field. Their activity level
its perceived intensity and environmental became substantially depressed by the humidity, the
context, may be the primary effector that wood lice became quiescent and there they remained,
their "preference" determined not by choice, but bio-
underlies the varied forms of expression logically. The moral of the study may be: a resting
across experimental protocols. Work by place does not a home make.
knowledge of a phenomenon come a new Vasiliev (1960, 1966) hypothesized a

set of unknowns. And here questions on double action of air ions: first, by neurore..
blood versus brain 5HT levels and ion ef- flex means, through the afferent nerve
fects arise. While air ions appear to alter fibers originating in the alveoli, and second,
brain 5HT under some conditions (Krueger by electrohumoral means, through the wall
and Kotaka, 1969; Gilbert, 1973), parallel of the pulmonary alveoli and through the
effects are not found in blood 5HT blood. According to the Soviet school,
(Krueger et al., 1963a, 1968). Futhermore, chronaximetry (the measurement of the
each of these effects appears to be dose and time required for nervous excitation by a
time exposure dependent; thus the observa- definite stimulus) is a method by which
tion of a zonal response for gross motor ac- functional changes in the central nervous
tivity and air ion concentration (Bachman system can be inferred from the changes in
et aI., 1966). Some of these inconsistencies the chronaxy of peripheral nerves and
have been attributed to the action of the muscles. Thus, in rabbits, when chronaxy
blood-brain barrier (BBB). But whether or ofthe motor neurons of the rear extremities
not 5HT actually crosses the BBB has not was determined from the contraction of the
been unequivocally determined ( 1971 b). foot muscles, negative air ions were seen to
Clearly the issue requires resolution in the decrease and positive ions to increase exci-
laboratory. Similarly, laboratory studies tation times. Initial values were recovered
may clarify the mechanisms of action of air within 14 min when the ionizing apparatus
ions. Though Krueger's work supports hy- was switched off. Air ions of either charge
potheses of 5HT release by positive ions, a do not have a noticable effect on the
finding recently confirmed by in vitro stud- chronaxy of isolated nerves and muscles,
ies of human blood (Tal et al., 1976), ques- Vasiliev reports. That is, inhalation of posi-
tions of the origin of 5HIAA in urine tive air ions increased the chronaxy of the
remain. If positive ions release 5HT which skeletal muscles in rabbits, particularly gas-
must be catabolized, and negative ions ac- trocnemius muscles, by as much as 115%.
celerate its oxidative breakdown, the net However, the same dose of air ions was
product of either process, in theory, is an without effect when these muscles were
increase in 5HIAA. How then does one separated from the central nervous system.
specify its origin? Empirically, increases in Rager (1970) also noted that negative ions
urinary 5HIAA have been linked to nega- alter neuromuscular excitability in the in-
tive ion exposure. However, until reports tact organism. The reduction of rheobase
on turnover studies are published, research (the minimal potential electric current
will have to be guided by these working hy- required to produce stimulation) and chro-
potheses. Pilot studies on air ions and naxy by negative air ions are implicated in
biogenic amine turnover are being under- the modification of the developmental
taken at Rockefeller University. course of experimental diphtheric myocar-
Gaps in understanding the mechanisms ditis in rabbits. Other examples of ions and
of action of any phenomenon can be prob- neuromuscular excitability will be exam-
lematic for designing experiments, but ined in the human literature when visual
these do not mean empirical utility need be reaction time and acuity studies are cited.
diminished. Aspirin is an amazing thera- Meanwhile, it is the Soviet work again that
peutic agent. Next to morphine, it may supports the second, humoral, action of air
indeed be "God's gift to man." But nobody ions. According to Skorobogatova (1962),
really knows how it works. Air ions too in- in crossed-circulatory experiments on
dicate a potential as a physiotherapeutic paired animals, negative ions induced func-
modality. However, not all of their biologic tional shifts in arterial pressure, rheobase
activity can be inferred solely from known, and chronaxy in both donor and recipient
e.g., serotonergic, mechanisms either. animals. Latency periods for recipient re-
sponses were in the expected direction: ty. The experimental disparity makes it dif-
donors were mimicked 10- 12 min after ini- ficult to say what these data collectively
tial response onset. Even direct trans- mean. Frey (1962, 1965) has commented
fusions of blood from subjects exposed to on numerous experimental confounders rel-
negative ion inhalation have been reported ative to early design limitations, failure to
(Vasiliev, 1960) as efficacious in the treat- ground subjects, and deficient instrumenta-
ment of ozena (a nasal dysfunction as- tion, though he did esteem the work enough
sociated with fetid odor). Though these to organize a "Rational Framework for In-
parabiotic experiments are frequently dif- terpreting the Behavioral [and presumably
ficult to reproduce, the interpretation of neurochemical] Effects of Atmospheric
such a series of results is summarized by Ions" (Frey, 1961a, 1962). That is, nega-
Vasiliev (1966) as follows: tive ions stimulate the secretion of the
glucocorticoids, and positive ions either
Aeroions act on the functional state of
the organs, in particular, of the skeletal stimulate the secretion of the mineralocor-
muscles, partly in a reflex way, by ticoids or inhibit the glucocorticoid secre-
stimulating the endings of the pulmo- tion. Frey based his hypothesis on informa-
nary afferent fibers which pass into the tion culled from several disciplines. His
vagus nerves, partly in a humoral way, first line of evidence detailed the aforemen-
changing the electrochemical proper- tioned adrenal work. For his second line,
ties of the blood passing through the Frey reasoned that since there is some evi-
capillaries of the alveoli. This, in tum, dence that the adrenal cortex is affected by
is primarily expressed in the functional ions, a differential corticoid secretion (or
state ofthe central nervous system, and specificity) must be sought. Support was
through it, indirectly, on the peripheral
evinced from Selye's work (1950), stating
organs. Thus, the electro humoral
that stressors increase the production of
mechanism of the action of aeroions on
the organism is by no means isolated ACTH. The increase in ACTH secretion
and autonomous. On the contrary, it is will stimulate glucocorticoid production,
only a link in the chain of the more gen- and though it is not known what stimulates
eral and varied mechanisms of a mineralocorticoid production, the two seem
neuroreflex character. to co-vary in some way. While describing
putative mechanisms of adreno-cortico-ion
The unfortunate inaccessibility of original function Frey suggests that some relation
resources reduces much of this material to to stress is implied. In fact, ion effects may
information garnered from English pub- not occur at all unless subjects are under
lished reviews. The limits of such reports stress.
are obvious. However, other studies on the Sufficient conditions for the production
neurochemical and endocrine involvement of ion effects have not been clearly deter-
of air ion action are available for closer ex- mined. Though Frey's hypotheses were
amination. proferred nearly 20 years ago, accom-
Throughout the 1950s in the United panied by the recommendation for a sys-
States, modifications of adrenal activity in tematic research endeavor, such a program
animals exposed to ionized air were re- has failed to materialize in the United
ported. Holloway (1952) reported changes States. The studies of Krueger and his col-
in cholesterol and ascorbic acid content, leagues at the University of California,
Rinfret and Wexler (1953) histologic Berkeley, represent the only ongoing labo-
changes indicative of glandular elaboration ratory pursuit of air ion effects over the past
of salt- and carbohydrate-regulating cor- two decades. However, recent work car-
ticoids, and Nielsen and Harper (1954) ried out in France by Olivereau (1971a, b,
reported changes in succinoxidase activity, 1973) has renewed the interest in Frey's ra-
incorporated as a measure of adrenal activi- tional framework and has also managed to
Figure 8-4. Arrangement for testing the decision-making ability of rats subjected to a stress situation.
The animals try to keep hold of a ring above a container of water for as long as possible to avoid falling
into the water. After Olivereau (1973).
integrate seemingly unrelated behavioral Early on, Olivereau recorded effects of air
and neurochemical phenomena. ion exposure on molar behaviors and later
Olivereau (1973), for example, used rats traced them to perturbations at the molecu-
as experimental animals. In a neurophysio- lar level. Thus his work on water intake and
logic test of the behavior of male rats, he output by rats and their spontaneous con-
studied the influence of negative air ions on sumption of electrolytes led to the consid-
a fear situation (Fig. 8-4) by means of an eration of adrenal hydromineral metabo-
adaptive effect. The rats, which hung from lism and, finally, histologic analyses of
a ring suspended above a container of cold neurosecretory granules and back again to
water, learned to dive in order to curtail this behavior. Though historical precedent,
stressful situation. After a brief treatment which Olivereau briefly recounts, had in-
with air ions (150,000 ions/cm3 for 20 min), dicated primary adrenal cortical involve-
the frightened animals held onto the ring for ment, he concluded that such explanations
a significantly shorter time before releasing were incapable of entirely explaining the
it. This effect on animal behavior in a fear phenomena observed. What he sought was
situation suggests that serotonin is involved a central nervous system connection. * Ac-
in the action of air ions. Certain paradoxical cordingly, studies of the hypophyseal-hy-
results, moreover, point to an increase in pothalamic axis were undertaken, because
muscular performance. this region represents the primary nexus of
To be sure, Olivereau's work is difficult systemic and central nervous system inter-
to reduce to a definitive outcome. Readers face. Olivereau conceived this site as a tis-
are strongly encouraged to read original sue field for ion, corticoid and transmitter
source materials for enhanced clarity of
these comprehensive works. Nonetheless, *These events curiously parallel the historic pursuit
the adrenocortical and serotonergic sys- of a centrally metabolized toxin in the etiology of men-
tems are both fundamentally involved in tal disorders. Early hypotheses assumed adrenal
and/or other systemic dysfunction. However, seren-
the mediation of air ion effects, and these dipitous observations noted the structural similarity
systems, acting in concert, account for the between mescaline, a psychotomimetic, and the cen-
wide range of responses to air ion stimuli. tral nervous system transmitters. Researchers immedi-
ately shifted focus to the central nervous system, pur-
The actual sequence of experimental suing "the" endogenous neurotoxin, and a course plot-
events is too detailed to recapitulate here. ted by Thudichum some 70 years earlier was resumed.
interplay and, over time, test results were homeostatic feedback whereby the water
interpreted as supporting hypotheses favor- loss aggravated by the hyperactivity of the
ing such an interaction. Exposure to nega- adrenal cortex is minimized. The hyper-
tive ions did induce changes in hypophy- secretion of ADH is not incompatible with
seal-hypothalamic tissue. That is, in- the observed polyurea, which may be
creases in nucleus and nucleolus size were explicable by concomitant modifications of
observed along with diminution of neurose- glucocorticoids and serotonin in the blood.
cretory granules. These histologic changes Olivereau relies on Krueger's work to fill in
are recognized as classic indices of intense the transition, but in short suggests that
cellular activity. Subsequent tissue studies serotonin, acting directly at the level of the
on other groups of treated animals con- kidney, probably induces constriction of
firmed the original findings. Again hyper- the afferent glomerular arterioles. This
trophy of nuclei and nucleoli were noted. directs a fall in the blood level of circulating
Again the liberation of neurosecretory 5HT, which then adds its diuretic effect to
granules, normally present in the cy- that manifested by the corticoids and, ac-
toplasm, was observed, this time along with cordingly, to the manifestation of a poly-
an apparent increase in the discharge of urea, which ADH tends to moderate,
ADH (the antidiuretic hormone). The latter thus closing the loop. Clearly this is a
observation was not at all incompatible complex set of interactions, the individual
with the simultaneous behavioral display of sections of which require further investiga-
a polyurea, and indeed completes response tion. But regardless of the route the reac-
consistency across the varied levels of anal- tion takes, the facts remain. Two genera-
ysis. The significance of Olivereau's find- tions of researchers have now produced
ings is enhanced by the observation that ex- and reproduced ion effects. Their action
posure to positive ions reversed these con- may be direct and/or indirect, humoral or
ditions: nuclear volumes were diminished, reflexive, operating centrally and/or periph-
neurosecretory granules hypoactive, ADH erally, but it exists.
liberation was restricted, and an oliguria
was noted.
In sum, whether one cites Frey's hypo- Action oiSmal/Air Ions on Human
thetical framework or Olivereau's empirical Beings
findings, adrenocortical function is impli-
cated in air ion effects. However, even Given the reproducibility of these particu-
though recent work has been carried out in lar effects, it is, of course, of more general
an atmosphere of enhanced sophistication interest whether or not these laboratory
in instrumentation, experimental design phenomena have any significance to human
and biologic measurement, the interpreta- populations. Does it matter that ionized air
tion of the data does not necessarily have influences animal food and water intake,
any more finality than in the past. Olivereau locomotor activity, copulatory behavior or
readily acknowledges that an explanation the adrenals? Probably, for though human
of ADH secretion per se is bound to be behavior need not be reduced to that of
complex. Any effort to interrelate mul- other systems, more than enough documen-
tifunctional systems is, of momentary ne- tation is in evidence to suggest a rela-
cessity, so. He does consider the possibility tionship between air ions and stress. And
that a "directorship" is assumed by the cor- that is a phenomenon to which most people
ticoadrenal hormone, a status frequently can directly relate.
conferred on autocoids of central origin. In Significant human studies are even
this context he suggests the antagonistic ac- scarcer than those on other animals. The
tions of the corticoids and ADH on the same limitations censured earlier are
mobilization of water are regulated via present in force again: deficient instrumen-
tation, weak experimental design, failure to of the peripheral blood vessels and aug-
ground subjects. Besides, humans are tradi- ments perspiration, newcomers will re-
tionally less available for longitudinal or spond to the change with the normal alarm
even continous periods of study. Finally, reaction, a hypersecretion of cate-
these elements are confounded by the al- cholamines. However, while this re-
ready complex animal heritage to which we sponse reduces the immediate discomfort
are heir. Into this precarious area a few of climatic heat stress, secondary effects of
have dared. Among the most ambitious are catecholamine excess may be experienced.
those works engineered by Sulman in With exposure to local weather conditions,
Israel. In his studies, subjects are drawn however, resistance is developed and an
from those "cruel experiments in nature" optimal balance of vessel contraction and
on whom the Sharav winds appear to wreak perspiration is achieved. Long-term ex-
physiologic havoc. * Clinical complaints posure to the Sharav winds, on the other
during Sharav conditions range from sleep- hand, will erode the body's capacity to re-
lessness and irritability to vomiting, diar- spond effectively to this meteorologic stres-
rhea, respiratory distress, and abdominal sor. Failing to balance catecholamine se-
pain. None of these ailments constitutes a cretion, unable to compensate for periph-
major somatic insult, but the real danger to eral blood vessel dilatation, and least able
health may arise when these minor dys- to resist Sharav effects, long-time "weather
functions operate synergistically on an al- sensitives" will gradually enter the exhaus-
ready present or subclinical medical condition stage, becoming most medically vul-
tion. Thus dyspnea may exacerbate respira- nerable. Urinalyses on over 500 individuals
tory illness; palpitations or pre-cordial pain bear out predictions: new immigrants hy-
may aggravate cardiac dysfunction. persecrete catecholamines and veteran res-
Based on extensive sampling, Sulman idents hyposecrete (Sulman et aI., 1970,
has grouped recurring patient complaints 1974). Catecholamine distribution is not
into three major categories, each character- the only indicator that Sharav conditions
ized by its biochemical and symptomatic parallel the GAS in some fashion. But since
profile (Sulman et aI., 1970). From the dis- physiologic adjustment mechanisms are
tribution of clinical descriptors it has been generally complex processes, air ion re-
deduced that climatic heat stress, or Sharav search would probably benefit more from
effect, can be partially defined along the basic research than from the unqualified
lines of Selye's General Adaptation Syn- application of this analogy. Nonetheless, as
drome (GAS). Stage I would be an alarm a link to earlier models of a "rational frame-
reaction, Stage II, resistance, and Stage III, work" (see Frey) and for directing future
exhaustion. Over the years, data have been research, the concept has merit. For in-
collected from "weather sensitive" subjects stance, Sulman describes one reaction to
to suggest some conformance to this pat- climatic heat stress as the exhaustion syn-
tern. Predictions of the developmental drome; characterized by catecholamine
course for the Sharav syndrome, based on deficiency. By labeling a diagnostic cate-
these principles, are as follows. Tourists gory as such, a prescriptive for 44% of his
and new immigrants will not suffer from Sharav cases becomes intrinsic to the
Sharav, old-timers will. That is, as the hot, syndrome identification: overcome the cat-
dry weather brings about passive dilatation echolamine insufficiency and remedy the
problem. Sulman has also examined 5HT,
*These winds of ill repute are generally character- 5HIAA, histamine and hydromineral ex-
ized by a rapid decrease in relative humidity, values cretion patterns. Again, metabolic dis-
25%-30% below normal; an increase in temperature charges on normal, as opposed to Sharav,
of 5°-lOo e above' the seasonal average, and an
elevated positive ion density which precedes the winds days suggest operational groupings; an Irri-
by 10-12 hr. tation Syndrome due to 5HT hyperfunction
for 43% of the cases and a thyroid syn- Sharav effects demonstrate remission of
drome du~ to hyperthroidism forme/fruste symptoms when treated by negative ions or
(histamine and creatinine) in 13% of the 5HT antagonists (Sulman, 1971a; SuI man
cases (Sulman et aI., 1970). et aI., 1974).
Investigations on the possibly hazardous Though recent studies have been under-
effects of artificial air ionization were also taken at the University of California, San
conducted by Sulman et al. (1978): Francisco, Sulman's work is currently the
most comprehensive and ongoing air ion
Five weather-sensitive women and 5 research being done in humans. Its value is
normal men chosen at random ... were both general and specific. As an interdis-
exposed separately during 8 sleeping ciplinary model it demonstrates the benefit
hours and 8 working hours to the appa- to understanding conferred by a program
ratus at 1-2 m distance in a 4 x 4 m designed to examine a system in the con-
room, for 2 months. Thus they were ex- text of its natural environment. There is an
posed to a daily uptake of 1 x 104 nega-
isomorphism between the experiments'
tive ions/cm3 for 16 h/day during 2
months. Urinary 17-KS, 17-0H,
complexity and the systems' complexity.
adrenaline and noradrenaline excretion Human beings are, at the very least, a mass
was not affected by the negative ionisa- of biochemical, behavioral and psycholog-
tion. However serotonin, 5-HIAA, his- ical interactions. They operate in all modal-
tamine and thyroxine excretion-if ities all of the time. The simplicity of this
increased before-diminished by 50% statement obscures its significance, but it is
on an average. There were no changes significant nonetheless. For instance, were
in body weight, blood pressure, pulse, Sulman to have focused on 5HIAA as a
respiratory rate, oral morning tempera- solitary metabolite, it might not have been
ture, dynamometer grip strength, rou- brought to light that other biochemical
tine liver function tests, urinary pH, al-
events could also be correlated with ion ef-
bumen, glucose, ketones, bilirubin, or
occult blood, red and white blood count
fects, i.e., adrenal or thyroid hyperfunction;
and ECG records. The EEG revealed or were the euphoria observed by tubercu-
the typical changes due to negative air losis patients treated with iproniazid not
ionisation: stabilising of frequency, recorded, the development of antidepres-
increased amplitudes, spreading of sants might have been considerably re-
brainwaves from the perceptive occipi- tarded. There is clearly long-term value in
tal area to the conceptive frontal area examining an event in the context of larger
and synchronisation of both hemi- systems. This wiII be considered again
sphere tracings. when the function of air ions in the total en-
vironment is briefly discussed. Of course,
The involvement of serotonergic systems working with diffusely or complexly or-
in mediating Sharav effects is of particular dered systems is the more prodigious ex-
interest here. Documentation for an air ion perimental task. Basic research generally
effect on serotonergic mechanisms in non- requires years of investment to identify and
human animals has been reviewed. That is, reproduce a given, simple event. The in-
positive ions release 5 HT and negative ions trusion of confounding variables is more
seem to enhance their oxidative deamina- likely. The rules for information transfer
tion. If such mechanisms are the rule for across levels of complexity are still nas-
humans as well, then one would hypothe- cent. The complaint of deficient character-
size that Sharav symptoms, induced by ization of the system and lack of problem
positive ion influx, would be reversed by resolution is frequently leveled and with
appropriate drug and/or ion treatments. enough finality to generally discourage the
Such is the case. Using both objective and pursuit of such enterprises in the future.
subjective criteria, patients suffering from But the facts of complexity remain. This
does not denigrate the significance of other even the prospect of manned space flight all
work, nor overlook the necessity of pio- had in common a reliance on, or necessi-
neering studies in more simple organisms. tated a more fundamental understanding of,
The power and necessity of meticulously the air we breathe. As we became more and
controlled laboratory research is evident. more creatures of the indoors, occupying
On a grand scale much of modem molecu- inner spaces, "air" warranted investigation.
lar biology rests on the incisive experi- Motivated by economic, if not health con-
ments of J. Loeb exemplified by the inves- siderations, commercial investment repre-
tigations he conducted on the behavior of sented potentially formidable profit in the
proteins. It is suggested that by appropri- burgeoning marketplace of crypto-environ-
ately expanding the exploratory field, effec- ments. Much of this demand was actually
tive relationships may emerge which other- reducible to a need for increasingly sophis-
wise would have suffered exclusion. Again, ticated heating and ventilation systems
chickens are not going to peck for food since complaints of "dead air" or "stuffi-
when there is nothing to eat. ness" were not uncommon in even presum-
Regrettably, it is the general case that ably well conditioned air. The interest by
funding, space and time constraints pre- marketing researchers and management
clude the feasibility of interdisciplinary ex- specialists, albeit relevant, is much more
pansion. Many countries already use air recent (Robertson, 1978, personal com-
ions as a therapeutic agent. The prescrip- munication). The critical eiement nonethe-
tion is based on empirical results: it works. less seemed to be ions. During the 1950s,
Such popular use abroad obviates the likeli- most of the equipment in commercial use
hood of government investment in a pro- functionally deprived the atmosphere of
gram whose primary aim is to elucidate the small air ions, and humans seemed sensi-
mechanisms of air ion action. Clinical ef- tive to these atmospheric deficits. Kimura
ficacy has already been "proved". * But et al. (1939) in Japan, Dessauer (1931) in
clinical reports generally fail to parcel out Germany, Tchijevsky (1933, 1960) in Rus-
the variances in those circumstances in sia, and Yaglou et al. (1933) and Herring-
which ion treatment is not efficacious. ton (1935) in the United States all were in
Clearly a research climate where a priori general accord. Excess positive ion or ion-
experimental criteria were established to free conditions induced deleterious effects
sight and reproduce effects would be ideal. on experimental subjects; negative ion
To this extent, attention may be directed to treatments were generally salubrious. Of
the United States where public access to air course, treatment conditions varied and
ion treatment has been limited. control groups were either nonexistent or
In the United States the primary impetus varied, as were ion concentrations and expo-
for modem air ion research arose from in- sure times. It is obvious that these early
terest by the business sector. High density studies are subject to the same interpretive
living, crowded offices, submersibles and constraints reviewed previously. However,
they do form an historical base for modem
*It is an historic though not isolated curiosity that work, a good deal of which continues to
advances in the clinical domain have limited the pur-
suit of basic research. Such was the case with
support their general conclusions.
schizophrenia and the introduction of chlorpromazine Ironically, the same interest that gave
to the U.S. in the middle 1950s. Prior to this, half of birth to the research boom in air ions was
all hospital beds in the U.S. were occupied by a per-
son diagnosed as schizophrenic. Following its wide- also responsible for its temporary demise,
spread implementation into the treatment regimen, which is to a large extent traceable to reac-
chlorpromazine operationally became a schizophrenic tion to government control of apparatus
"curative" in that it was credited with the massive
reduction in the numbers of people hospitalized for that were represented as having medical
the disease. The etiology of schizophrenia, however, value. In the 1950s and through the early
remains unknown. 1960s, ionizers were widely marketed as a
therapeutic agent for a multitude of ail- al., 1971), and influence on the tracheal
ments ranging from constipation to cancer. clearing mechanism (ciliary beat and mu-
There was no strong data base to support cosal flow rate) (Krueger and Smith,
these excessive health claims, and govern- 1962).
ment intervention was necessary and ap- Clinical applications in the treatment of
propriate. A ban on these overt misrepre- asthma support the relevance of laboratory
sentations was implemented. U nfortu- findings. Remission of dyspneic attacks (for
nately, the ban on false advertising and over 6 months) were reported for 55% of
marketing expressed itself as a covert ban the 830 patients receiving complete treat-
on research. Funding sources dried up, as ment sequences (Boulatov, 1968). Palti et
did a once avid commercial interest. So, al. (1966) report related successes in in-
though there have been scattered reports fants 2-12 months of age. After es-
by clinicians using air ions in therapy, these tablishing measurement categories for spas-
private investigations are reduced to anec- ticity and respiratory rate responses, it was
dotal, albeit encouraging, status. determined that "negative ions without any
For instance, in a modem Swiss bank, other supportive treatment (including anti-
when employees were exposed to nega- biotics) terminate the spastic attack after a
tively ionized air over a test period of 30 much shorter period than that required by
weeks, a significant decrease in the in- the conventional mode of treatment" (Palti
cidence of respiratory illness was reported. et al., 1966). Of added benefit was the ab-
Working time lost, as compared to a control sence of side effects with negative ion treat-
group, was less by a factor of 16 (Stark, ment frequently noted with traditional drug
1974). More anecdotal evidence is supplied regimens. Jones et aI. (1976) failed to find
by an Oregon school superintendent, who negative ion treatments efficacious in the
reported a reduction in absences by about routine management of asthma. However, a
17% in one of four elementary schools small number, seven, as opposed to the 830
equipped with heater/ionizer units. Eco- and 19 cases cited by Boulatov and Palti re-
nomic and health factors figured in con- spectively, makes it difficult to evaluate the
tinued administrative interest in ionizers. significance of these negative results.
That is, in some states, New York among Clearly an understanding of the ion phe-
them, fiscal support is based not upon nomenon would be facilitated by the devel-
student enrollment, but on average dailyat- opment of clinical trials for publication
tendance. A 17% increase in attendance whereby peer referees would establish cri-
could amount to millions of dollars over teria for meritorious work. In Philadelphia,
time. Another school system similarly re- Kornblueh (1968), the pioneer of air ion
ported a significant 27% reduction in absen- work in the United States, initiated such ef-
teeism following conversion to a ventilation forts in hospital studies with bum patients.
system that restored ions to the atmosphere Early reports were encouraging. Over a
(Hansell, personal communication). period of 10 years, from 1956 to 1966, over
Krueger's laboratory findings on tracheal 200 patients with various kinds and degrees
tissue (1959) bear on these popular ac- of bums received negative ion therapy. For
counts since negative ions seem to have a both in- and outpatient populations, with
prophylactic effect on the respiratory rare exceptions, no analgesics were needed.
distress that accounts for a considerable In a majority of patients, cessation of pain
propertion of most school and work ab- was achieved after 10-15 min of ion ex-
sences. The reduction of airborne infec- posure. Ion dessicating effects seemed to
tions may be reconsidered in light of the diminish exudation from wounds, reducing
destructive effect of air ions on bacteria infection and promoting the early formation
(Krueger et aI., 1957), their enhancement ofeschars. Worden's (1961) work in golden
of resistance to influenza virus (Krueger et hamsters complements these findings. In
the small number of animals tested, healing tion in the United States, however, have
of surgical incisions and regeneration of been reported to be of sufficient magnitude
several femoral nerves were enhanced by to warrant further research (Monaco and
negative ion environments. Again, limits in Acker, 1963). Another psychophysiologic
experimental design placed some necessary indicator, the EEG, also demonstrated sen-
constraints on interpretations of results. sitivity to ion influence (Silverman and
Kornblueh was aware of these deficits and Kornblueh, 1957). Reduced frequency of
had, himself, proposed using amounts of alpha waves from 10 or 11 to 9 or 8 Hz,
sedative and/or narcotics required for pain increased amplitude by up to 20%, and an
relief as objective criteria for measuring air advance of the alpha rhythm from occipital
ion treatment effects (David et al., 1962). to frontal areas, with a general synchro-
At the Seminar on Human Biometeorology nization of reading from both hemishperes
in 1964, Kornblueh said, "Air ion therapy were reported. Slowed alpha rhythm is con-
is not a universal panacea, but it is certainly sidered nonspecific and may appear under a
a valuable addition to our therapeutic ar- variety of circumstances. Subjective re-
mamentarium." (Kornblueh, 1967). Though ports, however, did include relaxation,
death curtailed full scale pursuit of these alertness and improved working capacity
ideas, his legacy provided yet another link (Assael et al., 1974). Though the ac-
in the ion chain. cumulated evidence does not amount to a
While Kornblueh's work did not directly massive assault on the relationships among
provide for biochemical analyses, bum pa- biochemical, electrostatic and psycholog-
tients do represent a bioassay for pain, and ical events, at least there are indications
serotonin has long been implicated in its that human systems are capable of subjec-
production. Recall the historic touting of tively describing ionization experiences
5HT as "the" learning drug, only to be (McGurk, 1959; Sulman, et al., 1974). In-
recalled as "merely" altering an organism's asmuch as each element of the above set,
threshold for pain perception. Though the serotonin, ions and mood is a member of
precise nature of 5HT's functions remains other sets which also have in common at
unclear, all the work specifically reviewed least two of these members, a transitive
in humans supports the 5HT/pain relation- relationship is suggested. This is particu-
ship: Sulman's Sharav syndromes, respira- larly strengthened by the detailed and
tory phenomena based on Krueger's data comprehensive work on reward and pun-
(1975), Fox's (1976) migraine, reiterated by ishment in animals and humans, linking
Sulman, and finally Kornblueh's bum work. biochemical substrates to human mental
Studies in psychiatric popUlations broaden events (Stein, 1971).
this relationship to include psychological Hawkins and Barker (1978) have pro-
pain, and demonstrate in yet another way vided a scientific basis for these field ob-
the influence of ions on human systems. In servations. They tested the effects of ar-
a South American study, some 80% of the tificaially increased levels of negative ions
people in an anxiety syndrome clinic were on the performance of a number of psy-
reported to have benefited from treatment chomotor tasks by 45 human subjects. The
with negative ions. Psychoneuroses, appre- result was a statistically significant in-
hension and fear responses remitted or crease in performance, as compared to
diminished considerably in the manifested controls.
syndrome. Most conspicuous was the ab- The limitations ofthe medical trials given
sence of somatic complaints (Ucha Udabe air ion therapies in the United States, do
et al., 1968). Attempts to replicate these not allow a proper evaluation. Health
striking findings in other laboratories ap- issues aside, however, air ionization has
pear to be lacking. Psychophysiologic ef- aroused interest in another context. It com-
fects of ionized air in a psychiatric popula- bines those elements already reviewed. It is
in some sense economic; in some sense ions/cm3 • Other investigations have shown
psychological. It is work capacity and work this to be the case for motor vehicles as
efficiency. Ion effects are of special interest well. An increase in traffic accidents during
here because of the enormity of the situa- certain atmospheric disturbances has been
tion. Minority, albeit significantly, sensi- reported. However, this literature is dif-
tized populations are no longer being ad- ficult to evaluate, as ion density counts are
dressed; rather an entire work force in a generally not factored out in correlating
given economic system comes into focus. It meteorologic changes with an increased in-
is an inefficient economy that operates at cidence of accidents or, for that matter,
less than its maximal potential. Working in health related variances (Tromp, 1963).
ion-depleted atmospheres seems one factor The fact nonetheless remains that ion levels
in reducing work efficiency. For instance, do fluctuate considerably with different
prior to its installation of negative ion gen- weather conditions.
erators, a company processing some £200 Sporadic attention has been drawn to the
million worth of checks daily was ex- same problem in aircraft (Caymaz, 1976).
periencing an error rate of about 21/ 2%, or At 11,000 feet there is an acknowledged
mistakes averaging £5 million/day, over ion deficit (Robertson, personal com-
£2 billion a year. Under ionized conditions munication). This phenomenon should be
the error rate dropped to 1/2%' Overall com- of particular interest vis-a-vis manned
pany morale was reported to be improved space flight, since an early maneuvering
as well (Laws and Holiday, 1975). Whether error of a percentage of a degree could
or not the raised spirits were a function of cause a target site to be missed by a million
ionization or employee reduction in error miles. The generally low profile assumed by
rate is of course a moot point. A mul- the assumed major sources of interest, i.e.,
tibillion dollar savings is cost efficient. the military and ancillary units, is partly at-
Another example, taken from a situation tributable to historical caprice. The period-
beyond which a price can be put, is re- ic replacement of Surgeons General in the
ported by a police emergency center. In this United States has interrupted the continu-
station, a problem with maintaining ity of longitudinal studies required to es-
alertness during the "graveyard shift" was tablish a meaningful air ion policy. Or, for
encountered. Here, officers working in ion- example, the first commissioned British
depleted conditions tended to be overcome nuclear submarine was supposed to have
by drowsiness. Antiquated ventilation sys- been. equipped with an ionizer system and
tems aggravated the unpleasantness at- effects were to have been reported in the lit-
tributed to a generally foul and fume-laden erature. Intervening events obscured the
atmosphere. Upon installation of air ion- knowledge of whether or not the submarine
izers, however, a comfortable ambience actually ever had the ionizers installed
was restored, and officers facetiously pro- (Krueger, 1970, personal communication).
tested the absence of their customary cat Russian investigators apparently pursued
naps (Laws and Holiday, 1975). this interest with a bit more enthusiasm.
There is little doubt that smoke and peo- Nefedov et al. (1966), intending to deter-
ple and a large surface-to-volume ratio mine the optimum ionization conditions for
deprive the atmosphere of its normal a space cabin, exposed subjects to varied
charge distribution. Independent measure- ion treatments for up to 20 days, the longest
ments by Korblueh et al. (1973) and Mac- presently known in the literature. No un-
zynski et al. (1971) indicate that the con- toward effects were recorded and the rec-
centration of air ions in enclosed spaces ommendation was for use of ions of both
may be 2% that of country air. That is, a polarities. Original source materials are,
given room, by the end of a working day, again, somewhat inaccessible and therefore
may contain as few as 20 small negative not subject to detailed analysis. In the Unit-
ed States, NASA and Federal Aviation these concepts can probably be applied to
Agency support is limited, if public re- SVRT and FT as well. Accordingly, it
search funding is utilized as an indicator of would be the general case that the more im-
interest. Other studies are available for pulses a center can process per unit time,
review, however. the better its functional state. Negative ions
Bisa (1954) studied ion effects on flicker improved performance across all test con-
fusion frequency (FFF). This method had ditions; positive ions had the opposite ef-
the dual advantages of (I) having been ex- fect. Except for positive ion FT, all effects
tensively studied in other disciplines and were statistically significant. Another way
(2) being a known central nervous system of assessing the functional state of a system
component, FFF is under cortical control is in terms of oxygen (energy) economy.
(Wehner, 1962). Essentially, FFF de- The better the oxygen utilization, the more
scribes a visual response to intermittent efficient the system, and an improved func-
stimuli. When presented at low frequencies, tional status is conferred. Recall that the
stimuli are perceived as relatively discrete negatively charged oxygen molecule pre-
or flickering, as were early movie scenes. sumably enhances the absorption of O2 in
At sufficiently high frequencies, stimuli hit the respiratory system (Guillerm et aI.,
the retina before the previous image disap- 1967). Though it is doubtful that all of
pears and a continuous stimuli presentation Slote's ion-induced effects could be re-
is perceived. No flicker is experienced: duced to this function, results are in accord-
images have fused. The FFF method iden- ance with predicted outcomes.
tifies these two critical points in photic Varga (1968, 1972b) conducted exten-
stimulation. After elaborate preparations to sive investigations and research on the
secure accurate and sensitive readings, physiologic action of air ions and their sig-
Bisa reported that negative ions decrease nificanceas environmental factors. He
FFF values. However, FFF values are placed his experimental subjects into a
sensitive to acoustic, odor and thermic large climatic chamber, where they were
stimulations as well (Frey, 1961a; Wehner, exposed to an ion density of 3 x 105
1962). This does not invalidate the empiri- ions/cm3 at the level of the mouth. The ob-
cal findings, though other investigators ject was to determine the effect of ion ex-
have since reported effects in the opposite posure on the oxygen consumption of the
direction (Wehner, 1962). The question is subjects. Varga found that the subjects fell
raised rather as to proximate or distal into two groups according to their response
receptivity. That is to say, ions may influ- to the ions. The first group displayed an
ence temperature (Winsor and Beckett, elevated content of oxygen in the blood,
1958), which in turn influences FFF, but while the second group showed no response
sufficient causality is not yet determined to the inhalation of air ions. This disparity
even to the extent that it has been for the was unrelated to age or sex, but it was
humoral ion effects. found that smokers invariably belonged to
The same question is raised with respect the second group (Fig. 8-5).
to other ion-induced effects. For instance, The effect of air ionization on the human
Slote (1962) studied not only FFF, but pulse rate is also highly demonstrative. The
simple visual reaction time (SVRT) and pulse rate of subjects in this study declined
finger tapping (FT). Though he specifically when the ionization device was switched on
suggested that FFF is connected with (I) (Fig. 8-6). This effect is not surprising, how-
chronaxy,* (2) latent period and (3) refrac- ever, when one considers that less blood
tory period (of the retinocortical system), must be pumped through the body to sup-
ply an equal amount of oxygen, since the
oxygen content of the blood is increased by
*The Russian "reflex action" of ions. air ionization. It follows that the rate of the
p0 2
a- 80 b-
(mm Hg]
Raucher
73,0
e- f- g-
10,7% bel +Ionen
Gruppe a: Durchschnitt yon 18 V
8,2% bel -Ionen
2,1% bei+lonen
Grupp. b: Durchschnitt von 12 V
1,6% bei -Ionen
Gruppe a und b: 6,4% bei + onen

Durchschnitt von 30 VP
4 bel -Ionen
Figure 8-5. Different effects of ionized air on nonsmokers (left, group a) and smokers (right, group b)
in terms of the oxygen level in the blood (p02). Top: Graph of two typical results for two individual
subjects (K";" control, P = test group); bottom: overall result. After Varga (1 972b).
Key: a-Nonsmokers; b-Smokers; c-+ion; d-- ions; e-Group a (etc.); f-percent for + ions (etc.);
g-Average of 18 subjects (etc.)
heartbeat must also decline, assuming a similarly failed to account for the bi-
constant stroke volume. stability. As usual, the heterogeneity of
Finally, it is reported that a decrease in dependent variables across research designs
the CO 2 content of the blood parallels the confounds the comprehensive assessment
oxygen increase under the influence of of putative ion effects. Thus, Barron and
ionized air. This is considered proof of Dreher (1964) studied four sensorimotor
enhanced gaseous exchange during respira- m~asures, but found their pilots signifi-
tion. cantly differed on brightness discrimination
Other data support these findings. Knoll only. This particular finding is of interest
et al. (1961) reported that there was "nearly vis-a-vis O 2 utilization in that scotopic visu-
always an effect on RT" after ion exposure. al thresholds along with FFF are among the
However, results showed a bistability: the more sensitive indicators of mild O 2 defi-
directional outcomes for either type of ciency (Wehner, 1962; Rosenberg, 1972).
polarized air could not be predicted. Rhein- Whether this phenomenon has anything to
stein (1961), employing varied statistical do with the increased incidence of traffic
procedures, confirmed the ion effect, but accidents at dusk remains to be seen, as it is
still difficult to say what the effectors actu- the use of ion treatments in some athletic
ally are. More parameters are studied, more training regimens. There is, unfortunately,
conflicting reports compiled. Chiles et ai. limited work to affirm or negate the efficacy
(1962) used a complex mental and vigilance ofthis type of program (Hamburger, 1962).
task and found ions of both polarities Neither the long-term nor the "staying
reduced the number of false responses and power" of ion effects are known for
errors. Neither result however was consid- humans. Substantive longitudinal research
ered significant. Bipolar exposures again has not been carried out, though some au-
reduced detection errors in a fast presenta- thors have considered these problems.
tion vigilance task, though only the positive Rosenberg (1972) mentions a few. They are
ion decrement was listed as significant (Mc- (1) Schultz's ANS activation/deactivation
Donald et aI., 1967). It is these detection hypothesis; (2) learning theory's perform-
errors and like phenomena that would pre- ance/activation inverted U; (3) Frey's glu-
sumably interest the military, where duties comineralo-corticoid function; and (4) feed-
frequently demand radar-oscilloscope vigi- back gain deviations. These comprehensive
lance. According to Wofford's results views, while helpful in conceptually organiz-
(1966), "negative ionization has a significant ing complex data, share the common disad-
behavioral effect on relatively simple tasks, vantage of other after-the-fact explana-
but does not significantly influence more tions. Still they do have some predictive
complex forms of behavior" ("under value to be applied to the next research
present testing conditions" should be series; bistable outcomes. They further
added, in light of the intracranial stimula- have in common a reliance on Wilder's Law
tion studies, Wofford, along with noted of Initial Value (Wilder, 1957), and what
Russian investigators, suggests that de- becomes obvious in its absence is the need
creased latencies in RT studies may be a to formally study this denominator. Cer-
function of enhanced muscle excitability. tainly other investigators have been cog-
It is presumably this effect that motivates nizant of "the state at the time of excita-
~
a- lonen eingeschaltet
80
cr b- lonen ausge~chaltet
I
t---=~~------L----
I
u
I
:;, I
'" I
"
'.,.0;"'
a: I
I
c-
75~--------+---------4---------~--~~
o 20 40 60
g- Zeit in inut
Figure 8-6. Variations in the human pulse rate under the influence of air ions at 25° Croom tempera-
true (average value for 24 persons and 177 measurements), after Varga (l968a,b).
Key: a-Ions switched on; b-Ions switched off; c-Pulse rate at room temperature = 25°C; d-Control;
e- Test; f- Ions; g- Time in min .
tion" (Lacey, 1956; Frey and Granada, cosmic dilemma. Proffering levels of expla-
1962; Wehner, 1962) concept, but it is gen- nation inappropriate to the nature of the
erally alluded to in the discussion section of phenomenon ultimately reduces the value
a published paper; proferred as an ad hoc of the original information gained. For in-
explanation. Rarely is an experimental pro- stance, that DDT effectively kills an iso-
gram undertaken where the determination lated creature is known. However, over
of "tonus" becomes a design characteristic time, the species develops a genetic toler-
for testing the main hypotheses-Charry's ance or immunity to the chemical which
(1976) air ion work with lability scale deter- means that the annihilant, operating in a
mination is a notable exception. Yet an un- larger system, loses its potency. That is,
derstanding of ion related phenomena de- when transposed from a microsystem to a
mand such treatment. macrosystem, the information is in effect
stripped of its explanatory status.
Hippocrates and other Greek practi-
tioners noted this long ago, as did Petersen
Final Remarks more recently (1934-1938) in his pro-
digious works, The Patient and the
As mentioned at the outset, the field of Weather. Their observation and recording
small air ions is exceedingly complex. At of meteorologic phenomena as part of their
least three systems in interface are being medical program demonstrates the concep-
studied: electrostatic, biochemical and psy- tion of health and sickness as a dynamic in-
chological. A focus on this complexity is teraction between the individual (the micro)
essential and will serve to: and his environmental (macro) systems. In-
(1) remind researchers that knowledge of terestingly, this holistic outlook generally
a segment offunction is only a partial, how- prevailed until the late 1800s when Pasteur
ever significant, level of understanding. The and Koch recognized the nature of infec-
wedge of information must be reinserted tious microorganisms. This monumental
into the whole operational system in order medical discovery ironically had the un-
to not violate or undermine its nature; foreseen consequence of effectively limit-
(2) establish criteria for nominative or ing the study of disease to laboratory phe-
descriptive, ordinal, interval and ratio ex- nomena, independent of its human host.
planations so that levels of understanding And though modern medicine has convinc-
may be made explicit. Laws for the trafts- ingly claimed its greatest triumphs pursuant
formation of information may be adduced to the latter model (many physicians will
thereby discouraging naive reductionism; never see a case of typhoid fever, diphthe-
(3) make the limits of knowledge discrim- ria, tuberculosis, or polio), modern man
inable whereby what needs to be known is may be suffering his greatest ills. Because
readily defined. The course of future re- of the technique inherent in the model, the
search is likewise directed. In short, to see isomorphism between the level of explana-
the whole allows for knowledgable pursuit tion achieved and the ends to which that in-
of the pieces wherein the map is not mistak- formation is applied has become mini-
en for the territory mapped, the content of a mized, making the original findings of
message not interpreted by an analysis of diminished operational value. Though the
its ink. remarkable efficacy of serum and vaccine
Much of the seemingly paradoxical out- treatment should not be underestimated,
comes of ion research no doubt could be the conception of illness as an entity isola-
reduced by adherence to such a perspec- table from the milieu in which it operates,
tive, keeping the overall context of the or- confounding variables and all, reduces the
ganism in mind. In this vein, ion studies phenomenon of man to a passive model. It is
represent a microcosmic view of a macro- doubtful that the cancers, the colitises, the
Final Remarks 175
psychoses are the manifestations of in- course, the presence of the first living or-
vasion by solitary infectious agents in- ganisms also altered that milieu, but now
dependent of their host's status. the change is millions of orders of magni-
Such analytical errors are responsible in tude greater. The microclimate is no long-
large part for our environmental deterio- er targeted for change. Rather the climate
ration. No soothsaying about dwindling for macroevolution is. Air quality is being
natural resources will be recited. But it will altered on a grand scale. Worldwide, and
be observed that such occurrences are the perhaps for all times, societies not cog-
logical indictment of a reductionistic view nizant of the technology required to effect
that exceeds the limits of its applicability. such dramatic change are nonetheless being
Vis-a-vis air ions: charged molecules are a affected by it. There is no doubt that small
part of normal, healthy air, though their air ions are severely, if not totally, absent in
function in the total environment is not polluted, sulfur dioxide- and acid-laden air.
known. However, life did evolve in a ma- This loss in air ions may be a significant en-
trix of ionized air, and that chemical and vironmental factor affecting health.
electrostatic milieu has been altered. Of
9
B iometeorology
The subject of biometeorology has been and motions in the atmosphere and all natu-
touched upon repeatedly during the discus- ral and vital processes in general are ac-
sion of atmospheric electric currents and companied by electric or electromagnetic
electric and electromagnetic fields in pre- phenomena. The utilization of these phe-
vious chapters. It would seem appropriate, nomena as diagnostic tools in medicine
therefore, to survey this branch of the envi- (ECG, EEG) and meteorology (atmospher-
ronmental sciences from a meteorologic ics) is based on this principle. The special
perspective. science of electro-biometeorology, on the
other hand, is concerned with the actions of
such phenomena on living organisms (cf.
Tromp, 1968, and Chapters 4-8).
Meteorologic Aspects·
Meteorologic elements, such as tempera-

ture, humidity, wind and infrared radiation History of Biometeorology
from the atmosphere (counter-radiation), Perhaps the most famous explorer-scientist
are also a part of man's invisible environ- of the 19th century, Alexander von Hum-
ment. These elements differ from most
boldt (1769-1859), who journeyed exten-
electric and magnetic phenomena, howev-
sively in Central and South America, gave
er, in that man can more or less consciously the following definition in his comprehen-
perceive them via the senses. sive work on the natural sciences, Cosmos
But if one considers such a striking spec- (Volume I, 1845):
tacle as a thunderstorm, it becomes clear
how closely linked the other meteorologic The term "climate" in the most general
elements are with electricity and magnet- sense refers to all changes in the atmo-
ism. It can be said, in fact, that all processes sphere which have a perceptible influ-
ence on our organs, namely, tempera-
*This portion of chapter 9 was contributed by W. ture, humidity, variations of barometric
Sonning pressure, wind, the magnitude of the
Meteorologic Aspects 177
electrical voltage, the purity of the at- dance of bioclimatic and geomedical rela-
mosphere or its contamination by more tionships, which correspond in essence
or less noxious gaseous exhalations ... with the approaches and goals of modem
bioclimatology. Noteworthy in this regard
He further speaks of the "habitual trans- is Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) and his text
parency and clarity of the sky," which not On Airs, Waters and Places, as well as the
only determines the radiation balance at the Roman physician Galen (129-199 A.D.),
earth's surface and the "organic develop- who recommended climatic cures analo-
ment of plants and the maturation of gous to modem climatotherapy. After
fruits," but is also important for "the feel- studying the ancient writings, von Philips-
ings of man and his overall mood." born (1949) comes to the conclusion that "a
This definition of climate shows that close cooperation existed among the physi-
modem climatology has its roots in a cians, meteorologists and astronomers of
biometeorologic way of thinking. The im- ancient Greece which has remained un-
portance that Humboldt ascribed to atmo- equaled even to the present."
spheric electric phenomena is revealed else- Following a sporadic history during the
where in Cosmos, when he speaks of the Middle Ages and subsequent periods, the
problems of atmospheric electricity in its science of biometeorology experienced an
"quiet, periodic, daily course" and of the upswing in Europe and the United States
"explosions of the flashing, roaring thun- around the tum of the century owing to
derstorm." He describes electricity as a improved techniques of measurement and
phenomenon that is closely linked to the meteorologic analysis. As advances were
behavior of the other meteorologic and made in the natural and biologic sciences,
geophysical elements, and which "has a the various branches of biometeorology
profound influence on the entire plant and also progressed (effects of atmospheric
animal world"-not only through mete- electricity, radiation, radioactivity, aero-
orologic processes, but also directly as a sols, etc., on living organisms). A detailed
"force which stimulates the nerves or discussion of the history of biometeorology
promotes the circulation of sap." Such is given by Snorrason (1964) and Assmann
statements, made almost 150 years ago, (1963), among others.
could still serve as a working program for A number of bioclimatic research centers
research into the invisible environment of were founded in Germany in the early
man. The fundamental problems of biome- 1930s. They provided a basis for diverse
teorologic research, which are repeatedly biometeorologic activity, which continued
expressed in modem works and have yet to after the Second World War and into the
be resolved, were also addressed by Hum- 1960s in the form of various medical-me-
boldt with the following words: teorologic research groups. Medical-me-
teorologic and bioclimatologic research and
The meteorological part of nature's advisory centers in the Germanys are at
tapestry shows that all processes in-
present supported by the national weather
volved in the absorption of light, the
liberation of heat, . .. the hygrometric services: the German Weather Service
situation and electrical voltage... are (West Germany) and the Meteorologic and
so closely interrelated that any single Hydrologic Service of the GDR. The situa-
meteorological process is modified by tion is similar in other countries, i.e., U.S.
all other concomitant processes ... Weather Service in USA. Biometeorology
was promoted in general by the founding of
Looking back even farther into history, research institutes for the various branches,
we find that the famous physicians of an- such as medical climatology, tropical and
cient Greece and Rome described an abun- high-altitude climatology, atmospheric
178 Biometeorology
electric research, aerosol research, agricul- teorologic research from a meteorologic

tural and forestry meteorology, etc. The perspective.
growing interest in these problems led final- Though the question of the effects of
ly to the founding of the International Soci- weather, atmospheric conditions and cli-
ety of Biometeorology (lSB) in 1956. It is mate on organisms has been discussed for
active in all aspects of meteorologic, bio- many centuries, it appears that man's sensi-
logic, medical and agricultural research, tivity to the atmospheric environment has
and has lately become involved in the archi- been increasing in recent times. Contem-
tectural and engineering sciences as well. porary man is apparently growing increas-
The principal goal of the ISB is to stimu- ingly "allergic" to weather stresses. Based
late, promote and organize interdisciplinary on extensive demoscopic surveys, Faust
scientific cooperation (cf. Haufe, 1976). An (1977) considers it probable that about 30%
important aid in this process is the Jnterna- ofthe population of Central Europe experi-
tional Journal of Biometeorology (Amster- ences a disturbance of well-being due to
dam), together with other journals that are weather. Ranscht-Froemsdorff (1976) ob-
published by ISB research groups whenev- tained the following figures based on 8
er international congresses are convened. years of advisory service: 60%-70% of the
Biometeorology is also represented in the persons observed are not meteorosensitive,
World Meteorologic Organization (WMO, about 30-35% are "sensitive" and 3%-5%
headquartered in Geneva) primarily by the "hypersensitive." The percentages are
Commission for Special Application of Me- probably similar in the United States. Both
teorology and Climatology (COSAMC). authors make a distinction between "me-
teorosensitivity" and "hypermeteorosensi-
tivity." The former condition involves an
Definition of Biometeorology increased overall responsiveness of the or-
ganism to environmental stimuli and is
After various suggestions, the members of manifested in transitory subjective com-
the ISB adopted the following definition plaints, such as tiredness, headache, scar
and classification of biometeorology (cf. pain, sleep disturbances or a depressed
Tromp, 1974), which is quoted in part mood: that is, in disturbances of autonomic
because of its general importance. function. By contrast, hyperrneteorosensi-
tivity can be considered almost an illness.
Biometeorology comprises the study of
The impairment of the general state of
the direct and indirect effects (of an ir-
health in such cases is severe (intense phan-
regular, fluctuating or rhythmic nature)
of the physical, chemical and physico- tom limb pains, circulatory failure, respira-
chemical micro- and macro-environ- tory complaints, etc.).
ments of both the earth atmosphere, Weather, as a natural environmental
and of similar extra-terrestrial environ- stimulus, is not disease-producing in itself.
ments, on physico-chemical systems in This must be emphasized again and again.
general and on living organisms (plants, Weather-related complaints, rather, are a
animals and man) in particular. sign that the organism's response threshold
for exogenous influences has been lowered
as a result of disease, autonomic dystonia,
etc. This decrease of the range within which
Influence of the Atmospheric the organism is still capable of fully com-
Environment on Man pensating for meteorologic stimuli is close-
ly related to man's increasing alienation
We shall attempt to point out the most im- from his natural environment (living habits,
portant subjects and problems of biome- nutrition, etc.).
Problems of Biometeorologic effects. It should be possible, however, to

Research resolve these effects step by step into par-
tial causal relationships in special areas of
As a branch of the environmental sciences, medical meteorology (cf. Ungeheuer and
medical meteorology deals with the action KUgler, 1957; and Brezowsky, 1962).
(biotropism*) of the atmospheric environ-
ment on man. Thus the effort to understand
and clarify biotropism is truly a problem of M eterologic Impact
interdisciplinary research (including bio-
tropic effects in plants and animals). The overall climatic or meteorologic impact
The measurable expressions of organic at a given location or in an area has been
processes are in a general sense only in- divided into various complexes that act
dicators of the total complex of biologic ac- specifically on the organism (cf. Becker,
tivity. In the same way, the total "weather" 1962).
can be quantitatively grasped neither by Thermal complex. The thermal complex
direct measurement nor by the computa- encompasses all individual factors that in-
tional treatment of measured meteorologic fluence the thermoregulation of organisms
variables. Information on the behavior of ultimately through the addition or removal
this overall complex "weather"-in medi- of heat: air temperature, short- and long-
cal meteorology it is also called "meteor- wave radiation, wind and air humidity. The
ologic impact"-can likewise be obtained duration of action of these elements ranges
only in an approximate manner, through the from climatologic time periods of many
use of suitable indicators. Owing to the in- years or decades, to seasonal fluctuations,
terrelationship of meteorologic elements, to the application of hot or cold stimuli by
almost any can be used as an indicator of the atmosphere on an hourly basis. Even
common behavior in fairly good approxi- temperature fluctuations on a time scale of
mation. minutes and seconds are being investigated
The notion of the existence of a single for their bioclimatic significance (J en-
biotropic factor that governs biome- dritzky, 1978b). Among the complexes of
teorologic relations is difficult to reconcile atmospheric effects, the thermal complex
with the complexity of atmospheric and plays a central role (cf. Hensel, 1973, for
biologic systems. To be sure, the ever- example). The level of organization of an
changing physiologic quantities of the at- organism's thermoregulatory systems is the
mosphere, such as temperature, humidity very trait by which the differentiation be-
and pressure, are amenable to precise tween a "higher" or "lower" form of life is
measurement individually and in certain made. In the area of physiotherapy and bal-
combinations; but all previous studies neology, the use of hot and cold stimuli,
directed toward identifying one of the mete- applied for the correct duration and at the
orologic parameters (temperature, air pres- proper temperature, can evoke profound
sure, etc.) as the dominant biotropic factor autonomic changes in patients. This
have led essentially to a negative result. suggests that the thermal stimuli with which
The biotropism of atmospheric phenomena the atmosphere "treats" man on various
thus involves a combination of interrelated time scales can also produce strong reac-
tions.
*Biotropism (from the Greek: bios = life, trope = a For a long time, therefore, efforts have
turn, turning) refers to the action of meteorologic phe- been made to arrive at an objective repre-
nomena on biologic systems. Meteorotropism refers to
the ability of organisms to be influenced by the atmo-
sentation of the thermal sensation and thus
spheric environment. Thus, one speaks of "biotropic at a quantitative evaluation of man's ther-
weather," but "meteorotropic diseases." mal environment. In the United States in
180 Biometeorology
particular, various index numbers and bio- gas mixture of natural components, and on
meteorologic indices have been developed the other as a colloidal system of solid, liq-
for this purpose (cf. Givoni, 1974; Wenzel, uid or gaseous impurities of both natural
1975; and Fanger, 1970; among others). and anthropogenic origin. These include
Jendritzky et al. (1977) recently succeeded vehicular, industrial and household emis-
in devising a method for the thermal evalua- sions, and to a lesser extent such natural
tion of man's environment under any out- contaminants as dust, pollen and volcanic
door conditions, via Fanger's (1970) "pre- exhalations. These factors, which are mea-
dicted mean value" (PMV). This was done sured in terms of concentration and partial
by taking Fanger's original "comfort equa- pressure, not only act on the skin surface
tion" for optimizing an indoor climate and (cf. Swantes, 1977, for example), but are
expanding it into a simulation model by also absorbed by the mucous membranes of
parametrizing the ambient long- and short- the respiratory tract, leading to effects on
wave radiation in terms of the mean radia- blood chemistry and cell metabolism. The
tion temperature (cf. also Jendritzky, 1977, chemical complex thus produces a number
1978a). of qualitatively diverse effects in the body,
Photoactinic complex. The photoactinic ranging from discomfort from dust or odors
complex includes the short-wave radiation to allergic reactions to toxic effects. The
from the sun (UV and visible light) along duration of action covers time scales from
with the terrestrial thermal radiation result- hours or days to many years. Consider, for
ing from it. The three components of this example, the short-term action of toxic sub-
complex, which have different biologic ac- stances in polluted air, or the lasting au-
tions, always occur together under natural tonomic changes produced by adaptation to
conditions, though in varying intensities high altitudes.
and proportions depending on the geo- The distribution of injurious substances
graphic situation, time of day or season. in the air is dependent on the lapse rate con-
They are further influenced by such purely ditions and on the intensity of the air flow,
meteorologic factors as cloudiness and at- that is, on the horizontal and vertical
mospheric turbidity. Most of the energy of exchange of air in the atmosphere near the
the short-wave radiation lies at wave- ground. These questions are dealt with by
lengths of 0.3-4 pm, with a maximum at micrometeorology and industrial climatol-
0.55 J,Lm. The terrestrial radiation ranges ogy, on which<an immense volume of data
from 6 to 60 pm, with a maximum at 15 J,Lm has been published.
(see also Chapter 2). There is also much interest in the favor-
The factors in this complex act via the able and possibly therapeutic effects of cer-
visual sense and cutaneous system to pro- tain trace materials in the atmosphere. In
duce photochemical reactions within the climatotherapy, for example, the iodine and
body, while the autonomic nervous system salt in sea air and the essential oils in sylvan
simultaneously responds to the long- and air are regarded as "curative agents." In
short-wave radiation. As the most impor- electro-aerosol therapy, medicinal solu-
tant geophysical "master clock" with its tions suspended in air are given an electric
discrete daily and seasonal rhythms, this charge in order to make them more respira-
complex controls highly organized ble (see Chapters 4-8). The decrease in the
sequences of biologic functions (see partial pressure of the gaseous constituents
below). It thus plays a major role in clima- of air with increasing altitude (alpine
totherapy (heliotherapy) and in physical regions) is another highly effective thera-
medicine, as is documented by the medical peutic factor-a subject which is dealt with
literature. in high-altitude physiology.
Chemical complex. The atmosphere is The three complexes discussed so far can
regarded on the one hand as a permanent be understood quantitatively as partial
causative factors (see above) according to ionization of the air, for example; see
their meteorologic and geophysical origin. Chapter 8). A detailed survey of the daily
It appears certain that a direct chain of ac- and annual rhythmic behavior of each of
tion exists between these factors and bio- the factors in the four complexes was com-
logic reactions. For example, there is little piled by Becker (1962). It should be noted,
question that the UV component of solar however, that the sum of the individual ef-
radiation is the cause of erythema of the fects of the biotropic factors and complexes
skin, or that a high level of heat in the air is does not yet explain the total effect (cf.
the factor that initiates sweat secretion. An Brezowsky, 1965). The dilemma is that this
intensity-dependent dose-effect rela- total effect has been statistically demon-
tionship is also known in most cases (PMV strated for many biologic responses with
value, exposure time in heliotherapy, limits the aid of medical-meteorologic working
for toxic effects of air impurities, etc.). hypotheses.
However, little is known as yet about the
continuous sequence of physiologic pro-
cesses that occurs in response to environ- Methods of Medical-meteorologic
mental stimuli. Analysis
Neurotropic complex. The neurotropic
complex includes all processes of atmo- Since the Second World War, it has been
spheric dynamics that surround man in the the task of medical meteorology in Ger-
form of weather. * The meteorologic bases many to develop a working hypothesis
of its analysis are charts of wind, pressure, based on previous concepts and to con-
temperature and humidity distribution in tinually review and revise that hypothesis
the upper layers of the atmosphere and at in the light of biologic observations (see the
ground level, as well as reports on cloud biblography of Weihe and Brezowsky,
cover, precipitation and other weather phe- 1963). Individual research groups, working
nomena, as provided by national weather separately, have developed meteorologic
services. All synoptic meteorologic vari- working methods that provide a basis for
ables are utilized in this analysis, provided comparing meteorologic phenomena with
they make suitable indicators for describing biologic data. It is noteworthy, according to
the weather situation and the dynamic state Brezowsky (1962), that they all arrived at
of the atmosphere. These may include the same conclusions, even though their in-
such parameters as the ozone partial pres- vestigations were conducted independently
sure at the ground, air-pressure oscillations in such diverse landscape climates as Ham-
or atmospheric electric variables, whose burg in Northern Germany (Kuhnke and
function as an excellent indicator of atmo- Zink, 1950), Konigstein (near Frankfurt)
spheric processes is known (see Chapter 2). in Central Germany (Becker, 1955), TUb-
An orientational survey of the biotropic ingen (Daubert, 1958) and Bad TOlz (near
factors and complexes in the atmospheric Munich) both in Southern Germany
environment is presented in Table 9-1. The (Ungeheuer, 1955).
lower portion of the table also shows two The main question was whether a
nonmeteorologic factors, radioactivity and nonrandom connection could be found be-
cosmic radiation, because their biotropic tween biologic events and simultaneous
action is modified by the atmosphere or weather phenomena in all the landscape
transmitted to biologic objects (through climates of central Europe. This did not
preclude the possibility that biotropism
might vary in both magnitude and form
*The description of a complex as "neurotropic" under different climatic conditions. Implicit
arose from the concept that the factors contained in it
act on the human body by way of the nervous system in this question was the further question,
(Pfleiderer, 1952). whether biotropism is manifested in every
Table 9-1. Biotropic factors in the atmospheric em'ironment. *
Quantitative Detection of
Stimulating factor Individual elements parameters biological action Complex of effects
Cooling, Sensible heat of the air Temperature, partial Thermal sensation Thermal
heating Moisture content of the air pressure, relative (comfort,
Wind humidity, velocity, discomfort)
Long-wave ambient radiated power
radiation (including sky)
Radiation: UV radiation, Radiated power Dose (frequency-and Photoactinic
short wave (0.3-4 JLm) visible light, amplitude-dependant
long wave (6-60 JLm) infrared radiation action of heat),
psychological effects
Natural and Solid, liquid Mass, concentration, Dose, limiting Chemical
anthropogenou s and gaseous partial pressure values
constituents of the air substances
Atmospheric Dynamic processes Synoptic charts, Statistical Neurotropic
processes and thermodynamics diagrams, numerical correlation
of the atmosphere meteorological
analysis
Distribution of
winds, pressure,
temperature and
humidity aloft
Metereological
elements at the
ground
Types of air masses
Air-pressure Air-pressure Pressure (amplitude Statistical correlation, Neurotropic,

oscillations change and frequency dose, action geophysical,
(short-term) distribution) characteristic astrophysical
Atmospherics (ELF, Electricity, Frequency,
ULF), atmospheric magnetism radiated power,
electric field, field intensity.
air ionization electrical charge
Radioacti vi ty , Corpuscular Intensity, frequency,
cosmic radiation radiation, X-rays physical action
*Factors shown below the double horizontal line would be assigned to a "tellurian" (or geophysical) and a "cosmic" (or astrophysical) complex of effects.
Dn'N41 C PROCESSES
, : at.ab l e UIJ.l inq
G•
~ : .ubtl"oplc., l ....
<? : un.ubl.
~ : Mqh re.chS.nq <ur:ou "m«l
, . . : una t.a Ie condi 10n. 1ft
9 1"ound LAY4'r
~ I down ,lopln9
.. : lIuba1dence
h .I . : A.lentlC1.1hrl .
: C~lont.bu8
: ~ul\a
: $ tr-a t.ocuatUlu.
~
preclpl utl on
Figure 9-1. The Konigstein medical-meteorologic weather scheme. The drawing shows the surface
and vertical sections of an "ideal cyclone" together with the major dynamic processes and the
progress of certain weather elements (clouds, air pressure, wind, temperature).
biologic process to one degree or another, ward component. The resultant adiabatic
or only in pathologic phenomena.
cooling leads to the condensation of water
The Konigstein scheme. Becker (1956) vapor in the air and thus to cloud formation
developed in Konigstein (West Germany) a and precipitation. Ascent occurs mainly
method for the precise hour-by-hour analy- when warm, usually moist SUbtropical air at
sis of meteorologic developments in a graph the leading edge of a low advances from a
called the "bioclimogram." His scheme is
southerly to a westerly direction (in the
based on the "ideal cyclone" of Bjerknes
Northern Hemisphere). Stable or sub-
(I 862-1951), which is shown in Fig. 9-1 in
tropical ascent takes place initially in the
highly-simplified surface and vertical cross-
higher tropospheric layers, but changes to
sections together with the associated pro-
unstable ascent during the approach of the
cesses of atmospheric dynamics and the
warm front and in its immediate vicinity.
major cloud forms and meteorologic ele-
ments. When the advection of subtropical air
takes place aloft, characteristic, high cirrus
A basic distinction is made between
clouds (fine, wispy structure) are observed
cyclonic weather processes, marked by as-
at first; these gradually thicken into cirro-
cending flow, atmospheric turbulence and
stratus, until lower cloud layers (altostratus,
frontal processes, and anticyclonic process- nimbostratus) appear with the approach of
es, characterized by descending flow and
the warm front. Gradually, precipitation in
subsidence. Ascent occurs when the flow
the form of drizzle, light rain or snow
processes in the atmosphere have an up-
begins, which may persist and intensify.
184 Biometeorology
In the warm sector itself, stable ascend- with the boundary regions of a high. Like
ing or descending flow prevails. Condensa- subsidence, it leads to a drying and warm-
tion processes are confined to flat layers, ing of the air and is also known as "free
resulting.in less dense cloud formations (al- foehn." If the descent is strong enough,
tocumulus, stratocumulus) but seldom lead- typical foehn clouds (altocumulus len-
ing to precipitation. Stable or unstable as- ticularis) sometimes form. The sky appears
cent may also take place within the same air deep blue because of the dryness of upper
mass, and can therefore occur indepen- air layers. Unlike the situation at the center
dently of frontal processes. of the high, sufficient horizontal air motion
Turbulence exchange occurs if the ver- is present near the ground to prevent haz-
tical upward or downward component of ardous fog or smog conditions.
flow exceeds the horizontal component. In A table was compiled according to this
this case water vapor condenses out of the scheme showing the meteorotropism of
rising air, and the freed heat of vaporization different diseases, health disturbances and
imparts an additional acceleration to the acute phenomena, such as infarcts, strokes
rising parcels of air. This usually occurs in and deaths, as a function of individual
the region of a cold front, due to the high- weather processes. It was possible to group
reaching unstable conditions there, and in meteorotropic reactions into those as-
the immediate rear of it. But the unstable sociated with warm-air processes at the ad-
conditions are soon confined to the lower vancing edge of lows (hypotonic reaction
layers of the atmosphere, because the type) and those associated with cold advec-
inflowing cold air is quickly stabilized by tion in the region of a cold front and its
subsidence processes aloft. trailing edge (spastic-hypertonic reaction
Cumulus clouds are typical of unstable type). Between these groups was a broad
conditions of this sort. If the instability ex- range of mixed types (cf. Becker and
tends to high levels, these clouds may build Stroder, 1962) as Fig. 9-2 shows.
up into large thunderclouds (cumulonim- Similar methods were employed by the
bus), resulting in showery precipitation research groups in Hamburg and Tiibingen,
in the form of rain, sleet, snow or hail. where weather developments were simi-
Subsidence is the characteristic process larly classified in terms of general mete-
in the region of the anticyclone. Here the orologic situation, air masses, radiation pa-
downward component of air motion ex- rameters at the ground and dynamic daily
ceeds the horizontal flow velocity. One weather types. Essentially the same phases
result of this is that little or no wind is ob- of biotropic effects were found in these
served in the central region of a high. The studies (cf. also Brezowsky and Grim-
adiabatic heating that accompanies sub- meisen, 1967; Daubert, 1958; Kuhnke and
sidence leads to cloud dissipation. Sub- Zink, 1950).
sidence inversions (layers with a vertical Common to all these techniques is their
temperature inversion) develop at various focus on the dynamic physical processes in
levels and retard or completely prevent ver- the atmosphere up to about the level of the
tical mixing. Persistent fog or stratus can tropopause (6000-8000 m), employing the
occur in the stagnant air near the ground, concepts of synoptic meteorology. Process-
especially in the fall. If atmospheric pollu- es aloft were presumed to be the principal
tants are added to this over industrial or origin of biotropic effects. It is interesting
heavily populated areas, conditions are that several studies, especially by the Tiib-
ideal for smog formation. ingen group, provide evidence of this, as
Descending flow occurs when the air well as support for the theory that the au-
moving aloft possesses a downward com- tonomic nervous system is the "point of at-
ponent. This process is associated mainly tack" of the meteorologic impact. How-
AIR MASSES
WEATHER PROCESS ,.
• / <1
warm I mixed I cold
wf <1 oc cf ~ ,.
Psychopathy
•
••
Excitabi Iity 0
Schizophrenia 0
•
•• •
Psychic Depression 0 0
Hypoton ic Collapse 0 +
Neurosis 0 0
Suicide
Cold 0
0
+
0
•
0
X
Inflammatory Processes
Pneumonia 0
• 0 X
Appendicitis X X X X X
Bronchitis 0 0
Bleeding
Thrombosis
•
X
• ••
0
0
X
X
Glaucoma X 0 X
• ••
X
Accident Proneness + 0 0 +
•
X X
Subjective Complaints 0 0
Hea rt
Embolism
Infarct + 0
+
• •••
0
•• 0
0
0
0
X +
••
X X X
Depth of Sleep
Spastic Complaints 0
• •
0 +
X
+
Migraine Headaches X X 0 X
Headaches 0 0 0 0 0
•• • • •
X
General Aches and Pains X X
Reaction Time X + 0 +
Decompensation of Heart
Premature B i rt h
+
X
• • 0
+
•••
Heart Failure (Death) X 0 0 X
Perforation ot the Stomach 0 0 0
Diabetes x
Rheumatoid Arthrit is 0 0 0
Apoplexy
Epilepsy
X X
• 0
0
• ••
X
Colic 0 X
Ang i na Pectori s + + x
Figure 9-2. Meteorotropic diseases (summary derived from Becker and Stroeder, 1962). For sym-
bols for weather processes see Fig. 9-1. The symbols for the statistical correlation between the
listed diseases and weatherprocesses are as follows:
• = positive correlation at high significance level; 0 = significant positive correlation; X = trend of
positive correlation; + = significant favorable influence.
Note: the list is derived under the climatic environment and health conditions of the people in Cen-
tral Europe in the years 1945-1965.
186 Biometeorology
ever, the causal sequence of effects linking more dynamic direction, in that henceforth
weather processes regarded as biotropic the temporal structures of meteorologic el-
with the reactions of the autonomic nerv- ments were also recognized as having a bio-
ous system remains a mystery. The "trans- tropic value.
mitter" of the effects also remains undeter- The disturbance of the basic pattern of
mined although even then, as now, atmo- daily meteorologic rhythms is caused by
spherics were often discussed as a possibil- the horizontal and vertical air motions that
ity (cf. Chapter 2). are a consequence of atmospheric dynam-
TOlz weather-phase scheme. Re- ics. A stationary observer witnessing the
searchers in TOlz attempted to resolve successive passing of a high and a low will
these fundamental questions with an essen- note phases with a weaker and stronger ad-
tially different approach: by applying bio- vection of outside air masses. These
logically oriented standards to the clas- weather phases are illustrated in Fig. 9-1.
sification of meteorologic activity (Unge- Ideally the intensity of advection will show
heuer, 1955). These standards were a sinusoidal variation with time, while the
derived mainly from the results of medical autochthonous component of local weather
biorhythm research then available. The follows an opposite sinusoidal pattern.
basic idea was that the undisturbed daily Ungeheuer (1957) divided this process,
and yearly periodicity of meteorologic ele- with deliberate simplification, into six
ments associated with solar radiation acted weather phases (Fig. 9-3).
as a "master clock" for the corresponding The connection between this and the
endogenous rhythms of the body. A distur- Konigstein scheme is apparent (see Fig.
bance of the normal (autochthonous) mete- 9-1; cf. also Sonning, 1974). Besides the
orologic periodicity by aperiodic weather characteristic behavior of many meteor-
developments would thus represent a ologic elements in each phase, a quantity
change demanding adaptation by the organ- combining temperature and humidity-the
ism. These changes could be long-term, so-called temperature-humidity environ-
leading to acclimatization, or short-term ment (THE)-in the ground layer pro-
(weather), evoking adaptive responses vides a very sensitive index of advective
which mean increased stress for the organ- processes of every kind. Attempts were
ism. Thus, several assumptions were made made to use this objective index as a basis
(cf. Brezowsky, 1965): for differentiating between biologically fa-
vorable and unfavorable weather phases
1. Adaptation is brought about by an (Ungeheuer and Brezowsky, 1965). The
aperiodic meteorologic process. lower portion of Fig. 9-3 shows the varia-
2. This process cannot be represented by a tion of the mean intensity of biotropic stim-
single biotropic factor, but must be uli for the favorable and unfavorable ranges
regarded as a summation effect. as a function of phases 1-6. It is seen that a
3. The "meteorological impact" involves favorable ("euphoric") effect is present
all elements and factors that can be (phases 1 and 2) when the daily periodicity
monitored in the biosphere by measure- of the meteorologic elements again be-
ment. comes harmonized to the maximum degree
following the disturbed phases, and can
With the aid of this working hypothesis, thus fulfill its master-clock role for the or-
it was possible to compare not only mete- ganism. In this case the organism is, to put
orologic and biologic events themselves, but it simply, in phase with the meteorologic
also their patterns of progression. This environment. The situation extending from
meant a broadening of the traditional static the middle of phase 3 to phase 6 is biologi-
view (which is still held in most cases) in a cally unfavorable, on the other hand.
Phases of Weather 1 2 3 4 5 6
medium increased exceeded preparinq weather- calming of
Characteristics
•
weather change change weather
fin e weather
----.. ~ ~~ ~r
""-
Dynamic processes
,til ~ A> /lo
V ----
r-
--- ""--- "---
~ .~
~ --- ---
Portion of
...:r-o'('o /'
Advection and 0°'<'
-..,,'C
/' "--- '-...
V
/'
24-hour-term
~t----.-.
'Z-I./o //
in local Weather
~~t~o /'
"'--...'f"J°lJ.s /'
-
/'
""-----...
--- -----
I
Biosphere cold side warm side cold side
Temperature cool mild mild - warm warm warm warm cold cold - cool
Humidity -
Emvironment (THE) dry dry very dry humid dry humid dry
ill
H
~~
Intensi ty of
V
.Q
stronq
~
biotropic stimuli "
0 moderate
E
---...---=::=:- ~
weak
§ -- --
ill
---- ----
~
">
0
.::
..
F'.,gUThe 9-3. !~e Tolz weather-phase scheme. The ideal weather sequence at temperate latitudes in
SIX c aractenstIc weather phases.
Biotropic Balance* syndromes, it was further possible to find a

dependence of biotropic effects on the land-
scape climate, and thus to determine a
With the aid of the Tolz weather-phase
climatic biotropic balance, which acts in a
scheme and the temperature-humidity en-
specific sense to enhance or weaken the
vironment, the behavior of biologic sub-
jects under the influence of atmospheric en- biotropism of the weather. A daily and
vironmental parameters could be differen- seasonal biotropic balance could also be es-
tiated on a statistical basis during the tablished, as well as an individual balance
course of long-term investigations. A which depends upon reaction type. Summa~
pathogenetic biotropic balance was found tion of all components yielded the normal
first, describing the meteorotropic re- distribution of biotropism, or the total bal-
sponse of individuals with certain ance, shown in Fig. 9-3. This is the distribu-
clinical conditions-this agreed with the tion that is obtained on analysis of very ex-
results of the other three research groups. tensive space-, time-, disease- and man-
By investigating the spatial distribution of averaged groups (e.g., in mortality studies
the meteorotropism of equivalent clinical based on the records of statistical bureaus).
It may be that these findings, obtained by
relatively simple means, are in need of bet-
*Transiator's note: The "biotropic balance" is a ter substantiation in many cases, or that
graphic representation of the quality and intensity of
biotropic effects with respect to some parameter (such
they will be modified by future research.
as climate, disease, season, individual reaction type, However, this cannot be the only valid
etc.). standard for judgment. It is highly probable
188 Biometeorology
that these results are indeed useful, first is a valuable tool in accident prevention (cf.
because the studies of the various medical- Reinke, 1977).
meteorologic research groups in Germany However, the practical application of
during the 1950s and 1960s can be in- medical-meteorologic knowledge is still no
terpreted as a large-scale blind test (Bre- solution to the problem of the relationship
zowsky, 1962), and second because more of man to the atmosphere or, more general-
recent research in biorhythms and chrono- ly, of living organisms to the atmosphere.
biology appears to provide a rationale for More than ever before, progress in this di-
many of the statistical connections found rection can be made only through close co-
by meteorologists (Hildebrandt, 197 5b). operation on an interdisciplinary basis. The
Particular credence is lent the rhythmologic "meeting point," so to speak, is the skin
basis of the TOlz method, which may well surface of the organism. The meteorologist
prove important to the advancement of approaches the problem from the atmo-
medical-meteorologic research. sphere. The bioscientist (physician, physi-
ologist, biologist, etc.), on the other hand, is
interested in the sequences of effects that
Outlook are triggered by environmental stimuli in
the organism itself. He is concerned with
In tracing the sequence of biotropic effects causality and examines the thermal, actinic,
in man, the differentiated breakdown of biochemical and other physical environmental
tropism is nothing more (or less) than a factors that might be of importance individ-
methodologic starting point for further ually or in concert. Meteorologists and
medical-meteorologic research. However, bioscientists thus follow different paths, as
electronic data processing has made it pos- they must. It is little wonder, then, that
sible to expand previous statistical methods difficulties in communication sometimes
in this area on a multifactorial basis. It has arise, as when the biologist prefers to speak
also become possible to lift medical mete- of the thermal, actinic or chemical complex
orology out of traditional classification of effects, and the meteorologist of the
schemes and proceed experimentally, that neurotropic complex. But mutual assis-
is, search for the most rigorous correlations tance and suggestions are equally possible.
among the multiplicity of individual factors During the last to-15 years, biorhythm
(cf. Weihe, 1976). It will still be necessary, research has revealed not only circadian
of course, to find the correct meteorologic and circannual rhythms, but also a large
and biologic interpretations of events, again number of other rhythmic functions and
proceeding on the basis of working hypoth- complex interrelations in man. For ex-
eses. ample, Hildebrandt (1974, 1975b) speaks
Despite all the uncertainties in previous of a hierarchic, temporal organization in
medical-meteorologic findings, it must be man, whereby the rhythmic functional
pointed out that they have aided and con- order is harmonically structured. The
tinue to aid the practicing physician in the rhythms are also synchronized by external
selection of optimal therapies. For ex- "master clocks," which in tum are coupled
ample, meteorologic forecasts of the bio- to daily and annual geophysical rhythms in
tropic development of a weather situation the environment. Hildebrandt (1974) states
are helpful in the prescription of drug dos- explicitly, "This anchoring of the rhythmic
ages, in physical therapy, climatotherapy, order of the organism in the temporal order
dietetics, etc., or in the selection ofprophy- of the environment represents the basis of
lactic measures. It should also be noted that the entire rhythmic organization of man."
the prompt prediction of biotropic impair- He also refers in particular to man's reac-
ments of the working capacity, respon- tive periods (which are in tum made up of
siveness or mental state of healthy persons subintervals), whose significance next to
Electrophysical Aspects 189
the spontaneous rhythms (daily cycle, for nections between biologically active atmo-
example) has been increasingly discussed spheric electric or electromagnetic process-
in recent times. Interesting surveys of the es and classical meteorologic factors, such
typical periodicities of rhythmic human as air pressure, precipitation, humidity,
functions are also presented by Hil- cloudiness, temperature, wind and sun-
debrandt (1974, 1975b). Sinz (1978), more- shine. Tromp (1963) presents a survey of
over, has attempted to devise a scheme the seasonal and annual fluctuations of me-
showing correspondences between biologic teorologically determined electromagnetic
and geophysical (including meteorologic) processes in the atmosphere and their pos-
periodicities. sible biologic significance. Reiter (1960)
The concept of a hierarchic, temporal or- also dealt with this problem in detail. He
ganization in human physiologic processes supplemented the extensive literature in
could be readily applied to the fields of me- this area with a special consideration of the
teorology and geophysics, which can also problem of atmospheric electric variables
be interpreted as a kind of "physiology" (of as components of the bioclimate, and their
the terrestrial body). New insights into the significance with regard to the design of
extremely complex functional and rhythmic buildings, airconditioning systems, etc.
behavior of the (human) organism under- (Reiter, 1970). In the process, he analyzed
score the importance of the time factor in all relevant atmospheric elements in man's
the case of environmental stimuli, quite environment, such as fields, charge carriers
apart from the "material" effects of such and electromagnetic impulses of atmo-
meteorologic factors as heat, cold, aerosols, spheric origin, from the standpoint of possi-
UV radiation, etc. ble effect on biologic systems, with a nega-
We can appreciate how complex the tem- tive result.
poral structure of atmospheric phenomena Apparently Reiter (1973) revised this
as a whole must be when we consider that opinion later: "It could be clearly shown
besides the daily and annual rhythms im- that electric, magnetic and electromagnetic
posed by geophysical and cosmic factors, fields exert significant biological effects,
there are other characteristic sequences even at very low intensities." It is this
which we experience and characterize as statement that forms the thesis of the
weather and climate, and which are a par- present book. If one accepts such a possi-
ticular expression of the laws of atmo- bility-and based on the evidence presented,
spheric dynamics. There are, moreover, a any other position is no longer tenable
great many other less conspicuous periodi- -one must realize its implications. A
cities, rhythms and cycles of atmospheric number of electromagnetic processes in the
elements of all magnitudes in which an ob- atmosphere, which are in most cases linked
vious temporal order is at work. It may well in some way with weather, are measurable
account for the qualitative and quantitative and clearly demonstrable. It must be con-
variations (with time, location, individual cluded, therefore, that electric, magnetic,
and type of phenomenon) noted in the bio- electromagnetic and other atmospheric
tropic effects of atmospheric elements. electric phenomena are also responsible for
certain biologic reactions associated with
meteorosensitivity in man.
Electrophysical Aspects The electric field plays a particularly im-
portant role in the low-frequency range dur-
ing weather phenomena (which does not
Electro-biometeorology exclude magnetic processes, of course).
The physical measurement of electric field
One branch of biometeorology is con- fluctuations of several hertz (including
cerned specifically with studying the con- higher-frequency signals with pulse repeti-
190 Biometeorology
tion frequencies in the same range), which "weather complaints" (headache, heart
are observed under certain weather condi- trouble, nervousness, etc.). However, if
tions, and the complete atmospheric elec- weather conditions are such that all exter-
tric passivity seen under certain other nal atmospheric electric processes are
weather conditions (foehn, for example), largely screened out or absent (after the
combined with previous results of objective onset of foehn or under certain inversion
biologic studies, provide clear evidence of conditions), such persons will feel particu-
influences. larly well, because they have no need for
As mentioned earlier, it has been found this extra electric stimulation (Fig. 9-4).
that different persons react differently to Persons who possess too little "internal
such phenomena. It appears now that one stimulation," on the other hand, are reliant
of the main arguments against such specu- upon external stimulation from the environ-
lations offers a plausible explanation for the ment and, unlike the type described above,
differences in well-being of persons sub- will feel better in the presence of strong at-
jected to identical weather conditions. mospheric electric activity. Its absence will
Three points, closely interrelated in their result in "weather fatigue" and tiredness.
effects, may well be responsible for the There are, of course, various gradations
seemingly confusing phenomenon of me- between these extremes. According to
teorosensitivity: previous experience, a certain sensitization
also appears to be possible during the
1. Evolutionary theory implies that man course of time. This hypothesis is based
normally requires a certain exogenous upon numerous individual observations
stress, or "electromagnetic climate," in regarding typical reactions under certain
order to feel well. weather conditions (headache, oppressive
2. This stress associated with meteorologic feeling in the chest, nervousness, fatigue,
processes varies due to the extremely etc.). But the same subjective complaints
broad spectrum of field intensities. It were produced experimentally by the use of
can be too strong at times and too weak artificial fields, providing still further evi-
at other times. It is also frequency- dence of the connection between me-
dependent. teorosensitivity and atmospheric electric
3. It is certain that man responds to these fields.
external stimuli over an equally large
range of sensitivity, probably due to dif-
ferences in the predisposition of dif- ELF Fields
ferent individuals. Each person requires
his own optimal dose of external stimu- We shall introduce our discussion of some
lation, which can also vary as a function special biometeorologic contributions with
of time. an account of our own experiment, because
it must be regarded as highly characteristic
Thus we obtain a picture of how different in every respect. The experimental subject
persons are influenced by weather. It ap- was seated at a table on which was located
pears that the maintenance of normal cell a specially designed generator the size of
function requires a continuous external two cigar boxes stacked one on the other
stimulation, which is evidently provided by (Fig. 9-5). This generator set up an electric
even very low-level electromagnetic fields. field by means of a sheet-metal electrode,
Persons with an excess of "inner tension" about the size of the palm of the hand,
are overburdened by the additional stress mounted above it. The subject was about 1
imposed by external atmospheric electric m from the generator, but within the stray
processes (e.g., the approach of fronts or field of the two electrodes, which were
outbreaks of foehn) and react with typical about 20 cm apart. The subject not only felt
Eiectrophysicai Aspects 191
Figure 9-4. Iron crown used during the Middle ages as a votive crown and as a remedy for head-
aches. (Bavarian National Museum, Munich.) It is now known that such a device acts on the Faraday
cage principle to screen out disturbing atmospheric electric phenomena associated with "weather
complaints. "
the field, but also gave reports on subjective These findings are reason enough to insti-
well-being which varied with the field tute more exhaustive scientific investiga-
frequency-without being asked, without tions on a broad, statistical basis, for they
knowing when the field was altered, and could yield results of considerable impor-
without any knowledge of the possible ef- tance to the general pUblic.
fects. These reports agreed with the general
findings of other experimenters, as pre-
sented here. VLF Atmospherics
Interestingly, similar experimental re-
sults were reported by Leventhal (1970), Ranscht- Froemsdorff (1966a) also inves-
who exposed test subjects to purely me- tigated biometeorologic problems in detail.
chanical vibrations of the air. Kracmar He explored the effects of VLF atmospher-
(1962) also reports personality-specific re- ics (see also Chapter 6) and obtained
sults in experiments with ELF currents. He results which fit well into the theses pre-
performed RC measurements (resistive and sented here.
capacitive component of the impedance of Under certain weather conditions there
the human body) in order to investigate the exists a "zero situation," which is typically
varying responses of the subjects (stimula- observed under conditions of descent and
tion or blocking of the vagus and sympa- alpine foehn. The low pulse activity of the
thetic). As the frequency (ELF range) of atmospherics in such cases leads, according
the sawtooth current was varied, varying to Ranscht- Froemsdorff (1966a), to in-
impedance values were measured. creased incidences of (I) myocardial infarc-
192 Biometeorology
Figure 9-5. Small experimental device for generating an artificial electric field like that measured in
nature under certain weather conditions. The "flag" forms one electrode, while the box itself forms
the other.
tion or angina pectoris, (2) proneness to only in a few cases (disregarding specific
hemorrhage, (3) autonomic dystonia, (4) therapeutic applications).
allergic reactions. A higher pulse activity, The significance of electromagnetic en-
on the other hand, leads to (I) spasms, (2) ergies in the ELF and VLF ranges in
colic, (3) embolisms, (4) rheumatic and sim- biometeorologic problems was also recog-
ilar complaints. nized by Persinger (1973) (see also Chapter
Ranscht- Froemsdorff (1966b) also men- 4).
tions the possibility of designing dwellings
(e.g., a metal house) to screen out natural
atmospheric radiation in order to create an A tmospheric Electric Factors
artificial electric climate. However, such
structures should not be considered gener- The importance of air ionization in connec-
ally favorable because, as experience in- tion with biometeorologic problems was the
dicates, excessive shielding and too much principal concern of Sulman (1971 b). He
"artificial environment" are advantageous investigated the biologic effects of hot, dry
Electrophysical Aspects 193
desert air primarily in the Southeastern mentioned are considerably lower than
Mediterranean (Sharav in Israel) and found those employed in laboratory experiments
that the native population in particular suf- to which Sulman (1971 b, 1972) refers in
fers from such hot, dry winds. Sulman documenting the biologic activity of such
(1971 a,b) and Sulman et al. (1974) advance ionization conditions, this does not rule out
a biochemical explanation for the warm-air all connections between weather-related
stress, stating that the potassium excess complaints and special conditions of atmo-
that accompanies the water loss under such spheric ionization. Nevertheless, the prob-
conditions exerts a toxic action on the car- lem remains that certain foehn-type com-
diac muscle. This would account for the plaints occur even before the onset of the
specific susceptibility of cardiac patients foehn wind itself, and thus before any
under foehn weather conditions. Based on related changes in ionization conditions. It
various investigations, Sulman (1971 b) then becomes necessary to consider the
then formulated biochemical working hy- electromagnetic field energies emitted by
potheses and attempted to find a causal fronts and other meteorologic processes
relationship between all the reactions ob- when seeking the active factor.
served in the human body and the special Gualtierotti (1968) deals with the same
air-ionization situation that precedes a problem in great detail. Based on his own
weather change. The strong shift toward investigations and drawing on the interna-
positive ionization at such times is sus- tional literature, he confirms the impor-
pected of playing a particular role (see also tance of air ionization in connection with
Chapter 8). However, it is questionable questions of bioclimatology and biome-
whether these relationships found under teorology and in its application in the form
the climatic conditions of Israel can be gen- of aeroionotherapy. Mountain climates un-
eralized or applied to similar phenomena in doubtedly playa special role in this regard
other countries (e.g., the foehn at the (Gualtierotti, 1977).
northern foot of the Alps) due to the essen- A comprehensive body of material and
tially different bioclimatic conditions. extensive bibliography are presented by
Sulman (1972) points out in another Faust et al. (1977) on the problems of
paper that besides the marked change in biometeorology and their relation to synop-
such meteorologic data as air temperature tic meteorology. In agreement with earlier
and humidity, which is observed in the investigations, these authors hold that me-
presence of warm, foehn-like winds, there teorogenic fluctuations of well-being and
is a high level of negatively charged "haz- diseases associated with certain weather
ardous" ions combined with the simulta- conditions are not true "weather sickness":
neous occurrence of 1500 small ions/cm3 • weather effects are, rather, only an indica-
Although the natural ion concentrations tor of sites of diminished resistance.
10
The Divining Rod Phenomenon
This chapter is not intended to present a costly apparatus which was worth only a
full or even partial solution to the divining fraction of its purchase price and seldom
rod problem. Its primary purpose, rather, is delivered what was promised. If serious
to present a survey of the results of recent scientists did address themselves to this
investigations in this area as they pertain to problem, their actions were viewed with
electromagnetic fields. It is also hoped that suspicion.
a closer look at the question of the exis- Be that as it may, we shall attempt to
tence of "geopathogenic," or location- present a certain overview of what has been
dependent, effects will shed further light on learned from research into the dowsing
the factors underlying the volatile nature of problem by responsible scientists. This
this controversial subject. research has focused on two main areas:
The divining rod phenomenon has gener- 1. The divining rod phenomenon as
ally provoked an attitude of opposition on such; that is, the ability of certain persons,
the part of the scientific community. The called dowsers, to react to certain condi-
main reason for this is the behavior of many tions with a movement of the divining rod.
dowsers, who feel it necessary to advance a The question arises whether this movement
pseudoscientific rationale for their apis based on some external influences or
parently indisputable abilities. They have whether a more subjective reaction is in-
borrowed impressive-sounding terms from volved which cannot be objectified and is
classical science and physics without thus of no evidential value. A further ques-
clearly understanding them, and have used tion is whether the dowser represents a
them to explain the divining rod phenome- kind of detector that responds to certain
non. The reaction of the exact sciences to conditions, and how this response could be
this assault on their theses and nomencla- explained in physiologic terms.
ture, as well as their basic view of the 2. The other area of research pertains to
world, is hardly surprising. Dowsing was the question of what causes the movement
relegated to the realm of the occult or of the divining rod. Here the place where
ascribed to human foolishness. The situa- the reaction occurs appears to playa domi-
tion was not improved by the touting of "ra- nant role: namely, along narrow paths
diation neutralizing devices" and similar called "dowsing zones" or "crossings" (in-
Experimental Investigations 195
tersecting zones) on the earth's surface. doctor, physicist or biologist. The many
Normally the dowser will react with a par- facets of the problem are illustrated by the
ticular movement of his rod (or pendulum) fact that both physicists (Briiche, 1960) and
when he crosses such spots. This talent is physicians (Hartmann, 1967, 1976) have
an important one, because it supposedly en- dealt extensively with this phenomenon in
ables the dowser to locate underground recent years. Hartmann, drawing on de-
water as well as oil and gas deposits, which cades of experience, affirms the existence of
modem science is only occasionally able to such geopathogenic zones which can se-
do with a far greater technical effort. This verely impair human health. He is sup-
fact is made more problematic, if not more ported in this by Diehl and Tromp (1954),
significant, by medical and health-related who studied the geographic and geologic
aspects. Dowsers have always maintained distribution of cancer mortality in Holland.
that dowsing zones, and especially crossing These authors found a significant correla-
zones, give off "rays" which are injurious tion between cancer incidence and geologic
to health, particularly if persons spend a conditions.
great deal of time in such spots (place their
beds there, for example). Dowsers thus
speak of "geopathogenic zones" that affect
human health and well-being. If it is indeed Experimental Investigations
proven that places exist which have a long-
term pathogenic effect, then this is a prob- A large volume of observational data has
lem which clearly merits closer study in the been gathered to date on the phenomenon
interest of public health. of dowsing. Although these data are for the
For completeness, we should also men- most part based on individual case reports,
tion the practice of long-distance dowsing, which are important as such and have a cer-
or "teleradiesthesia." This refers to the tain statistical significance when viewed as
alleged ability of some dowsers to obtain in- a whole, they still leave much to be desired
formation over great distances with the aid from a purely scientific standpoint. And
of a rod or pendulum. If we look for possi- while it is true that some large-scale inves-
ble explanations of this phenomenon in the tigations have led to successful, generally
realm of classical physics, we must con- valid results, they do not meet strict scien-
clude that it involves the direct action of tific standards. But perhaps this was not in-
certain energies, and thus rays, on the prac- tended, for whatever reasons.
titioner, thereby lending credence to the
dowsers' claims. However, such explana-
tions are not applicable to phenomena sepa- Historical Review
rated by great distances, for then the radia-
tions present in one area can no longer ac- The divining rod problem should be re-
count for effects in the other area-es- solved with assistance from representatives
pecially if the propagation of such radia- of the classical sciences as well, for the
tions in the form of electromagnetic waves, results of previous investigations already
for example, can be ruled out. At this point have profound implications. What is meant
we again enter into the realm of para- by this? According to Hartmann (1973,
psychology and all its variations. But this is 1976) von Pohl reported on diseases as-
not the subject of the present discussions, sociated with "ground emanations" as
which must be limited to the two problems early as 1930. To prove this connection, he
mentioned earlier. conducted a search for underground water
The divining rod problem is, in any case, flows with a divining rod in various small
an extremely complex one which cannot towns in southern Germany. A comparison
possibly be judged, let alone solved, by a with cancer cases occurring in houses
196 The Divining Rod Phenomenon
located over these underground water cur- casionally raise objections which, while not
rents revealed astonishing connections be- belittling the general value of the studies
tween illness and subterranean influences. performed, should still be taken as a warn-
In 1934, Rambeau (1969) published similar ing that, due to deficiencies of scientific
results based on studies in villages. Instead method, these matters should not be
of a divining rod, however, he used geophy- regarded as conclusively resolved.
sical apparatus which were used at that Hartmann (1967, 1976) reports on stud-
time for the detection offractures and faults ies done in 1937 by Henrich and Dannert
in the earth (portable medium-frequency with a sawtooth-wave transmitter that emit-
transmitters and receivers for field-inten- ted low-intensity electric signals at frequen-
sity measurements). He concludes his re- cies of 1-10 Hz. It is reported that sponta-
search report with a remarkable statement: neous cancer was induced in mice when a
"We searched in our statistical study for a frequency of 1.8 Hz was administered.
house that was located on geologically un- When such fields were applied to humans, a
disturbed ground and was nevertheless oc- variety of sensations were produced at sig-
cupied (on a long-term basis) by persons nal frequencies from 1 to 20 Hz. One
suffering from cancer. Such a house was frequency range caused headaches, another
never found. " caused palpitations, while a third produced
Two main tasks emerge from our look at mild visual disturbances (measurements by
the divining rod problem. First, it is neces- the author confirm this). The studies were
sary to determine the extent to which there conducted because some dowsers ap-
are zones or points on the earth's surface parently reacted to such artificial electric
which playa role in connection with human fields with a turn of the divining rod, and a
disease, especially cancer, and what physi- connection was presumed to exist between
cal factors might be involved. Second, it is these low-frequency fields and the so-called
important that a better understanding be geopathogenic zones. .
gained of the dowsing phenomenon as such,
for this will allow inferences to be made
reagarding the properties of geopathogenic Biologic Effects in Dowsing Zones
zones.
The main purpose of this discussion is to Most dowsers believe that in some places
show, within the scope of the problems dowsing zones form a grid-like pattern on
posed, what role electromagnetic fields the earth's surface. These parallel zones are
might play in these phenomena. The two said to be about 2 m apart. Dowsers also
main problems outlined above will be in- claim that the points where zones cross are
vestigated by a look at comparative studies particularly injurious to human health.
of the special biologic significance of geo- Hartmann (1967, 1976), for example, re-
pathogenic zones, and by an analysis of ports on many amazing cures, especially in
location-specific measurements of various chronic cases, which he effected as a doctor
physical parameters. simply by moving the patient's bed slightly.
What is the status of our knowledge in Many studies have been done in an attempt
this area? Hartmann made an important to demonstrate the effect of these geopath-
contribution to this question by publishing ogenic points on man and other organisms.
his own investigations, which are supple- For example, it was found that the infrared
mented by a survey of some historical stud- emission from the human body changes
ies on the divining problem. Even the when a person stands on one of these criti-
layman will appreciate the great deal of cal points. Petschke (1953a,b) demon-
time and effort that have been devoted by strated a connection between blood sedi-
idealists to the solution of this problem. mentation and such points in numerous ex-
Nevertheless, the critical scientist must oc- periments. He picked out three points only
a few meters apart for his experiments: one this would be of considerable importance to
was a neutral point, one was in a simple persons who sleep in such places. Scheller
dowsing zone, and the third was at a cross- (1969) developed a technique for detecting
ing of such zones. A total of 62 series of the biologic effects of "injurious rays."
tests were conducted, each at least 8 hr in Location-dependent blood studies showed
duration. The 72 hourly results obtained in that an elevated level of incident radiation
each series were converted to 24 mean val- leads gradually to the formation of gran-
ues, so that finally the results of more than ules, globules, vesicles, fibers and various
5000 readings were evaluated, including other particles in normal blood which were
half-hour values. The following findings not there previously. Such changes can be
were reported: detected in the erythrocytes by the so-
I. The sedimentation rate of blood sam- called Scheller test, in which ultramicro-
ples located over the dowsing zones and scopic structures of the mitochondrial type
crossings was altered in relation to the are revealed by dark-field examination.
sedimentation rate over neutral ground. This technique could prove that irradiation
The deviations of the two altered groups of the blood has a visible, demonstrable
followed a parallel course, which tends to biologic effect in the most radiosensitive
rule out pure chance. cells, the erythrocytes.
2. The sedimentation rate was not al- According to Scheller (1969), ionizing ra-
ways accelerated over the dowsing zones diation acts on the erythrocytes and alters
and crossings; in some cases a retarding ef- them (contrary to previous beliefs) and fi-
fect was observed. nally cancer can develop. If this hypothesis
Hartmann (1967, 1976) reports on simi- is borne out, it would be evidence that
lar experiments. He placed blood sedimen- geopathogenic points play a role in car-
tation tubes into a rack that was mounted cinogenesis. Measurements lend support to
crosswise over the bed in a house where this hypothesis, for they reveal peculiar
two generations had died of a similar can- conditions of ionizing radiation at such
cerous disease. The point above the floor points (at least for a certain type of geo-
which corresponded to the location of the pathogenic zone).
affected organ in the bed had been called Hartmann (1972a) provided further evi-
geopathogenic by dowsers. Since the tubes dence of the peculiar biologic properties of
were spaced 6 cm apart, only a few were geopathogenic points by means of reaction
located over this critical spot, while most time measurements. These were carried out
were outside it. This experiment, which has at two points about 1.2 m apart. The sub-
been repeated many times, showed that jects were seated either directly on a
blood sedimentation took a markedly anom- "crossing," or at a neutral point. The sub-
alous course in the tubes located over the jects on the critical point showed a
geopathogenic spot. Similar reproducible, 1%-1 0% slower reaction time than the sub-
location-dependent deviations were found jects at the undisturbed point.
in germination experiments with cucum- The problem of the possible effects of
bers, beans, peas, radishes, corn, etc., in geophysical factors on biologic responses
which germination was suppressed over (geobiologic effects) is treated by others as
such points. All observers of blood sedi- well. For example, Bortels et al. (1970)
mentation tests like that described above reported on a study of the intensity of both
report an additional variation in the course aerobic respiration and anaerobic fermenta-
of the sedimentation which appears to be tion of Saccharomyces yeast under "con-
associated with weather. stant" experimental conditions. They found
If there are certain points that differ variations in measured biologic values with
markedly from their immediate surround- both time and location. Several parallel
ings with regard to their ionizing radiation, tests were conducted in the thin-walled
attic and the cellar of a very massive build- the associated shielding effect have any in-
ing under otherwise identical conditions. fluence on tumor-inoculated rats?
Relative maxima and minima of the yeast 3. Does a high-frequency radiation with
respiration coincided with a strong rise and low-frequency modulation influence tumor
fall of air pressure, respectively. These growth?
results were the same qualitatively for both A total of 132 animals were tested in 12
test sites. However, the average intensity series of experiments, each series lasting
of respiration was lower in the cellar than 3-4 weeks. In the first 4 series of tests, 3
that measured simultaneously in the attic. cages with 3 animals each were used. One
Relative maxima of fermentation intensity cage was on the critical point, and the other
in the attic coincided on the average with two were located about 1-1.3 m away. The
air pressure minima immediately following rats in the Faraday cage were treated with a
a strong pressure drop, that is, with condi- 21-cm high-frequency radiation with
tions in the warm sector of a cyclone (low). l. 75-Hz modulation twice for 15 min. The
Conversely, relative minima coincided with power density was on the order of I
air pressure maxima immediately after a mW/cm 2 • In each test the irradiation was
strong pressure rise, that is, with conditions done immediately after the tumor inocula-
in the region of an anticyclone (high). In the tion.
cellar, however, these correlative rela- In the remaining 8 series oftests, a fourth
tionships were reversed. cage was used as well. This cage was
The investigation of biologic effects in placed about 30 cm from one of the two
several 20 X 20 cm areas located close control cages in order to check whether dif-
together yielded interesting results. For ex- ferences in tumor growth could still be ob-
ample, three cages, each containing 4 mice served over relatively small distances. This
(I male and 3 females), were kept in a cer- was not the case, and so this particular dif-
tain room for experimental purposes. One ferentiation did not have to be made. In
group of mice was located over a "cross- contrast to the initial series of tests, the rats
ing" (critical point), one over a neutral in the Faraday cage received no further
point (only about 0.5 m from the first), and treatment after their inoculation.
the third was kept in a Faraday cage in The animals were inoculated with
another location 2 m away. Within 6 tumor suspension, care being taken that
months, according to Hartmann (1970), the they were all from the same population.
3 females in the cage over the neutral point After 10 days' exposure at the points
bore 124 offspring and those in the Faraday selected, the tumors were palpated, molded
cage bore 118, while those over the critical in plastiline and weighed by a known
point bore only 56. The mice on the cross- method (by a University of Heidelberg vet-
ing were always restive, bristled, and con- erinarian). The progress of tumor growth is
tinually devoured their young. Their behav- shown graphically in Fig. 10-1. The curves
ior differed markedly from the control for the first series of tests represent the
animals in other respects as well. mean value of 4 test series with a total of 9
In order to objectify further the possibil- rats per series. Curve I (values for the
ity of location-dependent biologic effects, "cancer point") clearly shows the sharpest
Hartmann (1972b), also conducted experi- growth increase. Curve 2 shows the mean
ments with rats at the same locations. He values at the undisturbed neutral point.
sought to answer three questions: Curve 3 shows the mean values for the ir-
1. Do rats inoculated subcutaneously radiated animals in the Faraday cage. Com-
with Yoshida tumors exhibit different pared with the exponential increase that is
tumor growth at certain (geopathogenic) typical of biologic growth processes, the
points in relation to the nearby ("undis- latter curve shows practically a retardation
turbed") environment? of tumor growth.
2. Does holding in a Faraday cage and The results of the second series of exper-
120
1
~ 100
~
E
§
~
b·
~
Faradaykafig
" 80
a-
60 N
40
20
o+---~----~----+---~----~----+---~~~
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
d- Versuchszeit [Tage]
Figure 10-1. Tumor growth in rats as a function of location: (I) growth on a "crossing" of dowsing
zones (cancer point); (2) growth at a "neutral point" (about 1 m from the "crossing"); (3) growth in a
Faraday cage in which the animals were also irradiated with ELF-modulated high-frequency energy.
After Hartmann (1972b).
Key: a-Increase in tumor weight (g); b-Faraday cage; c-Cancer point; d- Time (days)
iments, showing the mean values from 8 in these experiments was surveyed with re-
series of tests with 96 rats, are presented in spect to the static terrestrial magnetic field.
Fig. 10-2. In contrast to Fig. 10-1, the A probe traversing this spot in one direc-
animals in the Faraday cage, which were tion indicated a drop in magnetic field in-
not irradiated this time, displayed the great- tensity to about one-fifth its normal value
est increase in tumor weight. The other (Fig. 10-3). Because earlier measurements
two curves show a trend analogous to that also showed increases in gamma radiation
in Fig. 10-1. The test results indicate that levels at such points, sometimes by as
the rate of tumor growth is apparently much as 10%-20%, it is assumed that the
dependent on various previously unrecog- peculiar circumstances of oxygen ioniza-
nized locational and environmental factors. tion and oxygen concentration there may
The spot designated as the cancer point be responsible for the magnetic field anom-
.§"
§ 60
~u
.~
'?1;)"
j 40
l;l
""
x~
b-
a- a.-Punkt
"'0 c
20 )(
Neutr 10
12 14 18 20 22 24 26
c- Versuchszeit (Tage]
Figure 10-2. Tumor growth in rats as a function of location: (1) and (2) same conditions as in Fig.
10-1, (3) progress of tumor growth under pure Faraday conditions. After Hartmann (1972b).
Key: a- Increase in tumor weight (g); b-Cancer point; c- Time (days)
aly, owing to the diamagnetic properties 2 X 2 m, was divided into 8 equal sectors.
of oxygen. The dowsers were given the task of deter-
Hartmann (1 972b) considers this result a mining which sector was the critical (geo-
major contribution to the realization that pathogenic) one. A large number of these
there are certain circumscribed areas in tests proved statistically (probability
dwellings that may disturb normal biologic > 99%) that the detection of specific
processes given a sufficiently long period of geopathogenic points by dowsers is not de-
exposure. Apparently locational and envi- termined by chance alone.
ronmental factors are relevant with regard
to the cancer problem as well (Fig. 10-4).
Besides experimental investigations of Measurement ajPhysical
the places which produce the dowsing reac- Parameters
tion, efforts are also being made to verify
the dowsing phenomenon itself. Fadini's Experimental results confirm the biologic
(1971 a) statistical evaluation of experi- significance of spots that produce the dows-
mental results supplied by numerous ing reaction (Fig. 10-4). But other experi-
dowsers independently of one another ap- ments have been conducted by both inter-
peared suitable for this purpose. Approxi- ested experts and laymen in an effort to find
mately equal numbers of men and women measurable physical parameters which
of different ages and occupations used iden- might undergo anomalous changes in such
tical divining rods in the same manner. In places. According to a partial survey by
addition, the divining rod reactions were Hartmann (1967, 1976), magnetometric
compared with the response of a VHF field measurements with a dual compass showed
intensity meter (more about this below). To magnetic peculiarities at the spots indicated
evaluate the tests, Fadini (1971 b, 1972) de- by dowsers. Wiist (1953) used a field bal-
veloped a special statistical approach: the ance and local variometer to show distinct
area to be investigated, which measured magnetic field anomalies at such points.
Experimental Investigations 20 I
Wiist and Petschke (1954) investigated are also observed. As early as 1931, Leh-
the electric ground resistance in the vicinity mann (1960) demonstrated a significant
of dowsing zones and found marked decrease in the potential gradient (up to a
changes there. Tromp (1954) reports that factor of 2) of the electrostatic field over
ground conductivity is generally maximal in such points. He also found an increase in
dowsing zones, but that resistance peaks the conductivity of the air over spots
o 40cm
,.:.;.;.:.
i- Situationsplan
Figure 10-3. Measurement of the intensity of the geomagnetic field at a "cancer point." In the
north-south plane (2) the field intensity decreases from 0.025 mT (0.25 G) to about 0.005 mT (0.05
G) when the Hall probe is moved through the area at a speed of about 0.5 m/s. No such effect is ob-
served in an east-west direction (1). After Hartmann (1972b) and Varga.
Key: a-8 = const.; b-Probe; c-Decrease of field intensity; d- No effect; e- East; f-North; g-South;
h-Mouse cage; i-Site plan
VHF field that can be measured in the

space around sick-beds and its anomalies
(particularly extreme field-intensity min-
ima) bear a certain relation to the occur-
rence of diseases. While such results do not
necessarily establish a causal relationship
between diseases and the VHF field, they
do show that this field may be important as
an indicator. In any event, investigations
and theoretical considerations from a
purely technical standpoint have shown an
order-of-magnitude agreement between
room dimensions and the wavelengths of
VHF fields. Thus, standing waves can form
in parts of the room due to reflection, lead-
ing to the formation of the maxima and
minima measured there. It remains unclear
whether the VHF fields are responsible for
the observed pathogenic effects, either
alone or in combination with other physical
factors, or whether the VHF fields are
merely an indicator, implying that other
physico-technical peculiarities, which are
Figure 10-4. Damp walls are apparently typical involved in the pathogenic process, exist in
sites which produce a movement of the divining such places.
rod. In this case visual cues may be involved. Aschoff (1967, 1976), for example, re-
ports on his experience as a physician with
VHF field-intensity measurements in more
which, according to dowsers, marked the than 125 cases. When 85 of them were
location of an underground "water vein." moved to an area in the room with a uni-
Briiche (1960) reports that the radioactivity form VHF field intensity, more than 28 pa-
in such places is also different from that of tients, some of whom had not responded to
the surrounding environment; it may be prior treatment, showed an immediate im-
increased or decreased, depending on provement of chronic complaints that had
weather conditions. been treated for years without success.
Tromp (1972) reports on the use of divin- Prompted by these findings, Hartmann
ing rods to locate groundwater. He also as- (1967, 1976) developed a portable device
sociated measurable physical parameters that corresponds in principle to the appara-
with the spots that indicate "water veins" tus of Rambeau (1969): a VHF trans-
for dowsers. According to Tromp, even mitter with a vertical rod anten-
EEG changes can be observed. na (basic frequency 32 MHz), and a
Wiist (1959) introduced a special mea- receiver (tuned to triple the transmitting
suring technique in 1958. He showed that frequency) with a horizontal rod an-
the VHF field intensity of conventional tenna. Both antennas are about 30 em in
VHF radio transmitters undergoes marked length, and both devices are mounted on a
changes over dowsing zones. This effect is board about 60 cm apart. This arrange-
seen in open terrain as well as indoors. ment, carried horizontally at waist level,
Hartmann (\ 967, 1976) applied this princi- made the VHF field measurements in
ple to his medical practice. A considerable rooms independent of external radio trans-
number of investigations showed that the mitters. This apparatus confirmed previous
results on VHF fields that had been ob- derground water flows, focusing his atten-
tained without the use of a transmitter. tion on the infrared and microwave emis-
According to Hartmann (1967, 1976), sions from such spots. The complex diver-
amazing results can be obtained simply by sity of the phenomena associated with the
measuring the resistance to the passage of a dowsing problem was once again con-
direct current between the hands of test firmed.
sUbjects. If the measurements are properly Measurements by Wiist and Petschke
carried out, the measured resistance values (1954) showed that anomalies of ground
cannot be influenced (at least directly) by conductivity are always present in spots
the subjects. that produce a movement of the divining
It was found that the resistance of the rod. They found two basic types of anom-
body exhibits a significantly different time aly: the first is a sizable increase in
course at a geopathogenic point than at a ground conductivity over a short distance
neutral point. The difference in resistance of about 2 m across the zone, and thus a
values is also clearly dependent on the state discontinuity of resistance (Fig. 10-5); the
of the weather. According to Eckert ( 1971), second is the presence of a boundary zone
the curves obtained by Hartmann (1967, between two adjacent areas of different
1976), called a "georhythmogram," show conductivities (Fig. 10-6). While the abso-
not only resistance values that deviate from lute value of the ground conductivity is ap-
the mean, but also unusually strong short- parently of primary importance in the first
term fluctuations of resistance in subjects case, the gradient is a more important fac-
standing on a critical point. tor in the second case. These anomalies of
Endros (1969) conducted more elaborate ground conductivity have a significant im-
investigations of the physical effects of un- pact on electric and magnetic fields, air
Ul
320000
.,I
" ,
",
,.," ,, ,,,
290000
I
,
,~, \
, I
. ,,
I \ ,1
260000 I
~I ~ I
\
I
I
230000
200000
170000
140000
4, 6 8 10 12
Figure 10-5. Variation of ground resistance across a "dowsing zone" (shaded) at a depth of 1 m. A
pronounced resistance minimum is seen. Both measurements (solid and broken lines) were made
along parallel paths 2 m apart. After Wiist and Petschke (1954).
kOhm
138
130
122
114
8-
2m Tiefe
106
o
Figure 10-6_ Variation of ground resistance across a "dowsing zone" (shaded). The boundary be-
tween two regions of different resistance is apparent. After Wiist and Petschke (1954).
Key: a- 2 m depth
ionization, the vertical atmospheric electric dowsers for experiments. A certain time
current, as well as currents flowing in the delay observed in the dowsing reaction
earth, which suggests a link with the dows- suggests that the high-energy radiation
ing phenomenon. The biologic activity of produces an ionized column of air over the
all these physical parameters must also be blocks, which takes a certain amount of
taken into account, however. time to form or disperse when the experi-
According to Hartmann (1976), mea- mental situation is changed. The presence
surements of the intensity of VLF atmo- of these ionized columns of air would also
spherics at different locations showed that account for the high incidence of lightning
the incidence rate of VLF signals varied at strikes at critical points.
a pathogenic point by up to 30% in relation The tendency of lightning to strike over-
to the surrounding environment. This head transmission lines has also prompted
suggests that reception conditions can vary studies to determine whether peculiarities
considerably within an extremely limited in the geophysical properties of the ground
space, an effect that could also be explained and the associated geoelectric structure of
theoretically on a physical level (e.g., by the the subsoil might not be the cause of this.
resistance anomalies mentioned above). Kretschmar (1967) points out the existence
Biirklin (1965) reported on investigations of "nests" of lightning, determined by the
of the increased frequency of lightning morphology of the earth's surface but also
strikes at low-voltage power transmission by the electric properties of the subsoil. It
poles. All poles that attracted lightning and must be noted that the absolute conduc-
thus had a lower-than-average life expec- tivity ofthe subsoil is of no importance with
tancy were located on critical points, ac- regard to lightning strikes as long as it is
cording to dowsers. Grounding the ground completely homogeneous. However, the
wire at the crossings indicated by the electric structure of the subsoil becomes
dowsers apparently provided excellent important if it is not homogeneous, for then
lightning protection. it influences the starting point of the coun-
It was also discovered by acident that terdischarge and thus the course of the
paraffin-graphite blocks stored in a cellar main discharge. Zones in which good and
evoked a response from dowsers on the poor geologic conductors adjoin have
floors above directly over the point where proved especially prone to strikes, indicat-
the blocks were stored. Measurements over ing that contacts, faults and zones of geo-
these paraffin-graphite blocks revealed a logic disturbance are in greater danger than
radiation from the ground that produced electrically homogeneous subsoil. Such
readings similar to neutron radiation that is findings have implications for other geo-
slowed by about a factor of 100. Paraf- physical parameters as well. Thus, loca-
fin-graphite blocks have also been used by tion-dependent intensity variations are to
be expected for electric fields and elec- (1973) used his scintillation apparatus to
tromagnetic waves in particular. recheck these old investigations in an at-
Stiingle (1973) made an important con- tempt to answer two questions: (1) Is radi-
tribution to the objectification of the divin- ation from the ground distorted over these
ing rod phenomenon by analyzing un- zones such that its intensity is increased?
derground water flows with the aid of scin- (2) Do these changes in ground radiation
tillation counters. He used sodium iodide as behave in a manner typical of water flows,
the scintillator, because it is generally according to SHingle's experience?
preferred for the detection of gamma rays. The results prove that both questions
The moderator mounted in front of the must be answered in the affirmative (Fig.
crystal influences incident radiation from 10-7). The radiation intensity is nearly
below, enabling it to excite the scintillator twice as high within the dowsing zones as
material. Stiingle (1973) mounted his appa- over adjacent ground. Based on his experi-
ratus on a wheeled frame suitable for cross- ence in locating water, SHingle (1973) as-
country use. The apparatus converted in- sumes that corresponding underground
cident gamma radiation into measurable im- water flows exist in these places.
pulses, which were then automatically re- Disregarding for the moment the divining
corded and plotted continuously in the form phenomenon, which is still considered omi-
of a curve. This arrangement has proved a nous by many, it must be said that the im-
reliable means of locating sites for water portance of these investigations can no
wells. Mention has already been made of the longer be disputed. If it can be shown by
earlier studies of von Pohl cited by Hart- physical measurement that there are zones
mann (1975, 1976) indicating that the beds on the earth's surface that have a higher
of cancer patients were all located in dows- level of radioactivity than their surround-
ing zones in certain German towns. Stangle ings (regardless of whether an underlying
'is.
.§
a-
Figure 10-7. Measurement of ground radiation with a scintillation counter designed by Stiingle. Von
Pohl's divining rod experiments were repeated by Stiingle in Vilsbiburg, Germany. He confirmed the
existence of geopathogenic zones with a significant number of cancer deaths which coincided with
zones of radiation anomalies. After Stangle (1973).
Key: a-Impulses/sec; b-Zone B (one cancer death)
water vein is the cause or not), and such of a wooden frame. The result was the
striking connections are found between same. The increased radioactivity thus ap-
these zones and cancerous diseases as the pears to occupy a column-like space ex-
ones described here, then the orthodox sci- tending vertically upward from the floor.
ences must regard these findings as suf- Observations also point to a certain depen-
ficient cause for exact and precise inves- dence of the gamma radiation on weather
tigations in the interest of all mankind. conditions, that is, on the general mete-
Even large-scale statistical studies would orologic situation.
be helpful in collecting important data. In further experiments to investigate the
They would also provide a basis for deter- effect of lead shielding, equal amounts of
mining whether possible protective mea- lead were placed beneath three measuring
sures should be seriously considered. probes. Surprisingly, the effect of the lead
Williams and Lorenz (1968) report on was different at the critical point than at the
gamma radiation measurements with a other measuring sites, suggesting a different
highly sensitive instrument for the detec- type of radiation at the critical point than at
tion of geologic fractures. Fractures at the other sites. In any case, the radiation
depths to 1700 m have been localized by pulse count generally decreased in different
this technique. The increase in radiation ac- degrees, depending on the measuring site,
companying a fracture apparently stems when the lead was put down. When paraf-
from the sedimentation of radioactive min- fin-graphite blocks about 10 cm thick were
erals in springs or groundwater, or possibly interposed, the pulse rates generally in-
from the migration of radioactive gases that creased, again in different degrees depend-
rise to the earth's surface through geologic ing on the location.
fissures. In any event, it has been es- The experiments show that marked dif-
tablished that the main source of the radia- ferences in gamma-radiation pulse counts
tion is the uppermost 2 m of earth. (10%-30%) are observed over relatively
To explore further the significance of small distances of 20-40 cm, which evi-
gamma radiation in the "cancer point" phe- dently have nothing to do with the immedi-
nomenon, Hartmann (1970, 1976) used ate flooring material. The correlation with
probes to compare the radiation at such a weather, on the other hand, suggests a cer-
point with that of the immediate surround- tain relationship with the localized escape
ings. He found that the critical point almost of radioactive gases (radon), which could
always exhibited a different (usually higher) create this peculiar condition over geologic
radiation pulse count than the surroundings fissures due to the influx and efflux process-
( at a distance of 12 or 25 cm, measuring si- es that accompany air pressure changes.
multaneously with two probes). The mea- Since we are dealing here with ionizing ra-
surements were carried out over a period of diation, such findings are of profound im-
several months. On a scale of hours, a portance. If "ionized columns" do exist in
higher average gamma radiation was mea- the space above certain points on the
sured at the critical point, as mentioned. ground, they would have considerable ef-
However, the pulse difference does not fects on all types of electromagnetic fields,
arise from a more or less constant pulse the natural atmospheric electric current, air
deficit, but occurs in a rhythmic manner. ionization, etc., as well as the phenomena
Periodicities of about 15 min and 3 hr are associated with these parameters. Direct
clearly seen (Fig. 10-8). ionization processes in a localized tissue
To rule out the possibility of any radioac- region could also be of significance. Hart-
tive source in the floor of the experimenting mann (1970) does not rule out the possibil-
room, the experiments were repeated at a ity that such processes could result in cell
height of 1.75 m above the floor with the aid degeneration, particularly if persons place
~ b- -381._
30 27.2.70 15 min
N
roo Uhr ------I ~
" 2 ",
~
~
"5 "
Oc .-
E E
-",
a- Q)...... _ I I
~§. 01 I' '\ '-/ I' "'" '\~IJ'" 'rcA! 'II' ".} V' ''\:,1
"2
Q)
1::>
.lii -10
~
-20
Figure 10-8. Differences in the gamma radiation of two sites only 30 cm apart (one of which is a "crossing"). Superimposed tTl
:><
onto the higher average radiation count (- 1.2%) at one site is a rhythmic rise and fall with periodicities of about 15 min and 3 'I:S
o.,
hr. Data from Hartmann, (1970, 1976), correspondingly reworked.
Key: a-Change in impUlse difference per 15 min; b-2/27/70 at 9:00 A.M.; c-3 hr; d-Mean value 3'
o
::l
[
.....
::l
<:
o[J)
...
OQ'
ao·
::l
[J)
N
o-.J
their beds in such spots, and a single part of 4. Weaker field gradients can be detected
the body is exposed to such disturbed con- in a moving automobile or airplane,
ditions over long periods of time. probably due to the greater speed with
According to a report by Rocard (1964), which the anomaly is traversed.
anomalies of the geomagnetic field must
also be taken into account in the divining Moreover, dowsers are apparently in-
rod phenomenon. He reported that the capable of detecting still water in a pond or
dowser shows a reaction if he walks at a flowing water in a river, as opposed to
uniform speed through an area in which the water that is filtered through a porous medi-
geomagnetic field is not completely uni- um or penetrates permeable strata. The
form, that is, where field anomalies are well-known "electrofiltration potentials"
present. He presents the following findings: created by filtering water may be responsi-
ble for the anomalies of the static magnetic
1. A field intensity gradient of 24-40 field (Fig. 10-9). Measurements at earth
(mA/m)/m (0.3-0.5 mOe/m) can be de- dams, for example, showed variations of
tected by dowsers with a time delay of the magnetic field over a range from
about 1 s. + 4 X 1O-8T to -6 X 1O-8T(+40 gamma to
2. An increase in the gradient to 0.16-0.24 - 60 gamma). Thus, all factors that influ-
(mA/m)/m (2-3 mOe/m) improves the lo- ence the magnetic field in any form must
cating ability of the dowser. also be considered possible causes of the
3. A gradient less than 8 (mA/m)/m (0.1 dowsing reaction.
mOe/m) cannot be detected. To support this hypothesis, Rocard
a-
I::::;::~::::::::~:: ::~
I~
:~~I
I~ e-I
I ......... Variationen I
4-1O-IJf- des
I
Figure 10-9. Anomaly of the static geomagnetic field along an earth dam at a lake with various
drainage points. The field variations are given in tes1as (1 T = 104 G = lO9 gamma). After Rocard
(1964).
Key: a-Pond; b-Drain; c-Ditch; d-Spillway; e-Variations of magnetic field; f-Field density (T)
(1964) conducted experiments with ar- by the dowser. These experiments can
tifically produced static magnetic fields. He meet the most rigorous scientific standards,
had dowsers walk past a 50 x 100 cm because (1) the experimental situation is
frame around which was wound 100 turns reproducible; (2) the experiments can be
of wire. A direct current of several mil- conducted in double-blind fashion, where
liamps produced a magnetic field of about neither the experimenter nor the subject is
0.1 AIm, or several millioersted (mG in aware of the solution to the assigned task;
air), at the center of the frame. Walking at a (3) the test can be statistically evaluated
speed of 1-1.2 mIs, the dowsers thus with clarity and relative simplicity.
traversed an anomaly of about 10 mAIm The experimental procedure was there-
(several tenths of a millioersted or mG in fore based on the guidelines developed by
air) in 1.5-2 s. After appropriate training, Fadini (1971a,b; 1972): The correct solu-
good dowsers were able to run through 5 or tion had to be selected from among eight
6 experiments with 30 to 36 trials and in- possibilities. In an initial test, a single coil
dicate correctly in almost every instance with 24 windings and a diameter of 0.5 m
(excluding cases of fatigue) whether the coil was attached to a wooden stand so that the
was carrying a current or not, that is, coil axis was at a height of about 1.5 m
whether a magnetic field was present. The above the floor. Neither the current lead
dowsing reaction was enhanced when two nor the coil itself was shielded to prevent
such frames were set up about 3 m apart, stray electric fields. It must be assumed,
and the dowsers had the opportunity to therefore, that the current that generated
pass both frames in one transit. More de- the magnetic field in the coil also produced
tailed statistical data on these experiments an electric field of roughly 10-6 V1m at a
are not available. It was reportedly found in distance of 0.5-1 m about the coil.
parallel tests that the electric resistance be- Each subject was first exposed to a
tween the palms of the hands is apparently known "field-on" and "field-off" situation.
a good index of a person's suitability as a If a subject thought he was able to feel the
dowser. According to these studies, the difference, he was given the task of select-
resistance of good dowsers is only one- ing the "field-on" situation from among 8
third to one-fourth that of persons unsuited situations produced by a selector switch.
for dowsing. Thus, his chance of success was 1 in 8.
We conducted our own experiments to Subjects who showed no reaction to the ar-
test the response of dowsers to magnetic tificially produced magnetic field in the pre-
fields. Our main concern was not to prove test were eliminated from the experiment
that magnetic fields are responsible for the with no evaluation.
dowsing reaction, but rather to check the Most ofthe tests were conducted initially
genuineness of the reaction itself. Such ex- under single-blind conditions in order to
periments with artificial fields can be con- gain experience. The initial results: At a
ducted basically in three ways: (1) the current of 70 rnA through the coil and a
dowser locates an artificial field at a certain frequency of 6 Hz (rectangular current),
spot within a prescribed area; (2) an ar- producing a magnetic field of 4 x 10-6 T
tificial field is produced intermittently at a (0.04 G) at the coil center, 6 of 30 trials
known location, and the dowser must were successful. Under the same field con-
decide whether the field is absent or ditions but at a frequency of 200 Hz, 6 of
present; or (3) field-generating devices are 15 trials were successful. One test was
set up at several locations, but only one is noteworthy in that the subject was able to
operating. The dowser must then decide detect the field at a frequency of 59 Hz and
which of these devises is generating a field. current of 30 rnA (1.7 x 10-6 T or 0.017 G
The latter two methods are decidedly supe- at the coil center), even under double-blind
rior, for they require a clear yeslno decision conditions.
B ma x.
[%[
100
~
10
~~ ~"
o.1
~ , ~
~ )....
0.01
o 3 4 d [m[
Figure 10-10. Percentage decrease in the maximum value of the magnetic field Bmax produced at the
center of an idealized coil 0.5 m in diameter, as a function of axial distance d in meters from the coil
center.
The magnetic field intensities indicated a 99.9999% probability that the success
pertain only to the center of the coil and rate achieved in these tests was not a mat-
decrease very rapidly with distance (Fig. ter of chance. The qualification must be
10-10). The dowsers approached the coil in made, of course, that the experimenter
an axial direction or passed by it to the side knew in most cases which coil was carrying
at a distance of about 0.5-0.75 m, at which current, so that only single-blind conditions
point the maximum field intensity at the coil were present. But this detracts little from
core has already fallen by more than 90%. the significance of the results. If one also
However, the movement ofthe divining rod considers the positive results of other ex-
itself occurred in most subjects at a dis- perimenters in similar experiments, it be-
tance of 1-2 m (or more) from the coil comes evident that we have here a promis-
center, an area in which the field intensity is ing method for shedding further light on the
several orders of magnitude lower than that divining rod phenomenon. The result of this
of the terrestrial magnetic field. experiment is at least a contribution to the
One disadvantage of our procedure was realization that the movement of the divin-
the need to approach the coil repeatedly, ing rod in the hands of the dowser is not
which was unfavorable for the dowsers. simply a voluntary or random act, but can
Therefore, in a second series of tests with also be attributed to the presence of physi-
different subjects we arranged 8 identical cal quantities.
coils in a row, and the dowsers were given
the task of determining which of the coils
was carrying current (see Fig. 10-11). In The Divining Rod
this way the dowsers could make their de-
termination in a single run, which corre- Based on the size and shape of the divining
sponded better to normal dowsing condi- rod, it would not be misleading to ,regard
tions. Basically only one frequency, 30 Hz, this instrument as a kind of tuned high-
was employed in this experiment, while the frequency antenna. After exhaustive inves-
current (i.e., the magnetic field intensity) tigations, Schneider (1973, 1978) took the
was variable. The results of this test series view that the divining rod held by a dowser
(again done under single-blind conditions) must be excited by high-frequency energy
are summarized in Table 10-1. The subjects like a dipole-type electromagnetic radiator.
identified the correct coil in 23 of 46 trials. The properties of the divining rod as a radi-
A statistical evaluation of the results shows ator or resonator can be described with ac-
Figure 10-11. Dowsing experiment using artificially produced electromagnetic fields. Female dowser
carries vertical rod past eight test coils, attempting to locate the one coil which is carrying a current.
curacy if it is regarded as a V -dipole, taking operate in the manner of a "Lecher wire"

into account the shortening factor which is (see Fig. 10-12). The Lecher wire functions
customary in high-frequency engineering. as a type of resonator based on the reflec-
Experiments with artificially produced tion of electromagnetic energies within the
high-frequency fields show highly promis- system. Schneider's experiments with
ing results in terms of the reactions of dowsers indicated a selective response of
dowsers to such energies. High-frequency the dowsers to certain frequencies. Howev-
engineering principles were employed, in er, more precise investigations are needed
fact, to develop a divining rod designed to to determine whether this has to do with
Table 10-1. Results of a test of dowsers.

Artificial magnetic field with a Recognition of field-generating coil
constant frequency, f = 30 Hz (number of cases or trials)
Induction
Coil current (in 10-7 tesla = I mG)
(rnA), at I-m
rectangular at coil axial No Total
pulse center distance Correct Incorrect response trials
80 263 1.1 7
32 105 0.46 2
25 84.2 0.37 II
16 52.6 0.22 I
4.8 15.8 0.07 2
Total 23 16 7 46
Figure 10·12. Dowser with a special divining rod during an experiment with artificial high-frequency
fields. The rod is designed according to the "Lecher wire" principle in order to study resonance-
specific reactions.
frequency·dependent reflections of high- type of (dipole) antenna in the high-

frequency energy, which are determined frequency range and is thus capable of
mainly by the geometry of the experi- transmitting absorbed energy to the dowser
menting room, or whether this effect is in by some means, thereby causing the famil-
fact produced by the resonance tuning of iar movement of the rod. Experiments with
the Lecher wire. In any case, experiments low-frequency fields show that this is not
with the aid of a signal generator at a the only possibility, however. The suc-
frequency of about 1.6 G Hz showed that a cesses obtained in such experiments with
type of resonance-dependent reaction was metal as well as plastic rods demonstrate
evoked in some dowsers: a slow frequency that the divining phenomenon cannot be
sweep of the signal over a bandwidth of explained by the antenna action of the rod
about 150 MHz produced a turn of the itself where low-frequency electric and
divining rod at 2-s intervals in synchrony magnetic fields are concerned. It is evident
with the sweep frequency. that the dowser himself must be the "re-
Preliminary measurements of the high- ceiver" in such cases; the rod is merely
frequency properties of such a rod have not held in such a way that slight movements of
yet answered all questions. True resonant the hands will produce a large, visible
step-ups were observed at about 570 MHz, movement of the rod, which thus serves an
1.2 GHz and 1.8 GHz for a particular rod "amplifier" function.
design. The resonant properties of the in-
strument were not entirely eliminated by
holding it in the hand, but were significantly Neutralizing Devices
impaired (leaving a step-up of only about 10
db). The practice of setting up certain objects or
In any case, the following has been learn- devices to neutralize (render harmless) ra-
ed about the mechanism of action of the diations believed to be injurious is probably
divining rod. The rod, whether made of as old as dowsing itself. By their very asso-
metal or an insulator, can be viewed as a ciation with the divining rod, such devices
have become an object of suspicion and rid- that such a coil has a resonant frequency in
icule (and probably with good reason in the neighborhood of 1500 MHz. More
many cases). precise laboratory investigations showed
Despite the fact that such neutralizing or that one such coil exhibits numerous reso-
anti-disturbance devices are sometimes nance peaks ranging from 1.3 GHz to 2.0
employed with an observable effect, if not G Hz. If two coils are mounted a small dis-
success, there is seldom any scientific evi- tance from each other, this arrangement ac-
dence to indicate that the results are any- tually differs from a single coil only in the
thing other than random or subjective in or- greater number of measurable resonance
igin. peaks within the same frequency band (Fig.
Hartmann ( 1967, 1976), for example, de- 10-14). Thus, from a technical standpoint
veloped "bioresonators" which he used for these coils represent a type of broad-band
a variety of experiments and studies, and resonator whose properties are improved
with which he reportedly achieved amazing when a pair of coils is used.
results. This prompted Konig (1968a) to The coils are fabricated from elastic wire
conduct independent studies of their prop- material and can therefore be bent to a
erties as ultrahigh-frequency resonators degree, much like a mechanical spring. This
from a purely technical standpoint. change in the coil structure simultaneously
The heart of the bioresonator is a 3-mm- effects a change in the electric values of the
thick wire of copper-, brass- or zinc-plated coil, and thus produces a frequency shift of
iron, which is shaped into a coil (Fig. 10-13) the various natural coil resonances. The
with a diameter of 105 mm and a length of natural mechanical resonance of the coil
120 mm, resulting in a total wire length of constructed of elastic material is on the
about 2 m. The coil is wound in a single order of 10Hz, thus it occupies a frequency
layer of 6 windings, with a spacing of about range in which electromagnetic processes
20 mm between windings. The striking fea- are considered to be biologically active.
ture of the device is that it comprises two If we take into account the floor vibra-
such coils wound in opposite directions. tions that would be present if such a device
However, this only appears to create a dis- were installed in the home, it is evident that
parity, for it can still be shown theoretically the high-frequency field always present in
Figure 10-13. "Anti-disturbance coils" designed by Hartmann. This "bioresonator" consists of two
identical coils, each composed of two half-coils wound in opposite directions.
b 10
a-
-~-
50 MHz 1 GHz 2 GHz b-
Frequenz
4 GHz
10
a-
50 MHz 1 GHz 2 GHz b- 4 GHz

Frequenz
Figure 10-14. Characteristic frequency responses of "anti-disturbance coils" designed by Hartm~nn

(see Fig. 10-13). Top: Frequency response of a single coil; bottom: response of a coil pair. Numerous
strong resonance step-ups are observed in the range between 1 and 2 GHz. Key: a-Relative inten-
sity; b-Frequency
such places would be influenced by this found implications if adverse health effects
high-frequency resonator, especially with were associated with such "radiations," as
regard to the possibility of low-frequency is claimed and will be discussed below. It
modulation discussed above. Naturally would then be impossible for these devices
such results do not resolve the problem of to screen out or neutralize such radiation
neutralizing devices. However, they do (Fig. 10-15). The users of the devices
show how little the objective, scientific would be deluded into a false sense of secu-
search for truth is served by working with rity. In the long run, the physical avoidance
preconceived judgments without examin- of such potentially dangerous radiation
ing the material more closely. would be the only sure remedy.
It should be noted that the terms anti-in-
terference and neutralization in connection
with such devices are misleading. Previous
experience shows that electromagnetic en- The Geopathogenic Cause of Cancer
ergies can act over the entire spectrum of
frequencies, while anti-interference devices Certain compelling arguments led Hart-
can at best claim only a frequency-specific mann (1968, 1976) and others (Diehl and
effect. It is inconceivable that they could in- Tromp, 1954) to assert that there is a
fluence configurations of any other frequen- geopathogenic cause of cancer, that is, a
cies. Any possible effect of such devices locational factor that predetermines or at
can therefore only be of a therapeutic na- least contributes significantly to the devel-
ture. But such findings would have pro- opment of cancer. According to these au-
The Geopathogenic Cause of Cancer 215
thors, a large number of cancerous diseases generally follows an entirely different

in man can be linked to a location factor course than at points in the vicinity.
that encompasses an area usually no larger Germination and growth experiments
than 50 x 50 cm, called a cancer point. with various species of plants have re-
This location factor can be reproducibly peatedly shown the absence of germina-
demonstrated by physical, biophysical and tion in these "disturbed" zones. Mice in
biologic methods. This cancer point coin- boxes placed in such zones leap out of
cides much too often with the location of the box to escape. Smaller litters, weight
the beds of cancer patients to be dismissed loss, increased spontaneous tumor for-
as pure chance. Measurements and experi- mation and an increased susceptibility to
ments have shown:
'(.:.--
-,
artificially induced cancer (tar brushed
onto the skin) in comparison with con-
1. In blood sedimentation tests done at trol animals are all typical of such zones.
these geopathogenic points, zones or 2. Direct-current resistance values (be-
their crossings, the sedimentation rate tween the hands) monitored in human
Figure 10-15. The horseshoe is well known as a good-luck charm (shown here in the living room of a
cottage in Lower Bavaria). However, it also constitutes a high-frequency resonator whose natural res-
onance occupies a wide range around 1 G Hz and thus lies within the range of hydrogen resonance at
2.1 cm. A st~,iking. parallel exists between the horseshoe and bioresonators, as a certain type of "anti-
disturbance device used by dowsers is called.
subjects over long periods of time follow there is an even greater subjective and un-
a different course if the measurements scientific literature. I t is certain that dowsing
are carried out in such spots. will continue to be associated with charla-
3. The electric currents measured in the tanry, and rightly so, especially where so-
human body by galvanometer are mar- called neutralizing devices are concerned.
kedly different. The detractors of dowsing have published
4. VHF field-intensity values show pro- very comprehensive and critical works con-
nounced anomalies (maxima or minima) tending that the divining rod effect is of lit-
relative to the environment. tle relevance. Undoubtedly the questions
5. The electric conductivity of the ground addressed in these works have always been
is altered. the subject of attempted unscientific expla-
6. Anomalies of the static geomagnetic nations by dowsers, and it is certainly
field are present. useful in the scientific scrutiny of such
7. Radioactivity varies significantly within questions when competent experts adopt a
a small area. The radiation of certain ter- critical attitude toward particular topics.
restrial neutrons is markedly different. However, the interests of objective inquiry
8. The incidence or intensity of VLF at- are not served by approaching a subject
mospherics deviates from that ofthe im- from a negative standpoint, or simply
mediate surroundings. doubting experiments whose results were
9. The flicker fusion frequency of test sub- properly obtained. The objection must be
jects is reduced by 0.5-2.5 Hz within 1 raised that such works are attempting
min after the subject is placed on such a merely to document and verify a precon-
spot. ceived opinion, instead of reaching conclu-
sions in an objective manner.
These effects are observed in various In any case, evidence gathered to date
combinations, depending on the location. makes it clear that when viewed from a re-
According to Hartmann (1976) and As- alistic, neutral perspective, the divining rod
choff (1973), these geopathogenic zones phenomenon can no longer be dismissed as
and points exhibit biologic and physical nonsense. An objective appraisal of this
properties which should be sufficient, based problem from the outside requires not only
on previous experience, to make even the the necessary physico-technical expertise,
greatest skeptic more cautious in his re- but also a considerable degree of knowl-
marks on the possible existence of geopath- edge and experience in the field of biology.
ogenic effects. Indeed, one should expect All too often, classical physicists and engi-
an open and unbiased science to show an neers make the mistake of treating biologic
active interest in finally resolving the grave systems like apparatus during measure-
and profound questions that have been ments, particularly in the case of the divin-
raised here. ing rod problem. But by their very nature,
biologic systems, and man in particular, do
not lend themselves to clear and reproduci-
ble measurement. Every biologic system
Conclusions must be judged with regard for the principle
of individual diversity. Objective results
The discussions in this chapter are hardly and information cannot be obtained by the
sufficient to provide exhaustive information study of individual systems, or individual
on the divining rod problem. But this is nei- persons, especially in critical areas. In this
ther possible nor intended within the case, only investigations that can be eval-
present framework. There is already a large uated statistically can produce scientif-
body of scientific literature dealing with ically acceptable results; and here, too, it is
various points of view on this subject, and often only the experienced researcher who
Conclusions 217
can avoid environmentally determined ble individual, every dowser will also react
errors in his investigation. External physi- specifically, that is, in different ways to dif-
cal, psychic and psychological influences ferent parameters. Added to this are such
can lead to considerable difficulties as well influences as his attitude toward what he is
as erroneous conclusions, especially in ex- doing, his momentary frame of mind, his
periments with humans. constitution, and other environmental stim-
The phenomenon of the turning of the uli. These many variables explain why such
divining rod in the hands of the dowser marked contradictions continually arise in
must be regarded as the real product of dowsing experiments, and why they in fact
physically determined environmental stim- must arise and will continue to do so. One
uli. As in the case of meteorosensitivity, can thus appreciate the urgency of the
more than just a single agent is responsible. desire to develop a physical method of
Electric and magnetic fields from the static measurement that can at least confirm the
range to the highest frequencies, ionizing dowser's indications, if not replace them al-
radiation, air ionization and the vertical at- together. In the light of previous findings,
mospheric electric current represent the however, it appears doubtful that an ideal
possible physical parameters to which the solution will be found, particularly with
dowser can respond. And because every regard to replacing the human dowser with
person is unique, and thus a nonreproduci- instrumentation.
11
Electromagnetic Fields: Biologic Stress or
Therapy?
General Considerations· scious perception of these factors or their

changes with time and location by the
Lang (1977b) dealt specifically with the human organism is often nonspecific and
question posed in this chapter in a compre- may be manifested in general discomfort
hensive study. Orientation by electric and (e.g., the "stuffy" feeling experienced when
magnetic fields is an ability that has been humidity is too high relative to room tem-
demonstrated in many animal species, from perature); without prior experience, the
protozoans, worms and insects to higher person would be incapable of accurately
animals such as birds and small mammals. identifying the parameter causing his dis-
This includes orientation for homing pur- comfort. On the other hand, numerous ex-
poses over great distances, as well as amples in the animal world prove that or-
simple avoidance behavior or flight re- ganisms have evolved a sensory apparatus
sponses to escape from disturbing geophys- that is appropriate for the environmental
ical environmental influences. Observa- factors affecting them, and that enables
tions that man is also capable of con- them to adapt to external conditions.
sciously perceiving such fields, which could
not be substantiated initially according to Table 11-1. The most important geophysical
scientific criteria, have recently proved to factors which influence the organism. After
be statistically valid (Gossel, 1977). Drischel (1975).
The most important geophysical environ- Temperature
mental factors from a biologic standpoint Humidity
are summarized in Table 11-1. The con- Air motion
Air pressure
Oxygen partial pressure
*The concept of this part of Chapter 11 was devel-
oped originally by Dr. Siegnot Lang, who died on Radiant energy
January 30, 1978, at the age of 36. Dr. Lang was one Gravity
of the small group of scientists who deal specifically Mechanical vibrations
with the biologic effects of atmospheric electricity. Air ions
The end of his highly active and successful career Electric fields
leaves a gap in this special area of science which will Magnetic fields
be difficult to fill.
Orientation Behavior 219
Working from this premise, Presman between the response of the animals and
(1970) and Lang (1972) formulated the so- the field intensity and duration of exposure
called evolutionary hypothesis regarding cannot be clearly deduced from these find-
the action of electric, magnetic and elec- ings, because the corresponding parameters
tromagnetic fields on organisms. According were determined primarily from technical
to this hypothesis, the average intensities, rather than biologic considerations. Bees
as well as the rhythmic and arhythmic inten- consistently displayed an extremely sensi-
sity fluctuations, ofthe atmospheric electric tive response, abandoning their nest within
and magnetic fields at the earth's surface 30 s on exposure to a field intensity of 800
were largely the same during evolutionary V pp/m and frequency of 50 Hz (Warnke
history as they are today. Every living crea- and Paul, 1976). Resynchronization of the
ture has adapted to these electric and mag- circadian rhythm at a field intensity of 2.5
netic climates, or to the microclimate pre- VIm, as described by Wever (1967, 1968,
dominant in its own biotope, so that it 1973, 1976), also appears to represent a
preceives the intensity pattern and time very sensitive response. Small mammals
course of the geophysical factors affecting display a certain tenacity in the presence of
it as adequate. Now if these environmental such fields; i.e., they tend simply to become
stimuli are absent or act on the organism in accustomed to their surroundings. As the
unnatural patterns (time course, intensi- free-choice experiments of Altmann and
ties), such a milieu represents a biologically Lang (1973) prove, the action of fields is
inadequate state which, as expected, finds not just a matter of exceeding a constant
expression in various metabolic and behav- stimulus threshold of a certain value;
ioral changes. The classification of the cur- rather, the level of this threshold is deter-
rently known effects of electric, magnetic mined in large measure by the well-being of
and electromagnetic fields as orientation the animals and their acclimation to their
behavior, frequency-specific responses, environment. The finding of Dowse and
stress responses and field-specific adaptive Palmer (1969) that circadian rhythms can
responses will be explained in the sections be influenced both by a static field and by a
that follow. spectrum of alternating fields is subject to
various possible interpretations. On the one
hand, certain frequencies (the static field
also acts as an alternating field in the range
Orientation Behavior of 1-20 Hz, as described below) may trig-
ger rhythmic physiologic processes from
Golden hamsters, mice, rats, bees, goldfish, outside; on the other, the electric stimulus
birds, eels and may beetles "notice" elec- may effect a completely nonspecific arousal
tric fields and, at higher field intensities, ap- of the organism's regulatory systems.
parently perceive them as a disturbance of To be sure, the sensitivity of organisms to
their environment that is to be avoided such environmental factors as temperature,
(Schua, 1953; Zahner, 1964; Warnke, humidity and light also appears to be much
1975b;Altmann and Lang, 1973; Langetal., more differentiated than was previously as-
1977; Brinkmann, 1976). During periods of sumed. Warnke (1975a,b; 1976a,b,c) fur-
animal activity, electric fields at more or ther pointed out the significance of the abili-
less adequate intensities (and frequencies) ty of diverse body tissues to acquire an
are accepted (Altmann and Lang, 1973; electrostatic charge.
Lang, 1976b). Inadequate field intensities, Conductivity measurements performed
on the other hand, lead to heightened activi- on body surfaces by Becker and Speck
ty and aggressiveness, assuming that the (1964), Athenstaedt (1972, 1974) and EI-
animals are unable to avoid the field len by and Smith (1968) showed that the hu-
(Schua, 1953; Warnke, 1975b). A relation midity of the surrounding air, the concen-
220 Electromagnetic Fields: Biologic Stress or Therapy?
tration of small air ions, air temperature and 1976a,b,c), the daily wood consumption of
illumination are all capable of influencing these insects is correlated with atmospheric
the electric conductivity of insect cuticle. magnetic disturbances associated with the
In the short-wave light region, a photoelec- 27-day rotation of the sun. Effects from
tric effect could be demonstrated for insect weather conditions, and especially atmo-
tissues. Pyro- and piezoelectric effects spherics, were also determined.
showed that electromagnetic vibrations in- A comprehensive survey dealing specifi-
duce mechanical microvibrations at body cally with the orientation behavior of ani-
surfaces, especially in the resonant range. mals in the earth's magnetic field was
Conversely, electric impulses are produced presented by Martin and Lindauer (1973).
in the skin by air-pressure fluctuations or No adequate explanation has yet been
sound waves. The full significance of these found for the alignment of animals, or of
effects is not yet clear. general plant and animal growth processes,
Arendse (1976) reported on experiments with respect to the anode or cathode of an
with mealworms that were bred in various electric field (Kemmer, 1967) or along the
artificial biotopes and then exposed to mag- vectors of a magnetic field. It can be stated
netic field-free conditions (the terrestrial in general, however, that animals, and
field was offset) or directional magnetic probably humans, possess some form of
fields. The animals normally displayed a receptors for electric and magnetic fields,
directional preference that corresponded to through which information on these envi-
the direction of darkness in their breeding ronmental factors can be supplied to the
containers. However, they were able to central nervous system, thereby enabling
maintain this orientation only if the direc- such responses to occur.
tion-indicating effect of a magnetic field was
present.
Proceeding from experiments done in
1958 by Merkel and Fromme (1958), Frequency -specific Responses
Wiltschko (1973) and Wiltschko and Fleis-
sner (1976) were able to show that red-
breasted robins can perceive the polarity of Besides the essentially frequency-indepen-
the horizontal component of the earth's dent orientation behavior described above,
magnetic field. However, this orientation is some animals such as the robin display an
useful only if combined with concurrent orientation ability in magnetic fields that is
orientation by the force of gravity. The clearly dependent upon the pulse form and
magnetic compass of robins functions only frequency of the field. In this section we
within a very narrow range of intensities. If shall examine the biologic effects of electric
the total magnetic field intensity is reduced and magnetic fields that are clearly a func-
by 25% or increased by more than 50%, the tion of the frequency employed.
birds are no longer capable of magnetic ori-
entation. Wiltschko and Fleissner (1976)
tested robins in equal-energy alternating Animal Experiments
magnetic fields with frequencies of 50, 1
and 0.8 Hz. While the 50-Hz field had a Though his_ report received little attention,
disorienting effect on the birds and sinusoi- Petrow pointed out in 1935 that a neuromus-
dal fields had no apparent orientational cular preparation could be excited both in
value, they were able to orient themselves vitro and in vivo by an electromagnetic
in the 1- and 0.8-Hz fields with a rectangu- vibration of 1 kHz, while vibrations at 33
lar time course. MHz produced no effects. Forty years
Termites are influenced by atmospheric later, Lott and Linn (1975) showed that the
magnetic fields with respect to their feeding action potentials of the frog sciatic nerve
activity. According to Becker (1975a, could be increased in vitro by means of a
Frequency-specific Responses 221
10-Hz square-pulse electric field. These au- those of the controls. By comparison, Per-
thors suggest that this phenomenon may be singer and Lafreniere (1975) reported on
due to a physical change (pore deformation) thyroid gland studies in rats exposed to
in the membrane or a field-induced alter- fields of 10 G, I G, 0.05 G or 10-4 G (con-
ation of cell metabolism leading to a change trols). While the thyroid weight was signifi-
in ion flux. cantly increased in the animals exposed to
However, the findings of Altmann et al. lOG, the follicle count in the thyroid tissue
(1975) on the increase in the abdominal- was elevated only in the rats treated with
skin potential of the frog by a 10-Hz the O.5-G field. The other field conditions
square-pulse field, or of Adey (1975) on produced varying effects.
increased calcium efflux from the chicken Natural geomagnetic storms (July 5-6,
brain under the influence of 1O-Hz alternat- 1974) also produced an activity increase in
ing electric fields cannot yet fully explain rats, according to Persinger (1976). As in
how the increase in brain and hypothalamic the termite studies of Becker (I 975a, 1976
activity under the influence of an extremely a,b,c), Persinger's measurements showed a
low frequency electric field, as measured by certain time delay in the onset of the effect,
Lott and McCain (1973), is brought about. so that the activity increase was not evident
The investigations of Persinger (1969) on until 1-2 days after the increase in magnet-
the prenatal effects of alternating magnetic ic activity was registered.
fields with a frequency of 0.5 Hz and mag- Bawin et al. (1973) incubated the brains
netic induction of 0.05-3 mT were recently of 500 newly-hatched chicks (2-7 days old)
supplemented by the findings of Ossenkopp in a physiologic medium with 45Ca2+. Af-
and Ossenkopp (1975). They found that the terwards the preparations were washed and
exposure of pregnant rats to the field led to exposed to artificial field conditions: 147
reduced activity and increased defecation MHz carrier frequency, modulated by sinu-
in both male and female offspring. If the soidal oscillations at 0.5-35 Hz (1-2
pups continued to be exposed to the field mW/cm 2 maximum). The increase in calci-
during early life, the males showed both um efflux from these brains as a function of
increased activity and increased defecation. the modulation frequency is illustrated in
In the females, defecation increased while Fig. II-I. The effect demonstrated in these
activity levels were indistinguishable from experiments could not be blocked with cya-
P2
~ 20
~
I. p,
P'
.
~
llfi~_
() 10
_-+_Ih-Ihl[
~
~
f
.i 0
a-
Kontrolle UlF 0.5 3 6 9 11 16 20 25 35
-5 kein Feld Coo Frequenz der Amplitudenmodulation [Hz]
b-
Figure 11-1. Effects of l47-MHz fields with varying amplitude modulation on the efflux of 45Ca2+
from the isolated forebrain of newly hatched chicks. Results are given as a percentage of the increase
of calcium efflux, in comparison with control conditions without a field, PI < 0.05, P2 < 0.01. After
Bawin et al. (1973).
Key: a-Increase of 45Ca2+ efflux (%); b-Control without field; c-Frequency of amplitude modulation
(Hz)
nide ions, indicating that it is independent (sympatheticotonics) react to frequencies

of any metabolic processes. above 12 Hz with nervousness and irrita-
tion. According to Ludwig (1972; 1973a;
1976a,b) and Ludwig et al. (1973), the nec-
Human Experiments essary exposure time lies between 1 min
and 1 hr. The mode of action of the small
The frequency specificity observed by devices was found to be strictly local. The
Konig and Ankermtiller (1960) in the ef- harmonic magnetic vibrations produced by
fects of electromagnetic fields on the re- them caused no increase in the throm-
sponsivity of human subjects finds a possible bocyte adhesiveness of the subjects' blood,
correlate in these results. Maxey (1976) as was achieved by Jacobi and Krtiskemper
also observed this frequency-specific effect (1975, 1976) with 10-kHz electric field os-
in subjects exposed to alternating magnetic cillations modulated by low-frequency al-
fields at frequencies from 1.6 to 11.4 Hz (at ternating fields.
1000 Y = 10-6 T). Ten percent of his sub- After Jacobi et al. (1973) had established
jects reacted to 7.8 Hz with a direct a statistical correlation between throm-
coupling of the respective alpha waves in bocyte adhesiveness and the general mete-
the EEG as long as the field influence was orologic situation, weather phenomena, at-
present. About 4 s after the start of ex- mospheric dynamics and electromagnetic
posure, theta waves with a frequency of radiation, they simulated artificial sferics in
4-7 Hz appeared in the EEG. The same ef- steel chambers (Faraday cages) in order to
fect occurred at 10.8 and 11.4 Hz, but was investigate its effect on various parameters
not observed at 1.6 or 4.7 Hz. Maxey in experimental subjects. They found that
(1976) compared this effect to the known pulse repetition frequencies of 10Hz at 0.4
individual-specific sensitivity of certain V1m (10kHz carrier frequency) produced a
persons to extremely low frequency light highly significant increase in thrombocyte
pulses and pointed to correlations between adhesiveness after 3 hr in comparison with
atmospheric magnetic storms and aircraft shielded, zero-field conditions or pulse
accidents ("pilot-error weather") with frequencies of 2.5 Hz and 20 Hz (Fig.
regard to the impairments, of concentrating 11-2). This effect could be prevented by the
ability and responsivity due to this effect. administration of 75 mg dipyridamole and
Ludwig (1972; 1973a,b,) and Ludwig et 300 mg acetylsalicylic acid. A 10-Hz pulse
al. (1973) distributed 700 ELF generators repetition frequency impaired responsivity.
(10-Hz Schumann-resonance frequency Mentally labile subjects showed stronger
range, harmonic content, field intensity 100 responses than mentally stable subjects
AIm at close range) and 220 sham devices (Jacobi and Krtiskemper, 1975, 1976).
among 860 patients with psychosomatic Bein (1976) conducted a comprehensive
and rheumatic complaints. Healthy sub- study of 110 subjects exposed to an elec-
jects hardly reacted to the devices, while trostatic field, taking special account of me-
the patients each responded best to a cer- teorologic activity during the course of the
tain frequency, depending on their type ac- experiment. He found an increase in the
cording to Curry (1946); frequencies of 1-6 mental activity of his subjects which, as
Hz had a calming, sedating effect, while mentioned above, must also be regarded as
higher frequencies of 8-20 Hz had a the effect of an alternating electric field, ac-
stimulating and analgesic effect. While a cording to the average frequencies of respi-
very precise frequency setting was required ration and movement exhibited by the sub-
for some patients ( ± 3%), others were less jects.
critical (± 20%). Apparently the "W Persinger et al. (1975) exposed 70 male
types" (vagotonics) are responsive to fields and female subjects to a 40-min field pro-
of higher frequencies, while the "K types" gram in which electric fields with frequen-
Stress Respones 223
[%]
+20
+10
~c 10
n 30 9
tJ
~
LU
0
10 a- Impulsfolgefrequenz [Hz]
f-
-10
-20
t
Figure 11-2. Percentage change in the thrombocyte adhesiveness in the blood of subjects (n) ex-
posed for 3 hr to simulated atmospherics with a carrier frequency of 10kHz and pulse repetition
frequencies of 0 Hz, 5 Hz, 10Hz and 20 Hz at a pulse amplitude of 0.4 V1m (width of columns corre-
sponds to scatter). After Jacobi and Krliskemper (1976).
Key: a- Pulse repetition frequency (Hz)
cies of 10 Hz (sinusoidal) and 3 Hz each netic field. Persinger and Janes (1975)
acted upon the subjects for 10 min. This found a significant correlation between the
program was implemented at three different anxiety of students and magnetic storms
field intensities-3.0 Vim, 0.3 Vim and which had occurred before and after the
Faraday conditions-and the reaction births of the subjects tested. A valid corre-
times of the subjects were measured lation was also found between daily self-
throughout the course of the experiment. descriptions of current emotional state and
The mean results of these measurements meteorologic parameters such as tempera-
showed no differences between the field ture, pressure, relative humidity, duration
programs employed, the field intensities, of sunshine, wind velocity and geomagnetic
the field frequencies or the sex of the sub- activity. "Bad moods" tended to be as-
jects. Statistical evaluation based on the sociated with a short duration of sunshine
standard deviation, which represents a cer- and a high relative humidity, and "good
tain measure of the consistency of concen- moods" with low relative humidity, with a
tration performance, showed a continuous correlation coefficient of 0.27.
functional capacity on the part of the
female participants during the 40-min pro-
gram, assuming a constant readiness to per-
form. During exposure at intervals, both Stress Responses
the weaker and stronger field produced a
significantly greater regularity in the per- The Stress Syndrome
formance required of the male participants.
In this context Persinger (1974, 197 5b) More or less strong stimulations of the
called attention to the many sensations that human organism generally evoke a stan-
are reportedly felt by the human organism dardized, stereotypical response that is
during disturbances of the terrestrial mag- phylogenetically very old: if the individual
finds himself unexpectedly subject to attack necessary to ensure that the stimulus inten-
by an aggressor, the cerebral cortex sity lies roughly within the control range of
together with the limbic system activates the regulatory mechanisms that evolved in
the hypothalmus, which triggers the imme- the organism during the course of its
diate release of catecholamine from the phylogenetic development. Aside from
adrenal medulla. The result is a drastic considerations of biologically adequate and
increase in the cardiac minute output. The inadequate environmental parameters (dis-
attendant rise in systolic blood pressure cussed above), this means that any electric,
and simultaneous collateral peripheral va- magnetic or electromagnetic field condition
soconstriction ensure an optimal supply of is perceived by the organism as an unnatu-
nutrients to the muscles. This is reinforced ral stimulus as soon as the field intensity
by the acceleration of glycogenolysis and exceeds the maximum value occurring in
lipocatabolism by epinephrine in the liver. the organism's natural biotope at a particu-
This sympathetic emergency response rep- lar frequency. The release of catecholamine
resents the phase of the alarm reaction of and its consequences-heightened activi-
the general adaptation syndrome with ty, the mobilization of energy reserves (fat
which the organism counteracts the stress- metabolism) and cardiovascular changes
producing agent. The special feature of this -are the most important symptoms by
stress response is the stereotypical pattern which the course of the alarm reaction can
of physiologic mechanisms that occur, and be monitored. The increase in motor activi-
the fact that the organism responds to any ty is the physiologic correlate of the biologi-
change in his environment in the same man- cally important fight or flight response to
ner: catecholamine secretion is increased the acting stressor. Mice, birds and insects
during great joy as well as great fear. all exhibit this behavior in electric fields, as
reported by Altmann and Lang (1973),
Fischer (1973), Becker (l975a) and Moos
Electric Fields as Stressors (1967). The increased energy supply neces-
sary for this activity in the form of energy-
As mentioned, stimulation of the hypothal- rich fatty acids and triglycerides was con-
amus triggers the release of catecholamine firmed in rats and mice by Beischer et al.
from the adrenal medulla. Over 100 papers (1967), Lang and Reuss (1975) and
have been published to date on the ability Klingenberg et al. (l976a,b). Only Kroling
of electric fields to produce symptoms of (l976b) reported negative findings on the
the first stage of the stress response, the motor activity of mice in an electric field.
alarm reaction, with no recognition of the The rise in blood cholesterol caused by
contextual significance of these findings. catecholamine secretion enhances the clot-
Only Becker (1975b) and Marino (1975) ting ability of the blood, which was ob-
pointed to the importance of the electric served by Brezowsky and Ranscht-
stresses produced by the extremely high Froemsdorff (1966) under artificial atmo-
field intensities near high-voltage transmis- spherics and by Boenko and Shakhgeldyan
sion lines in connection with the Common (1968) under the influence of an 8-kHz,
Record Hearings on the Health and Safety 1500-V1m electromagnetic field. Jacobi and
of 765 kV Transmission Lines before the Krliskemper (1975, 1976) recorded an
New York Public Service Commission in increase in thrombocyte adhesiveness as a
1975. measure of blood coagulability under con-
In another context, Verheijen (1958) ditions of natural atmospherics, and could
pointed out that the intensity of artificial en- confirm this effect in a laboratory experi-
vironmental parameters acting on an organ- ment with simulated atl!lospherics. A direct
ism should not deviate too strongly from action of the stress-induced increase in cat-
natural intensity values. This condition is echolamines on the circulation is reflected
Stress Responses 225
in the results of BIanchi (1973), whose Related findings are presented in other
ECG studies showed a lengthening of the studies. According to Persinger ( 1969), Os-
P-R and R intervals and the QRS complex. senkopp and Ossenkopp (1975), Ludwig
His rats survived a dose of 100,000 V1m (1972) and Ludwig et al. (1973), the thyroid
and 50 Hz over a period of 1000 hr, during gland weight was increased in rats exposed
which time a pattern of 9 hr exposure to 0.5-Hz electromagnetic fields, indicating
followed by 3 hr recovery was employed. an increased production of thyroxine. The
In experiments performed by Solov'ev thyroidal response of organisms to electric
(1967) with half this intensity (50,000 V 1m fields is expressed in increased oxygen con-
at 50 Hz) and full-day exposure, all the sumption. According to Damaschke and
mice and insects died within a few hours. Becker (1964), this effect was observed in
Fischer and Richter (1976) reproduced the termites on intermittent exposure to a
findings of BIanchi (1973) with rats ex- 20,000-V1m electrostatic field, as well as
posed to 5000 VIm, 50 Hz, over a 50-day under the influence of labile atmospherics.
period; they found a continuous decline in The same observations were made by Lot-
the heart rate of the animals for the full du- mar and Ranscht-Froemsdorff (1969) with
ration of the experiment. regard to the cellular respiration of rabbit
Silny (1976) monitored the heart rate, skin, as well as in mouse liver cells exposed
respiration rate, systolic blood pressure, to corresponding artificial atmospherics
skin and rectal temperature, and ECG and programs (Ranscht-Froemsdorff, 1969).
EEG of rats exposed to a field at 80 kV/m According to Altmann (1969a) and Fischer
(60 kV 1m for cats), 50 Hz, from the periods (1973), the oxygen consumption of guinea
of the fourth to eighth and twelfth to six- pigs and mouse liver cells, respectively,
teenth hours of a 16-hr session. The heart increased just as much under constant field
rate of the animals increased by 2 I % during conditions as that of mice exposed to a
the first 2 hr, while the body temperature strong 10-Hz square-pulse field (Lang,
rose by 3%; the increases in respiration rate 1972a). The thyroid hormones act directly
and systolic blood pressure were not signif- at the mitochondria, whose function is
icant. governed by these hormones. Riesen et al.
Studies in persons exposed occupa- ( 1971) found that the mitochondrial activity
tionally to high-intensity fields at 50 Hz of brain and liver cells ceased completely
have shown the full gamut of possible car- within 40 min in a 60-Hz field at 155 V1m.
diovascular disorders, ranging from unsta- Threshold values of 6.3 VIm and 60 min
ble pulse, arrhythmias and diminished car- were determined (cf. Ng and Piekarsky,
diac blood flow, to bradycardia and distur- 1975).
bances of potency (Lyskov and Emma, The secretion of somatotropin by the an-
1975; Asanovaand Rakov 1966a,b; Sazon- terior pituitary leads to the activation of
ova, 1967; Korobkova, 1971, 1972; m-DNA and thus to an increase in the rate
Strumza, 1970). The associated danger of of cell synthesis. Growth effects of electric
infarction was recognized as early as 1966 fields have been observed in bacteria
by Brezowsky and Ranscht-Froemsdorff in (Konig and Krempl-Lamprecht, 1959;
connection with the much weaker field in- Busch, 1961), in Physarum (Goodman et
tensities of natural atmospherics. aI., 1975), in insects (Mittler, 1972), in
The alarm reaction of the general adapta- birds (Durfee et aI., 1975; Krueger and
tion syndrome is concluded by a rise of the Reed, 1975; Watson et aI., 1975; Becker,
diastolic blood pressure as the cardiac 1975b; Marino, 1975), in small mammals
minute output returns to normal. Before (Marino, 1975; McElhaney and Stalnaker,
this, however, the hormones thyrotropin, 1968; Mamontov and I vanova, 1971 ;
corticotropin and somatotropin are se- Bassett et aI., 1974; Norton, 1974; Knick-
creted by the anterior pituitary gland. erbocker, 1967) and in man (Marino, 1975;
Becker, 1975b). Plants also display a signif- also be attributable to the action of gluco-
icant average growth increase of 40% under corticoids.
the influence of electric fields, given an ade- Fischer (1 976a) reports on the effects of
quate supply of water and minerals (Lem- a rippled electrostatic field on the metabo-
strom, 1902; Stetson, 1957; Sidaway, lism of mice and rats. In the intensity range
1966; Hicks, 1957). The secretion of cor- from 1000 to 5000 V1m with a ripple (resid-
ticotropin by the pituitary stimulates the ual hum voltage) of I %, the motility, food
glomerular zone of the adrenal cortex to and water consumption, oxygen consump-
step up its hormone production, and the tion, brain serotonin level and antibody
glucocorticoid level increases. The de- production were increased in comparison
crease in the number of neutrophilic and with the corresponding metabolic indices of
eosinophilic leukocytes in mice exposed to animals kept in Faraday cages in which the
a 50-Hz, 100,000-V/m field for 42 days ELF spectral components of external elec-
(BIanchi et aI., 1973) is a clear index of this tric fields were screened out by more than
reaction. The lymphocytes are also re- 99%. Fischer (l976a,b) and Fischer and
duced. The same effect could be observed Richter (1976) made the supplementary
in rats after only 6 hr exposure. While De finding that only about one-third of the ef-
Lorge (1975) detected no changes of this fects, on the average, could be attributed to
kind, Marino (1975) found an elevated cor- the action of the electrostatic field, while
ticoid level in the blood serum of rats, as two-thirds were due to the 50-Hz ripple in
well as an enlargement of both the pituitary the field (about 10-50 V1m). Of particular
and adrenal glands, as might be expected. interest is a comparison of the heart-rate
The serum glutamate and oxalate trans- measurements of Fischer and Richter
aminase were also increased in the blood (1976) in rats with the results of Silny
of these animals. Seeger (1968) claims that (1976). At a low 50-Hz field intensity of 50
he has observed the suppressed inflamma- V1m, the heart rate of the rats was reduced
tory response that accompanies increased by about 14% after 15 min and remained
glucocorticoids in human subjects as well. low during the duration of the 50-day ex-
The alleviation of pain in patients covered periment (Fig. 11-3). A field intensity of
with an electrically shielding blanket during 5300 Vim produced an even greater reduc-
natural atmospherics (Ludwig, 1973a) may tion of about 25% after 15 min, which
I
5DYlm 530QVIm
0.01 - 0.01 < O,Of < 00' . > 0.1)5, ,< 0.01
,......-----,
0(:
,......-----,
;g:
N . ..IO 38 3136 33 30
177 40 .n 39 37 35
a·
v b. K b· T.
'5" 2 10 21 '..0 T. ,5 2 .0 2' 50
Figure 11-3. Effect of 50-Hz fields of various intensities on the heart rate of rats, as a function of ex-
posure time (K = control, V = experiment). After Fischer and Richter (1976)
Key: a- Heart rate; b- Days
Stress Responses 227
0.440
J 0.400
a- i
i
..
i
~
0.350
0.320
0.280
K 15 2 10 21
N - 13 10 12 10 5
p: < 005 > 005 < 001 < 001
Figure 11-4. Norepinephrine level in the brain of rats during prolonged exposure to a 50-Hz field
(5300 V 1m) as a function of time (K = control). After Fischer and Richter (1976)
Key: a-lLg norepinephrine/g fresh weight; b- Days
measured 4% after 2 days, and then grad- experiments with hairless rats (result of
ually fell back to I 1% by the fiftieth day. degeneration) refuted this hypothesis, how-
The body temperature of the animals was ever.
also reduced at 5 kV 1m, unlike the reaction It was primarily the increased epi-
observed in a field at 80 kV 1m. The nor- nephrine level in the brain which then led
epinephrine content of the brain rose from Fischer to speak of an electric stress. Due
0.360 J-Lg/g fresh weight to 0.415 J-Lg/g fresh to the thermoregulatory mechanisms pecu-
weight in 15 min, representing an increase liar to the rat and mouse, the secretion of
of about 15% (Fig. 11-4). Only a slight 3% epinephrine in these animals causes a
increase was present after 2 hr, and a 25% stronger stimulation of the cold center than
decrease was measured after 10 hr; after 21 the heat center (unlike man), which would
days the decrease still amounted to 15%. account for the reduction of body tempera-
Fischer and Richter (1976) suggested that ture.
the animals may have been able to sense al- U sing much weaker electric fields in the
ternating electric fields through microvibra- same frequency range, Krueger and Reed
tions of the fur and microvibrissae. Later (1975) were unable to obtain corresponding
results in mice. They exposed 3-week-old fects reported by Hauf (1974) in a SO-Hz
mice for 2S days to a week (S VIm) and electric field at the same intensity could be
strong (100 V1m) sinusoidal 4S- and 7 S- Hz observed.
field. They investigated their weight gain, Meda et al. (1974) exposed mice, rats
blood and brain serotonin levels, and sus- and pigs in 3-hr intervals to a SO-Hz,
ceptibility to influenza viruses during and 100-kV/m field for a total of 1000 hr. The
after the experiment, as compared with the differences observed by other authors
same indices in control animals. No dif- regarding the concentration of blood cells
ferences could be found between the exper- (see also Hauf, 1974) and the ECG (see
imental and control animals with regard to also Silny, 1976) were confirmed under
any of the parameters tested. these conditions.
In rats exposed continuously for I year Cabanes (1976a,b,c), Gary (1976), Hauf
to a SO-Hz, 100-kV 1m electric field, Brink- (I 976b), Kornberg (1976), Cerretelli
mann (1976) investigated motor activity (1976), Malboysson (1976), Silny (1976),
and startle response to acoustic stimuli (as Le Bars (1976) and Riviere (1976) debated
a correlate of reaction time in humans), as evidence on the biologic effects of SO-Hz
well as heart rate and blood status. After fields and judged the apparent inconsis-
the exposure period, the animals were tency of the various results to mean that ar-
sacrificed and subjected to his- tificial SO- Hz fields had no significant effect
topathological study. Compared with the on man.
controls, the field-exposed rats showed a De Lorge (197 S) has gathered much evi-
23% lower total activity, although it must dence on the reaction of monkeys to sinu-
be noted that the comparability of the activ- soidal electric, magnetic and electromagnet-
ities of the two populations had not been ic fields at frequencies of 7, 10, IS, 4S, 60
previously checked. The number of white and 76 Hz and a variety of intensities. On
blood cells was 30% lower as well. No dif- the whole, he has found no consistent ef-
ferences were found with respect to fects with regard to activity, body weight,
growth, activity rhythm, histology or the various behavioral parameters or metabolic
other blood studies. When the animals were indices.
given the choice of building their nests Ng and Piekarsky (l97S) experimented
within the field or outside it, they showed a with rats immobilized in cage arrange-
clear preference for the field-free zone. The ments. A static field was applied to the
lowest field intensity at which the animals shaved backs of the animals via an insu-
could be driven from their nesting place lay lated metal electrode connected to 7 kV.
between 10 and 20 kV/m. After 8 days at 3 hrlday exposure, the
In a follow-up to the investigations of animals exhibited an increased respiration
Hauf (1976a), Rupilius (1976) exposed 10 rate, increased hair growth, and a dimin-
subjects to a combined electric (20 kV/m) ished rate of skin epidermic-cell mitosis in
and magnetic (3 G) field with a frequency of comparison with the controls. These effects
SO Hz. The duration of exposure was 3 hr. could be achieved with both a positive and
In accordance with the previous experi- negative field. The authors attributed these
mental program of Hauf, the studies per- findings to the dependence of the mitosis
formed included ECG, EEG, pulse, blood rate on the level of the transmembrane po-
pressure, blood status, BSR, thrombocytes tential (Cone, 1971), which was influenced
and reticulocytes in the blood, Quick test, by the exogenous electric field. At such
changes in serum triglycerides and choles- field intensities-at an assumed electrode
terol, and reaction behavior. No changes spacing (on which no data were given) of
could be detected in the persons exposed to I-S cm, the field intensity would be
the combined field relative to the control approximately 140-700 kV 1m-it is en-
groups. Not even the mild stimulative ef- tirely possible for alignment effects to occur
Field-specific Adaptive Response 229
in dipole structures in the physiologic sub- A 6-hr exposure daily to the conditions
strate. A more important factor, however, described above nearly doubled the ani-
would appear to be the mechanical vibra- mals' production of antibodies. ~t the same
tions of the animal body caused by respira- time, the authors were able to show that the
tory movements, and the resulting alternat- multiplication of trypanosomes in the so-
ing fields of the same frequency which are called diffusion chambers that had been
set up in the static field. Assuming a implanted in the experimental animals re-
mechanical rise and fall of the animal's dor- mained unaffected by the field treatment,
sal surface by about 0.5 cm during respira- thereby ruling out a direct action of the field
tion and a respiration rate at rest of about 2 on the parasites in the body of the host.
Hz, the animals (or at least the dorsal areas Even though the field pattern employed in
investigated) were exposed to an alternat- these experiments was of a considerably
ing field of the same frequency, and to peri- higher frequency than the other alternating
odic changes in field intensity on the order fields discussed here, we are still dealing
of 250 kV pp/m. with nonthermal, nonionizing effects of
Riviere et ai. (1964, 1965) and Pautrizel electromagnetic fields, which produce an
et ai. (1966, 1969, 1970, 1975) first re- effect strikingly similar to the steady fields
ported in 1964 on rats that showed a used by Fischer (1976a).
complete remission of tumor growth when
irradiated with alternating magnetic and
electric fields. The field conditions em-
ployed in these studies consisted of alter- Field-specific Adaptive Response
nating fields at frequencies of 375
MHz-IOO GHz or 15 MHz-300 MHz. During the course of the stress response,
The maximum field intensity was 620 G, the alarm reaction (catecholamine secre-
the duration of exposure 40 min/day. tion) is followed by the secretion of gluco-
Whereas the infected control animals all corticoids from the adrenal cortex. This
died between the twenty-second and thir- marks the beginning of the adaptive re-
tieth day, the experimental animals sur- sponse, which represents a kind of convales-
vived and recovered completely. If the cent phase in which the consequences of
electromagnetic therapy was not initiated the severe stresses associated with the
until 14 days after the start of tumor alarm phase can be relieved. The glucocor-
growth, a daily irradiation of 40 min was no ticoids have a mineralocorticoidal side ef-
longer sufficient. In this case, only full-day fect in this process, resulting in an extra-
irradiation could still ensure the survival of cellular-intracellular shift of electrolytes.
the animals. The same authors later ob- According to Kriick (1976), sodium ions
tained identical results in rats and mice with flow into the cell during this process, while
lymphosarcomas. In further experiments, the intracellular potassium concentration is
control mice infected with trypanosomes reduced. However, Altmann et ai. (l976c)
dies within 4 days. The experimental ani- and Lang (197 6b) reported that the potas-
mals were each exposed to the aforemen- sium concentration in the erythrocytes is
tioned field conditions for 12 hr/day and actually increased, while the sodium con-
survived; by the fifth day, no more trypano- centration is reduced, in rats during pro-
somes could be detected in their blood. The longed exposure to an intense 10-Hz field
same results were obtained with rabbits. (Fig. 11-5). This increase in the activity of
When maintained on a high-cholesterol the sodium pump may be analogous to the
diet, these animals showed a substantially aforementioned finding of an elevated
lower hyperlipemia under the influence of membrane potential in frogs (Altmann et
the field than under control conditions with aI., 1975).
no field. Urine analysis in rats and mice under
....
a-
16
K'
b-
I ~
i
s
;.,
56
Figure 11-5. Changes in the sodium and potassium concentration in the erythrocytes of rats.
Changes were measured under normal conditions with low biotropism (unshaded), with high bio-
tropism (shaded), under Faraday conditions (hatched), and in a to-Hz square-pulse electric field
(lightly shaded) with an intensity of 200 V /m, after an exposure time of 8 days. After Altmann et at.
(I 976c).
Key: a- Na+ concentration (mEq/ I); b- K+ concentration (mEq/ I)
electric field conditions directly confirms the aforementioned mineralocorticoidal

the intracellular-extracellular electrolyte side effect of the increased glucocorticoids.
shifts: the urine of rats in strong and long- We are thus dealing with a response of the
lasting 10-Hz electric square-pulse fields mammalian organism that is independent
shows a high sodium concentration, while of the general adaptation syndrome of the
potassium is retained. These results can be stress response, and which can be consid-
explained only by a diminished blood con- ered a specific response to the action of
centration of mineralocorticoids, which electric fields . Another specific response is
should increase in order to compensate for a decrease in the secretion of ADH (an-
Field-specific Adaptive Response 23 1
tidiuretic hormone). The water content in for exogenous influences can thus be cor-
the blood and tissues of mice and rats is rectly interpreted only if the connective-tis-
diminished, and the excretion of urine is sue cell-milieu system is regarded as a
increased (Lang, 1976b; Altmann et aI., "synergetic system of cell, capillary and
1976c; Altmann and Soltau, 1974). The nerve with the common field of action of
weight decreases described by Marino the intercellular fluid" (Pischinger, 1969).
(1975) and Knickerbocker et al. (1967) also Thus, a physiologic action can hardly be
represent nothing more than increased ascribed to vibrations excited in electrically
clearance in animals exposed to electric charged particles in the interstitial fluid by
fields. An elevated osmotic pressure ac- exogenous fields, if this additional motion
companying the diminished water content of the ions or charged molecules simply
of the blood was confirmed by Klingenberg competes with Brownian movement as an
et al. (I 976a,b). Lang (I976b) suggested additional motional impulse.
earlier that this behavior may stem from a For electrical oscillations lying in the
reaction mechanism that would enable the VLF range of frequencies, however, Lud-
organism to adapt to varying exogenous wig (1974) points to the effect of quasi-
electric field conditions. resonance absorption by the collagen mole-
According to this hypothesis, the bio- cules of the interstitial peripheral region.
logic organism represents a good electric Exogenous fields excite the 1T-electrons of
conductor in an electric field and therefore the peptide bonds in the filamentous poly-
attracts lines of force. The electric force peptides to vibrations whose frequencies lie
acts first on the outermost portions of the in the Debeye range of the crystalline
skin. From the outside inward, there follow phases of these macromolecules.
the various layers of the epidermis. The Busch and Busch (1965) found that the
outer layer of the corium, the stratum slightest stimuli, whether in the form of
papillare, lies at an average depth of 300 pressure, moisture, chemicals, temperature
/Lm. The total thickness of the corium, or electric fields, elicit local responses in
including the stratum reticulare, is 1-2 mm. the skin areas affected. Their investigations
Below this is the subcutis. If we are seeking also showed that the electric conductivity
skin structures that are capable of perceiv- of the skin is reduced in areas to which an
ing electric field effects, we must first exam- electric field is applied. Taking into account
ine the macromolecular structure of the tis- the calculations and measurements of Lud-
sue in more detail. wig (197 I) on the antenna effect of col-
The cellular structures which underlie lagenous fibers, the observed increase in
the layered structure of the skin are sur- tissue conductivity can be explained as
rounded by the basic substance ofthe inter- follows, based on the molecular structure of
stitial space, which has a relatively large the peripheral interstitial space.
volume in the connective tissues in compar- The skin is capable of compensating for
ison with other tissues. Free nerve endings, local field effects. Measurements by Reiter
nerves that terminate in the interstitial (1960, 1962) of connective-tissue pH in
space, are still found in the region of the electric fields confirm this. The polysac-
stratum lucidum. At these endings the in- charides of the interstitial connective tissue
tracellular region of the nerve axon is sepa- are characterized by strongly polar side
rated from the extracellular, interstitial groups such as SOaH and others, which
milieu only by the cell membrane. may be in a free state (due to dissociation)
Pischinger (1969) made an early refer- and exert an acidotic action. But the poly-
ence to the significance of this interstitital merizing effect of exogenous electric fields
peripheral region as the site of important reduces the number of free acid radicals,
regulatory processes. The role played by and the pH increases. This alkalization of
the skin as the most important sense organ the tissue was observed (Reiter, 1960,
1962) as early as 1953 during the exposure tein content of the blood plasma are
of guinea pigs to artificial square-pulse strongly reduced by the increased water
fields, even though no explanation of this content. As a result, the colloidal osmotic
phenomenon was possible at that time. The pressure in the plasma is insufficient, and a
impairment of free diffusion in the ex- water efflux from the intravascular region
tracellular region of the skin tissue leads to to the interstitial region takes place. But the
an increase in the membrane potential at resulting increase in the water content of all
the free nerve endings in the connective tis- the tissues promotes the dissociation of
sue, either via the indirectly resulting de- weak electrolytes, as represented by the
crease in the chemical activity of ex- mucopolysaccharides of the interstitial
tracellular sodium ions, or through direct fluid with their polar side groups. This
concentration changes in the clusters of the loosens the polymeric network of these
polymeric network. The further conduction structures, and the electric conductivity of
of the resulting impulse activates the cen- the tissues is increased throughout the
tral regulatory mechanism (see also Lang, body. One effect of this process if a sensi-
1976b). tization of the organism to exogenous elec-
Under natural conditions, atmospheric tric factors, perhaps due to a resulting
electric field forces act on the organism change in field distribution within the or-
without restraint, and the equilibrium of the ganism, but due primarily to the increase in
polysaccharide-glycoprotein network is molecular mobility. The net result is a com-
shifted toward polymerization. This situa- pensation of the Faraday shielding, with the
tion represents the normal state of affairs, consequence that attenuated exogenous
to which the organism has become accus- electric fields may have a stronger effect
tomed. But natural or artificial Faraday than they would normally.
conditions evoke a local skin response that
results in increased dissociation of the
polymeric structure of the basic substance Survey
in the peripheral interstitial space and, with
it, an increase in tissue conductivity as a Although it is very time consuming to
compensatory effect. The excitation of the become thoroughly informed on current
free nerve endings is diminished at the scientific evidence regarding the biologic
same time, however. Preliminary investiga- effects of electric, magnetic and elec-
tions show that the blood vasopressin con- tromagnetic fields, such a survey is nonethe-
centration is increased in rats subjected to less essential if we are to properly evalu-
Faraday conditions. It must be presumed, ate available results.
therefore, that the diminished excitation of
the free nerve endings results in a higher
secretion of vasopressin. This leads to the Problems in Experimental and
significant water retention observed in Measurement Technique
mice, guinea pigs and rats under Faraday
conditions. The sodium concentration in Problems in measurement technique often
the blood of the rats is significantly in- arise from uncertainty with regard to exper-
creased by 5.5%, and the potassium con- imental conditions. This is especially true
centration is reduced by 7.3%. These con- for field experiments with mice and rats in
centration shifts are also found in the cages. It is likely that the true field intensity
erythrocytes, according to Lang (1975). acting on the laboratory animal has been
The accumulation of water in the tissues accurately measured in only a very few
results in a general "dilution effect." The cases. In most cases electrodes were
erythrocyte count per unit volume is de- mounted in cages, the voltage applied to
creased, and the hemoglobin level and pro- these electrodes was balanced against the
Survey 233
electrode spacing, and the resulting field in-

tensity was computed in V 1m. Aside from
various sources of disturbances such as
feeding racks, drinking-water containers
and partitions in the cage, as well as furni-
ture and apparatus in the laboratory, which
all cause more or less strong inhomogenei-
ties in an electric field, depending on the
materials used, precautions always had to
be taken to prevent the animals from Ol
touching the charged electrode. Depending .£: 0.5
1ii
on the frequency of the field used and the c:
electric properties of the protective grate !C(

mounted between the specimens and the
voltage-carrying electrode, such precau-
tions prevented a considerable portion of
the electric field from entering the actual
experimental chamber. Moreover, the
Faraday shielding for screening out atmo- O&+----~------r-~
2 20 40
spherics had to be grounded and thus tended Number of animals
to divert field lines from the measuring site
or cage interior, thereby diminishing the ef- Figure 11-6. Frequency of alternating electric
fective field intensity in these areas. fields caused by the build-up of electrostatic
The electric charges acquired by the charge due to friction associated with the move-
ment of mice, as a function of the number of an-
animals through friction with wall surfaces imals per cage.
and other animals are also important in this Key: a- Number of animals; b-Alternating field
context. These depend, in tum, on the pop- (Hz)
ulation density in the cage and the cleanli-
ness of the cage walls, as well as the con- the electrostatic charge on their clothing or
ductivity of the flooring. If the animals are surrounding furniture (Ludwig et aI., 1976).
standing directly on a well-grounded elec- Besides these field imponderables, the
trode, their bodies represent a "bulge of the reason for the conflicting results often
bottom electrode" due to the high conduc- published on the measured biologic effects
tivity of their skin surface (cf. Brinkmann, of electric fields may also lie in the different
1976). If they are standing on dry, poorly- responses of dominant and subordinant
conducting material scattered over a animals to the fields. According to Henry et
grounded electrode, they represent con- ai. (1974), dominant rats respond to stress
ducting bodies in a capacitor field, and the situations with a much greater blood pres-
field lines will tend to concentrate on them. sure increase and catecholamine secretion
In addition, the movements of the animals than animals that are socially subordinate.
set up alternating fields, whose dominant Becker (197 5b) and Marino (1975) also
frequencies are shown in Fig. 11-6 as a describe how the acclimation of animals to
function of the number of animals present. unfamiliar cages in itself constitutes a stress
If the animals rub against plastic walls, the situation. It generally takes about 2 weeks
walls acquire a negative charge, while the before the animals have become so accus-
animals' fur acquires a positive charge. If tomed to their surrounding that the new
the plastic walls are replaced by metal cage situation is no longer stressful to them.
walls, only the mutual electrostatic charges A fundamental problem in field experi-
oE the mice will form electric fields. The ments, but one which finally has been
same will occur with humans, depending on solved, is that of the control situation.
Without doubt, a well-shielded Faraday more than 25% below or 50% above the
cage represents the definitive control condi- natural field intensities.
tion with respect to any electric field situa- A comparison of the free-choice experi-
tion. In many experiments it is unclear ments of Altmann and Lang (1973) with
whether the experimental cage with the those of Brinkmann (1976) also shows how
electric field conditions was also located small mammals naturally react to the influ-
within a Faraday cage, so that the electric ence of biologically adequate fields by
environment of the laboratory was ex- remaining in an artificial 10-Hz field during
cluded in both cases. In biologic terms, of active periods, and sleeping under shielded
course, the absence of a field also consti- conditions, which correspond to their un-
tutes a change from the familiar environ- derground refuges in the wild.
ment and will also evoke a stress response. There is some evidence to indicate that
However, normal laboratory conditions are the sensitivity to such environmental fac-
basically unsuitable as control conditions tors can also be acquired. If mice are bred
because of the presence of atmospherics. for 12 generations in a Faraday cage that
Moreover, the electric power supply, air- screens out all electric fields up to 10kHz
conditioning system and diverse measuring by more than 99%, the subsequent genera-
instruments create an artificial electric en- tion is no longer capable of distinguishing
vironment which is by no means constant. between IO-Hz square-pulse field condi-
Based on general experience, therefore, the tions and Faraday conditions, as normal
recommended course is to employ Faraday mice are. The control animals, which had
conditions as the control situation, while also been raised in a Faraday environment
allowing the animals sufficient time (as for the same number of generations but
described above) to become accustomed to were exposed concurrently to a square-
these shielded conditions. This does not pulse field at 10Hz and 100 V 1m, showed a
solve the problem of the necessary identity clear preference for the field conditions fa-
of the initial biologic and physical condi- miliar to them, regardless of their activity
tions, of course, but it does provide an phase (Lang et aI., 1977). The question
exact and defined procedure for undertak- previously addressed by Persinger (1969)
ing such experiments. Largely the same on the extent to which these abilities are
considerations apply to experiments in the acquired in certain "imprinting" phases
area of human physiology. was investigated further by Hartmann
(1978). According to his findings, there are
two types of mice with respect to nesting
Biologic Sensitivity to Fields and sleeping behavior: those that prefer a
stimulus-poor environment for these func-
With regard to the sensitivity of the biologic tions, and those that prefer a more stim-
organism, it has already been stated that, ulus-rich environment (called "Faraday
according to Verheijen (1958), a physiolog- types" and "field types," respectively). Ap-
ically meaningful perception of environ- parently there was no adaptation to atmo-
mental factors can be expected and sought spheric electric fields during rearing. How-
only in the intensity range that corresponds ever, an abrupt change of the atmospheric
to the naturally occurring range of this fac- electric milieu (from Faraday to field condi-
tor in the undisturbed environment. tions, or vice versa) in newborn mice ef-
Wiltschko and Fleissner (1976) made an infected a change of "type" in at least some
teresting discovery in this regard when they of the animals tested. Older animals appear
observed that robins, which are capable of to be immune to this effect.
natural geomagnetic orientation, found Fole (1972) and Fole and Dutrus (1974)
their destination in artificial magnetic fields observed a marked response to strong elec-
only if these artificial conditions were no tric fields only in animals that had been
Survey 235
previously exposed to a weaker field of 7 (1970) was the first to identify psychic fea-
kV/m. These results suggest that the initial tures as determinants of the behavior of
exposure to electric field conditions may subjects with respect to electric fields. If
produce a sensitization. While this reaction these findings are compared with the results
might be characterized more as a learned of Lang (1975), Altmann et al. (I 976a) and
response from the standpoint of behavioral Anselm et al. (1976), the correlation found
physiology, one is tempted to compare it in these studies between the responses of
with the immune responses of the organ- experimental animals and human subjects
ism. The findings of Persinger ( 1969, 1974) to electric fields and the biotropy of the cor-
on the behavior of rats exposed prenatally responding meteorologic situation (cf.
or during early life to magnetic fields, as Sonning, 1976; Faust, 1977) can be in-
well as experimental results in man, could terpreted only to mean that the organism
also be interpreted along these lines. As in under stress responds more strongly than
antibody formation, the true response of that under no stress. Apparently it does not
the organism does not become manifest matter in this case whether the stress
until the next encounter with the environ- results from exogenous factors, such as
mental parameter in question. weather conditions or other environmental
At the same time, a comparison of avail- elements, or if it is already present by vir-
able results on the physiologic effects of tue of certain endogenous peculiarities
electric, magnetic and electromagnetic al- (hypotonics/hypertonics, vagotonics/sym-
ternating fields in the range of the Schu- pathotonics, mental stability/lability, ex-
mann resonances shows that the form of troverts/introverts, etc.). A brief anamnesis
the oscillations and the associated respon- with no regard for fundamental psychic per-
sivity of biologic tissues to these oscilla- sonality structures on the one hand, or for
tions also playa decisive role. Direct and meteorologic environmental stresses on the
reproducible biologic effects could be other, is clearly inadequate as a means of
achieved even at low field intensities with selecting comparable experimental sub-
strongly harmonic, square-pulse electric jects. A fatal error in this regard is made by
fields at to Hz; with to-Hz modulated elec- experimenters who, concerned with obtain-
trical oscillations with a carrier frequency ing the greatest possible homogeneity, se-
of 461 MHz; with to-Hz modulated elec- lect their subjects on the basis of good
tric fields with a carrier frequency of 10 health and willingness to cooperate (these
kHz; and with harmonic magnetic field os- are mostly mentally stable persons!). For
cillations with a fundamental frequency of reasons mentioned earlier, however, it is in
10Hz. By contrast, sinusoidal electric field just such persons that one would expect to
oscillations at this frequency usually pro- find a low sensitivity to electrical environ-
duced no effects, while sinusoidal magnetic mental factors.
field oscillations at this frequency produced
only partly corresponding effects (Lang,
1976; Altmann et aI., 1976a; Anselm et aI., Discussion
1976; Fischer, 1976a,b; Jacobi and Kriis-
kemper, 1975; Bawin et aI., 1973; Ludwig In light ofthe arguments presented, it is ap-
et aI., 1976; Maxey, 1976; Wiltschko and parent that the oft-cited "contradictory
Fleissner, 1976; Konig and Ankermiiller, results" ofbiometeorologic research on the
1960). effects of electric, magnetic and elec-
Earlier authors had already found a dif- tromagnetic fields on organisms are actual-
ferentiated response to electric environ- ly comparable in many respects and, with
mental factors in the broadest sense for dif- careful evaluation, can be interpreted as
ferent constitutional types (Ranscht- stress responses, field-specific adaptive re-
Froemsdorff, I 966a, and others). H. Schulz sponses and frequency-specific responses.
The stress or stimulative response of the the ELF spectrum in the Schumann reso-
organism to such fields has been described nance range, on which most research has
most clearly by Becker (l975b), Marino been done. In any event, the findings of
(1975), Lang (1975) and Fischer (1976a,b), Bawin et al. (1973), Maxey (1976), Ludwig
and was found to be evoked by 50-Hz fields et al. (1976) and Jacobi and Kriiskemper
as well as by static and 10-Hz fields of high (1975) not only provide an interesting con-
intensity. Data on threshold values that firmation of earlier findings by Konig and
characterize the boundary between stress Ankermliller (1960) and Hamer (1965), but
and simple stimulation or no effect can (disregarding the still-unresolved question
scarcely be found in the literature. Field in- of the necessary carrier frequency and na-
tensity data alone, with no regard for the ture of the acting oscillation) also demon-
temporal action of the field, are insufficient. strate a direct coupling of central nervous
It should be remembered in this context mechanisms to exogenous electric, magnet-
that if the stressing effect of such environ- ic and electromagnetic factors.
mental parameters is confirmed for rela- Ludwig (1971) calculated the physical
tively strong or even weaker fields, a specif- circumstances that enable weak exogenous
ic type of environmental stressor must be electric and magnetic fields in the ELF and
established. Unlike all other stress-produc- VLF ranges to act on molecular processes
ing agents in our modem environment, at the cell membrane. He was able to show
man-made fields are more or less alI-per- that a hydrated calcium ion at a cell
vading. Atmospheric emissions, water pol- membrane is moved away from a mem-
lution, food contamination, etc., are still brane pore by more than one pore diameter
relatively local in their scope. By contrast, (several angstroms, or 10- 10 m) during one-
it is no longer possible, at least in living half period by an alternating field at 0.5 Hz
areas, to find a space that is both "natural" with an electric intensity of 10-5 V1m and
and field-free. magnetic induction of 0.05 mT. If this calci-
During the course of the general adapta- um ion was previously blocking the pore of
tion syndrome in response to stress, the a synaptic membrane, its displacement will
secretion of glucocorticoids marks the open the pore, and an action potential can
onset of an adaptive response by which the be produced. According to Adey (1975),
organism adjusts to the environmental in- the confirmation of these calculations by
fluence or attempts to regenerate itself. The Bawin et al. (1973) shows a possible con-
field-specific adaptive response, as it is nection between field-excitable calcium
called here, differs from the stereo typic ions at the membranes of brain neurons and
adaptive response ofthe stress syndrome in "biologic switching molecules" such as cer-
certain critical hormonal regulatory process- tain prostaglandins. These compounds are
es and characterizes, rather, the efforts of active only in the presence of calcium ions
the organism to adjust specifically to and thus may represent a link between elec-
changes in its electric environment. Like tric stimulation and metabolic processes in
the stress response, this reaction appears to the cell.
be very old phylogenetically, for the same
impairments found in relatively highly de-
veloped small mammals (mice and rats)
have also been observed in much more Conclusions
primitive organisms such as frogs (Altmann
et aI., 1977). Electric, magnetic and electromagnetic
The frequency-specific response of the fields present a stress, but have therapeutic
organism to electric, magnetic and elec- applications as well. Scientific results cur-
tromagnetic fields is certainly the most in- rently available on this applied aspect of
teresting of the biologic responses. It is biometeorology indicate the following:
doubtful that this response is limited just to 1. The danger of electric stress occur-
Fields and Currents in Medicine 237
Figure 11-7. The use of electric currents and electromagnetic fields in medicine is on the increase.
Here, direct currents and specific low-frequency alternating currents are employed for physiothera-
peutic purposes.
ring in healthy persons exposed temporar- every case if field conditions are suitably
ily to high-voltage transmission lines of the optimized. The question of whether and to
usual dimensions is probably relatively what extent these effects may be of general
slight, but cannot be ruled out with absolute benefit to nonselected patients or subject
certainty. groups cannot yet be resolved conclusively
2. The effects of long-term exposure to in accordance with the strictest scientific
strong 50-Hz fields should be investigated criteria.
further in human subjects by neutral, expe-
rienced institutions under strictly-defined
conditions and compared with results pub-
lished by Russian investigators. Only in
Fields and Currents in Medicine*
this way can final conclusions be drawn.
3. In persons with a preexisting physical We shall not present a comprehensive sur-
or mental stress, particular care is war- vey of this topic, for the application of elec-
ranted in judging the possible additional tric currents in such areas of medicine as
stresses associated with energy fields. Cu- physical therapy (Fig. 11-7) and electronic
mulative effects in organisms exposed to diagnostics (ECG, EEG, etc.) is nothing
various stimulators and stressors are very new. However, it would appear that medi-
likely to have adverse consequences in a cine is not exhausting all the possibilities in
particular case, described as "electrical this area. Some potential is also offered by
stress" by Becker (1975b) and Marino certain "lay methods," which might be
(1975). useful in some areas and should be sub-
4. The frequency-specific response and jected to further research. We shall discuss
field-specific adaptive response described
above appear to be therapeutically useful in *Contribution of Dr. H.L. Konig
some possible applications of electromag- volves the use of a coil arrangement (Figs.
netic fields and electric currents that may 11-8 and 11-9) in which a pulsed magnetic
not be generally known. field of about 2.4 kA/m (30 Oe) is produced
The medical significance of pulsating by meanS of an electric function generator.
magnetic fields was investigated by Evertz An implanted transducer (usually mounted
and Konig (1977), with special consider- inside the fracture pin) converts the mag-
ation given to the questions involved in the netic energy into an alternating voltage of
physiotherapeutic application of such 0.3-0.5 V, which maintains a current of
fields. The use of pulsed magnetic fields in 1-2 JLA/mm 2 at the electrode surface. The
medicine is the consequence of a develop- formation of new blood vessels, the most
ment which has culminated in the discovery important prerequisite for successful bone
of biochemical and magnetic relationships healing, was observed in animal experi-
in modem cancer research. The authors at- ments. A survey of the technical aspects of
tempt to interpret the biologic and medical this technique is given by Kraus (1978),
effects of these fields on biologic systems and clinical data are reported by Lechner
and discuss promising new therapeutic pos- and Ascherl (1978). Excerpts from a com-
sibilities. plete photographic documentation of the
For example, magnetic fields are nOW course of congenital tibial pseudarthrosis in
being used for energy transmission, as an 8-year-old female patient are shown in
means of generating electric potentials at Fig. 11-10.
the site of bone fractures-a technique A similar application of magnetic fields
which has produced amazing cures in the for curative purposes is envisioned by
most stubborn cases. The technique devel- Gleichmann (1974), based on the tech-
oped by Kraus and Lechner (1973) in- nique of Koeppen (1966). In contrast to
Figure 11-8. The magnetic field produced by a coil is used to generate electric currents directly at the
site of bone fractures. The pins used to fix the fracture contain the apparatus necessary for converting
the magnetic energy into the desired currents. Both the applied currents and the magnetic field
promote the healing process.
Figure 11-9. Magnetic field coil designed especially for the treatment of hip-joint arthrosis.
Figure 11-10. Typical course of congenital tibial pseudarthrosis in a patient born in 1969. Field thera-
py was begun in August, 1973 (29.8.73), and continued over an 8-month period for a total treatment
time of about 500 hr. The photos above are an excerpt from a complete photographic record made
throughout the period of observation.
Figure 11-11. Large coil for administering magnetic fields at 1-100 Hz to the trunk region.
Kraus and Lechner (1973), he uses much effect is attributable to the current, and
larger coil arrangements (diameter 0.45 m), what part to the magnetic field?
which can accommodate not only limbs, The promising results achieved in frac-
but the entire body. By means of a max- ture healing with magnetic fields led Birn-
imum effective current of 6 A, a magnetic berger (1973) to experiment with rats in
field of 0.01 T (100 G) can be produced at order to study the effect of the field on
the center of the coil whose time course severed nerve pathways. No curative re-
corresponds to a pulsating DC field. This sults were obtained, but other marked ef-
was accomplished by subjecting the 50-Hz fects were noted. The skin lesions (pressure
alternating coil current to half-wave rec- sores) that developed on the part of the
tification, a technique also employed for denervated leg which was in contact with
currents in physical therapy (Fig. II-I\). the ground were noticeably less severe in
It is claimed that this arrangement pro- the animals treated with the field. More-
duced remarkable results in the treatment over, a marked and unexplained muscular
of cardiovascular complaints, renal insuf- hypertrophy (increase in muscle volume)
ficiency, changes in the vertebral bodies was observed in these animals.
(intervertebral disks), hip-joint arthrosis Besides the magnetic field devices al-
and muscular atrophy. ready discussed, smaller pocket units have
Further experience and clinical tests are also been placed on the market, as reported
needed before conclusions can be drawn. by Evertz and Ludwig ( 1977). These
In any case, the question arises whether the pocket devices have a variable frequency
successes achieved by Kraus and Lechner range, through which specific therapeutic
through the direct application of current effects can reportedly be achieved: I-3Hz
with electrode implants could not also be for treating inflammatory processes; 4-6
achieved without the use of implants. In Hz for sleep disturbances, nervousness and
other words, what part of the therapeutic hypertension; 7-25 Hz for headaches and
hypotension. Magnetic field-generating de- 6. A pulsed high-frequency current at 100

vices in the form of a rod are available for kHz with a pulse repetition frequency of
localized use. Ehrmann et al. (1976) report 100 Hz and pulse length of 1 ms.
on clinical tests of such an electromedical
pocket unit, which indicate that ELF fields For cerebral electrotherapy, the current
have a stabilizing effect on cell membranes, intensities are about 0.2-1.5 rnA; for elec-
while Ludwig (1977) discusses the biologic troanesthesia, up to 50 mAo In insomnia pa-
tolerance of such fields. The question of the tients, treatment with suitable currents on a
possible physical and physiologic mecha- short- or long-term basis has been success-
nisms of action of magnetic fields is ad- ful in 85% of cases.
dressed by Warnke (1978). He shows how Busch and Busch (1966) made an inter-
changes in the membrane potential, with esting contribution to the use of physical
the attendant consequences, can be pro- methods of measurement in the study of
duced by means of induction, the Hall ef- human basal regulation. They report on the
fect, the Lorentz force and the resulting application of two known methods of mea-
physico-chemical effects. surement for such investigations, one elec-
"Electro-sleep therapy" has also been tric and one thermal. Electric values were
much discussed in recent times. Wageneder measured by means of an RC bridge circuit
et al. (1973) state that this term is rejected that operated with a current of 30-50 /LA
by professionals, since the word sleep and a voltage of about 1 Vat a frequency of
implies that the patient must fall asleep dur- 9 kHz. The impedance was measured by an
ing the procedure, which involves the pas- active silver electrode with a diameter of 3
sage of an electric current through the head mm and a spring pressure of 100 g-force, as
for therapeutic purposes. However, sleep is well as a broad, indifferent metal electrode
unnecessary for the treatment to succeed. that was held in the subject's hand. By ap-
The term electrotherapy or electro- plying the silver electrode to various points
anesthesia is preferred, therefore. on the body, the impedance between these
Because the mechanism of action of the points and the indifferent electrode could
electric current passed through the brain is be determined. The data obtained from
still unknown, the type and form of the cur- such measurements, as well as from parallel
rent are selected on a purely empirical radiation temperature measurements (by
basis. Most commonly used are: means of an IR-radiation measuring de-
vice), presented in overlay form, can give
1. Different alternating currents with equal the physician important information on the
amplitudes but somewhat different patient's state of health based on deviations
frequencies, applied to the patient via from normal values and symmetry charac-
two channels. Their interference yields a teristics. Apparently this technique makes
fluctuating alternating current; it possible to study the function of the
2. Rectangular pulses superimposed on a complex human regulatory system by phys-
smaller direct current; pulse frequency ical methods of measurement, for mechani-
100 Hz, pulse width 1 ms; cal and thermal stimulations of the human
3. Sinusoidal alternating current, used body surface evoke marked changes in con-
primarily in veterinary medicine; ductance and radiation temperature, which
frequency about 700 Hz; can be detected by two entirely different
4. A mixture of all frequencies between 10 physical measuring techniques and which
Hz and 20 kHz (noise signal) with a lim- follow parallel courses.
ited amplitude; The technique of using an electric cur-
5. A double-triangular pulse with a pulse rent to stimulate nerves and muscles, which
frequency of about 60 Hz and a total is already in general use for the diagnostic
width of 3 ms for both triangles; and therapeutic treatment of neurologic
problems, should also be mentioned in this By applying the appropriate salve to the
context. For example, physiotherapeutic electrode tip, current can also be used for
measures are employed in fracture cases the local introduction of medication. Some-
with concomitant nerve injury. In order to times a water bath is used instead of metal
preserve the affected muscle and protect it electrodes. Besides these techniques,
from atrophy, it is stimulated and thus ac- which employ direct contact to produce a
tivated by a direct current (up to about 60 closed electric circuit, there is also short-
rnA) or alternating current (sawtooth wave wave and microwave therapy (diathermy),
with about 0.5 s rise time and abrupt fall, used for the localized heating of body tis-
with pause equal to twice the rise time) as a sues.
substitute for the currents no longer deliv- Apparently it is also possible to accu-
ered by the damaged nerves. Such currents rately locate the specific body points known
are also suitable for diagnostic purposes. from Chinese acupuncture by physical
The functional performance of a nerve can methods of measurement, for these points
be checked by employing a sawtooth curare distinguished from their surroundings
rent with various rise times, because only by marked changes in electric resistance
the healthy nerve is capable of responding (Fig. 11-12). Bergsmann and Woolley-Hart
to relatively short rise times (20-50 ms) (1973) conducted an exhaustive study of
during the transmission of artificial control the differences in electric skin conductivity
impulses to the muscle. In the case of dam- between acupuncture points and adjacent
aged nerves, this time is 2-5 s. The tech- skin areas:
nique can also be applied for the purpose of
All voltage-current measurements
muscular training, or for the treatment of
show a point of inflection where nonlin-
pain attacks accompanying degenerative earity occurs. The current value of this
joint diseases (cervical vertebral com- inflection is termed the "threshold cur-
plaints, back pain), painful shoulder rent." It is shown that the threshold
stiffness, contusions, etc. Direct and/or al- current over the point Lung 9 on the
ternating current (50 Hz or 100 Hz) in the cavity side and Liver 9 on the right
range of to-50 rnA is best for this purpose. have significantly higher values. This is
Figure 11-12. Special electrodes with a constant contact pressure make it possible to accurately
locate acupuncture points by measuring electric resistance.
considered to be an indication of al- Although electroacupuncture in particu-

tered permeability, and recent mathe- lar has found acceptance in classical medi-
matical reassessment of curves cine for some years (several thousand heart
suggests semiconductor character- operations have been performed in West
istics, thus reflecting a change in mem-
Germany alone using this technique), both
brane characteristics. It is felt that
these studies demonstrate a functional acupuncture and electroacupuncture re-
change in the skin of acupuncture main a subject of controversy in the medi-
points relevant to diseased organs. cal community. Competent experts ex-
pressed their views on the subject in the
Voll (1966) in particular has made many medical forum of S electa (1976). The
valuable contributions in the area of "elec- problems involved in both forms of acu-
troacupuncture." According to Voll, the puncture were discussed in detail, supple-
deviation of measured resistance values mented by the observation that elec-
from a certain empirical norm serves as a troacupuncture must not be confused with
diagnostic index. Moreover, by introducing the electric stimulation of individual points,
electric currents at 0.9-10 Hz through the which is particularly true for acupuncture
acupuncture points or through hand-held analgesia.
electrodes, the abnormal resistance values The German Cardiac Center in Munich,
can be restored to their original value, pre- Germany, has also performed over 1000
sumably with a simultaneous therapeutic open-heart operations using electro-
effect. Because carcinoma tissue is repor- acupuncture instead of anesthesia. Con-
tedly inactive bioelectrically-even exter- ventional pain-relieving agents can be dis-
nal, healthy tissue is bioelectrically dead in pensed with even postoperatively, for the
the case of stomach cancer, for ex- effect of electroacupuncture persists for 12
ample-it would seem possible to treat hr on the average. A pulsed electric current
such a disease with currents introduced is delivered to the patient simultaneously
from the outside. The anticipated therapeu- through electrode pairs applied to the ears,
tic effects must first be confirmed by experi- throat and forearms (Fig. 11-l3). The time
mental results, however. course of the current (Fig.II-14) includes
Figure 11-13. Open-heart surgery is made practically painless by electroacupuncture analgesia. The
figure shows a pulsed-current device with four terminals for the electrode pairs, manufactured in the
People's Republic of China.
maximum of 10 /-LA. Eight such cur-

rent-pulse intervals, alternatley negatively
and positively poled, were passed succes-
sively through various parts of the body.
This gave rise to a measurable return cur-
rent in the body, which must be regarded as
a type of discharge process like that occur-
ring in storage batteries (as opposed to a
capacitor discharge). This technique is
capable of revealing pathologic changes in
man, including, (I) meningeal and brain
Figure 11-14. Time course of the current damage, (2) chronic foci in the head and
(-70 rnA, - 13 Hz) employed in electroacu- neck region, (3) chronic disturbances of
puncture analgesia. the intestine-lymph system, (4) chronic
disorders of individual organs, (5) chronic
erosional processes and intoxications (poi-
the following specifics: voltage at the ear sonings), (6) acute inflammatory organic
electrode, 80V pp; peak value of current, disturbances, (7) acute severe shock phe-
60-80 rnA; pulse repetition frequency, nomena in the organs, such as myocardial
12-15 Hz; pulse duration, positive phase, infarction.
0.5 ms, negative phase, 1.7-2 ms; negative Schuldt (I 974a) conducted corre-
amplitude about 1/3 of positive peak value. sponding long-term experiments with the
The 1/ U ratio is exponential, and the device developed by Vill and Jahnke (1975)
analgesia is dependent on the pulse shape. from the fundamental work of Voll (1966).
The mechanism of action of electro- With regard to the measurement of electric
acupuncture is stilI largely unknown. Pre- conductance in test subjects, he reports:
sumably a link is established with the body I. An individual mean was present,
interior and the thalamus via sympathetic depending on the overall reactive state of
pathways. The externally applied current the body. This mean fluctuated in both di-
coud act via sympathetic nerve fibers to rections due to various factors, such as
cause a blockage (pain barrier) of the food intake, oxygen supply, general state of
slower pain signals at synapses in fast-con- health, temperature, inflammation, diurnal
ducting pathways. variations, etc.
All attempts to identify acupuncture 2. Previous observations in a group of
points by purely anatomic means have 10-16 subjects showed that overall fluctua-
failed. No large neural, vascular or lym- tions of conductance (besides individual
phatic channels, nor any anatomic struc- fluctuations) tend to be in the same direc-
tural changes such as cell-lumen changes, tion on certain days (in certain me-
are detectable in vivo or in vitro. Schuldt teorologic situations). A decrease in the
( 197 4a) suggests that the points may have conductance values of the group as a whole
to do with certain concentrations of force coincided with the occurrence of phantom
field lines, which are not connected with pains in amputees and with the exacerba-
conductive pathways, but are determined tion of joint pains in rheumatics.
by overall body morphology. Based on these measurements, Schuldt
Vill and Jahnke (1975) employed a more (197 4b) proposed his simultaneous mul-
technically refined method to investigate tiparametric analysis technique, in which
the diagnostic problem in particular. They several parallel series of measurements are
recorded a pulsed current with a IO-Hz rep- made in a sufficiently large subject group
etition frequency which was interrupted over long periods of time. The results allow
every 4 s by a direct current measuring a the necessary inferences to be drawn on a
comparative basis with regard to the func- whether information flow can be effected in
tional relationship between the external the opposite direction, although new pros-
stimulus and biologic activity. This tech- pects are opened up by the utlilzation of
nique may well make a significant contribu- electromagnetic fields.
tion toward the recognition of cause-and-ef- Research into the production of subjec-
fect relationships on a statistical basis. tive light patterns, or "phosphenes," by
Lampert (1968) reports on another inter- means of galvanic currents is only indi-
esting application of electric current in con- rectly related to the biologic activity of
nection with the prevention of embolism electromagnetic fields, but it is nevertheless
and the mobilization of thrombi. Most ex- interesting enough to be discussed in clos-
perience in this area has been with phle- ing. Knoll et al. (1962) mentioned that such
bitis, venous thrombosis and throm- phenomena were described as early as
bophlebitis; the results in relieving the ob- 1816 by Volta and 1819 by Purkinje. They
struction were very good in 85% of cases, produced "galvanic light patterns" (arcs
good in 12%, and poor in only 3%. A secon- and bands) with a 20- V Volta cell.
dary indication was found to be the rapid To produce this phenomenon, Knoll et
absorption of massive blood effusions, al. (1962) attached two silver electrodes
which also represent subcutaneous wetted with Ringer's solution to the fore-
thrombi. Coronary thrombosis could also heads of test subjects. To these electrodes
be treated by this method without the need was applied a rectangular voltage (pulsed
for coronary angiography. The current direct current, duty factor of 1:4 or 1: I) of
source was a power pack adjustable to any 0.5-3.5 V. The subjects-20 psychiatric
setting from 0 to 30 V, which delivered a patients and 10 poly technical students
current of about 20-30 mA through elec- -were then able to see patterns that ap-
trodes to the endangered zones. Starting at peared as a function of frequency. The pat-
zero, this current must be increased very terns described could be produced in a third
gradually (over a period of several minutes) of the persons tested without any operative
to its final value, care being taken that the intervention. The following findings were
polarity of the direct current is unchanged reported:
when treatment is repeated. Lampert
(1968) attributes the success of the treat- I. Some subjective patterns occasionally
ment to the detachment of the thrombus on changed their form during constant
one side only by the galvanic current. The stimulation. The mean stimulation
concentration of 0 H ions on the anodic frequency for many patterns also
side leads to the dissolution of fibrin and varied with time.
blood corpuscles, thereby reopening the 2. Many of the patterns described could
vessel. also be produced by nonelectrical stimu-
Further important results are expected lation, such as a mechanical, acoustic or
from research into electric brain activity. chemical shock.
For now we shall mention in passing that 3. All of the patterns sketched by the sub-
Dewan (1964) was able to show that com- jects were abstract in nature (mostly
munication can be accomplished by the vol- geometric shapes).
untary, conscious control of EEG currents. 4. The number of patterns that could be
Apparently the alpha rhythm of the brain produced per subject was greater among
could be voluntarily controlled sufficiently the psychiatric patients than in the
so that the EEG could be modulated with healthy group.
Morse code signals. According to the ex-
perimental results, any message desired can Phenomena similar to the phosphenes
be transmitted to a recording instrument in produced by pulsed electric stimulation
this manner. It is still an open question (head electrodes) can also be triggered by
.....L
0 10 20 SO 40 50 60 70 80 Hz
a-
..
~
a1 .~~.J ax.
It~ Flimmern
a2
?- ~
a3
~l'f--O- j-I--S~I(
a4 f-O o .,,-a-
a6 max
limmern c- d-~-3.5V
a7 ~eig. f - - horiz.t-- t- '-
b- I Beweg .... ,-. Straifen Tastverhaltnis 1:4 oder 1:1
-
a8
e- I'''' "ft~
leii
III.
a9
Cht
.10
• 12
f?:,~ .
a13
I--<~IIX _.e.'t 1111
a14
a15 ~
~
~ '?~~
~-~~ -
~
a17
...
,,~ (t- f - -
a18
a19 r )r I
,..
a20
n ~ r
b1
~
.,J Ik~~~t~
b2
~'~".
"ft:. ai»J~~
i
b5 ::>Xc +-- !---ir >v<~~t
b6
1m 1- 1-4
Bano.prel e,
innerhalb der Muster an~
b7
~ g- = Minimalintensitiit fOr Flim~
b9
r- h- 1==1 zugehorige Bandbreite
b10 \j I I I
Figure 11-15. Spectrum of individual patterns clearly seen by various subjects when weak electric
currents at the indicated frequencies (0-130 Hz) were passed through their heads. Subjects al
through a20 were psychiatric patients, subjects b 1 through b 10 were students. After Knoll and Kugler
(1959).
Key: a- Max. flicker; b- Tilting movement; c- Horiz. bands; d- Duty factor 1:4 or 1: 1; e- Light flash; f-
Bandwidth within which patterns are excited; g-Minimum intensity for flicker; h-Associated
bandwidth
magnetic fields. Seidel et al. (1968) report differs from that of the electric patterns. A
that a stimulator coil placed near the head consideration of the conductivity distribu-
produces phosphenes by magnetic induction in the cranial structure suggests that
tion; the necessary induction is approxi- an increase in the density of induced
mately 0.02-0.1 T (200-1000 G) in the stimulating currents near electrically con-
frequency range of 2-50 Hz. All of the ductive media (such as the eyeballs and
patterns found in the experiments are iden- thus the retina) may be responsible for the
tical to the geometric phosphenes that magnetic excitation of phosphenes; and
were produced in the electric stimulation this theory agrees with similar consider-
experiments described above (Fig. II-IS). ations of Schuldt (1974b) mentioned
However, their percentage frequency earlier.
12
Electromagnetic Energies in Man's Immediate
Environment
Electric Power Supply Facilities telephones, radios, television sets, etc., will
be disregarded for the time being.
The increased utilization of electric energy Concerning the effects of high-voltage
in man's immediate environment raises the transmission lines, it must be understood
urgent question of whether such energy that there are various gradations ranging
might not cause changes, perhaps even rad- from harmless, biologically active and
ical ones, in human living conditions. High- health-damaging to lethal. Differences in
voltage transmission lines in particular may the initial state of each individual, other en-
seem menacing to the layman and generate vironmental influences, and the location
fears that their presence, especially near factor make each case unique. General
homes, may have adverse effects on health. statements can be made only on a statistical
But health questions are raised not only by basis, in terms of probabilities (see also
high-voltage lines for 50- or 60-Hz power Chapter 7).
current and 16 2/3 Hz railway current (in Without special large-scale investiga-
central Europe), but also by electric rail- tions, therefore, it is impossible to accura-
ways themselves (15,000 V, 16 2 / 3 Hz), for tely assess the health hazard posed by high-
very strong currents arise in the overhead voltage transmission lines. At a time when
contact lines at irregular intervals, com- man is gradually beginning to develop an
bined with a return current which may flow environmental awareness, the problem of
over paths other than the rails. Because possible biologic effects of high-voltage
these rails are not specifically insulated lines and related facilities in man's immedi-
from the gound, substantial stray currents ate environment can no longer be ignored.
may arise at points many kilometers distant High-voltage lines pose another, by no
from the rails (Fig. 12-1). Household power means trivial problem from the standpoint
current, to which modern man must live in of environmental quality, for they represent
close proximity, is yet another factor, even both an eyesore and an acoustic annoyance
though the voltages in this case are substan- to persons living nearby. Under certain
tially lower ( II 0 V, 220 V or 380 V). Other wind conditions the humming and whistling
sources of electromagnetic fields, such as noise produced by transmission lines is not
248 Electromagnetic Energies in Man's Immediate Environment
Figure 12-1. All electrically powered systems emit a more or less intense electric and magnetic radia-
tion, or field. High-voltage transmission systems and electrically powered railway systems are key ex-
amples. But streetcar and subway systems in man's immediate environment also alter natural elec-
tromagnetic conditions without our being aware of it. The biologic activity of such fields is an es-
tablished fact. Their harmfulness remains to be determined.
only annoying to noise-sensitive persons, it Physical Factors

subjects them to nervous stress as well.
Even more annoying are the corona dis- Power-line fields. By virtue of its operat-
charges that occur on high-voltage lines ing voltage (conductor-conductor, conduc-
under certain weather conditions (icing, tor-ground), a high-voltage transmission
fog, high humidity), because they create a line generates an electric field about it
loud, continuous, monotonous hum that is whose intensity depends on the operating
particularly irritating in contrast with the voltage of the line as well as on the overall
calm which otherwise prevails under such geometry of the line (spacing of the wires
conditions. and the environment in which the electric
High-voltage lines can also attract light- field is of interest) and of the observation
ning discharges. That this property is an ad- site itself.
vantage (according to some experts) be- As long as current is flowing through the
cause it enables such lines to divert light- line, a magnetic field also exists whose in-
ning from adjacent buildings is question- tensity is determined mainly by the magni-
able, because the number of lightning tude of the flowing current, the arrange-
strokes is simultaneously increased, with ment of the conductors and the properties
unpleasant consequences for persons in the of the environment. The technical aspects
vicinity. of this problem were investigated exten-
We shall focus our attention, however, sively by Schneider et al. (1974). Since the
on the electromagnetic aspects of high-vol- voltage and current in the conductors have
tage transmission lines. a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz (or 16 2/ 3 Hz for
Electric Power Supply Facilities 249
railway current), this is also true for the cial transmitters (radio stations) and their
fields produced by them. In addition to this consequences are mentioned in passing.
fundamental frequency, however, higher- Natural fields. The natural electromag-
frequency signal components are also netic climate is also significantly altered by
present in high-voltage transmission lines. such facilities, for all natural electric and
The amplitudes of these harmonics are gen- magnetic fields are strongly disturbed in the
erally different for voltage and current. vicinity of high-voltage transmission lines.
Due to insulation conditions, it is to be This is especially true for static fields and
expected that certain stray currents will fields up to the kilohertz range, which, due
flow in the ground in the vicinity of high- to their correspondingly long wavelengths,
voltage transmission lines or between them. have a field distribution that is comparable
In addition, inductive or capacitive cou- to the of static fields. Such low-frequency
pling between the wires and ground can natural electromagnetic fields and their
lead to earth currents whose frequency biologic significance have already been dis-
spectrum generally differs from that of the cussed elsewhere in detail.
line currents (or voltages), and which result The disturbance of natural electromagnet-
in the formation of electric and magnetic ic and static fields also results in a distur-
fields that are essentially independent of the bance of natural air ionization. The shield-
conduction system. Corona discharges, ing or diverting effect of the grounded metal
moreover, give rise to signals whose spec- towers and high-voltage wires in particular
tral components are essentially indepen- leads to substantial changes in the static
dent of the frequency of the alternating line electric field, which is important for air
current and normally lie in higher ionization. Because ionized air consists of
frequency ranges. electrically charged particles, upon which a
Finally, if high-voltage wires are moved force is exerted by the atmospheric electric
by wind forces, changes occur in the overall field, a close connection exists between the
line geometry which produce corre- state of air ionization and the technical fa-
sponding changes in electromagnetic condi- cilities that disturb the natural atmospheric
tions. This means that the electric and mag- electric milieu. Even the presence of a suf-
netic fields associated with the wires un- ficiently intense 50- or 16 2/3-Hz alternating
dergo an additional amplitude modulation field is enough to cause a significant shift in
in rhythm with the mechanical motion of the natural air ion balance. As measure-
the wires. ments have shown, the space affected by
Another factor to be considered is that the electric field becomes deionized, that is,
the voltage and current in high-voltage lines the air ions are drawn off by the field-
do not follow a strictly sinusoidal curve generating electrodes regardless of their
with respect to time. Transitory voltage or polarity. This could be explained by the
current surges (or peaks) occur, which set fact that beyond a certain field intensity,
up an additional pulse-like field. and if the alternating frequency is not too
High-voltage lines are also capable of high, the ions could acquire very large
transmitting over great distances certain amplitudes of motion in synchrony with the
signals they have picked up by capacitive, alternating field. The ions could be carried
inductive or galvanic means (from lightning to the electrodes resulting in an ion deple-
strokes, radio transmitters, television trans- tion of the surrounding air. Owing to the
mitters, etc.). Effects from structural tendency of charges to distribute them-
members, especially metal ones (poles, selves uniformly in space, the deionized
cables, etc.) on the field distribution of high- space near the electrodes is continuously
frequency fields (reflections, standing replenished by new ions from outside,
waves, etc.) produced mainly by commer- which in turn are diverted by the elec-
trodes. As a result of this process, a space plicated interrelationships, it is still possible

filled with a relatively intense (::: 5 kV 1m) to predict the field intensity values near
alternating electric field (60 or 50 Hz) could high-voltage transmission lines with a fair
become deionized with time. Other possi- degree of accuracy for certain conditions,
ble explanations for this effect are an even though on-site measurements should
increased recombination rate or the forma- always be made in specific cases. The near-
tion of large ions through enhanced ag- field situation of the undisturbed electric
gregation caused by the alternating field. field is shown for various operating volt-
The biologic importance of air ionization ages and tower configurations in Fig. 12-2.
has already been discussed. Thus, the pos- The field intensity values at a distance of
sibility of such a significant change in natu- 10-20 m and a height of only 0.5 m above
ral air-ionization conditions must not be ig- the ground are always in excess of 100
nored when the biologic effects of such fa- V 1m, in the case of a llO-k V line. This in-
cilities are investigated. tensity is several orders of magnitude
Field intensity values. The biologic sig- greater than that which is now generally
nificance of a given stray field depends in known to be biologically active.
large measure on the intensity of the field as The displacement current caused by per-
compared with intensity values that are sons standing upright in an electric field is
known to be biologically active. On-site approximately 15 /-LA per kV/m, and thus
measurement is the most reliable method of has a strength of 1.5 /-LA at a field intensity
determining the magnitude of such fields. of 100 VIm (corresponding to 0.5 m above
The field intensity in the vicinity of a high- the ground).
voltage transmission line apparently de- The critical distance is somewhat smaller
pends on several factors. The electric field in the case of the magnetic field, although
intensity is determined primarily by the actual conditions may deviate considerably
operating voltage of the line, which may from estimates if earth currents are present.
exceed 100,000 V. The magnetic field in- As mentioned earlier, the stray currents
tensity depends mainly on the current flow- from electric railways playa special role in
ing through the conductors, or the operat- this regard. The following important points
ing current. Unlike the operating voltage, can be derived in connection with the elec-
which should remain constant, the operat- tric facilities discussed thus far:
ing current-and, with it, the magnetic 1. Natural electric and magnetic condi-
field-is subject to sizable fluctuations dur- tions are strongly disturbed in the vicinity
ing the day. The field intensity is also of such facilities.
strongly influenced by the overall geometry 2. The principal source of artificial fields
of the transmission line, as mentioned earli- is high-voltage overhead transmission lines
er (Schneider et aI., 1974). But the proper- and indoor (household) wiring. Depending
ties of the space between the lines and the on the environment and other factors, their
point at which the field intensity is of inter- intensity ranges from extremely weak and
est are also important. Both electric and therefore negligible values, to values corre-
magnetic fields can be screened out or sponding to natural environmental condi-
greatly attenuated by certain materials and tions, to values several orders of magnitude
their arrangement (e.g., large window sur- greater than the intensity of these natural
faces, steel-reinforced concrete, sheet-met- fields.
al roofing). The distance from the high-vol- The "final report" of Bridges (1975) on
tage line is the most important determinant the biologic effects of high-voltage fields,
of field intensity, however, because the in- 315 pages long, indicates the importance of
tensity of both electric and magnetic fields this question on an international level. The
falls off sharply with distance, even under report contains a comprehensive bibliogra-
undisturbed conditions. Despite these com- phy and a survey of ongoing work, with em-
phasis on the following areas: (1) biologic microbes; the number and phagocytic ac-
effects of AC power-line fields between 45 tivity of the leukocytes were also reduced.
and 75 Hz, (2) biologic effects of DC elec- In similar experiments with 50-Hz fields,
trostatic fields, (3) effects of AC power- Lantsman (1965) observed phagocytic ac-
line fields and radiofrequency waves on pa- tivity in mice under comparable conditions.
tients with implanted cardiac pacemakers. A single field exposure had the effect of
The material presented by Bridges is in- stimulating phagocytosis, while multiple
tended to assist biologists and engineers in exposure retarded it. Should it be shown
planning with regard to the biologic effects that these results are applicable to humans,
of fields from overhead high-voltage power there would be far-reaching consequences
transmission lines and to guide the Electric concerning increased susceptibility to dis-
Power Research Institute* staff and their ease caused by exposure to excessive
counterparts elsewhere in the planning and stray-field intensities.
conduct of biologic research. We shall not The drinking behavior of rats in a 50-Hz
take the time to cite specific quotes from high-voltage field was investigated by
the report, as its principal contributions on Spittka et al. (1969). They proceeded from
the bioactivity of fields have already been the experiments done by Knickerbocker et
treated elsewhere. al. (1967) with mice in a 60-Hz high-voltage
field with an intensity of 160 kV/m. Al-
though the animals were exposed to the
Biologic Factors field over a period of 1500 hr, they did not
differ significantly from a control group in
What indications are there that such alter- terms of weight or other physiologic data.
nating fields are biologically active or even Only the male offspring of field-exposed fa-
harmful? Based on the current status of sci- thers showed a somewhat smaller weight
entific research, it is useful to treat this increase than the sons of the controls.
question in two parts: (1) investigations Spittka et al. (1969) therefore studied the
dealing with the biologic effects of 50- and drinking behavior of rats in alternating
60-Hz fields on animals as well as man; fields in an effort to detect possible field ef-
(2) investigations on the biologic effects of fects. The rats were placed into an appara-
electromagnetic fields in adjacent tus containing a lever that was electrically
frequency ranges, which allow corre- linked to a drinking vessel in a manner such
sponding inferences to be drawn. that a drop of water was released whenever
Animal experiments. In a series of exper- the lever was pressed. The number of
iments in which microbes (Listeria) were presses per unit time (15 s) was recorded as
injected into mice and guinea pigs, Odint- a function of the field situation (on or oft).
sov (1965) investigated the immunobiologic The main finding was a significant decrease
effects of a magnetic field. The animals were in the lever-pressing rate when the field was
exposed either once for 6.5 hr or continu- switched on (for the first 15 s), as well as in-
ouslyon 15 consecutive days to a 50-Hz dividual-specific changes in the pressing
magnetic field at 16 kA/m. A single ex- sequence. Spittka et al. (1969) states that
posure to the field influenced neither the his results conflict with the findings of
lethal microbe dose, its distribution in the Knickerbocker et al. (1967), even though
organism, the number of leukocytes or their the latter investigators used a higher field
phagocytic activity. Multiple exposure, intensity (160 k V 1m) than that employed in
however, caused a marked reduction in the the present case (about 60 kV/m). This is
natural resistance of the animals to the attributed to the unfavorable experimental
conditions of Knickerbocker et al. (1967):
currents arising in the drinking vessels as
*3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California well as slight discharges during drinking,
94304.
a) 110 kV
kV/m
..
1.0
s
14.55 R T
0.5
x __
o 10 15 m 20
b) 220 kV
~
S",.~'=~~Ps
1\Q
I'
I 34.1
I
I
t
17.5
x_
c) 380 kV
47,8 Eo
~
/R S T ~
o 5 10 15 20 25 m 30
x-
Figure 12-2. Electric field intensity Eo( calculated, .... measured) for various types of high-
voltage transmission tower; field values 0.5 m above the ground, distance x from center-line, all
measurements in meters; RST = circuit phases; E = ground wire; double-circuit system is
employed in all cases; e asymmetrical design, all other cases are symmetrical; d influence of a ground
elevation; f influence of vegetation, (I) calculated for 0.5 m above the ground, (2) calculated for I m
above the ground; c (I) between towers, (2) at the tower. After Schneider et al. (1974).
which Spittka et al. (1969) took care to sequence). Of particular interest are the
avoid. Based on his results, he was able to changes in the lever-pressing sequence in
prove statistically that the operant drinking the field. The question arises whether the
behavior of the rats was altered by the field. increasing variance of the pressing rate
Both general trends and marked individual (scatter) in the field is correlated with the
differences were observed (e.g., decline in decline of the pressing rate. In general
lever-pressing rate or change in pressing terms, this would mean that behavior is dis-
d) 110 kV
...TSR
x_
e) 220 kV
E2 E,
TSR TSR
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 15 20 m25

x_
f) 220 kV
....
S T
..
20,3
0,5
T R S
o 10 20 m 40
30 x _ _
turbed by field exposure, resulting in a sponding controls. Mice exposed continu-

slowing and loss of precision in action ously to the field at about I kV/m gained
sequences. Finally, the field was found to weight more rapidly than the controls. The
produce probably short- and long-term difference was slight but statistically signifi-
after-effects. cant. In further experiments the animals
The effect of an electric field generated were first exposed to X-rays before enter-
by a ItO-V, 60-Hz household power cur- ing the electric field. These animals died
rent on the development of mice was inves- earlier than those which were only ir-
tigated by Moos et al. (1967). They re- radiated. In 3 of 26 cases, however, the
corded the weight of the mice over a period electric field had a life-prolonging effect,
of I month and compared it with corre- while in 4 other cases no difference was ap-
parent. An increased weight loss was noted stance (this corresponds to the findings of
in those irradiated animals which were also Altmann, 1962, 1968, 1969b). On cool and
exposed to the artificially produced 60-Hz rainy days, however, the bees located
field. below the 200-kV line were unusually ex-
Recent investigations on the biologic ef- cited and eager to swarm. On the basis of
fects of 50-Hz electric fields were con- this experience, it is recommended that
ducted by Fischer et al. (1974). They ex- beehives not be set up directly below high-
posed mice to a field with a maximum inten- voltage transmission lines, but rather
sity of 15 kV/m and monitored their O 2 50-100 m away.
consumption (respiration). A 10%-15% Investigations by Altmann et al. (1974)
increase in oxygen consumption (p < 0.01) with bees under the influence of a 50-Hz
was found relative to the controls. The high-voltage field (maximum 6 kV 1m, rms
hepatic uptake of O 2 in these animals was value) substantiated the findings of Wellen-
significantly reduced (p = 0.01), however. stein (1973). For this purpose, several bee
No significant change in rectal temperature colonies were placed into an experimental
was noted in the experimental animals after apparatus in which the high-voltage field
7 days' exposure. Additional experiments could be switched on or off as desired. Alt-
with rats produced no changes in the ECG, mann et al. made a motion picture record
but led to a significant rise in the pulse rate of the behavior of the bees under various
from about 340 to 400 (p < 0.01). experimental conditions. When the field was
Wellenstein (1973) dealt with the ques- on, the colony (in the beehive and es-
tion of whether the behavior of bees is pecially before the hive entrance) appeared
influenced by nearby high-voltage power highly agitated. The bees were seen running
transmission lines. Because the lanes about, spreading their wings and making
cleared for high-voltage lines often make abrupt movements. Their aggressiveness
excellent beekeeping grounds, this problem was increased and was even directed
has become increasingly important in re- against colony members, some of which
cent times. One question, of course, is the were stung to death. Communication ap-
effect of electromagnetic fields on the peared to be impaired. The brood nest,
honeybee; but another pertains to the influ- which contained numerous flaws when con-
ence of air ionization, which is still poorly structed at low field intensities, was de-
understood. Wellenstein (1973) assumes stroyed by the bees at intensities above 4
that the air beneath high-voltage transmis- kV/m. Honey was no longer stored, and ex-
sion lines contains a higher-than-normal isting stores were consumed due to the high
concentration of negatively charged ions. metabolic activity. Newly transferred colo-
However, this conflicts with investigations nies consistently abandoned the hives after
mentioned above, which clearly showed a 3 days under the influence of the field. If the
rapid ion depletion when the field intensity colonies had already occupied the hives for
exceeds a certain value (about 5 kV/m). some time before the experiment, exposure
While Wellenstein's investigations are to the field led to vigorous sealing activity,
not yet finalized, they have yielded some especially at the hive entrance. Within 5
valuable results. Bees in experimental days the entrance was reduced to a tiny
fields directly below long-distance lines hole and was finally sealed completely.
(100 or 200 kV) showed a marked increase Because there was no longer any com-
in activity and excitability in comparison munication with the outside, the colonies
with control colonies located at a distance perished from a lack of oxygen. This pro-
of 600-800 m. Under good weather and cess was interpreted as a defensive measure
foraging conditions, the experimental colo- by the bees against disturbing external fac-
nies gathered twice as much honey as the tors.
controls, but also exhibited a loss of sub- The sensitive reaction of bees to electric
t[secl -
Figure 12-3. Oscillogram of the electric field of a bee flying past (I). The field intensity increases as
the bee approaches the receiver (2) and decreases as it departs (3). After Warnke (l975a).
fields of the type present near high-voltage only about 72% were hatched in com-
transmission lines becomes more under- parison with the controls.
standable if one considers the endogenous 2. Of the chicks hatched in the fields, about
electric field possessed by bees, as de- one-third had visibly degenerate ex-
scribed by Warnke (l975a) (Fig. 12-3). tremities (one or both feet not fully de-
In his experiments with mice, Solov'ev veloped). Half these chicks died in 5 -1 0
( 1963) showed that 50-Hz alternating fields days.
can be lethal at sufficiently high intensities. 3. The surviving chicks had a lower
Field intensities of650 kV/m at 50-500 Hz average body weight than the untreated
produced a mortality of 70%-90% in the animals.
mice following an exposure of 60-120 min. 4. The effect of the static fields was essen-
In another experiment with a frequency of tially the same as that of the 50-Hz alter-
50 Hz only, the mortality was 50% after an nating fields.
exposure of 270 min. In neither experiment
could any field-related temperature in- Reiter (1960) reports on the effect of met-
creases be detected in the bodies of the ric-wave radiation with 50-Hz modulation
animals. (diathermy device) on the conjunctival pH
Varga (l972a) reports on the effects of of anesthetized guinea pigs, employing
electric fields on the incubation of chicks. various electrode arrangements (Fig. 12-4).
The field was generated by capacitor plates The immediate capacitor field, with its rela-
measuring 30 x 30 cm which were separat- tively high energy, produced a strong shift
ed by a distance of 6 cm. A direct voltage of of the tissue pH toward more alkaline val-
4-50 V was applied to the plates in some ues. Slight pH shifts could still be produced
experiments, and a 50-Hz alternating volt- at a distance of 4 m between the animal and
age in others. The effects were compared a single transmitter electrode. Precise mea-
with a control incubator arrangement with surements of body temperature during the
no field. Over 160 measured values were experiments again indicated a typically
obtained, indicating the following: athermal effect, for no changes in body tem-
perature could be detected during the ex-
1. Of the eggs located in the electric field, periments in the short-wave field.
PH a- KW
7,40 1 J:
_----!.~
c-
Zeitverlauf ~I_~~I
o 2
d-
Minuten
7,30 If-
~
7,20 ~
o
7,10 b-
7,00
f-
~
.2 Elektroden
'"c:c:
'"
'E ·t· g-
o ersuchstier
e- .,
i
.:: R h-
o
.'"
KW-Sender
~
>
Figure 12-4. Conjunctival pH of the anesthetized guinea pig under the influence of metric-wave radi-
ation with 50-Hz modulation for various electrode arrangements. R = resonance tuning, thus high
energy emission. The animal's body is indicated by a circle. After Reiter (1960).
Key: a-SW; b-Tissue pH; c-Time; d-Min; e-Experimental arrangement; f-Electrodes; g-Ex-
perimental animal; h-SW transmitter; i-Without R
Distinct changes in tissue pH were also observations of the biologic effects of low-
observed in experiments with low- frequency electromagnetic fields. Thomp-
frequency alternating fields in the range of son (1910) and Fleischmann (1922) also
2-20 Hz. Unlike the experiments in the reported on this subject. The latter author
modulated short-wave field, however, the recorded sensations of light flashes as well
shifts were toward both more basic and as headaches in persons who were exposed
more acidic values. The mean amplitude of to a strong, 50-Hz alternating magnetic
these shifts was 0.1 pH. field close to their heads.
The use of rectangular oscillations to Most far-reaching, perhaps, in its bio-
generate a field with a pulse frequency be- logic implications is the publication by
tween 50 Hz and 100 kHz and intensity of Korobkova (1971, 1972) dealing with spe-
10-1000 V1m also resulted in a character- cial occupational safety rules in the USSR
istic shift of the tissue pH by 0.02 to 0.1 for extremely high voltage (EHV) transmis-
units from the resting value if the pH sion systems. He reports on periodic medi-
measurements were made on tissue located cal examinations in various laboratories
within the alternating field. because of two adverse effects which have
been observed on prolonged exposure to
the electric fields of EHV facilities and in
Human Experiments workers who service overhead EHV trans-
mission lines:
The data obtained from experiments with I. The electric field has an adverse effect
animals (as well as with plants and bacteria, on the nervous and circulatory systems.
as reported by Varga, 1973) are supple- This effect depends on the field intensity
mented by a substantial body of informa- and the amount of time spent in the field.
tion acquired through human experi- 2. Touching the parts of a system which
mentation. has a potential difference with respect to
As early as 1902, Beer reported on his man is also injurious. The effect of the
discharges associated with such a potential 50-Hz electric and magnetic fields, which
difference depends on the duration and produced visual sensations and headaches,
amplitude of the discharge current and the according to his observations.
frequency of the discharges. Such dis- In experiments with subjects in alternat-
charges may cause phase changes in elec- ing fields between 10Hz and 5 kHz (and
tric brain rhythms as well as disturbances thus also at 50 Hz), Reiter (1960) found,
of respiration and the cardiac rhythm. among other things, a change in the clotting
To prevent such discharges, Korobkova ability of the blood. The prothrombin index
(1971, 1972) reports that the USSR has was shifted by 4%-20% toward an increase
implemented special safety regulations in blood clotting ability after the experi-
which also specify the maximum allowable ment.
duration of exposure to strong electric Hauf and Wiesinger (1973) and Hauf
fields (Table 12-1). These regulations apply (1974, 197 6a,b) investigated the biologic
as long as no other safety measures prevail. effects primarily of man-made electric and
If the electric field intensity is not mea- electromagnetic fields. They state that not
sured, the regulations call for a minimum only naturally occurring fields, but also
distance of 20 m from EHV facilities with a man-made fields are of biologic significance
400- and 500-kV operating voltage, and 30 in the frequency range below 100 Hz (e.g.,
m from 750-kV facilities. As special safety 50 Hz, 60 Hz, 16 2/3 Hz). This raises the
measures, the regulations call for the use of question, then, of where and to what extent
equipment in the form of fixed or portable the health and lives of persons exposed oc-
screens as well as special protective cloth- cupationally or otherwise to such electric
ing of conductive fabric. fields are jeopardized. To explore this ques-
It should also be noted that according to tion, Hauf and Wiesinger set up high-vol-
the information of Hauf (1976b), the tage electrodes in a completely isolated
threshold values-i.e., the maximum allow- climatic chamber (Figs. 12-5 and 12-6).
able electric field intensities for prolonged With this arrangement, an undisturbed elec-
exposure to artificial 50-Hz fields-have tric field with an intensity up to 25 k V1m
been defined as follows in Soviet terri- and a frequency of 0-100 Hz could be
tories: 12 k V1m in densely populated areas, produced in the environment of the test
15 k V1m in sparsely populated areas, and subjects. A constant chamber temperature
20 k V1m in uninhabited areas. of 22° C and a relative humidity of 50%
Hartmann (1976) investigated the elec- were maintained to ensure uniform test
tric skin resistance of test subjects under conditions. The subjects did not know
the influence of 50-Hz fields and observed when the high-voltage field was switched
corresponding reactions. on. A 50-Hz alternating field at 1 k V1m and
Tromp (1963) reported on the effects of 15 k V1m was employed in the first experi-
ment. No significant changes were noted in
the ECG, EEG, pulse or blood pressure
under these conditions. Effects from the l-
Table 12-1. Allowable exposure to the 50-Hz and 15-k V1m fields were found only with
electricfield ofhigh-voltage transmission systems regard to reaction time, which was always
in the USSR. After Korobkova (1971, 1972). measured in the afternoon. Reaction time
Electric field intensity, Maximum allowable increased after the field was switched on
kV/m daily exposure, min. and decreased somewhat after the field was
5 unlimited switched off, without returning to the origi-
to 180 nal value, however.
15 90 Ross Adey (1974) showed that important
20 to physiologic processes and biologic cycles
25 5
are influenced by very weak electric fields
N
VI
00
tTl
~
n
a3
~
::I
~
0'
tTl
::I
~
"'(ii '
'J)
S'
~
III
::I
'J)"
3
-
3
"'0-
~'
(;"
tTl
::I
<:
a'
::I
3
"'a
Figure 12-5, Reaction-time measurements under the influence of 50-Hz high-voltage fields were carried out at the High Volt-
age Institute of the Technical University of Munich in order to gather information of the biologic activity of such power
fields, The photograph shows a view of the test subject from the control room,
Figure 12-6. Test subject in the high-voltage experimental field. The necessary electric field is set up
between the net-like ceiling electrode and the floor.
both in animals and, according to most accompanying thermal injury. (Supplemen-

recent research, in humans. Fields at low tary information on this subject is pre-
and very high frequencies, such as those in sented in Chapter II.)
the radar band, were employed in these ex- A topic of much interest in recent times
periments. It was found that such fields are is the cause of sudden infant death (SID),
capable of influencing rhythmic activities of which was reviewed by Valdes-Dapena
the brain, such as those characteristic of (1967). According to a definition adopted at
sleep, sleeplessness or quick reaction. This an international congress in Seattle in 1969,
principle can perhaps be utilized to develop SID is the "sudden and unexpected death
new methods of treating insomnia and of an infant, which is not explained by post-
chronic pain and of regulating biologic mortem examination." In a survey report,
rhythms (e.g. , to improve responsiveness or Janssen (1978) examines the status of
to "adjust" highly variable emotional knowledge in this area based on papers
states). Interestingly, it was also discovered presented at two medical conferences. Ac-
that the frequencies customarily used in cording to Jansen (1978), numerous expla-
power current had similar effects when nations are offered for this syndrome,
relatively high field intensities were em- including the influence of electromagnetic
ployed. fields. Eckert (1976) explores this possibil-
In contrast to the effects of EHF fields, ity in greater detail. According to his stud-
which stem mainly from the thermal action ies in Philadelphia, U.S.A. and in Ham-
of the field, it was found that extremely burg, Germany, a high incidence of SID is
weak fields with certain very high frequen- found in the following locations:
cies can support specific rhythms of brain
activity, making it possible to alter behav- I. in the vicinity of electric railways and
ioral patterns and hormonal cycles with no their stations;
2. between railways and water; frequency ranges directly adjacent to the

3. between the railways of different sys- power frequencies. This includes the range
tems (e.g., between train and streetcar down to a few hertz and up to higher
tracks); frequencies of several kilohertz. The bio-
4. at the end of railway lines; logic activity of electromagnetic fields over
5. in the vicinity of magnetically operated this entire frequency range was demon-
water supply plants; strated earlier in a comprehensive survey of
6. within the bends of electric railway the literature. Field effects were found even
lines. at intensities known only for natural fields.
7. Local concentrations were also found in I t can be inferred from this that if fields in a
the vicinity of wireless transmitters, air- frequency range directly adjacent to the
ports and high-voltage transmission power frequencies are found to be biologi-
lines. cally active, then this also applies to fields
in the range of the power frequencies. It
The hypothesis is advanced that the cannot be supposed that the power frequen-
prolonged influence of certain magnetic cies are exceptional with regard to their ef-
and/or electric fields on the infant who is fects on biologic systems, as has been
sensitive to them or made sensitive by such proved by the results of direct 50-Hz ex-
fields, effects an irreversible and therefore periments. Regarding the "optimal" inten-
dangerous change in regulatory systems. sities necessary for biologic effects to
Schaefer and Silny (1977) attack Eckert's occur, it is certain that there are zones
working hypothesis, stating that it is an ob- somewhere in the vicinity of intense field
vious and clearly demonstrable error. Eck- generators that satisfy this requirement. In
ert's reply to this criticism by no means any case, the logical consequence of such
resolves all doubts in the matter, but his considerations must be to incorporate all
views are supported by Janssen's report studies, experiments and research results
(1978), which states that the medical com- for at least the ELF and VLF ranges (see
munity is in agreement that infants suc- Chapters 4-6) into the material presented
cumbing to SID are often only apparently here for 50 Hz, in order to supplement and
healthy. This raises the question of whether lend further credence to experimental evi-
prolonged exposure to the aforementioned dence on the biologic activity of 50-Hz
fields might not be responsible for this fields.
preexisting stress. (Evidence of the stress-
producing effect of electromagnetic fields is
presented in Chapter 11.) Eckert's hypoth- Conclusions
esis could thus be refined as follows: Man-
made electromagnetic fields could shift the
threshold in all disease pictures involved in Based on the current status of scientific
SID to a critical point at which the slightest research, it must be granted that elec-
(apparently harmless) additional stress tromagnetic fields of technical origin are at
could have a lethal effect. This may account least biologically active, and possibly harm-
for a large number of seemingly inexplica- ful. Every effort must be made, therefore,
ble infant deaths. to prevent a worsening of conditions in this
regard. This pertains in particular to the
routing of overhead high-voltage transmis-
Adjacent Frequency Ranges sion lines through populated areas; this is
no longer necessary and should therefore
Besides these reports, which deal mainly be rejected, especially if populated areas
with the biologic effects of electromagnetic can be circumvented by deviating some-
fields at the frequency of 50 Hz, we must what from the intended route during the
also consider research results for the planning of such lines. Forestry and agri-
a-
Kabel 1
0 ......_1-....
Figure 12-13. Shielded-cable design for a 3-phase circuit using coaxial cables to connect two trans-
formers.
Key: a-Cable I etc.
cultural interests must come second to broad background of experience in the

basic human needs. Another solution is the treatment of such problems. Aside from ob-
use of underground cables, which are now jective contributions, any kind of counter-
suitable for operating voltages up to 100 argument must be received extremely crit-
kV, all counter-arguments concerning fi- ically from the outset, except when it
nances and reliability to the contrary (see comes from sources that can be considered
also Fig. 12-13). Coaxial cables have prac- truly qualified.
tically no external fields and, with proper We shall return to the very important
circuiting, can be used for three-phase contributions of Becker (197 5b) and
operation (one cable per phase). Many en- Marino (1975) to the problems that arose in
vironmental problems would be solved by connection with hearings by the New York
the use of such cabling, which should also Public Service Commission on the health
be considered during the planning of trans- and safety aspects of 760-kV transmission
former stations. lines. Regarding the question of whether
In a time when environmental protection the somewhat contradictory reports pub-
is on everyone's lips, sufficient fiscal appro- lished on the harmful effects of energy
priations should be available for such mea- fields implied that such fields are in fact
sures, so that the environment will not be harmless, it was determined that the incon-
despoiled by the installation of additional sistencies in no way justify such a conclu-
power-supply facilities. These words of sion. They indicate only that such effects
warning are not without opposition, of are not present in every case. The reason
course. Highly qualified technicians, often for this lies first in the fact that experi-
without sufficient expertise in the field ofbi- mental conditions are not always easily
ology, are attempting even now to show reproducible, and second in the varying
theoretically that electromagnetic fields, sensitivities of different experimental sub-
and especially power-line fields, cannot jects. The question of the maximum allow-
possibly exert biologic effects. Conversely, able field intensity is also discussed, and
objections from the medical community reference is made to the safety factor of
often lack an adequate technical under- I: 100 employed in food chemistry in con-
standing of the problems involved. It is im- nection with toxic substances. This safety
portant to realize that this area of research factor is based on the dose of a toxic sub-
is extremely far-reaching and complex. It is stance for which a toxic effect can no longer
for this reason that all concerned dis- be detected; this ensures that such sub-
ciplines should work together to clarify and stances will be harmless even in special
explore the many questions at hand. It is cases. In the case of energy fields, the ex-
also important that such a team possess a perimental results discussed so far would
indicate a field intensity of about 5 kV1m as primarily by independent research

the critical value. Applying the 1: 100 safety groups with special experience in the
factor in this case, we find that prolonged area of interest.
exposure to areas with an electric field in- 6. Man, as a biologic system, is highly
tensity greater than 50 VIm is inadvisable. diverse. Consequently, the problem of
Konig (1976) summarized these recent field effects must be approached mainly
findings as follows. High-voltage transmis- from a statistical standpoint, taking into
sion lines generate energy fields about account such factors as age and state of
them, the nature of which depends pri- health.
marily on the operating voltage (electric 7. What safety margin should be required
field) and the operating current (magnetic for maximum allowable field intensity,
field) as well as the distance between the especially where long-term exposure is
observation point and the line. The geomet- concerned (minimum distance of resi-
ric arrangement of the line and trees, build- dences from each side of the centerline
ings, etc., in the space in question also plays of high-voltage transmission lines)?
a role. The time course of the field intensity 8. What are the acceptable limits for the fi-
(50 or 60 Hz, 162/3 Hz, etc.) follows that of nancial burden imposed by the construc-
the voltage or current producing the field. tion of less environmentally harmful
The fundamental question of whether or power transmission facilities (cabling) or
not high-voltage lines have harmful effects the rerouting of power lines?
and what the worst-case consequences are,
as well as the complex problem of the Even this incomplete list gives an indica-
biologic activity of electric, magnetic and tion of the many spheres of interest in-
electromagnetic fields in general, cannot be volved in such problems. Although profes-
answered in simple terms. However, sever- sional opinion on the adverse effects of
al points should be taken into consideration high-voltage transmission lines is still di-
in any theoretical, experimental or applied vided due to discrepancies in research
treatment of these questions: results, some general conclusions can be
drawn:
I. Possible effects depend in every case on
the field intensity at the observation site, 1. The biologic activity of electric and
which must first be determined if possi- magnetic fields must be considered a
ble. proven fact.
2. Most results that indicate adverse field 2. The biologic effects of electric and mag-
effects have been obtained through ani- netic fields are generally manifested in
mal experimentation. The attempt to in- the form of:
duce adverse effects in humans does not a. frequency-specific (time course) ef-
appear to be opportune. fects of biologically adequate field
3. Where is the dividing line between conditions,
harmfulness and an acceptable en- b. a stress effect under biologically in-
croachment upon the quality of life? adequate field conditions (power-line
4. There is a dearth of long-term experi- fields, for example),
ments dealing specifically with the ef- c. a field-specific adaptive response.
fects of relatively low-intensity fields on 3. Even if it cannot now be proved with
persons over at least a I-year period, absolute certainty that power-line fields
corresponding to the conditions encoun- are generally harmful, neither can it be
tered at a somewhat greater distance proved conclusively that they are
from energy facilities. harmless.
5. Clarifying studies should be conducted 4. It must be added that a harmful effect
Table 12-2. Minimum safe distances from the center line of high-voltage transmission
lines.
Distance from the right-of-way
Field intensity Field intensity Field intensity
<50 VIm < 150 VIm <5 kV/m
Operating voltage (undoubtedly safe) (probably safe) (probably dangerous)
380 kV 180-250 m 100-140 m 15-20 m
(tower height> 50 m)
220 kV 140-180 m 75-90 m 6-10 m
(tower height> 30 m)
100 kV 80-120 m 45-60m
50 kV 50-70 m 34-45 m
cannot be expected in every case, al- effects and to adequately assess the
though there is a possibility of it, es- hazards to man of exposure to such
pecially in persons with impaired health. fields. In view of the large population
But there is still no experimental evi- at risk, all of the health hazards as-
dence which would prove that power- sociated with the electric and magnetic
fields of high-voltage transmission lines
line fields are generally harmful in a
should be carefully examined in the
medical sense to healthy persons.
context of the specific design for each
5. Field effects doubtlessly represent sec- facility, prior to construction.
ond-order effects in a biometeorologic
sense (as opposed to first-order effects
from temperature, humidity, etc). Apparently the problems addressed here
6. Employing a safety factor of about are also recognized by the competent au-
I: 100, as described earlier, we obtain a thorities. In connection with the aforemen-
critical field intensity of approximately tioned hearings, to which Becker (197 5b)
50 V1m for prolonged exposure to a 50- and Marino (1975) contributed, the Public
or 60-Hz field. The minimum safe dis- Service Commission of the State of New
tances from the path of three-phase York (1978) issued its opinion #78-13, the
high-voltage transmission lines are given conclusion of which is reprinted in Appen-
in Table 12-2 for a freely propagating dix F.
electric field in the vicinity of such lines. In summary, the following can be said
with regard to the problem of biologic ef-
Marino and Becker (1977) discuss the fects of electromagnetic fields in the low
situation in the United States in a survey range of power frequencies. It is certain that
article: the quality of life of many persons is not no-
ticeably impaired by the presence of such
High-voltage transmission lines cause fields. But this circumstance does not mean
ELF electric and magnetic fields. ELF that such fields are entirely harmless. There
electric and magnetic fields cause bio- are enough studies on an international
logical effects. Presently, in the United
basis that indicate that these fields are
States, high-voltage transmission lines
are designed and built with no regard or
at least biologically active. These re-
weight given to the biological effects sults can no longer be ignored and can no
produced by their electric and magnetic longer be called into question by dubious
fields. The next generation of high-vol- counter-arguments. Previous findings
tage transmission lines is now material- should provide a sufficient stimulus for all
izing. It would appear appropriate to competent institutions to investigate the
determine the spectrum of biological problem on an even broader scientific, and
Figures 12-7 and 12-8. The differences between a steel-reinforced concrete building and a traditional
wooden house are more than visual. The natural electromagnetic climate is greatly altered in steel and
concrete structures. Architectural biology is concerned with such questions. Recent scientific findings
show an urgent need to determine the effect of such differences on human health.
thus statistical, basis; for this is the only other electrophysical parameters (air ioni-
way in which the issue can be clarified in its zation, for example). It follows that these
entirety. The public is entitled to know the new findings also have a bearing on ques-
risk posed to the individual by the presence tions pertaining to man's living climate. We
of such fields in his environment. Aside are concerned here both with problems of
from this, however, environmental consid- large-scale city planning and with the living
erations alone dictate that such practices as climate of individual rooms, for it is appar-
routing high-voltage transmission lines ent that the electrophysical factors that sur-
through densely populated areas should be round man can be directly or indirectly
avoided wherever possible. The present influenced by both.
discussions are in no way intended to ad- The extent to which the subject at hand
vocate restricting the further expansion of may be related to the effects of pyramid-
power supply facilities, which is unques- shaped structures-the preservation of
tionably necessary, but are meant only to mummies and other phenomena, such as
assert the priority of human interests. the retardation of bacterial growth (Jaekkel,
1955)-is unclear. In any case, the exis-
tence of certain biologically unfavorable
regions or zones, as described in geobiol-
Architectural Biology ogy, should be taken into account in the fu-
ture, especially if their existence is con-
As previous chapters have shown, biome- firmed. With a far-sighted system of city
teorologic and geobiologic problems are planning, it should not be difficult to avoid
closely linked to the field situation and such areas in the construction of dwellings.
Architectural Biology 265
Figure 12-8.
Moreover, the different effects of various Once one has acknowledged the biologic
building materials (wood, brick, concrete, activity of electric, magnetic and elec-
etc.) and of various types of construction tromagnetic fields, ionization conditions,
(classical, steel-reinforced concrete, etc.) etc., and realizes that they can have a
should also be taken into account with a serious biologic impact, it is evident that
view to achieving an optimal electromagnet- this knowledge should also be applied in the
ic climate indoors (Figs. 12-7 and 12-8). construction of dwellings.
Even now, certain measures should be The term architectural biology has been
taken to screen out potentially harmful al- coined to describe this branch of science.
ternating fields of the conventionally used Although this field is still in its early stages,
power frequencies. In the bedroom, too, it ample evidence has been gathered to show
is important that the bed be placed in a that too much is at stake, for the health of
"safe" spot as a preventive measure against the general public, simply to dismiss the
long-term exposure to biologically unfavor- problem as irrelevant.
able physical energies, as minute as they We cannot discuss specific details within
may be. the limited scope of this chapter, only gen-
eral relationships; however, this is a subject from the wall material. The intensity of in-
with which Kaufmann (1968) has dealt for cident atmospherics was measured in the
some time. Palm (1968), on the other hand, frequency range around 0.3, 1.0, 1.5, 2, 3,
addresses himself more to problems of 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, 20 and 30 Hz. At each
structural engineering. But while many im- measuring site, ten measurements were
portant points have been brought out by made in this frequency range on various
these studies, they lack the exact, scientific days with favorable atmospheric radiation
method of proof which is indispensible, and high barometric pressure. The dif-
even here. This is not meant to be a value ference between the intensities measured
judgment of work already done, rather it is inside and those measured outside (taken as
meant to be a statement on the current situ- 100%) was calculated to give the perme-
ation in architectural biology. There is still ability in percent. Measurements were
much that must be raised from the status of made in buildings of brick, prefabricated
assumption to that of precise knowledge. sections, wood, quarry stone, hollow pum-
Lang (1973a) discusses the problems and ice blocks and steel-reinforced concrete. No
potentials of architectural biology in con- one was allowed in the rooms during
nection with the "electroclimate." Atmo- measurements because of the alternating
spheric electric oscillations (atmospherics) electric fields set up by electrostatic
are a physiologically essential parameter of charges. The power supply was also shut
the ecosystem. Experiments have demon- off. A further series of measurements was
strated their influence on behavioral psy- made in a dense spruce forest and in an au-
chology (circadian rhythm, motor activity, tomobile for purposes of comparison. The
reaction time). The effects on chronobio- results of the measurements are shown in
logic processes are an important index of Fig. 12-9. It is seen that the mean perme-
the significance of the electric climate in ability over the entire frequency range was
terms of the physiology of work. For ex- 46% for the spruce forest and 10% for the
ample, highly significant correlations have automobile. In the buildings, it decreased
been found between atmospherics and the from 57% in brick to 3% in steel-reinforced
responsiveness and working capacity of concrete.
test subjects and students. However, the in- Ludwig (1976a) and Lenke and Bonze
tensity of atmospherics is strongly reduced ( 1975) recorded the static atmospheric
by certain weather conditions, as well as by electric field inside and outside enclosed
the screening action of building materials. rooms. They found that while no natural
It is recommended, therefore, that "elec- static field component could be detected in
troclimate control" be employed indoors to the interior of the rooms, the normal use of
recreate optimal natural conditions. Ac- these rooms gave rise to periodic fluctuat-
cording to Lang, such measures are abso- ing potentials in the ULF or lower ELF
lutely necessary in living and working areas range due to electrostatic charges on cloth-
that are climatically unfavorable. ing, movements of people, and the use of
In a joint project, Lang et ai. (1976), electric switches. These artificial ELF
Ludwig (1976a) and Usemann and Vogel fields were superimposed onto the natural
(1976) constructed an experimental device atmospherics measured within the rooms as
to measure the ability of atmospheric elec- soon as these rooms were used normally.
tric fields to penetrate certain building ma- However, the interpretation ofthese results
terials. It consisted of two semiconductor- to mean that differences in the shielding
type electrometer probes with a frequency properties of different building materials
analyzer (Bach and Lang, 1976; Lang et aI., are irrelevant because the normal use of
1976). The probes were installed on the in- rooms creates an artificial electric climate
side and outside of various buildings at much like the natural one appears question-
equal heights and at a predefined distance able. The periods of measurement were
100
b- Fichlenwald
rv/
A, ...
s- r
!
•
I
I /
I
I i
I /
I
I !
50 I i
f ~'"
f- Sandstein
_______ --A,
g- PKW!
10 12 15 20 _ _ 30
j- Frequenz (Hz(
Figure 12-9. Ability of various materials to transmit atmospheric electric fields in the range from 0.3
to 30 Hz as a function of frequency.
Key: a- Field transmission (%); b- Spruce forest; c- Brick; d- Prefab house; e- Wooden house; f- Sand-
stone; g- Automobile; h - Hollow blocks; i-Reinforced concrete; j - Frequency (Hz)
only about 30 min, insufficient to reveal any of 50-Hz fields, small ion concentration and
daily periodic processes that would have electrostatic charge effects, in order to de-
shown differences between the artificial and velop a standard measuring technique
natural electroclimate. Moreover, the actu- based on these important parameters. Nine
al time course of the ELF pattern of the ar- measuring sites were selected in the
tificial electroclimate cannot be compared classrooms of a school, and the potentials
with that of natural atmospherics in this of the 50-Hz field were measured with the
frequency range. Besides, the measure- lights on and off, at heights of 60, 90, 120,
ments did not show which components of 150, 180, 210 and 240 cm above the floor.
the artificial electroclimate were attributa- The situation in one of the classrooms,
ble to electrostatic charges on moving sur- whose rear wall was constantly damp due
faces and which to switching processes in to a leak in the roof of the building, is
electric systems. shown in Fig. 12-10. Compared with the
In other experiments, Lang et al. (1976) other rooms, in which the spacial distribu-
limited their study of the electric environ- tion of the existing 50-Hz field was rela-
ment in working spaces to the measurement tively symmetrical, this rear wall produced
40
..~j
a- 0
"-
~
40 Ii!
30
30
20
20
~----.r~~--------------~c
Figure 12-10. Spatial potential distribution of the 50-Hz field in a school classroom with area ABeD
(6.4 x 9.2 m), measured at a height of 1.80 m.
Key: a - 50- Hz potential (V pp)
a potential 10 times higher. No flaws could by the movement of people could hardly be
be detected in the grounding contact or detected in the classrooms. Near the PVC
grounding system of the wires and sockets floor covering, a relatively low average pos-
installed in the wall. When the ceiling lights itive field intensity of about 100 V1m was
were switched on, the potential of the measured. The plastic-coated table and
50-Hz field increased with height above the chair surfaces carried a charge during nor-
floor. An ungrounded lamp at the front of mal classroom use that was manifested in
the room produced potentials up to 56 V pp an electric field of about 800 V1m in the im-
with respect to ground. Overall, it was mediate vicinity of these objects.
found that 50-Hz potentials were normally The technique described here offers a
on the order of 2-20 V pp near the wall of a standarized approach to investigating en-
room, but could be increased up to tenfold closed spaces with regard to (I) their
by a defective wiring system or structural shielding properties with respect to atmo-
flaws in the building. spheric electric fields; (2) the spectrum of
The concentration of small ions in the artificial electric fields in the ULF and ELF
same rooms showed the profile illustrated range; (3) electrostatic charging phenome-
in Fig. 12-11. Electrostatic charges caused na; and (4) small ion concentration.
Though this concept must still be supple- In contrast to natural light, artificial
mented and revised in many respects, it light has an unnatural and hence un-
shows a standardized, practical means for physiological stimulating effect; the
greater the intensity of the light in-
the recording of such architectural climatic
volved, the greater this effect. This is
parameters. especially true for windowless working
The illumination of interiors with ar- areas whose only source of light is
tificial light, and especially with light pro- fluorescent light in the shape of tubes.
duced by fluorescent tubes, represents Unnecessarily high intensity of ar-
another interesting problem in architectural tificial light leads to stresslike met-
biology. Studies by Hollwich et al. (1977) abolic and endocrine changes detecta-
indicate that besides the brightness of the ble in blood chemistry.
light, its spectral composition plays a deci- Several possible causes of the bio-
sive role: logic effects of artificial lighting are
a· lJnwnomoho (em)
4
Figure 12-11.Vertical distribution of small ions in a school classroom with conventional climate con-
trol.
Key: a-Height above floor (cm); b-Scatter; c-Small ion concentration (ions/cm 3 )
spectral composition (extra intense task at present is to investigate the most

mercury lines), excessive brightness, fundamental aspects of architectural biolo-
monotony of illumination, flicker gy. Lotz (1972) describes the difficulties in-
frequency, glare and the direction of
volved in such research very well when he
light incidence.
points out that the parameters necessary
for an accurate appraisal of building materi-
If the importance of the problems dis- als from a biologic standpoint are still large-
cussed here is fully recognized, it must be Iy unknown. In view of the consequences
acknowledged that a living climate corre- of an imprecise assessment due to a lack of
sponding to natural conditions is the most scientifically valid data, some degree of
desirable state. Natural environmental con- caution is advised. Nevertheless, Lotz
ditions, including the special atmospheric ( 1972) analyzes the problem in detail by ex-
electric and magnetic conditions discussed amining the standards for appraising build-
here, should be allowed access to living ing materials and the method of their selec-
spaces, while unfavorable artificial elec- tion, and finally establishes ordering factors
tromagnetic energies should be avoided such as areas of application, properties and
there. However, it is seldom possible for comparisons, characteristics of building
the modern, technically oriented building materials, and problems with the radioac-
industry to meet such requirements in prac- tivity of building materials. He subdivides
tice, primarily for engineering and financial the latter subject into questions of indoor
reasons. The avoidance of geopathogenic radiation sources, the shielding of external
zones is simple by comparison, but their ex- gamma rays by building materials, radiation
istence is rarely acknowledged, or else from building materials, cosmic radiation
there is a complete lack of awareness of and airborne radioactivity in houses, and
such possibilities. If the use of neutralizing compares indoor and outdoor radiation
and similar devices is to be rejected in favor dose levels as well. But radioactivity is only
of avoidance for the fundamental reasons one of the parameters to be considered in
explained earlier, it is advisable at least to the biologic assessment of building materi-
employ technical means to compensate for als. Others are electrostatic charges, ther-
deficiencies of atmospheric electricity in- mal conductivity and heat capacity, insulat-
doors. Such means are already available ing action against geopathogenic influ-
commercially in the form of air-ionization ences, capability of gaseous exchange (abil-
devices, for example. Systems are also ity to "breathe"), hygroscopicity (regula-
available for generating electric fields; one tion of air humidity), permeability to static
such system designed for use in large office and alternating electric fields, and shielding
areas is illustrated in Fig. 12-12. (Details on action against man-made radiations.
such devices and their use in motor ve- This list illustrates the vast range of ques-
hicles are given in Chapter 4.) tions in the area of architectural biology
The current status of science with regard that need to be explored by basic research
to the questions discussed here has been on an interdisciplinary basis. If new possi-
summarized. I t is clear that many questions bilities for improving the quality of human
remain unanswered. It is not yet possible to life are recognized on the basis of the dis-
draw final conclusions, and ultimately it cussions presented, or new impetus is given
must be left to the individual to judge the the search for answers to the many unan-
significance of previous findings. swered questions, one of our main goals will
From a scientific standpoint, the main have been achieved.
Figure 12-12. Large office area with commercially installed ceiling electrodes for creating an artificial electrical climate. The >
successful use of such systems confirms their architectural-biologic importance.
..,n
o=-
n
....
I::
..,
e:.
t:I:I
o·
0"
OQ
'<
N
-.I
A
Technical and Electrophysical Terms
In our discussion of the biologic activity of sphere. Atmospherics are caused primarily
electromagnetic forces, it will be necessary by lightning discharges.
to use technical and electrophysical terms
with which every reader may not be famil- Current Density: That amount of electric
iar. We shall therefore attempt to explain current j passing at right angles through a
the most important of these terms in a man- standard cross-sectional area of I m2 (unit
ner which is generally understandable and of measure: A/m2); j is proportional to the
to illustrate them where necessary. electric field intensity E and the specific
conductivity (T, J= (T • E.
A erosol: A colloidal system in which solid
(smoke, dust) or liquid (mist) substances Electric Charge: Synonymous with "quan-
are dispersed in a gaseous medium. Only tity of electricity" (unit of measure: 1
systems in which the suspended particles coulomb (C) = 1 ampere (A) xIs).
actually remain in suspension for a suf- A characteristic of electric charges is the
ficient period of time can be called true force they exert upon one another. There
aerosols, however. Any solid, liquid or are two kinds of charge: positive and nega-
gaseous substance that is suspended in a tive. Like charges repel and unlike charges
gas and has a diameter of 1 nm-l 0 pm as a attract each other. If equal quantities of
physicochemical unit can be considered an unlike charge types are combined, the
aerosol. charges cancel, and are said to be compen-
sated (Fig. A-I). It has long been known
Atmospherics: Electromagnetic signals of that a positive charge develops on a glass
natural origin, chiefly in the form of waves rod that is rubbed with a wool cloth coated
with frequencies of 0.3 Hz-0.3 kHz (ex- with tin amalgam, and a negative charge on
tremely low frequency atmospherics) and sealing wax or sulfur rubbed with fur.
0.3 kHz-0.3 MHz (very-low frequency at- Electric charges are not infinitely divisi-
mospherics), which propagate mainly be- ble. The smallest possible charge, of which
tween the earth's surface and the iono- all charges are some integral multiple, is the
Technical and Electrophysical Terms 273
Figure A-I. Detection of electric field by its action on small test charges; charge distribution on a
conductor; charge displacement on double metal plate by electrostatic induction (from left to right).
elementary charge of the electron, Ohm's law, proportional to the voltage V

e = 1.602 X 10- 19 C . that is applied to this conductor and in-
versely proportional to its electric resis-
Electric Charge Transport: Synonymous tance R, I = VIR.
with electric current (unit of measure: the
ampere). Electric Field: Following the thinking of J .
C. Maxwell, we can describe an electric
Electric Conductance : The reciprocal of field as the state that is produced in space
the electric resistance R (unit of measure: by electric charges or by time-varying mag-
the siemens (S) or mho). The electric con- netic fields. Electric charges exert forces on
ductance, G = 11R, is proportional to the one another. The "electrostatic force" be-
quantity of current I flowing between two tween two point charges q] and '12 separat-
points across which there is a voltage V , ed by the distance r is given, according to
1= G x V. Coulomb's law, by the formula,
F = kq1q2 1r (where k is a proportionality
Electric Current-Ohm' sLaw: Electric constant). The electric field intensity,
current is a motion of electric charge. The E= Flq, is defined as the force per unit
current I (unit of measure: the ampere) charge, where the vectors of E and F have
flowing in a conductor is, according to the same direction (see Fig. A-I and A-2).
Figure A-2. Electric field patterns. Left: Between a point and a charged plate. Right : Between two
flat, charged plates.
274 Technical and Electrophysical Terms
An electric field can also be produced in Since this process propagates through
a magnetic field which varies with time, in space, it leads to a transport of energy in
accordance with the law of induction. The the form of electromagnetic waves. These
electric field intensity is measured in V1m. waves were first described theoretically by
J. C. Maxwell in 1864, and were demon-
Electric Resistance: According to Ohm's strated experimentally by H. Hertz in
law, electric resistance is a proportional 1887. They consist of electric and magnetic
measure of the voltage U which drops be- fields that have the ability to propagate in
tween the two end-points of an electrical space. To a fixed observer, a passing elec-
resistance R through which a certain cur- tromagnetic wave of a certain frequency
rent 1 is flowing, U = R . I. In a wire, appears as a sinusoidal variation of the
resistance is computed from its specific electric and magnetic field intensity. Ob-
resistance Q" length d and cross-section a, servers in different locations will measure
R = Q, . dla (unit of measure: the ohm). the maximum values of such fields with a
certain shift in time or phase. In free space,
Electromagnetic Waves: According to the the components of the electric and magnet-
law of magnetic flux, a magnetic field al- ic fields are perpendicular to each other and
ways forms around an electric current. to the direction of propagation, and are
Moreover, the law of induction states that related by a mathematical ratio called the
every time-varying magnetic field produces wave impedance, W = EIH "'" 376 n .
an electromotive force which is capable of The velocity of propagation c of elec-
moving electric charges and thus driving an tromagnetic waves in free space and that of
electric current (Fig. A-3). A changing light, which also consists of such waves, is
magnetic field is also capable of setting up a approximately 300,000 km/s. It was first
similarly changing electric field in a vacuum measured experimentally by A. H. Fizeau
that contains no charges. in 1849.
The term displacement current has been During one period T, the wave propa-
introduced to describe these conditions in a gates over a distance which is called the
vacuum, in an analogy of the relationship wavelength 11., where 11. = c . T = clf Ac-
between an electric field and moving cording to this equation, a fixed relation
charge. This current has the same effect as exists between the wavelength 11. and fre-
moving electric charges, in that it also gen- quency f of a wave, since the product of
erates a magnetic field. Thus, a changing these quantities in a vacuum or in air is al-
electric field sets up a magnetic field, which ways equal to the velocity of light c (Fig.
in tum sets up an electric field, and so on. A-4).
Figure A-3. Interlinking of electric and magnetic alternating fields, resulting in the propagation of
electromagnetic waves.
~~.t=x;;I.
h?
tp.
2c
Figure A-4. lOne oscillation is completed during the period T. The number of oscillations per sec-
ond lIT gives the frequency !ofthe process expressed in Hertz. 2 Propagation of a wave at the veloc-
ity of light Ve. During the period T, the wave covers the distance '\; this is the wavelength of the
radiation.
The conditions discussed here exist in netic field (e.g., a dipole transmitting an-
the far field (distance of at least several tenna; but a kilometer-long lightning dis-
wavelengths from the point of origin) of an charge, fluctuations in atmospheric electric-
electromagnetic wave (Fig. A-5). The con- ity associated with charged clouds, an AC-
ditions in the near field, such as those oc- driven capacitor with an arbitrary plate
curring in the immediate vicinity of a trans- spacing, a wire coil, etc., also constitute an-
mitting antenna, may be quite different. It tennas in terms of wave emission). Until an
should be noted that the term antenna is electromagnetic wave of the type described
used here in a general sense and includes above has formed at some distance from
everything which contributes to the forma- the antenna, complicated processes take
tion of a rapidly changing electric or mag- place near a transmitting antenna which
Figure A-5. Instantaneous diagram of the electric and magnetic distant field of a dipole.
cannot be fully discussed here. It is suf- retically be infinite in extent, but at a dis-
ficient to point out that while changing elec- tance of 30,000 km the intensity of this field
tric fields always give rise to changing mag- is entirely negligible, as is the magnetic field
netic fields, and vice versa, the electric and this weak electric field produces.
magnetic field intensities near an antenna It can be said, in summary, that time-
do not obey the relation W = E/ H, as they varying electric fields generate magnetic
do during propagation in free space. The fields, and time-varying magnetic fields gen-
near field is considerably smaller than erate electric fields. However, at low
would be the case in a regular electromag- frequencies for which the dimensions ofthe
netic wave. This effect is particularly antenna system are considerably smaller
marked when the dimensions of the an- that the corresponding wavelength in free
tenna arrangement are considerably smaller space, the intensity of these mutually gen-
than the wavelength corresponding to the erated fields is negligible.
transmission frequency (in a vacuum),
which is especially true for relatively low Energy: The ability to do work. If a system
frequencies. A strong wave can be emitted contains energy, it can release this energy
from an antenna system (without special to the outside and so is capable of doing
technical tricks) only if the dimensions of work. Energy can exist in various forms:
the system enable it to set up electric and potential energy (the energy of position), ki-
magnetic fields whose full dimensions are netic energy (the energy of motion), electric
formed within a distance of about one energy, magnetic energy, thermal energy
wavelength from the antenna (e.g., one-half (heat), chemical and atomic bonding en-
or one-quarter wavelength, as achieved by ergy, and mass energy (described by the
VHF dipole antennas). relativity theory as E = mc 2 ). The theorem
The laws of induction and magnetic flux of the conservation of energy in a closed
also state that the intensity of the electric system, which asserts that the amount of
field produced by a changing magnetic field, energy contained in the universe is con-
like that of the magnetic field produced by a stant, is a basic axiom of physics. Energy in
changing electric field, is proportional to one form can be changed to energy in
the time variation of the field: as the another form, but some transformations are
frequency decreases, the mutually gen- irreversible: for example, any form of
erated fields become weaker. energy can be completely transformed into
In view of this, let us consider electric thermal energy, but thermal energy can
field fluctuations with a frequency of 10Hz, never again be completely converted to any
as might be produced by an antenna ar- other form.
rangement several meters in length (labora-
tory capacitor array). Such an arrangement Force: A physical quantity which pos-
could never generate a magnetic field with a sesses the characteristics of a vector and
local or remote intensity that could be de- can accelerate a material body or, when
tected with the best measuring instruments combined with other forces, deform it. Ac-
or could be regarded as biologically active celeration is not a prerequisite for the exis-
in comparison with the ever-present back- tence of a force, since forces acting on
ground level of other fields. An electromag- bodies at rest or in uniform straight-line
netic field with a frequency of 10Hz has a motion may be in equilibrium and so exert a
wavelength of about 30,000 km in free deforming, rather than an accelerating, ef-
space. The artificially produced electric fect. Three variables are needed to define a
field is many orders of magnitude smaller force uniquely: its magnitude, its direction,
by comparison. Of course the capacitor and the position of its line of action (Fig.
also generates a stray field which can theo- A-6).
dv
F = m ' -~ m ' a
dl
Figure A-6. Schematic diagram of the relationships between force F. mass In, velocity v and acceler-
ation a.
Frequency: The number of cycles com- former, the "dissociation energy" for the
pleted by any periodic process in a unit of latter.
time. If the unit of time is 1 s, the unit of
frequency is the hertz (Hz). Frequency is a Ionization: The process whereby an elec-
measure only of the number of cycles tron is detached from an atom or a molecule
completed, without reference to the type of by the input of its ionization energy, form-
process involved, which may be an altering a positive ion. But ionization can also
nating current, an electric signal, an alter- mean the production of ion pairs, generally
nating field, a vibrating tuning fork, etc. by some form of radiation (cosmic rays).
This process also forms positive ions ini-
Gradient: A term from vector analysis. If u tially, but the detached electrons attach
is a constant scalar function of spacial coor- themselves to neutral molecules, forming
dinates, as is true in physics for tempera- one negative ion for each positive ion (Fig.
ture, density or electric potential, then the A-7). The four most important agents of
spatial variation of u depends on the direc- ionization are high temperature, electron
tion of progression in space. The gradient is impact, the collision of moving ions, and
a vector whose direction coincides with the wave radiation (which forms the iono-
direction of the greatest increase in the sphere, for example).
function u, and whose value is equal to this
greatest change in the scalar position func- Lines (~fF()rce in an Electric and Magnetic
tion u per unit distance. Field: If the electric or magnetic field inten-
sity is defined as a function of location, then
Ion: An atom or molecule that has acquired every point in the field can be assigned a
a positive or negative electric charge by los- certain direction. The curves whose
ing or gaining one or more electrons (see tangents coincide with the direction of the
"Ionization"). Radical ions are formed field at every point are called lines of force
when molecules break up into two elec- or lines of flux, for they indicate the direc-
trically charged components, neither of tion in which the field force is acting.
which is a single electron (dissociation). Because the field direction is uniqUely
Large ions are formed by the aggregation of defined at every point at a given time, one
many molecules, some of which are and only one line of force passes through
charged (cluster ions). Ions can thus exist each regular point in the field (exception:
in the form of atoms, radicals, molecules singular points in the field, such as charge
and clusters. A certain amount of energy is locations or neutral points in an electric
required for ionization or dissociation to field). According to Faraday, the field in-
occur: the "ionization energy" for the tensity of an area is proportional to the
cond*nN'lon nuClei
ItaD", poSl'''" sm.1I ~ ..
....fOCI')' '" em/ Me
j)OliIltve 1110* IOns

'4IOClly 0001 eml Me
negallv, large Ion

velOoty 0001 em/ Me
It.bla. neg'tlVe ,,"an t(N'I

velOClt'r 1 9 em/sec
Figure A-7. The production of various types of air ions. After Wait (1934).
number of lines of force that intersect at electric charges, and thus on current-carry-
right angles the standard cross-sectional ing conductors. The magnetic field of per-
area of 1 m2 (Fig. A-S). manent magnets is the result of tiny intera-
tomic or intermolecular current loops. Like
Magnetism all force fields, the magnetic field is a vector
Magnetic Field: Magnetic fields are pro- field, meaning that it has a specific magni-
duced by charges in motion, that is, by cur- tude and a specific direction at every point.
rents and by rapidly changing electric fields The magnetic field is characterized by the
(Fig. A-8). In turn, a magnetic field exerts a magnetic field intensity il (measured in
force, called the Lorentz force, on moving A/m) or by the magnetic flux density (mag-
N
N
Figure A-S. Electric current produces a magnetic field. From left to right: Magnetic held pattern
about a straight, current-carrying conductor; magnetic field pattern about an annular current; the mag-
netic field of a coil.
Figure A-9a--c. Bodies with different magnetic properties. a Magnetically neutral body with magnetic
properties like those encountered in a vacuum, relative permeability constant ILr = 1; the path of the
magnetic flux lines is not influenced. b Diamagnetic body, /Lr < 1; the flux-line density is reduced. c
Paramagnetic body with ILr > 1, or ferromagnetic body with ILr ~ 1; the flux-line density is slightly or
greatly increased, respectively.
netic induction) B = f.L H (measured in through a loudspeaker, they create the im-
teslas (T), 1 T = 1 V s/m2 ), where f.L is the pression of noise. A theoretically important
permeability (q.v.). form of noise is "white noise," in which the
Diamagnetism: When introduced into a amplitudes of the signals of all frequency
current-carrying coil, diamagnetic materials components lying within a given bandwidth
(bismuth, mercury, sulfur) cause a decrease are equal.
in the field set up by the current in the wind-
ings (Fig. A-9). Thus, the relative perme- Nonlinearity: The term nonlinearity is used
ability f.Lr of such materials is less than 1. in connection with electric processes when,
Paramagnetism, Ferr(Jmagnetism: Para- for example, the proportionality of Ohm's
magnetic materials (platinum, oxygen) law is no longer guaranteed; in other words,
cause an increase in the field generated by a when the current through a certain load is
current-carrying coil (Fig. A-9). The rela- no longer in direct proportion to the applied
tive permeability f.Lr of such materials is voltage. A typical example of a load with a
only slightly greater than 1. Ferromagnetic nonlinear resistance is the incandescent
materials (iron, cobalt, nickel) have the light bulb. When the filament is heated, its
same effect, but to a greater degree, resistance increases. If an increasing
14»1. amount of current is passed through an in-
candescent bulb, its resistance does not
Noise: Even if no external voltage is remain constant, but increases. The neces-
applied to a conductor, a small, rapidly fluc- sary voltage increases faster than the cur-
tuating alternating voltage can be measured rent, and a nonlinear relationship exists be-
in the conductor. The free electrons in the tween current and voltage.
conductor undergo irregular thermal mo- Biologic cell systems also possess a
tions, and occasionally many electrons will nonlinear electric resistance. If a sinusoidal
move in a common direction. This ~sults in alternating voltage is applied to such a sys-
a short-lived voltage peak between the ends tem, for example, the resulting current is
of the conductor. Because the spectrum of not proportional to the voltage, because the
every voltage peak has a very broad, con- electric resistance of cell systems varies
tinuous frequency band which extends with the polarity of the voltage. Thus, the
down into the audible range, the irregular positive and negative half-waves of the
voltage fluctuations in it are similar in spec- resulting current are unequal in size, and so
tral composition to noise: when amplified the quantity of charge that is transported in
one direction during the positive half-wave If a charge q is moved from 1 to 2, the work
is not as large as that which flows in the op- W I2 = qUl2 = q(1/11 - 1/12) is done. Like the
posite direction during the negative half- voltage, the potential is measured in volts.
wave. The net result is a unidirectional
transport of charge through the cell over a Power: Power is equal to the work done
period of time, or a "rectifying effect." In (W) divided by the time ( ± ) required to do
alternating current, by contrast, there is no it, thus P = WIt. or more generally,
net transport of charge over a period of P = dWldt. The unit of power is the watt, 1
time. W = 1 Jls = 1 Nm/s = 1 m2 kg/s 3 •
Often the following conversions must be
Period: The period T of an oscillating pro- made:
cess is the time required for the process to 1 hp = 75 mkpls = 735.6 W; 1 mkpls =
undergo one complete oscillation (Fig. 9.81 W; 1 kW = 1.36 hp = 860 kcal/h;
A-3). In the case of an alternating current, 1 W = 0.239 calls.
this could be the interval of time T between
two successive positive current maxima. If Pulse Duty Factor: If periodic pulses are
we then compute the number of oscillations formed, as by switching a current on and off
that occur per second, this gives, by defini- at regular intervals, the ratio of the interval
tion, the frequency f Thus,f= lIT. in which a signal is present (on-time) to the
interval in which no signal is present (off-
Permeability: A magnetic field can be time) is called the pulse duty factor. The
described in terms of the vectors of the sum of the on-time and off-time is equal to
magnetic induction i1 (flux density) and the period of the process.
magnetic field intensity ii. l1 = fJ-H. The
proportionality factor between the two is Pulse Repetition Frequency: If any kind of
the permeability fJ-. The absolute perme- signal is repeated periodically, such as a
ability fJ-o describes the relationship in a current switched on and off at regular inter-
vacuum, while the relative permeability JLr vals, the rate of recurrence of the resulting
describes the permeability relative to a vac- pulses is called the pulse repetition
uum, JLr = fJ-I 1Lo, for ILo = 417 X 10-7 frequency, which is simply the number of
fls/m (Fig. A-9). signals that occur per second. The pulse
repetition frequency f (in Hz) is also de-
Potential: In an electrostatic field E. the fined as the reciprocal of the time interval T
force, F = q . E, acts on an electric charge (in s) between two successive pulses
q. If the charge is moved so that its path is if= lIT).
always perpendicular to the force, and thus
perpendicular to the field intensity, no work Radiation: Radiation occurs in two basic
is done. This is possible on the "equipoten- forms: electromagnetic wave radiation
tial surfaces" of the electric field. The po- (e.g., X-rays, light, infrared radiation), and
tential difference between two equipoten- corpuscular radiation (e.g., electron beams,
r
tial surfaces (1 and 2) is the voltage; neutron beams). Various types of radiation
are recognized (dtv, 1970).
Characteristic Radiation: In X-radiation,
U 12 = 1/11 - 1/12 = E cos a ds
a distinction is made between the nonspeci-
fic bremsstrahlung (braking radiation),
where E is the electric field intensity, ds is which shows a continuous spectrum, and
an element of the distance from point 1 on the characteristic radiation, which exhibits
the equipotential surface with potential 1/11 a specific emission and absorption in the
to point 2 on the surface with 1/12 and a is atom.
the angle between the direction of ds and E. Extraterrestrial Radiation: The radia-
tion, mostly solar, which strikes the outer puscular radiation have a resting mass dif-
boundary of the earth's atmosphere, where ferent from zero and therefore travel at sub-
atmospheric absorption is not yet a factor. light velocities.
The nature of the extraterrestrial spectrum,
and thus the intensity of the extraterrestrial Rectification: See "Nonlinearity."
radiation (solar constant), can be deter-
mined only indirectly by intensity measure- Spectrum: The distribution of the compo-
ments at various altitudes and extrapolation nents of any physical process over another
to the atmospheric boundary. physical quantity. The most familiar is the
Cosmic Rays: Cosmic rays were discov- frequency spectrum, such as the mul-
ered in 1913 by Hess and Kolhorster, who tichromatic spectrum of sunlight, which
independently observed that ionization in shows light intensity as a function of
the atmosphere increases with altitude. It is frequency. In the frequency spectrum of an
now known that radiation from outer space electric signal, the signal intensity is shown
triggers highly complex secondary and ter- as a function of frequency.
tiary processes within the earth's atmo-
sphere. It is a common practice to refer to Vector: A physical quantity which pos-
this radiation together with its products as sesses both magnitude and direction. A
cosmic radiation or cosmic rays, neglecting vector is drawn as an arrow in space. The
the fact that the products are entirely of ter- length of the arrow represents the magni-
restrial origin. In a stricter sense, cosmic tude of the quantity as well as its position in
rays include only the primary radiation it- space; the direction of the arrow indicates
self, which consists of nucleons. the path along which the physical quantity
Owing to their extremely high energies, acts. Forces, field intensities, moments,
the particles in the primary radiation shat- etc., can be represented as vectors. The
ter any atoms and atomic nuclei which they symbol for-+a vector quantity is ~ or ~
~
encounter. This gives rise to new elemen- (e.g., E or F).

tary particles such as mesons, pi mesons
and, if these are electrically charged, elec- Voltage: A potential difference (see "Po-
trons, neutrinos and protons, to name only tential"), or an ability to do work per charge
a few of the most important components. unit (unit of measure: the volt). In electrical
Natural Radiation: Planck's hypothesis units of measure, the work W is given by
of natural radiation asserts that the phases the product of the voltage U, current I and
and amplitudes of the infinitely numerous, time (W = U . I . t, in volt-am-
strictly monochromatic wave trains of pere-seconds or joules). Since the unit of
which even the narrowest spectral line is charge is 1 As (ampere-second), the volt-
composed (according to the Fourier age U is the amount of work that can be
theorem) are entirely independent of one done per charge unit.
another (incoherent radiation).
Corpuscular Radiation: All types ofradi- Work: "Work equals force times distance"
ation which consist of moving material cor- is applicable in the special case where the
puscles: atomic and molecular beams, elec- direction of the force and the direction of
tron beams, meson beams, ion beams, neu- the displacement coincide, and the force is
tron beams, etc. The "opposite" of cor- constant. The following serves as a more
puscular radiation is wave radiation, al- general definition of mechanical work. If ds
though the distinction is blurred by the is an element of the distance s by which the
duality of waves and particles, for wave ra- point of application of a variable force F is
diations also exhibit corpuscular proper- displaced, and a is the angle between the di-
ties. The only significant difference be- rection of the force and the direction of ds,
tween the two is that the particles in cor- then the elementary work is given by the
W- F · 5
Figure A-IO. Schematic diagram of the relationships between the work W to be done and the force F
required to do the work over the distance .1'.
equation dW = F . cos a . ds, and the total to lift a weight to a certain height above the
work done in displacing the point by the floor (Fig. A-IO). The work performed in
distance s is given by W = J F(s) . cos a doing this is stored in the form of potential
(s) . ds. energy. If the weight is allowed to fall, the
Work can be added to or taken from a potential energy is changed to kinetic en-
system by mechanical, thermodynamic, ergy (velocity of weight) during the fall.
electric and other physical processes. Work When the weight strikes the floor, this
added to the system increases the amount energy is transformed partly into thermal
of energy in the system, while work taken energy and partly into work deforming the
from the system reduces it. Energy can be weight or flooring.
stored in various forms (see "Energy"). Let
us assume, for example, that a certain fotce Wavelength: See " Electromagnetic
must be exerted over a distance h in order Waves."
B
Parapsychological Observations
According to Presman (1970), one can- 2. Experiments with a "sensitive" person

not discuss the transfer of information by who attempts, with or without personal
organisms with the aid of electromagnetic contact (hand holding), to receive informa-
forces without also touching upon the tion from another person.
problem of parapsychology. The observa- 3. Experiments with cards (5 cards with 5
tion of parapsychological phenomena different geometric symbols, called Zener
began with the founding of the Society for cards), in which one person tries to impart
Psychical Research in London in 1882. his knowledge of a random series of cards
This branch of psychology deals with cer- to another person by "thought transfer-
tain abilities that are apparently derived ence."
from psychic powers and are independent 4. Experiments in which one person tries
of the known sense organs, including the to guess an object viewed by another per-
ability to receive and transmit information son. Such investigations are the subject of
(telepathy), to determine the nature and various pUblications, which describe cases
location of objects which are imperceptible of telepathy and telesthesia with "medi-
by the normal senses (telesthesia), to move ums," or persons credited with special
objects by the force of the mind (psycho- powers in this regard. In some experiments
kinesis), to perceive past occurrences (re- it is reported that communication was ef-
trocognition) and to foretell the future fected over distances of several thousand
(precognition). The techniques employed in kilometers, even when one of the partici-
the parapsychological research of telepathy pants was contained in a shielded room.
and telesthesia are essentially as follows: Sensational experiments in psychokinesis
1. The observation and analysis of cases involving the bending of eating utensils
of "spontaneous telepathy," in which per- received considerable publicity some time
sons experience a sudden feeling of anxiety ago. They prompted more rigorous experi-
with regard to a close friend or relative, ments by the members of an official scien-
with no apparent cause. This feeling may tific institution. In almost every person
take the form of a vague apprehension or a tested, it was found ultimately that some
more specific feeling that someone has fall- sort of trick had been resorted to. There
en ill, had an accident or died. were only two cases in which no evidence
284 Parapsychological Observations
of tricks or deception could be found, de- The Italian researcher Cazzamali (1941)
spite the most stringent investigative even reports on the emission of electromag-
methods and the most modern measuring netic waves from the brain. No reports are
apparatus. One case involved a 12-year-old yet available which confirm Cazzamali's
girl who was reportedly able to cause measurements. However, his other experi-
spoons or forks to bend 90° simply by ments in which hallucinations were induced
touching them with her index finger. Ordi- in persons exposed to electric fields were
nary metal paper clips placed in a closed successfully reproduced by Jaski (1960).
cardboard box were noticeably bent when The poor reproducibility of previous ex-
the girl shook the box gently. In the second perimental results has raised justifiable
case, a man in a restaurant attracted atten- doubts as to the accuracy of reported
tion by breaking spoons in two with a touch results. Hansel (1966), in particular, comes
of his index finger, and then rejoining the to the conclusion that absolutely all results
pieces with the handle of the spoon re- of telepathic investigations are unreliable,
versed. Under the strictest precautionary the product of faulty experimental proce-
measures, this man was subjected to a test dure, or stem from an incorrect interpreta-
which was relatively simple but provided tion of statistical data. Despite his attitude,
objective, recordable results. The man was Hansel (1966) does -not rule out the possi-
given an ordinary 68-ohm electrical resistor bility oftelepathic phenomena, but does de-
to hold between his thumb and forefinger mand that evidence be based on properly
and was to attempt to change the resistance conducted and reproducible experiments.
value, shown on a digital display. The Presman (1970) agrees with Hansel in
progress of the experiment was recorded principle, but states that the problem is not
automatically. About 10 min after the start only faulty technique, but also the selection
of the experiment, the record showed sud- of humans as experimental subjects. This
den, completely unmotivated jumps in re- conclusion can be reached from the stand-
sistance ranging from the design value of 68 point of evolutionary theory. The ability of
o up to about 250 O-more than a three- animals or organisms to exchange informa-
fold increase. Analysis of the resistors after tion at a distance without the aid of the
the experiment showed no peculiarities. No known senses can be viewed in evolu-
explanation could be found for these phe- tionary terms as a means of increasing the
nomena. individual's chances of successfully com-
The results of all such investigations peting in the struggle for survival and thus
prompted the parapsychologists to declare promoting the preservation of the species.
that telepathic communication, at least, ap- As man evolved, he continuously im-
pears to be independent of distance and ma- proved his means of artificial com-
terial barriers. To explain the various phe- munication, so that his ability to transmit
nomena, Wassermann (1956) postulates the and receive such signals gradually dimin-
existence of energy forms such as "psi ished and was finally lost. Thus, the man of
fields" and "biologic quanta." Deep-pene- today possesses these abilities only in ex-
trating neutrinos and the gravitational field tremely rare cases and is the least suitable
are also mentioned. But the possibility that subject for investigations on the transmis-
telepathic communication may be an elec- sion of bioinformation. Animals should be
tromagnetic phenomenon is also suggested, used for this purpose, and the results can
perhaps based on the utilization of signals then be applied to man.
in the 1OIL 1029 Hz range. Signals of a The ability of man to transmit bioinfor-
lower frequency range, extending down to mation should also be manifested in emo-
the extremely long radio waves, are also tional responses. From this standpoint, the
mentioned in connection with telepathic traditional methods of investigating tele-
communication. pathic communication are unsatisfactory. It
Parapsychological Observations 285
is unlikely that experiments with symbols animals. At present, however, there is no

printed on cards would elicit any mood re- theoretical or experimental indication that
sponses in the medium who is to receive the man possesses either telepathic or psycho-
telepathic information, for such responses kinetic abilities. It is also the international
are inconceivable based on such a primitive consensus that the results of para-
information content. In any case, previous psychological research in this area ap-
experimental results make it clear that such parently cannot be regarded as sufficiently
information transfer in animals is as- reliable. It is possible, of course, that many
sociated with the production and reception experimental results of responsible institu-
of electromagnetic energies by methods of tions are not made public simply for fear of
an as-yet unknown physical nature. being discredited in the sientific commu-
Techniques are known for the direct nity.
reception of signal transmissions between
c
Acceleration
"Acceleration" refers to the increased rate 4. Acceleration is a worldwide phenome-

of growth and development which has been non.
observed in children during the past 5. Acceleration is most marked in large
100-150 years. Presman (1970) discusses cities and is least evident in rural areas (Fig.
this phenomenon and points out the follow- C-l).
ing quantitative and qualitative character- Presman (1970) discusses the various
istics of acceleration: possible causes of acceleration. According
1. Accelerated growth is noted even dur- to the solar hypothesis, it is due to the more
ing the fetal stage of development. New- frequent exposure of children to the sun.
borns have increased an average of 5-6 cm According to the most widely accepted
in length and 3%-5% in weight during the hypothesis, it can be traced to improved nu-
past 100 years. trition. Other causes could be the increased
2. The acceleration of sexual maturity is vitamin intake of mothers and children (the
expressed in an earlier onset of puberty- use of vitamin Bs in particular stimulates
about 2 years earlier for boys and 3 years growth), the increased intellectual demands
earlier for girls, compared with 100 years made on children, and progress in medi-
ago. In women, moreover, the onset of cine. It is also suggested that acceleration
menopause has been delayed an average of has to do with increasing exposure to ioniz-
3 years during the last 50 years. ing radiation. This is hardly likely, howev-
3. Acceleration is not proceeding at a er, because the epochal shift was noted long
uniform rate. From the period from about before the widespread use of radiography
1830 to the beginning of the 1930s, the and atomic testing. Each of these factors
average height of juveniles increased by probably plays a certain role, but none of
about 0.5 cm per decade. During the last 40 them can explain all the manifestations of
to 45 years, however, juvenile growth has acceleration: its global character, the dura-
increased rapidly, by up to 5 cm per de- tion of the periods of its occurrence, and its
cade. These statistics suggest that the in- nonuniform rate of progression. Presman
crease, like other biologic processes, may (1972) advances the hypothesis that the
proceed exponentially. main cause of acceleration may be the grad-
:>
(l
(l
(1)
~
Figure C-l. The hypothesis that growth is accelerated by an increase in the energy level of natural
and artificial electromagnetic fields was advanced by Presman. One is struck, in any case, by the
ao·
number of young people who are tall (Kaufinger and Neuhauser Strasse in Munich , Germany). ::l
N
00
-.J
288 Acceleration
ual increase of natural and artificial elec- portance in this regard is the power-supply
tromagnetic field energies in the low- and network (50- or 60-Hz household power
radio-frequency range in the biosphere, and supply, 16 2/3 Hz railway power supply,
that acceleration is therefore a sign of local electric transportation systems and
man's adaptation to these environmental other DC-powered systems), which has by
changes. There is certainly much to support now penetrated into the farthermost
this hypothesis, but strong objections must reaches of human civilization. The biologic
be raised if a gradual increase in the natural activity of such electromagnetic fields can
electromagnetic fields in the biosphere is no longer be disputed. But apparently Pres-
submitted as a significant contributing fac- man is not well informed on the current
tor. Aside from certain long-term fluctua- status of low-frequency field research, for
tions, which have probably existed since while he discusses the pulsed form and
the earth was born, the concentration of tall higher intensity level of natural electromag-
buildings in large cities plays a special role, netic fields at night, he does not point out
according to Presman (1972). The elec- that this is true only for high-frequency ra-
tromagnetic phenomena caused by dis- diation. In the range of the Schumann reso-
charges, due to thunderstorms or other- nances (10 Hz), conditions are exactly
wise, are supposed to increase in such reversed.
areas. However, Presman fails to take into If electromagnetic energies are responsi-
account the shielding effect of modern ble for the phenomenon of acceleration,
buildings. Electric fields, which playa dom- they are mainly the artificially produced
inant role in the processes mentioned, are high- and low-frequency energies that are
much more strongly attenuated by the field- present in every home (television, radio,
distorting effect of buildings than in, say, a telephone, lighting, refrigerator, cooking
village where construction is far less dense, appliances, household appliances, etc).
the houses are smaller, and wood is a prin- This does not take into account the effects
cipal building material. The objections of nearby high-voltage transmission lines,
become even stronger when one considers overhead railway lines, or AC- and DC-
the time spent by persons in dwellings that powered streetcars and subways.
are constructed mostly of steel-reinforced Presman (1972) further points out that
concrete. Natural electric fields are greatly chronic exposure to electromagnetic fields
weakened by such structures, which would of higher intensity than natural fields at cor-
lead one to expect a retardation of growth responding frequencies can apparently lead
in cities rather than an acceleration. to an impairment of reproductive ability
It is probable, therefore, that man-made and thus to developmental retardation as
electromagnetic energy sources, which well. This change in environmental condi-
have steadily increased since the beginning tions has taken place in much too short a
of the 1930s, have become an important time, however, to permit an adaptation to
factor in the biosphere: power supply facili- the new situation at the genetic level. More
ties, telephone systems, radio stations and probably, the adaptation is phenotypic in
television transmitters, to name only the character. The phenomenon of accelera-
most widespread. Surprisingly, Presman tion-the prolonged reproductive period,
discusses only the radio waves emitted by earlier sexual maturity and increased
radio and television stations in various growth rate-must be regarded, therefore,
frequency ranges, apparently overlooking as an overcompensation for the increased
the existence of artificial, low-frequency level in the biosphere of electromagnetic
electromagnetic energies. Of particular im- forces that retard these processes.
D
Heredity
The studies of Gauquelin ( 1961) on "plane- to Saturn and is scarcely evident in the case
tary heredity" give cause for speculation of the latter planet (Fig. 0-1). The question
concerning the influence of electromagnetic remains whether a scientific basis for as-
radiations. Gauquelin reports that a study trology can be seen in this phenomenon.
of more than 40,000 comparisons between A similar question is raised by the statis-
the planetary positions occurring during the tical studies of Kop and Heuts (1974) on
births of parents and their children 'showed connections between the month of birth
that certain configurations can apparently and choice of partner in marriage. They
be transmitted from parent to child. The found that men born during the second half
rule can be stated as follows: Mars, Jupiter, of January show a statistical preference for
Saturn, the Moon and Venus tend to oc- marrying women born during the second
cupy celestial positions during the birth of half of October. The same applies to men
children which show similarities to the born from April through mid-May, who
positions they occupied during the birth of marry women born during the same period.
the parents. For example, children are born Men born from mid-June through July tend
more frequently after the ascension or cul- to marry women born from mid-July
mination of one of these planets if the same through mid-August. People most
planet was in the same region of the sky frequently marry a partner whose month of
during the birth of the parents. The results birth is 0-2 months earlier or later than
depend on the circumstances of the birth. their own. As for divorce, it was found that
They are more apparent in the case ofnatu- men born in March who marry women born
ral deliveries with no surgical intervention, in July are eight times more likely to
while they are correspondingly adulterated divorce than in any other combination of
in deliveries that are artificially influenced. months. A similar, though weaker tendency
There are significant differences among the is found in men born in February whose
five planets mentioned with regard to the wives were born in May. Men born during
degree of the hereditary effect. The statis- the second half of November are twice as
tical relationship decreases from the Moon likely to divorce as other men.
tv
\C)
o
::t
(1)
@
&.
-<
Figure D-l. No firm scientific basis has yet been found for the astrological significance of the planets.
Nevertheless, statistical studies have revealed certain interesting aspects (photograph of Saturn with
lunar craters in foreground, from the Bochum Observatory in Germany).
E
Heliobiology
It is certain that solar activity and every- energy depend on the magnitude of the
thing connected with it plays a decisive chromospheric flare. These particles rarely
role, directly or indirectly, in the course of reach the earth's surface, but this may
various biologic processes (Fig. E-l). Ac- occur after very powerful chromo spheric
cording to a report by Gnevyshev and flares once every several years. Usually the
Novekova (1972), this has led in the USSR geomagnetic field prevents these particles
to suggestions that a new branch of science from reaching the earth's surface.
be founded, "heliobiology." This move was Another solar phenomenon that is emit-
motivated in part by the results of a study ted toward the earth is wave radiation (elec-
showing a statistical connection between tromagnetic waves, light, X-rays). The light
heart attacks and days with high geomag- and electromagnetic waves reach the
netic activity. An especially strong correla- earth's surface, while the gamma and
tion was found for heart attack cases with X-rays are completely absorbed by the at-
fatal outcomes. A corresponding compari- mosphere. When the intensified solar wind
son of data on stroke cases yielded the envelopes the earth, it deforms the magnet-
same results. These studies are considered osphere. Charged particles can penetrate
confirmation that geomagnetic factors as- through the neutral layers of the magnet-
sociated with fluctuations in solar activity osphere and the polar auroral zones, caus-
have an important direct or indirect influ- ing an ionization of the upper atmospheric
ence on living organisms. layers. As a result of these deformations
High sunspot activity is indicative of and the ionization of the upper air, geomag-
increased solar activity, which in turn is ac- netic storms are formed. Mikhov (1976)
companied by an intensified solar wind. seconds the opinion that intensified solar
Whether this intensified solar activity (inactivity influences the earth mainly indi-
creased sunspots and chromospheric flares) rectly through an increase of geomagnetic
will affect the earth depends on whether the activity. Proceeding from this assumption,
flow of ejected particles envelopes the earth he investigated the correlation between
or bypasses it. This flow of particles (inten- geomagnetic activity and infant mortality,
sified solar wind) contains cosmic-ray pro- as well as deaths from cerebrovascular
tons and electrons whose velocity and disease, ischemic heart disease and stom-
292 Heliobiology
Figure E-l. The X-radiation of the sun, photographed 200 km over Mexico with a pinhole camera.
Visible light was filtered out with a thin aluminized plastic film. Zones of intense radiation can be seen
at the center and limb of the solar disk. The black spots are caused by dust particles.
ach cancer. Over a period of 6 years, Takata and Dohmoto (1936, 1937) is ac-
20,000 to 70,000 mortality cases were companied by a parallel change in the al-
correlated. A correlation coefficient greater bumin/globulin ratio, as indicated by elec-
than 0.5 was found for cerebrovascular trophoretic serum analysis. The sunrise ef-
disease, ischemic heart disease and infant fect, moreover, can be observed only if the
mortality, while no correlation was found blood sample is taken under insulated con-
between stomach cancer deaths and geo- ditions, as pointed out by Takata. The pres-
magnetic activity. In the opinion of Mikhov ence of an artificial electric charge on test
(1976), organisms respond nonspecifically subjects was also sufficient to cause a
to changes in the geomagnetic field. This change in the protein composition of the
nonspecific response, similar to the stress serum. The occurrence of special ELF at-
response, could lead to a fatal outcome mospheric electrical processes at sunrise
under certain circumstances (impaired vital (see Fig. 3-12 and Fig. 5-2, type IV) may
functions or diminished compensatory provide a bridge to understanding the na-
capacity). ture of these electric phenomena.
Another example of solar influences is The possibility of biologic effects from
the effect of sunrise on the flocculation of solar activity is a subject of particularly in-
human blood, described some years ago by tensive research in the USSR. Gauquelin
Takata and Dohmoto (1936, 1937). The and Gauquelin (1975) present a review of
problems associated with this phenomenon recent Soviet studies in the area of plant
are clarified to some degree by recent growth, animal behavior, disease epidemics
research results, especially in the area of and circulatory disorders.
ELF atmospherics-especially since Bau- Both Soviet and British scientists
drexl (1952), on repeating Takata's experi- (Brookes et aI., 1976) have pointed out that
ments, found that the sunrise effect of the sun pulsates with a period of 2 hr,
Heliobiology 293
40 ± 0.5 min. The surface of the sun repor- ternal structure of the sun; it also suggests
tedly moves inward and outward in the line that there may be geophysical rhythms that
of sight (i.e., radially) with a mean velocity have the same period. Certain connections
of 2 mls and amplitude of approximately 10 with parallel biologic rhythms, in turn, can-
km. This not only poses certain theoretical not be rejected out of hand.
problems for astronomers regarding the in-
F
Conclusion of the Public Service Commission
of the State of New York's Opinion #78-13 on
760-kV Transmission Lines
We find, on the basis of the record in the and to all future proceedings pursuant to
common record hearings and in Case Article VII of the Public Service Law.
26529, that the operation of the facilities The Commission orders:
proposed by PASNY in Case 26529, the 1. Subject to the conditions set forth in
construction of which we have previously this Opinion and Order and in all previous
approved, is needed to serve the public in- applicable orders, the certificate of environ-
terest, convenience and necessity, and will mental compatibility and public need pre-
have, if conducted in accordance with the viously granted, in Case 26529, to the
conditions described in this Opinion and Power Authority of the State of New York
specified in its ordering paragraphs, the is extended to authorize the operation of
minimum adverse environmental impact the transmission facilities to which it ap-
considering the state of available technol- plies.
ogy and the nature and economics of the 2. The operation ofthe 765 kV transmis-
various alternatives. We also find that the sion lines here authorized is conditioned
standards and conditions here adopted upon the following:
should also be applied to the transmission (a) PASNY is to acquire a right-of-way
line proposed by Rochester Gas and Elec- sufficient to exclude existing residences in
tric Corporation and Niagara Mohawk an area extending 175 feet on each side of
Power Corporation in Case 26559. We the centerline of the certified route.
shall issue presently an order requiring (b) PASNY must acquire permanent
Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation to rights to bar future residential development
show cause why these standards and condi- within a zone extending 125 feet on each
tions should not be applied to its Volney- side of the centerline of the certified route;
Edic 765 kV transmission line, which we it must also acquire rights to preclude, for a
certificated in 1974 but which has not yet period not less than seven years, future res-
been built. It is also our intention to apply idential development within a zone extend-
these standards and conditions, to the ex- ing an additional 50 feet on each side of the
tent pertinent, to the operation at 345 kV of centerline. The Commission reserves the
the transmission lines already certified in right to require those additional rights to be
Cases 26462 and 26758 and Case 26717 made permanent or to permit earlier de vel-
Conclusion of the Public Service Commission 295
opment if warranted by the result of the the funding of the program of studies
program of studies described in Ordering described in Ordering Paragraph 5.
Paragraph 5. (e) PASNY shall undertake a suitable
(c) PASNY shall report to the Commis- program, consistent with this Opinion, for
sion and attempt to resolve all complaints grounding and bonding fixed metal objects
concerning audible noise produced by the on the right-of-way and large movable
lines. In the event such a complaint is made metal objects likely to be brought on the
by the owner of a house located within a right-of-way. It shall also undertake a suit-
zone extending from the edge of the right- able program for informing persons living
of-way to a point 600 feet from the cen- near the right-of-way of the possibility of
terline of the certified route and cannot be induced shocks from the lines and the best
satisfactorily resolved by other means, the methods for avoiding them.
Commission may require P ASNY to offer (f) PASNY shall serve a copy of this
to purchase or move that house. This op- Opinion and Order, together with a cover
tion shall exist for a period of 18 months letter to be composed by the Commission's
from the date on which the 765 kV trans- staff, upon every manufacturer of cardiac
mission line is made fully operational. The pacemakers in the United States and upon
resale by P ASNY of any such house shall every association of cardiologists in New
be on notice to the buyer of the events that York State.
resulted in P ASNY's having acquired it. (g) PASNY shall establish a procedure
(d) PASNY shall contribute an amount, for receiving, responding to, and reporting
to be determined by the Commission but to the Commission every complaint con-
not to exceed 2% of the total cost of concerning the operation of the transmission
structing the facilities here certified, toward lines here certified.
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Subject Index
A hypophyseal-hypothalamic Aircraft, 170-171

axis, 163 - 164 Altitude, 7
Absorption of electromagnetic influenza virus, 156 Amplitude-modulated fields,
energy, 121 iron content, 153 129-132
Acceleration, 286 - 288 irritation syndrome, 165 - 166 Anesthesia, 243 - 244
Acid phosphatase, 74 learning, 159 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH),
Acoustic sensations, 138; see measurement of, 147 - 148 164
also Noise mechanism of, 157-158 Anti-inflammatory effect, 79
Acupuncture, 242 - 244 medical applications of, Anxiety response, 159
Adaptive response, 229 - 232 167-169 Architectural biology, 264 - 271
ADH, see Antidiuretic hormone in microorganisms, 149-151 interior of rooms, 266 - 269
Adrenal activity, 162-164 mortality, 149-151 light, artificial, 269 - 270
Aerosols, 39-41, 272 natural, 249 - 250 Asthma, 168
Aggression, 159 origins of, 146 - 148 Astrology, 289
Air ions, 39-41, 144-175 oxygen consumption, 153, 157, Atmosphere, 5
ADH,164 171-172 vertical electric current in,
adrenal activity, 162-164 pain, 160, 168-169 41-42
in animals, 155- 164 performance, 159, 169-171 windows in, 36
artificial, 166 physiologic action of, 171 - 172 Atmospheric counter-radiation,
biometeorology, 192 - 193 in plants, 151-155 37-38
catecholamines, 165 properties of, 146 - 148 Atmospheric electricity; see also
communication, intercellular, psychological effects, Air ions; Atmospherics;
158 159-160, 163, 169 Biometeorology
conceptual barriers, pulse rate, 172 biometeorology, 192 - 193
145 - 146 reaction time, 172-173 intensity of field, 18
cytochrome, 152-153 remarks, 174-175 in plants, 153-155
depletion, 152 respiration, 155-156 Atmospherics, 21- 31, 272; see
double action of, 161 - 162 respiratory illness, 168 also ELF atmospherics;
EEG,169 sensitivity to, 145 - 146 VLF atmospherics
effects, various, 159 serotonergic systems, 166 building materials, 266
Frey's hypotheses, 162-164 Sharav syndrome, 165, 166, components of, main, 22
generation of, 148-149 193 daily rhythm of human
growth, 73, 149-155 thyroid syndrome, 166 functions, 83
history, 144-146 tracheal mucosa, 156-158 experiments with models,
in humans, 164-174 work efficiency, 170 31-32
326 Index
Atmospherics (cont.): Biologic sensitivity to fields, sugar level, 118

high-frequency, 33-35 234-235 sunrise effect, 292
term, use of, 21 Biologic signals, II, 14 - 15; see Bone fractures, 238
time course of, 22 also Information Brass grids, 49
Atomic nuclei, 4 transmission Building materials, 266; see also
Atomic test, 71 Biologic systems, 1-3, 10-15 Architectural biology
Attention-loading capacity, 89, 93 radiations of significance for, Buildings, see Architectural
Audible signal, 122; see also table of, 40 biology
Noise Biometeorology, 113 -119, Burn patients, 168
Autonomic nervous system, 140 176-193
atmospheric electricity,
192-193 c
B biorhythm, 188-189
biotropic balance, 187 - 188 Cancer, see also Tumor growth
Bacteria, 72-73,100-101, biotropic factors, 179, 182 gamma radiation, 206
108-109 chemical complex, 180 geopathogenic zones,
Basal regulation, measurement of, contradictory results on, 195 - 199, 205, 206,
241 235-236 214-216
Bees, 254- 255 definition of, 178 Cardiac effects, see also
Behavioral effects, see also electrophysical aspects, Myocardial infarctions
Performance; 189-193 EEG, 14,73
Psychological effects ELF fields, 190-191 high-frequency fields, 127
ELF fields, 97 -99, 111-112 history of, 176 - 178 output, 62
frequency, III of humans, 178 rotating magnetic field, 78
parameters of, III - I 12 impact at location, 179 - 181 static magnetic field, 73
voltage levels, III - 112 Konigstein scheme, 183 - 186 Catecholamine, 165, 244 - 245
Biologic activity of fields, medical-meteorologic analysis, Cell membrane, 236
56-102; 135-143;see methods of, 181 - 186 Cellular respiration, 70
also specific effects and meteorologic aspects, Central nervous system,
specific types of fields 176-189 126-127
biologically active, definition meteorosensitivity, 190 Cerebral electrotherapy, 241
of, 123 meteorotropic diseases, 184, Chemophysical reactions,
body as whole, 136-137 185 133-134
conclusions, 140-142, neurotropic complex, 181 Chicks, incubation of, 255
236-237 photoactinic complex, 180 Circadian rhythm, 87 - 89
contradictory results on, problems of, fundamental, Climate, term, use of, 176-177;
235-236 177 see also Biometeorology
evidence on, survey of, research outlook, 188 - 189 Climatic cycles, 52-54
232-236 research problems in, 179 Coaxial cables, 46, 261
conclusions about, 236- 237 subsidence, 184 Committee on Biosphere Effects
experimental difficulties, thermal complex, 179 - 180 of Extremely Low
56-57 Tolz weather-phase scheme, Frequency Radiation, see
frequency-dependent, 79 186 Project Seafarer
galvanotaxis, 60 - 61 VLF atmospherics, 191- 192 Communication, see also
health-impairing effects, Bioresonators, 213 - 214 Information transmission
139-140 Biorhythm, 188 - 189 intercellular, 158
negative results on, 142 Biotropic balance, 187 - 188 microwaves, 120 - 121
organs and cells, field Biotropic factors, table of, 182 Conductivity, electrical
formations in proximity to, Biotropism, 179 body, 219-220
138-139 Bird navigation, 109 - III, 130, ground, anomalies of, 203 - 204
parameters of, 141-142 139 skin, 242 - 243
solar activity, correlations of, Blood Corpuscular radiation, 4
137 clotting, 257 Cosmic radiation, 3 - 4, 37,
summary, 142-143 coagulation rate, 117, 132-133
threshold values, 122-123, 133-134 Cumulative effects of radiation,
143 composition, 123 - 124 127
time variations of processes, pressure, 124, 129 Curie, unit, 38
51-53 sedimentation rate, 62, 117, Current density, 272
vital activity, 137-139 197 Cycles, 52 - 53
Index 327
Cytochrome, 152-153, 155, 156 Dowsers, see Divining rod high-frequency fields, 125
phenomenon, dowsers noise, 140
Dowsing zone, see Divining rod Electromagnetic fields, 1-15,
D phenomenon, dowsing 135-137
zones absorption of energy, 121
Defense reflex, conditioned, 86 Drinking behavior, 251 - 253 biologic activity of, 10-15
Defensive systems, 135 - 136 Driving performance, 91 - 94 biologic systems,
Definitions, 272 - 282 Drugs, stimulating, 60 interrelationships of, I - 3
Development Duration of exposure, I 12 general considerations,
acceleration, 286 - 288 218-219
ELF fields, 104 - 107 man-made, see Man-made
embryonal, 125 E electromagnetic fields
high-frequency fields, 125 natural, see Natural
high-voltage transmission lines, Earth currents, 21, 42 electromagnetic fields
253-254 Earth's crust, 8 organs and cells, formation in
static magnetic fields, 70 - 71 Earth's electrical field, 7 - 8; see proximity to, 138-139
Diagnosis, 244 also Atmospheric penetrating ability of, 47, 49;
Diamagnetism, 279 electricity see also Shielding of
Direct current, 60-61 Earth's magnetic field, see electromagnetic energies
Diseases, meteorotropic, 184, Terrestrial magnetism sources of, I - 10
185 Earth's surface, 37 extraterrestrial processes,
Diurnal activity rhythm, 59 Electric air current, 16 - 18, 3-5
Diurnal solar variations, 19 - 20 56-58; see also in home, 46
Divining rod phenomenon, Electrostatic fields natural, see Natural
194- 217; see also Electric charge, 272 electromagnetic fields
Geopathogenic zones Electric charge transport, 273 technological processes,
bioresonators, 213 - 214 Electric conductance, 273 9-10
blood sedimentation, 197 Electric fields terrestrial processes, 5 - 8
cancer, 195-199,205,206, definition, 273 types of, I
214-216 high-tension lines, 44-46 threshold values, 122 - 123
summary of results, metabolic effects, 226-227 Electromagnetic waves, 274
214-216 organs and cells, formation in Electrophysical terms, 272 - 282
conclusions, 216 - 217 proximity to, 138-139 Electro-sleep therapy, 241
dowsers parameters of, 141-142 Electrostatic charges, 43
electric resistance, 209 physiologic effects, various, Electrostatic fields, 18, 56 - 58
geomagnetic field, anomalies 224-225 bacterial cultures, 57 - 58
of,208 as stressors, 224- 229 blood sedimentation rate, 62
magnetic fields, 209 - 21 0 wiring, types of, 46 cardiac output, 62
paraffin-graphite blocks, Electric power supply, 44-46; diurnal activity rhythm, 59
204 see also High-voltage epinephrine excretion, 66
underground water flows, transmission lines experimental design, criticism
205 Electric resistance, 273 of,62
water, still, 208 - 209 Electrical conductivity, see growth, 58 - 59
dowsing zones Conductivity, electrical immunologic response, 60
biologic effects in, 196 - 200 Electrical resistance, see ionization of air, 61
electrical resistance of body, Resistance, electrical medical visits, 62
203 Electroacupuncture, 243 - 244 metabolic rate, 58
ground conductivity, Electro-aerosols, 40 mortality, 68
anomalies of, 203 - 204 Electroauragram, 139 norepinephrine excretion, 66
lightning, 204 Electro-biometeorology, performance, 61, 63-65, 68
physical parameters of, 189-190 physiological effects, 59
200-210 Electrocardiogram (ECG), 14,73 pollution, 68
VHF fields, 202 - 203 Electroclimate, 266 - 267 psychological effects, 59-60
VLF atmospherics, 204 Electroencephalography (EEG), personality-specific working
erythrocytes, 197 II, 14-15,245 model, 63 - 68
historical review, 195 - 196 air ions, 169 pulse rate, 66, 68
instrument, 210- 212 behavioral changes, 111 rippled,226-227
neutralizing devices, 212 - 214 ELF fields, 14-15,84, Schneider test, 62
research areas, 194 - 195 94-95,99-100 skin, conductivity of, 62
328 Index
Electrostatic fields (cont.): performance, 89 - 94 ranges in electromagnetic

smooth muscles, 60 physiological effects, various, spectrum, 16, 17
vital functions, 62 95, 97 wavelength and frequency,
Embolism, 245 in plants, 94-102 relationship between, 16,
Embryonal development, 125 reaction time, 80 - 82, 85 - 86, 17
Emission standard, 127 - 129 91-94 Frey's hypotheses, 162 - 164
Emotional responses, 159 - 160; scholastic performance, 89-90
see also Psychological spasmogenic effect, 79
effects square-pulse field, 89-94, 95, G
Energy, 276 97
Environmental protection, I subjective reports, 83, 90 - 91, Galvanotaxis, 60-61
Epinephrine excretion, 66 93-94 Gamma radiation, 206
Erythrocytes, 117, 124, 197 sudden infant death syndrome, Genetic effects, 289
Evolution, 10-15, 141 107 ELF fields, 104
Experimental conditions, triglycerides, 107 - 108 microwaves, 130 - 131
158-159 VLF fields, connection particle radiation, 133
Experimental technique, between, 32-33 static magnetic fields, 71
232-234 weather, 79-80, 89 Geobiologic effects, see
Explanation, 173- 175 Extremely slow field fluctuations, Geopathogenic zones
Exposure standard, 127 - 129 75,77-78 Geomagnetic field, anomalies of,
Extension cord, 46 Extremely weak electric fields, 208
Extraterrestrial processes, 3 - 5 257,259 Geopathogenic zones, 195; see
Extraterrestrial radiation, Extremely weak magnetic fields, also Divining rod
133-134 74-75 phenomenon, dowsing
Extremely high voltage Eyes, 10-11 zones
transmission systems, cancer, 195 - 199, 205, 206,
256-257 214-216
Extremely low frequency (ELF) F summary of results,
fields, 32-33, 78- 102, 214-216
131; see also Project Faraday shielding, 97, 99 ionizing radiation, 197
Seafarer Fatigue, 83 low-frequency fields, 196
in animals, 94 - 102, 104 - 107 Fear, 163 Glucose level, 118 - 119
anti-inflammatory effect, 79 Ferromagnetism, 279 Gradient, 277
atmospherics, 22, 24-27, Fertility, 104- 107,118 Ground conductivity, anomalies
79-80,83-84 Field fluctuations, 20 - 21 of,203-204
attention-loading capacity, 89, extremely slow, 75, 77 - 78 Ground radiation, 8, 38
93 low-frequency, 43 - 44 Growth
behavioral effects, 1 10 - 112 VLF,33 acceleration, 286 - 288
behavioral physiology, 97 - 99 Field intensity, 141,250 air ions, 73, 149-155
biometeorology, 190 - 191 Field-specific adaptive response, electric fields, 225 - 226
defense reflex, conditioned, 86 229-232 electrostatic fields, 58 - 59
development, 104 - 107 Fields, see also specific types of ELF fields, 86-87,100-102,
electroencephalographic fields 104-107, 110-111
studies, 14-15,84, frequency, measurement of, 53, static magnetic fields, 69 - 73
94-95,99- 100 55 thunderstorms, 58
Faraday shielding, 97, 99 physiological effects, various,
fertility, 104- 107 224-225
growth, 86-87, 94-102, thermal effects versus effects H
104- 107, 110- III of, 122
in humans, 78 - 94 weak,85-86 Headaches, 83, 256, 257
circadian rhythm, 87 - 89 Finger tapping (FT), 171 Health-impairing effects,
clinical tests, 82 - 83 Flicker fusion frequency (FFF), 139-140
reaction time, 80 - 82, 171 Hearing impairment, 140
85-86 Fluorescent light, 269 - 270 Heart, 14; see also Cardiac
time interval estimation, 86 Force, 276 effects
IO-Hz processes, 83 Frequency, 277 Heaviside layer, 7
measurement of signals, 26 - 27 behavioral effects, III Heliobiology, 137,291-293
metabolic effects, 95, 97 biologic effects, 79 Heredity, see Genetic effects
molting behavior, 99 field fluctuations, 21 High-frequency atmospherics,
orientation, 97 - 99, 108 - III measurement of fields, 53, 55 33-35
Index 329
High-frequency fields, 47, Influenza virus, 156 extremely weak, 74- 75

119-134; see also Information transmission, 132, high-tension lines, 46
Microwaves 137 - 138; see also of human body, intrinsic, 75
blood composition, 123 - 124 Communication immunobiologic effects, 251
blood pressure, 124, 129 Infrared radiation, 37 - 38, 79 rotating, 75, 77 - 78
cardiac function, 127 Insomnia, 24 I shielding, 50
chemophysical reactions, Inversion layers, 21 static, see Static magnetic fields
133-134 lon, 277 strong, 73
EEG,125 Ionization, 277 Magnetism, 278
embryonal development, 125 of air, 39-41,6 I; see also Air Magnetotaxis, 108 - 109
genetic effects, 130- 13 1 ions Man-made electromagnetic fields,
modulated, 129 - 132 altitude dependence, 7, 8 43-47
mortality, 123, 124 rate, 38 Measurement technique, 53, 55,
nervous system, 126 - 127 Ionized rain, 40 232-234
one-cell organisms, 125 - 126 Ionizing radiation, 197 Mechanical vibrations, 9
pulse rate, 124-125 Ionosphere, 5, 7, 26 Medical-meteorology, 237 - 246;
thermal effects, 124 Ions in air, see Air ions see also Biometeorology
High-voltage transmission lines, Iron content, 153 acupuncture, 242 - 244
44-46,247-264 Irritation syndrome, 165 - 166 air ions in, 167 - 169
adjacent frequency ranges, anesthesia, 243 - 244
260 basal regulation, measurement
animal experiments, 251 - 256 K of,241
bees, 254- 255 bone fractures, 238
biologic factors, 251 - 256 Kenelly-Heaviside layer, 7 diagnosis, 244
blood clotting, 257 Konigstein scheme, 183 - 186 doctor visits, 62
chicks, incubation of, 255 EEG,245
conclusions, 260 - 264 embolism, 245
development, 253 - 254 L insomnia, 241
drinking behavior, 251 - 253 methods of analysis, 181 - 186
headaches, 256, 257 L variations, 19 - 20 neurologic problems, 241 - 242
human experiments, 256 - 260 Learning behavior, 95, 159 phosphenes, 245 - 246
immunobiologic effects, 251 Lenard effect, 40-41 pulsed magnetic fields, 238
lightning, 248 Lethal effects, see Mortality research outlook, 188 - 189
mortality, 255 Leukocytes, 123 - 124 thrombosis, 245
noise, 247 - 248 Light, 132, 133,269-270 Metabolic effects, 59, 95, 97,
oxygen consumption, 254 Lightning, 8, 16- 17, 2 I ; see also 226-227
pH,255-256 Atmospherics; Meteorosensitivity, 190
physical factors, 248 - 251 Thunderstorms Meteorotropic diseases, 184,
Public Service Commission dowsing zones, 204 185
opinion, 294-295 ELF atmospherics, 22 Meteors, 7
safety, 261-262 high-frequency atmospherics, Micropulsations, 14-15
summary, 263-264 33-35 Microwaves, 119-133
visual effects, 256, 257 high-voltage lines, 248 bird orientation behavior, 130
Holistic outlook, 174- 175 time course of, 22 communication, 120 - 121
Home, source of fields in, 46 VLF atmospherics, 27 - 3 I effects, various, I 19 - 120
5HT, see Serotonin Lines of force, 277 modulated, 129-132
Human body Low-frequency fields, 43 - 44, nervous system, 130
infrared emissions of, 79 196; see also Extremely neuromuscular preparations,
intrinsic magnetic field of, low-frequency fields 130
75 Lunar variations, 19 - 20 pulsed, 130
resonance frequencies for, 9 thermography, 131
shielding effect of, 50 torsion balance, 119, 120
Hypophyseal-hypothalamic axis, M tumors, malignant, 124
163-164 U.S. National Committee of
Magnetic field, 278 the URSI, 131
Magnetic fields, see also Molecular processes at cell
I Electromagnetic fields membrane, 236
devices for producing, Molting behavior, 99
Immunologic effects, 60, 251 238-241 Monoamine oxidase (MAO),
Infection, 168 - 169, 229 dowsers, 209 - 2 10 156-157
330 Index
Mood, 53; see also Psychological Nonlinearity, 279 Plastics, 9

effects, subjective reports, Norepinephrine excretion, 66 Pollution, 68
well-being Nuclear tests, 71 Potential, 280
Mortality Power, 280
air ions, 149-151 Power lines, see High-voltage
high-frequency fields, 123, 124 o transmission lines
high voltage transmission lines, Precipitation reactions, 133
255 Occupational safety, 256 - 257 Primary radiation, 3
pollution, 68 Ohm's Law, 273 Project Seafarer, 103 - 112
VLF fields, 113, 114, 118 Optimal intensities, 141 fertility and growth and
Muscular reactions Orientation behavior, 108 - Ill, development, 104 - 107
conditioned reflex, 118 219-223 genetic effects, 104
electrostatic field, 60 animal experiments, 220 - 222 orientation behavior, 108 - III
smooth muscles, 60 ELF fields, 97 - 99 plants, 110-111
VHF fields, 14 extremely weak magnetic sudden infant death syndrome,
VLF fields, 118 fields, 75 107
Myocardial infarctions, 117 frequency-specific responses, triglycerides, 107 - 108
220-223 Psychological effects
human experiments, 222-223 air ions, 159-160, 169
N microwaves, 130 electrostatic fields, 59 - 60,
Overhead lines, 44 63-68
Natural fields, 249-250; see also Oxygen consumption,see ELF fields, 83, 90-91
Atmospherics Respiration subjective reports
aerosols, 39-41 airions,153,157,17I-I72 ELF fields, 83
air ionization, 39 - 41 electrostatic fields, 59 performance, 65
earth currents, 42 high-voltage transmission lines, well-being, 90 - 91, 93 - 94,
electromagnetic fields, 16 - 38 254 223
atmospheric VLF atmospherics, 113 - 114 Psychomotor tasks, 169
counter-radiation, 37 - 38 Public Service Commission
cosmic rays, 37 opinion on 760-kV
field fluctuations, 20 - 21 p transmission lines,
ground radiation, 38 294-295
infrared radiation from Pain, 160, 168-169,243-244 Pulse duty factor, 280
Earth's surface, 37 - 38 Paraffin-graphite blocks, 204 Pulse rate, 66, 68
natural radioactivity, 38 Paramagnetism, 279 air ions, 172
solar radiation emissions, Parapsychological phenomena, gamma radiation, 206
35-36 283-285 high-frequency fields, 124-125
summary, 38 Particle radiation, 133 Pulse repetition frequency, 280
terrestrial magnetism, Pauli test, 61, 63 - 64 Pulsed magnetic fields in
18-20 Performance medicine, 238
ULF waves, 20 air ions, 159, 169-171 Pulsed microwave radiation, 130
X-ray and ultraviolet driving, 91-94
radiation, 36-37 electrostatic fields, 61, 63 - 65,
vertical electric current in 68 Q
atmosphere, 41- 42 ELF fields, 89-94
Natural radioactivity, 38 optimization of, using electric Quasi-static fields, 16 - 18
Nervous activity, 115 - 116 fields, 89 - 94
Nervous system, 135 -136 Pauli test, 61, 63-64
autonomic, 140 psychomotor tasks, 169 R
central, 126-127 reaction time, see Reaction
high-frequency fields, time Radiation
126-127 scholastic, 89 - 90 of biological significance, table
noise, 140 self-evaluation of, 65 of,40
pulsed microwaves, 130 weather conditions, 89 characteristic, 280
Neurologic problems, 241-242 work efficiency, 170 corpuscular, 281
Neuromuscular preparations, 130 Period, 280 cosmic ray, 281
Neutralizing devices, 212-214 Periodicity, 51-53 dose, 132-133
Noise, 9, 34-35,140,247 -248, Permeability, 280 extraterrestrial, 133 - 134, 280
279 pH, 95, 255-256 forms of, 3
Nonionizing radiation, 13 1 Phosphenes, 245 - 246 interactions of types of, 38
Index 331
natural, 281 Serotonin (5HT), 156-161, 169 Telephone bell current, 44

nonionizing, 13 I Sharav syndrome, 165, 166, 193 Television sets, 47
particle, 133 Shielding of electromagnetic Terminology, 272-282
Radio astronomy, 34 energies, 47 - 51, 97, 99 Terrestrial globe, 8
Radio stars, 34 Faraday, 97, 99 Terrestrial magnetism, 7, 18 - 20
Radioactive elements, 38 grids, 49 Terrestrial processes, 5 - 8
Railway current, 44 human body, 50 Thermal effects, 122, 124
Rain, ionized, 40 wall materials, 50 Thermography, 13 1
Reaction time Shoulder stiffness, 73 - 74 Threshold values, 122-123,
air ions, 172 - 173 Sight, 10-11 143
ELF fields, 80-82, 85-86, Simple visual reaction time Thrombocyte adhesiveness, 222
91-94 (SVRT),171 Thrombosis, 245
simple visual, 171 Sinusoidal fields, 228 Thunderstorms, 16-18,31,58;
ULF magnetic fields, 78 Skin see also Lightning
VLF atmospherics, 113 conductivity of, 62, 242 - 243 center of, taking bearing on, 31
Reciprocity principle, 31 resistance of, 81 - 82 growth,58
Rectification, 281 Smog, 9, 68 Thyroid syndrome, 166
Report of the Committee on Smooth muscles, 60 Time variations of processes,
Biosphere Effects, see Solar activity 51-53
Project Seafarer biologic affects, 137,291-293 T61z weather-phase scheme, 186
Research, experimental noise level, 34-35 Torsion balance, 119, 120
conditions in, 158 - 159 variations, diurnal, 19 - 20 Tracheal mucosa, 156-158
Resistance, electrical, 134,203, Solar flares, 4, 34-35 Traffic accidents, 170
209 Solar radiation emissions, 5, 760-kV Transmission lines,
Resonance frequencies 35-36 294- 295;see also
computation of, formula for, 24 Solar wind, 4 High-voltage transmission
of human body, 9 Spasmogenic effect, 79 lines
Schumann, 22, 24-27 Spectrum, 281 Triglycerides, 107 - 108
Resonance-like behavior, 126 Square-pulse field, 89-94, 95, 97 Trypanosomes, 229
Respiration, see also Oxygen Standing waves, 25, 122 Tumor growth, 229; see also
consumption Staphylococci, 149, 150 Cancer
air ions, 155 - 156, 168 Static field, 18,228-229; see microwaves, 124
static magnetic fields, 70 also Static magnetic fields static magnetic fields, 69-70
VLF atmospherics, 113 - 114, Static magnetic fields, 68-75 Twin leads, 46
116-117 ECG,73
Respiratory illness, 168 genetic effects, 71
Respiratory quotient, I 16 - 117 growth,69-73 u
Rhythmicity, 51-53 shoulder stiffness, 73 -74
Rippled electrostatic fields, tumors, 69 - 70 Ultralow frequency (ULF) fields,
226-227 water treated with, 72 16,20,78
Roentgen, unit, 38 Static processes, 43 Ultraviolet radiation, 36-37
Rotating magnetic fields, 75, Steel-concrete structures, 50 Underground water flows, 205
77-78 Stray currents, 44 United States National
Stress responses, 223 - 229 Committee ofthe URSI,
electric field as stressor, 131
s 224-229
field-specific adaptive response,
S variations, 19 - 20 229-232 v
Safety, 127-129,256-257, stress syndrome, 223 - 224
261-262 Subsidence, 184 Vector, 281
Sawtooth oscillations, 79 Sudden infant death syndrome, Vertical conduction current
Schneider test, 62 107, 259 - 260 density, 41
Scholastic performance, 89 - 90 Suicides, 113 Vertical electric current in
Schumann resonance, 22, 24- 27 Sunrise effect, 292 atmosphere, 41-42
Seafarer system, see Project Very high frequency (VHF)
Seafarer fields, 202 - 203
Secular variation, 7 T Very low frequency (VLF)
Senses, evolution of, 10-11 animals, 115-116
Sensitivity to fields, 234-235 Technical terms, 272 - 282 atmospherics, 27 - 31,
Serotonergic systems, 166 Technological processes, 9- 10 113-119,191-192,204
332 Index
Very low frequency (VLF) (cont.): reaction time, 113 Weak electric field, 227 - 22S; see
attenuation of propagating, 2S respiration rate, 113 - 114 also Extremely weak
blood coagulation, 117 respiratory quotient, 116 - 117 electric field
blood sedimentation, 117 suicides, 113 Weather, IS, 21, 17S; see also
blood sugar level, lIS Vibrations, mechanical, 9 Atmospherics;
dowsing zones, 204 Visual effects, 256-257 Biometeorology; Lightning;
ELF fields, connection Vital functions, 62 Thunderstorms; Wind
between, 32-33 Voltage,2SI ELF fields, 79 - SO
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, Voltage levels, 111-112 performance, S9
117 Wind, 45,165,193; see also
fertility, liS Sharav syndrome
field fluctuations, 33 w Windows in atomsphere, 36
glucose level, lIS - 119 Wire grid, 49
humans, 116 Wall materials, 50 Wiring, types of, 46
isolated tissue and cells, Water Work, definition, 2S1
IIS-1I9 magnetically treated, 72 Work efficiency, 170; see also
mortality, 113, 114, liS still, 20S - 209 Performance
muscular reflex, conditioned, underground flows, 205
lIS Waterfall effect, 40 - 41
myocardial infarctions, 117 Wave impedance, 25 x
oxygen consumption, Wave trains, 26
113-114 Wavelength, 16,36 X-ray radiation, 36-37

Topics in Environmental Physiology and Medicine: Edited Karl E. Schaefer

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Topics in Environmental Physiology and Medicine: Edited Karl E. Schaefer

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Topics in Environmental Physiology and Medicine

Edited by Karl E. Schaefer

Translation by Terry C. Telger

With 142 Illustrations

Siegnot Lang (deceased)

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

© 1981 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-5861-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-5859-9

The Electromagnetic Environment

2 Electrophysical Forces of Natural Origin 16

3 Man-made Electromagnetic Fields and Ionizing Processes 43

4 Biologic Activity of Static and Low-frequency Fields 56

5 Project Seafarer 103

6 Biologic Activity of Higher-frequency Fields and

7 Biologic Activity of Electromagnetic Energies: General

8 Small Air Ions As Biologically Active Agents 144

10 The Divining Rod Phenomenon 194

11 Electromagnetic Fields: Biologic Stress or Therapy? 218

12 Electromagnetic Energies in Man's Immediate Environment 247

B Parapsychological Observations 283

List of References 296

The public in industrialized countries shows a mounting concern about

In recent years we have seen increasing evidence that electromagnetic fields, as

today is to establish an adequate interdisciplinary framework within which these

The problem of environmental protection Sources of Electromagnetic Processes

a-Weltraum d- Intarptanatartscher Raum

wave radiation charged particle cosmic radiation

terrestrial fade-out increase in ionospheric storm

0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70 100

Environmental Processes of rate of vibration is proportional to the

Natural Electromagnetic Fields spectrum is cosmic radiation, which has

stlllcaUy " LF '0'''''' 03 Hz

b- Diimplung = -.IV Neper/meter

a- Zeit secI' a- Zeit /lse

-b ebe".,r Welienieiter c- sphAr1acher WeUenieiter

frequency range of 1- 10kHz and above, nected by corresponding magnetic field

mospherics. In connection with environ- question, what are the physico-technical

0.1 1 10 100 8 12 16 20 24 [hJ

Cosmic Rays I nfrared Emissions from the

1000 1----------------1 100000

100 ~~Oler~~naCh Rajewsky ~D~~~n_

Air Ionization, Aerosols ground is 100-1000/cm3 • Long-term obser-

Table 2-1. Radiations of significance to biological processes.

Aitken' nuclei Ilarg~i\

High-frequency Fields reflective surfaces lead to the formation of

Figure 3-3. The automobile as a Faraday cage.

104 e- E Kafig·.-.-... -............__ .:-.~,..

Table 3-3. Penetration depth in cm (attenuation to lIe) of high-frequency electromagnetic waves in

electromagnetic radiations have a positive the study of periodic processes attests to

is an immediate physiologic response which acid-Ninhydrin color complex as a func-

of 14 hrlday to a static field of approxi- increase of immunization was observed in

700 Zahl der Additionen a-

C- vor nach vor nach

+t4 IIIi!iIIIIIIIlI ~yor g-

5. Each subject's self-evaluation of per- average difference between the 2- and

8- Pulsfrequenz jeweils nach

5 MinSO Min.110 Min 5 Min.60MinJl0Min5 Min. SO Mln.ll0 Min 5 Min.SOMin.ll0 Min

60~ ________-L________- i__________~________~

- - - Kontrolle - - - - - - -elektrostatistisches Feld

100 OlernaCh Rajewsky ~D~~~n_

60~ -L- i~__~