Wastewater Disinfection by Ozone: Main Parameters For Process Design
Wastewater Disinfection by Ozone: Main Parameters For Process Design
Wastewater Disinfection by Ozone: Main Parameters For Process Design
Abstract
Wastewater disinfection by ozone was investigated at pilot scale on different wastewater effluents. Variations in
operating conditions showed that a very low hydraulic retention time (2 min) was sufficient for efficient fecal coliform
inactivation, provided a sufficient ozone dose was transferred to the effluent. Therefore, the transferred ozone dose
appeared to be the critical parameter for the design of wastewater disinfection. As a consequence, the ‘‘Ct’’ approach
commonly applied in drinking water treatment should not be used for wastewater ozonation. Design parameters of
ozonation were proposed for two types of regulations, and for effluents of different qualities. It was demonstrated that
only with an efficient filtration step one can meet stringent standards such as the California Title 22 criteria. In all cases,
viruses were totally inactivated; consequently, viruses do not constitute a limiting factor in wastewater disinfection by
ozone.
The standard drinking water model failed to match the experimental data obtained on real wastewater effluents.
A modified approach was successfully developed, based on the simultaneous consumption of ozone by the
microorganisms and the organic matrix. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wastewater disinfection; Ozone; Process design; Water quality; Wastewater reuse; Disinfection modelling
0043-1354/02/$ -see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 3 5 4 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 9 8 - 6
1044 P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055
wastewater disinfection in the early 1970s. However, ozone disinfection performance on different target
because of operational and maintenance problems that microorganisms.
appeared in the first generation of facilities, it has been
considered to be a less attractive alternative to chlorine
than UV disinfection. Also, many researchers initially 2.1. Experimental set-up: continuous-flow ozone pilot
sought to achieve a measurable level of dissolved ozone plant
residual in treated wastewater, which resulted in high
ozone dosages that were not economically feasible [9]. Ozonation tests were conducted in two different pilots
Earlier studies pointed out the need for a thorough designed as bubble diffuser columns (Fig. 1), which were
investigation of wastewater ozone treatment in order to operated in continuous counter-current mode. Ozone
predict disinfection performance and design the disin- between 2% and 6% was generated from oxygen (95–
fection system for wastewater disinfection [10–12]. 98% purity), with generators provided by Ozonia. The
The present study investigates the main factors related specifications of the ozone generators and contactors
to ozone disinfection performance, for the purpose of used and the operating conditions are given in Table 1.
facilitating its design and application to wastewater Tracer test studies were performed by impulse
disinfection. injections of sodium chloride in the different operating
conditions on both pilots. This made it possible to
characterize the pilots as a series of two to five CSTRs.
2. Materials and methods Salt recovery showed that dead zones were between 5%
and 12% for the smaller hydraulic retention times
Experiments were performed in a continuous-flow (HRT), and up to 25–30% for the highest HRT (10 min
pilot plant with different types of effluents to evaluate in pilot 1, and 15 min in pilot 2). This was taken into
Table 1
Characteristics of the ozone pilots and operating conditions used in the study
account to calculate real contact times when data were an infinite rate constant
expressed as a function of ‘‘Ct’’. d½O3
The ozone concentrations in the influent gas and off- ¼ KL að½O3 * ½O3 Þ kD ½O3 if TOD > X;
dt
gas were measured by UV absorbance monitors.
Residual ozone concentration in water was analysed d½O3
by the indigo carmine method of [13], using HACH DR/ ½O3 ¼ 0 and ¼0 if TODoX; ð2Þ
dt
2000 spectrophotometer. The mass transfer efficiency in
the columns was found to be consistently 55% and 30– where KL a is the mass transfer coefficient; [O3]* is the
50%, respectively, in the pilots 1 and 2. In order to equilibrium (maximum) concentration of dissolved
compare the data, the transferred ozone dose (TOD) ozone, [O3], corresponding to Henry’s law; kD is the
was used as a descriptive parameter throughout the first order decay constant, in min1. TOD is the
study. It is defined as follows: transferred ozone dose calculated by
Z t
TOD ¼ Qgas =Qliq ð½O3 g in ½O3 g out Þ; ð1Þ TOD ¼ KL að½O3 * ½O3 Þ dt: ð3Þ
0
where Qgas and Qliq are gas and water flow rates, Eq. (2) can easily be solved in an open, completely mixed
respectively, [O3]g in is the ozone concentration in the reactor (CSTR with a contact time t) to estimate the
feed gas to the column, [O3]g out is the ozone concentra- ozone concentration
tion in the off-gas leaving the column. For a given set of TOD X
½O3 ¼ : ð4Þ
operating conditions, a time interval of three to four 1 þ kD t
times the mean hydraulic retention time was allowed to
reach steady state and take samples. In order to study
the effect of post-contact without additional ozone 2.3. Wastewater characterisation
introduction, water samples were taken from the outlet
of the column and were kept in a brown bottle without Effluents from three different wastewater treatment
light or air, to be analysed after a controlled contact plants (WWTP) were used for the studyFtwo second-
time. ary effluents and one tertiary effluent. The secondary
treatment trains in Evry, France (48,000 m3 d1) and
Washington, UK (90,000 m3 d1) are similar: pretreat-
2.2. Determination of ozone demand ment, primary clarification, activated sludge (extended
aeration and high rate activated sludge, respectively),
The immediate ozone demand of the effluents, X; was secondary clarification and discharge. The tertiary
evaluated from the plots of the ozone residual vs. the treatment train in Indianapolis, USA (300,000 m3 d1)
transferred ozone dose during disinfection tests, accord- consists of dual media filtration and chlorination after
ing to the method proposed by Roustan et al. [14]. X primary clarification, and coupled bio-roughing and
represents the minimum dose to be transferred to get activated sludge nitrification facilities. The effluent for
measurable ozone residual in the water. Mathematically, pilot testing was taken after the tertiary filtration. The
the concept is represented by the following equations, main characteristics of the effluents during the tests are
where the ‘‘instantaneous’’ demand would correspond to given in Table 2.
1046 P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055
Table 2
Wastewater characteristics, average (min–max)
Table 3
Analytical methods for microbiological parameters
Fecal Coliforms and E. coli were chosen as standard A number of physico-chemical parameters were
fecal indicators in the study, because they are usually monitored on the effluents before and after ozonation
regulated for wastewater discharge or reuse. Other using Standard methods for pH, TOC, Turbidity, SS,
microorganisms were also studied in the case of the total and filtered COD, TOC, BOD5, UV 254 abs. (total
Washington effluent: enterococci Clostridium (as surro- and after filtration), N–NO2, alkalinity, Mictotox tests
gates for more resistant organisms), Salmonellae, en- for toxicity and particle size distribution. To investigate
teroviruses and F-specific bacteriophages (considered a the effect of ozonation on colour abatement, absorbance
good model for virus disinfection [15]). The microbio- at 400 nm was used to characterise apparent colour.
logical methods used were based on the French and UK Water appears to be coloured when dissolved matter
Industry Standard Methods [16] with additional dilution absorbs visible light or when suspended particles scatter
of the samples to appropriate levels. The analytical light (Rayleigh scattering). Finally, to stop the effect of
methods are detailed in Table 3. ozone residual on microorganism concentration after
P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055 1047
sampling, 4% (wt/vol) sodium thiosulfate was added to of the hydraulic retention time. The measured values of
the treated effluent samples. 7.4–9.6 mg L1 are significantly higher than those in the
To investigate the influence of particles on disinfection other two effluents, as expected from the water quality
performances, additional tests were run with the Evry data (see Table 2). The ozone demand of the Evry
effluent after filtration (75 mm Arkal prefilter, followed secondary effluent (extended aeration with nitrification)
by a 10 mm canvas filter), to lower the suspended solids of 3.1–4.2 mg L1 is similar to the values measured in the
concentration below 2 mg L1. Indianapolis tertiary effluent of 2.5–5.3 mg L1. These
results are in agreement with an earlier study performed
on other effluents, which showed organic content to be a
much more influential parameter than suspended solids
3. Results and discussion on the ozone demand [12]. These values are used
hereafter when discussing the disinfection performances.
3.1. Inactivation of fecal coliforms: impact of
operating conditions and wastewater quality
3.1.2. Influence of operating conditions on coliform
3.1.1. Influence of wastewater quality on ozone demand inactivation
Fig. 2 illustrates the determination of ozone demand Fig. 3 summarises the results from all the experiments,
in the Washington secondary effluent for different values where the residual concentration of bacteria after
Fig. 2. Determination of the immediate ozone demand according to the classical approach used for drinking water (effluent from
Washington, UK).
Fig. 3. Performances of ozone for FC inactivation on three different effluents: comparison of concentration level after ozonation with
reuse standards.
1048 P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055
ozonation is plotted as a function of the transferred contact in the post-contactor chamber. Residual ozone
ozone dose (TOD). One important observation is that a decreased significantly in the post-contactor after 2 min
significant 1–3 log inactivation is already reached when and no significant increase in FC inactivation is
TOD approximates the immediate ozone demand, i.e. observed. The quick decay of ozone may be explained
with no measurable residual of ozone in solution. This is by the wastewater matrix-consuming ozone; therefore,
in agreement with earlier data on wastewater ozonation no further inactivation can be expected from a post-
[12]. More precisely, the higher the immediate ozone contactor without additional ozone injection. As a
demand, the higher the inactivation level reached at that consequence, no credit of additional inactivation can
dose. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that be attributed to a storage reservoir or outfall that would
bacteria themselves participate in the immediate ozone be used for discharge of ozonated wastewater.
demand, because of their high kinetic rate with ozone.
One important consequence from these results is that 3.1.3. Effect of wastewater quality on ozone
design and control of ozonation for fecal coliform disinfection performances
disinfection in wastewater should not be based on the Despite similar values of immediate ozone demand
standard parameter of residual ozone or ‘‘Ct’’ factor. In and not very different initial concentrations of bacteria,
agreement with this, Rakness et al. [10] reported that the secondary and tertiary effluents of Evry and
direct measurement of ozone residual within the full- Indianapolis display different inactivation performances
scale contactors at Indianapolis had been unsuccessful (see Fig. 3). It appears that only the tertiary effluent is
although good disinfection had occurred. The ‘‘Ct’’ able to meet stringent standards for almost total bacteria
approach is applied to drinking water because more inactivation like the Californian Title 22 criteria. This
resistant microorganisms like Giardia are targeted. result led to a more in-depth investigation of the
Data from Fig. 3 show that the hydraulic retention influence of particles on disinfection.
time (HRT) has no impact on the performances of fecal Comparative tests were performed with the effluent
coliform (FC) or E. coli disinfectionFfor a given TOD, from Evry, and with the same effluent after a filtration
a 2 min HRT provides the same inactivation as 10 min step. These tests were performed simultaneously in order
HRT. These results have major consequence for the to minimise any fluctuation in water quality or operating
design of ozone wastewater disinfection, demonstrating conditions. The ozone demand of the effluent was found
that mass transfer is the critical step that has to be to be exactly the same. The effect of filtration on
optimised, and that no long-contact-time chamber is disinfection is shown in Fig. 5: an additional 1 log
necessary. inactivation was obtained by filtration. It must be
Fig. 4 illustrates this statement, showing the distribu- stressed that for a given bacteria concentration (log N0),
tion of ozone residual and FC inactivation along the a lower level of contamination was obtained after
ozonation column and after 2, 4 and 6 min additional filtration with the same ozone dose. This conclusion
Fig. 4. FC inactivation and residual ozone distribution vs. contact time in and after the ozone column (Washington secondary effluent,
HRT 4 min, TOD 13.1 mg L1).
P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055 1049
Fig. 5. Impact of a 10 mm pre-filtration on the inactivation of total coliforms by ozone (secondary effluent in Evry, France).
explains the higher inactivation level obtained with the countries for landscape (Australia, 1 pfu/50 L) or agri-
tertiary effluent from Indianapolis, with its very low cultural irrigation (Arisona and Hawaii, USA, 1 pfu/
suspended solids content. 40 L).
Compared to all other microorganisms, the higher
3.2. Ozone disinfection of other microorganisms resistance of Clostridium was confirmed by the experi-
mental data. A thorough investigation was made with
In order to evaluate the disinfection efficiency of the effluents from Evry and Washington with that
ozone on other microorganisms, fecal streptococci (FS), indicator (Fig. 6). With a TOD approximately equal to
Clostridium, Salmonellae, Enterovirus, and F+-specific the immediate ozone demand of the effluents (3–
bacteriophages were chosen as target microorganisms 5 mg L1 for Evry and 8–10 mg L1 for Washington),
for additional tests with the Washington secondary less than 0.5 log inactivation of Clostridium was
effluent. The inactivation efficiencies are presented in achieved. The maximum inactivation level was less than
Table 4. It should be noted that the initial concentration 2 log for high TOD of 33 mg L1 (HRT 9.6 min,
of microorganisms limited the maximum inactivation Washington secondary effluent).
values that could be reached. The resistance of fecal
coliforms and enterococci to ozonation was similar, in 3.3. Impact of ozonation on effluent water quality
agreement with previous results [17,18]. It is important
to stress also that a relatively low ozone dose of Due to the high oxidative potential of ozone,
8.6 mg L1 totally inactivates Salmonellae. ozonation has a beneficial effect on effluent quality,
A higher efficiency of ozonation was observed for which argues in favour of its application for wastewater
virus inactivation: a transferred dose of 4.8 mg L1 with reuse (Table 5). The most significant effect of ozone was
4 min HRT was enough for total inactivation of on UV-254 absorbance and colour (Figs. 7a and b).
enteroviruses (>2.9 log inactivation). Total inactivation With an increase in transferred ozone dose from 2 to
of F+ coliphages (>2.2 log inactivation) was reached 13 mg L1 at HRT 4 min, the variation of UV absor-
with a slightly higher transferred dose of 8.6 mg L1. bance in the Evry secondary effluent increased from
The strong virucidal power of ozone for wastewater 28% to 55%. These results indicate that the ozone reacts
disinfection confirms its well-known performance in and oxidises the organic matter, in particular, the
drinking water [7,18]. Indigenous enteric viruses isolated compounds having double bonds and/or an aromatic
from wastewater effluents have been shown to be much structure that determine the value of the absorbance at
more resistant [18]. In comparison, coliphages have been 254 nm. The UV absorbance abatement was higher in
found to be very sensitive to ozone, which puts some the Evry secondary effluent than in Washington,
doubt on the validity of these coliphages as surrogates indicating the presence of refractory contaminants.
for enteric viruses [19,20]. Finally, no significant difference was observed between
This study shows that the ozone dose required to different contact times in the reactor (not shown),
satisfy WHO regulations (1000 FC per 100 mL) also revealing the fast kinetics of the reaction between ozone
provides total inactivation of indigenous enteric viruses. and unsaturated and aromatic compounds. The critical
This indicates that ozone would be highly recommended factor for water quality improvement is also the ozone
for the production of virus free water, required in several dose transferred into the water.
1050 P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055
F-coliphage (/mL)
1.68
>2.16
>2.09
the highly polluted secondary effluent in Washington,
Red
UK. This is typical with ozone, which can oxidise
recalcitrant compounds and thereby increase effluent
N
2
0
0
biodegradability. The total COD was not significantly
influenced by ozonation, while an increase of dissolved
96
144
122
N0
1.66
>2.89
>2.81
>2.82
>2.89
>2.89
decrease of turbidity observed during the tests (Fig. 7-
Red
0
0
0
0
N
4.73
4.63
4.74
4.86
4.71
4.53
2000
550
disinfection requirements.
In both scenarios, total inactivation of viruses is
achieved, which may be important if viruses are also
included in regulations.
4600
1320
300
840
14
14
N
5.00
4.94
4.95
5.45
5.92
5.20
½N 1
¼ ; ð6Þ
a
9.6
9.6
9.6
½N0 1 þ kN ½O3 t
4
4
4
P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055 1051
Fig. 6. Performances of ozone for Clostridium inactivation. (secondary effluents of Washington, UK and Evry, France).
Table 5
Impact of ozonation on water quality in Washington, UKa
Parameters HRT 4.0 min HRT 2.0 min HRT 9.6 min HRT 4.0 min
TOD 9.2 mg L1 TOD 12.3 mg L1 TOD 15 mg L1 TOD 21.1 mg L1
C0 9 24 17 10
TBOD C 8 30 21 12
(mg L1) ðC C0 Þ=C0 11% +25% +24% +20%
C0 73 94 93 70
TCOD C 66 92 94 69
(mg L1) ðC C0 Þ=C0 10% 2% +1% 1%
C0 42 43 47 38
DCOD C 42 51 63 47
(mg L1) ðC C0 Þ=C0 0% +19% +34% +24%
Total C0 0.44 0.48 0.51 0.43
UV Abs C 0.36 0.4 0.39 0.27
(Cm1) ðC C0 Þ=C0 20% 17% 24% 38%
Dissolved C0 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.22
UV Abs C 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.12
(Cm1) ðC C0 Þ=C0 25% 24% 27% 44%
a
C0 is the initial concentration of secondary effluent; C is the concentration of ozonated effluent.
where N is the density of viable microorganisms (N0 at kinetics, characterised by coefficient rates kX and kY
t ¼ 0), t is the hydraulic retention time in the reactor, [25]:
and kN is the inactivation rate constant.
In fact, the use of the Chick–Watson model implies d½O3
¼ KL að½O3 * ½O3 Þ kX ½X½O3 kY ½Y½O3 ;
the presence of ozone residual to achieve inactivation of dt
microorganisms; there would be no disinfection before ð7Þ
the ozone demand is met, i.e. for transferred ozone doses
lower than 8 mg L1, the immediate ozone demand of d½Y
¼ kY ½Y½O3 ; ð8Þ
wastewater. dt
In order to account for the 1–3 log inactivation
observed without measurable residual in wastewater d½X
¼ kX ½X½O3 : ð9Þ
ozonation, a modified approach was therefore devel- dt
oped, considering the consumption of ozone by the The comparison with the previous equations used for
organic matter as a combination of a rapid and a slow drinking water shows that we can obtain the same model
1052 P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055
½Xo
½X ¼ ; ð11Þ
1 þ kX ½O3 t
½Yo
½Y ¼ : ð12Þ
1 þ kY ½O3 t
The use of these equations should be interpreted as a
valid model for quantification but not necessarily as an
accurate representation of the more complex mass
transfer steps and heterogeneous reactions taking place
during the disinfection process. In particular, radical
mechanisms are ignored for simplification. Besides, in a
first step, hydraulic aspects are ignored in the inter-
pretation of the data and we assume that the bubble
column can be represented as a CSTR, which is close
enough to the experimental data. The focus is on the
kinetic modelling, which can be completed afterwards
with hydrodynamic information. The exact value of the
fitting parameters will then be slightly altered, but not
their order of magnitude. A very similar approach was
taken by Hunt and Marinas * [26] on the inactivation of
E. coli with ozone in synthetic waters.
This modified approach was applied to the experi-
mental data from Washington WWTP, with residual
ozone as a function of TOD. It led to the following
fitting parameters (Fig. 8):
kX ¼ 10 L mg1 min1 ;
½Xo ¼ 8 mg L1 ;
½Yo ¼ 60 mg L1 :
This represents a first improvement, but the major
difference between both models appears when consider-
Fig. 7. Influence of ozonation on wastewater quality. (a) Total ing the inactivation of fecal coliforms. For transferred
and dissolved UV-254 absorbance removal vs TOD (4 min ozone doses lower than the fast ozone demand,
HRT, secondary effluents of Washington, UK and Evry, integrated exposure to ozone in terms of Ct is equal to
France), (b) colour removal vs TOD at different contact times zero for the classical approach and reaches
(Evry secondary effluent) and (c) turbidity change versus 0.40 mg min L1 with the modified model for a TOD
transferred ozone dose (Washington secondary effluent). of 8 mg L1. When applying the Chick–Watson model
given by Eq. (5), this slight difference in the Ct makes it
by simplification if possible to account for the inactivation of fecal coli-
forms during X organic matter consumption. Fig. 9
kD ¼ kY ½Y; shows the strong impact of this low Ct in wastewater,
which inactivates 2 log of E. coli. The corresponding
kX ¼ N: inactivation rate constant kN is equal to
100 L mg1 min1 and the fitting curves are depicted in
Eqs. (7–9) can easily be solved in an open completely Figs. 9a and b. Besides, the model properly accounts for
mixed reactor (CSTR with a contact time t) to estimate the fact that the contact time has no effect on
P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055 1053
Fig. 8. Modelling of the residual ozone with the modified approach developed for wastewater disinfection.
Fig. 9. Inactivation of E. coli with ozone for the classical (a) and modified (b) models applied to disinfection in wastewater effluent.
inactivation performances. Therefore, a significant im- major advantage of ozone for regulations that include
provement is observed when the apparent ozone virus removal. In agreement with previous data,
decomposition is represented as a mixed second order bacteriophages were found very sensitive to ozone,
rate expression depending on the fast ozone demand X laying doubt on the pertinence of such microorganisms
(Eq. (11)). as indicators for ozone treatment. By contrast, the
higher resistance of Clostridium confirms that they are
good candidates for resistant microorganism indicator.
4. Conclusions Ozonation also provides a significant reduction of UV
absorbance and colour, which can be an advantage for
The experimental results obtained at pilot scale on some reuse applications. More stringent regulations like
different wastewater effluents confirm the efficiency of Title 22 require the implementation of an efficient
ozone for wastewater disinfection. Depending on the tertiary filtration step.
quality of the effluent, a TOD of between 2 and From an operational viewpoint, transfer of ozone
15 mg L1 was necessary to meet the WHO standard from the gas phase to the water was found to be the
for irrigation (1000 FC per 100 mL). Such a dose was critical step for fecal coliform inactivation with ozone,
shown to provide total elimination of enteroviruses in because of the fast kinetics between ozone and coliform
the worst quality secondary effluent, which can be a bacteria. No difference in inactivation was found
1054 P. Xu et al. / Water Research 36 (2002) 1043–1055
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