Konference Xxiii 2022 - 1

IMPLEMENTING REMOTE ONLINE PRACTICAL EXAMS IN THE 21ST CENTURY
XXIII Turiba University Conference
COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT

OF INTERDISCIPLINARY COMPETENCES
IN THE DIGITAL AGE
Riga, April 20–21, 2022

COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF INTERDISCIPLINARY COMPETENCES IN THE DIGITAL AGE 1

COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF INTERDISCIPLINARY COMPETENCES IN THE DIGITAL AGE
Conference organizers
Turiba University, Department of Information Technology: https://www.turiba.lv/en/contacts/contacts
Turiba University, International Office

https://www.turiba.lv/en/university/international‐cooperation
Turiba University, Vice Rector for Science and Academic Affairs: https://www.turiba.lv/en/contacts/contacts
Turiba University, Department of Development: https://www.turiba.lv/en/contacts/contacts
Organizing Committee
Aldis Baumanis, Turiba University, Latvia
Daina Vasilevska, Turiba University, Latvia
Jana Bunkus, Turiba University, Latvia
Kristine Tihanova, Turiba University, Latvia
Zane Drinke, Turiba University, Latvia
Vineta Vītoliņa, Turiba University, Latvia
Scientific Committee
Associate Professor Agnieszka Parlińska, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland
Professor Algimantas Urmonas, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania
Professor Antti Juvonen, University of Eastern, Finland
Associate Professor Bohdan Haidabrus, Sumy State University, Ukraine
Associate Professor Daina Vasilevska, Turiba University, Latvia
Associate Professor Evgeniy Druzhinin, National Aerospace University, Ukraine
Associate Professor Ewa Dziawgo, Nicholas Copernicus University, Poland
Professor Gregory John Simons, Uppsala University, Sweden
Professor Ineta Luka, Turiba University, Latvia
Professor Ingrida Veiksa, Turiba University, Latvia
Professor Janis Naciscionis, Turiba University, Latvia
Professor Jelena Davidova, Daugavpils University, Latvia
Professor Kamila Tišlerová, University of Economics and Management Prague, Czech Republic
Professor Maija Rozite, Turiba University, Latvia
Associate Professor Maria Kovacova, Žilinas University, Slovakia
Professor Nigel Marshall, University of Sussex, United Kingdom
Professor Petra Poulová, University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Associate Professor Rasa Daugeliene, Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania
Associate Professor Renata Matkevicienė, Vilnius University, Lithuania
Professor Rosita Zvirgzdina, Turiba University, Latvia
Professor Sergej Procenko, Sumy State University, Ukraine
Professor Steffi Robak, Leibniz Univeristät Hannover, Germany
Associate Professor Suat Begec, University of Turkish Aeronautical Association, Turkey
Professor Tatjana Pivac, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Associate Professor Tereza Otčenášková, University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Professor Udo E. Simonis, Berlin Social Science Center, Germany
Associate Professor Vitalii Ivanov, Sumy State University, Ukraine
Professor Waldemar Dotkuś, Wroclaw University of Economics, Poland
Associate Professor Zane Drinke, Turiba University, Latvia
Technical editor
Daiga Rugaja, Turiba University, Latvia
ISSN 1691-6069
© SIA “Biznesa augstskola Turība”, Riga, 2022, 184 p.
Turiba University
Telephone: +371 67622551
e-mail: [email protected]

Dzīvojam digitālā satura laikmetā – par to vairāk šaubu un diskusiju nav. Diskusijas ir par spēju
reaģēt uz jaunākajām tendencēm komunikācijā, uz komunikācijas ātrumu internetā un mērķauditoriju
komunikācijas paradumiem. Tieši tāpēc šis ir arī visinteresantākais un profesionāli izaicinošākais
laiks ikvienam, kurš veido komunikāciju, lieto digitālo saturu un veido to. Tieši tāpēc šodien tik liela
nozīme ir zinātniskajiem un lietišķajiem pētījumiem, jo tikai padziļināta izpēte dod pietiekami lielu
izpratni un iespēju veidot stratēģisku komunikāciju.
Komunikācijas nozares straujā evolūcija no speciālistiem pieprasa arvien jaunu prasmju apgūšanu
un sadarbošanos ar citiem profesionāļiem, jo šobrīd vairāk nekā jebkad agrāk svarīga ir tieši
integrētā mārketinga komunikācija un nozaru kopsolis. Kā norādīts 2020. gada Pasaules Ekonomikas
foruma ziņojumā par nākotnes darbam nepieciešamajām kompetencēm, tieši starpnozaru prasmes
būs tās, ko pieprasīs darba devējs.
Pēdējos divos gados pasaule pakārtojusies jauniem noteikumiem un dienaskārtībai, kur stratēģiska
nozīme ir komunikācijai visās tās izpausmes formās. Ja mācēsim pielāgoties pārmaiņām un būt tām
soli priekšā, jaunā pasaule būs mūsu iespēja, nevis krīze.
Jana Bunkus,
Biznesa augstskolas Turība Uzņēmējdarbības vadības fakultātes prodekāne,
Komunikācijas virziena vadītāja
We live in an age of digital content and there is no room for doubt or discussion. Discussions exist
about the ability to respond to the latest trends in communication, the speed of communication on
the Internet and the communication habits of the target audience. Therefore this is in fact also the
most interesting and professionally challenging time for each and every one who communicates,
uses and creates digital content. That is why scientific and applied research is so important today,
as only in-depth research can provide sufficient understanding and the opportunity to develop
strategic communication.
The rapid evolution of the communications industry demands the acquisition of an increasingly
new set of skills and collaboration with other professionals, because now more than ever, integrated
marketing communications and industry integration are important. According to the World Economic
Forum 2020 Report on Competences for Future Work, cross-sectoral skills will be what employers
will require.
Over the last two years, the world has become subject to new rules and agendas, where communication
in all its forms is of strategic importance. If we learn to adapt to changes and be a step ahead of it,
the new world will prove to be an opportunity, not a crisis.
Jana Bunkus,
Turiba University Business Administration Faculty Vice-Dean, the Head of Communication Field

CONTENTS
IMPLEMENTING REMOTE ONLINE PRACTICAL EXAMS IN THE 21st CENTURY ........................................ 6

Mudassir Arafat
VALSTS EKONOMISKO RĀDĪTĀJU IETEKME UZ TAUTAS ATTĪSTĪBAS RĀDĪTĀJIEM LATVIJĀ ........ 13
Aldis Bulis, Oskars Onževs
DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN CHINESE SMEs IN THE POST-COVID-19 ERA ...................................... 19
Linmu Cui, Aldis Bulis
THE ROLE OF FILM POLICY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF FILM PRODUCTION IN
THE BALTIC FILM INDUSTRIES ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Audrius Dabrovolskas
DIGITAL SERVICES DEVELOPMENT TRENDS UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF COVID-19........................ 43
Victoria Gudovskaya
PROTECTION OF CONSUMERS’ RIGHTS WHEN BANKS CLOSE ACCOUNTS UNILATERALLY ........... 53
Aleksejs Jelisejevs
LOCAL GOVERNMENT USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON SUSTAINABLE URBAN MOBILITY:
THE CASE OF VILNIUS MUNICIPALITY ....................................................................................................................... 64
Oleksandr Kalinchuk
ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN RESHAPING THE FUTURE OF THE INDIAN
TOURISM INDUSTRY ........................................................................................................................................................... 73
Shashikanth Reddy Kotha
PIEGĀDES ĶĒŽU VADĪBAS ATBILSTĪBAS KRITĒRIJI LOĢISTIKĀ. LITERATŪRAS APSKATS .............. 87
Normunds Kozlovskis
IMPACT OF REFINANCING RATE ON INTERNAL INVESTMENT VOLUME ................................................. 94
Valeri Mosiashvili, Ani Bibiluri
CONTRIBUTION OF SMALL AND MEDIUM CREATIVE ENTERPRISES TO THE NATIONAL
ECONOMY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ............................................................................................................................ 98
Aahulnath Kottiyattil Rajeev
EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF THE HR MANAGEMENT AND CYBERSECURITY
IN BANKING SECTOR.........................................................................................................................................................107
Mario Neel Kamal Sarihaddu, Ivars Linde
PUBLISKAS PERSONAS NEKUSTAMĀ ĪPAŠUMA NODOŠANA BEZATLĪDZĪBAS
LIETOŠANĀ LATVIJĀ .........................................................................................................................................................120
Ernests Saulītis
THE ORIGIN AND CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT STYLES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN LARGE GERMAN COMPANIES .................................................................................................................................132
Lana Sosnovika

IETEKMĒTĀJU MĀRKETINGA TIRGUS RAKSTUROJUMS INSTAGRAM PLATFORMĀ ..........................145

Annemari Sperlina
BEZBĒRNOTĪBAS TERMINOLOĢIJA IEKĻAUJOŠAS DARBA VIDES VEICINĀŠANAI
AUGSTĀKĀS IZGLĪTĪBAS IESTĀDĒS ...........................................................................................................................154
Vita Stiģe-Škuškovnika
MĀKSLĪGĀ INTELEKTA IZMANTOŠANAS JURIDISKĀS PROBLĒMAS INTEREŠU
KONFLIKTA NOVĒRŠANĀ ...............................................................................................................................................165
Jaroslavs Streļčenoks
INTROSPEKCIJA KRĪŽU KOMUNIKĀCIJAS KONCEPCIJĀ – SOCIĀLĀ KOGNITĪVĀ TEORIJA,
STRESA KOGNITĪVĀS AKTIVĀCIJAS TEORIJA UN PLĀNOTĀS UZVEDĪBAS TEORIJA,
KĀ ATSAUCES TEORIJAS NĀKOTNES PĒTĪJUMIEM ............................................................................................175
Laila Vaivode

IMPLEMENTING REMOTE ONLINE PRACTICAL EXAMS

IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Mudassir Arafat
Turiba University, Latvia
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper highlights the crucial concerns of remotely invigilated online practical exams
(RIOPEs) and exhibits pathways to evade and rectify the problems for teachers or
organizations that are looking forward to implementing RIOPEs. The purpose of this paper
is to bring forth the limitations & liberty that is being faced by the educator, students & the
organization whilst implementing RIOPE mode of examination and share the lessons
learned during the execution process with other academic HEIs who intend to conduct
RIOPEs. The study investigates the students’ performance in context with RIOPE & the
benefit it brings for the management & teachers. Undertaking a sample of 14 students who
took RIOPE for CIBTAC certification on 27th Sep 2021, at International College of
Cosmetology (ICC), based in Riga, Latvia, this paper draws analysis on a quantitative
manner from the student side, and in qualitative manner from the management & teachers’
side. With the results generated from the analysis of the data gathered, it can be concluded
that RIOPE, when implemented effectively, can be beneficial in the evaluation of the twenty-
first century learning. Further, the literature is also integrated to derive principles for the
optimization of stakeholders’ intended digital learning outcomes (IDLO). As the 21st century
aims towards digital learning and with the current situation of Covid-19, educational
institutions are in hunt for new ideas to keep the educational process on without
interruption and with ease. This paper caters a crucial support towards the knowledge of
ideal methods and practices whereby to perform a remote online practical examination. This
paper can be utilized as the base towards the ongoing research & development for an
effective “Remotely Invigilated Online Practical Exams” RIOPEs.
Keywords: Online exams, remotely invigilated, students, teachers, practical exams, study, digital,
RIOPE, organization
Introduction
Since online education is advancing in its fame, a number of higher education institutions (HEIs)
are rushing towards the advancements of online courses. Boitshwarelo (Boitshwarelo, 2017)
stresses that in line with the continued digital educational growth and for the development of online
courses in higher education, it is deemed necessary to monitor, formulate, and strengthen the best
techniques of dissemination to make sure that such courses strive to cater the best of quality
education and an effective student learning experience. This article highlights some crucial aspects
that can possibly aid educators in the growth and development of a framework for effectively
organizing remotely invigilated online practical exam (RIOPE’s), in order to reduce stress level of
the students for practical exams and at the same time provide support to the institution towards

linking & conducting new form of online practical exams to achieve the intended digital learning
outcomes (IDLOs) of the organization. As per Crane (Crane.et.al, 2015, pp. 5-6), the rise of online
education has put forth various challenges in front of the educational industry, one of such
challenges is to how effectively assess the students’ learning capabilities in the modern digital
learning environment. Further Boitshwarelo (Boitshwarelo, 2017) suggests that, the most common
tool to assess a student’s performance and knowledge gained is through the medium of exams. From
ages almost, every learning organization has been engaged in some sort of examinations to measure
their students’ capabilities and grade them accordingly as per their performance in theory, practical
or other forms (Danielson, 2017, pp. 1-3). According to Danielson (Danielson, 2017, pp. 1-3) it is
stated that in this 21st century more emphasis has been given towards digital learning practices, the
proper and effective blend of technology & education has paved way, to many online digital tools in
the educational sector. One of such tools is LMS (Learning Management Systems/software), which
have made possible to exercise the practice of online examination (Danielson, 2017, pp. 1-3).
However, this has developed certain academic as well as non-academic concerns, about how to
formulate a perfect online examination framework or pattern that can not only aid in the facilitation
of the online exam but also help track the learner/students’ performance in real-time. In the past
years various researchers have focused on reaction and experience rationale of students with
“Online Theory Exams”. Several authors (Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale, 2011), (Al-Mashaqbeh & Hamad,
2010), (Lee William Daffin Jr., 2018), (Fask.et.al, 2015), (Gamage.et.al, 2020), (Cramp.et.al, 2019),
(Khan.et.al, 2021) have focused on the theory nature of examinations online or remotely invigilated
online exams but not for practical learning. Böhmer and colleagues (Böhmer, Feldmann, & Ibsen,
2018), emphasize the fact that, there is still a lot more that needs to be learned and shared since
digital learning practices are growing rapidly and the online form of examination modes are gaining
popularity with increasing technological advancements and to some extent global situations
concerning the ongoing Covid-19 protocols.
As per Weiner & Hurtz, (Weiner & Hurtz, 2017) there is a void of research on differentiation among
various forms of invigilating exams such as externally or internally invigilated online exams and the
significance of such. Most of the research carried out about the online exams concerns their mode
and arrangement where usually the exam is performed online via computer, however, all the other
facets stay the same as that of the conventional hand-written paper-based format of the exam,
usually held in person that is in classroom or campus and invigilated. Whereas Weiner & Hurtz,
(Weiner & Hurtz, 2017) & Cramp & others, (Cramp.et.al, 2019) in their study have compared the
remotely invigilated online exams with in person, where their study focuses on effects of exercising
remotely invigilated online exams (RIOE) in contrast with the examinees, exam results and their
experience with (RIOE). Their study covers exams that were held simultaneously, at different exam
centers which provided the personal invigilator support at the exam centers or exercised the
practice of remote online invigilation at exam centers where the primary tool to invigilate the exams
where via video surveillance that was connected to internet for uninterrupted streaming. There are
many formats that remotely invigilated online exams can adapt to, but there is still a huge space for
further research on making Remotely Invigilated Online Practical Exam (RIOPE) a reality of the
future. The RIOPE is entirely a new concept therefore not much of research has been done in this
area until now.
This article contributes towards this research segment by presenting a practical case study of
International College of Cosmetology in Riga, Latvia, that was brave enough to organize & execute

their first ever RIOPE. As the college is engaged in providing higher education in cosmetology this
particular RIOPE was organized in coordination with the internationally recognized UK based
certification body CIBTAC, which is the external invigilator here for the course CBC11-Level 2
Certification in Facial Services. The students who participated in this course upon successfully
passing the course were awarded international certificate by CIBTAC in facial services. This paper
further sets an example & guide for other vocational higher education institutions struggling on
how to effectively facilitate practical, workshops etc. online. Further, it contributes towards the
quality assurance criteria of an organization its pedagogical consistency how to achieve the
intended digital learning outcomes for an educational organization.
Exam ambit
As per Cramp (Cramp.et.al, 2019), many sources highlight that, there is no one single definition for
exams and it has a broader spectrum. Moreover, the same type of exam is referred differently by
various groups, an example can be seen when and online exam can be called as digital exam,
computer-based exam eventually meaning the same. The reason to formulate the exams as per their
group, format, location and invigilation pattern is to highlight the extensivity and uniqueness of
RIOPE from the other forms of online examination which although sound similar but are actually
very different than RIOPE. As per Böhmer & colleauges (Böhmer, Feldmann, & Ibsen, 2018), there
are two approaches for exam traditional and modern that is the 21st century. In the traditional
pattern location and invigilation method is fixed that is the exam hall or class room (personally).
The modern ambit has a lot of specter to add such as Online exams, which can be given from school,
using school computers or bring your own device, that can be invigilated by in person invigilator or
monitored remotely, or giving the exam from the ambit of modern & traditional exam modes are
illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1
Classification of Exam Ambits (authors own work)
Exam
Technical support Mode Invigilation Location Format
Approaches
Remote Recorded
Online Computer
In hall language
Practical (T/P)
Not Invigilated
Traditional &
Online BYOD
Exam Centre
Paper-based
Remote Live
Continuous
On Campus
Monitoring
Live Q/A &
External &
translator
Theory or
In Person
Feedback
Provided
Internal
Modern
Remote
Camera
Traditional ˟ ˟ ˟ T √ ˟ ˟ ˟ ˟ √ √ ˟ √ ˟ ˟
Modern ˟ ˟ ˟ T √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ ˟ √ √
RIOPE √ √ √ T/P √ √ √ ˟ √ √ √ ˟ ˟ √ √
The table 1, clearly highlights the fact that online exams have various attributes even if it falls under
one category that is (Online Exams). It is clearly evident from the table 1, that RIOPE is a way ahead

that is aiding practical as well as theory modes of examination, enabling continuous camera
monitoring, language translator support, with two invigilators in the exam hall/ class, that is one in
person and the other invigilator remotely online.
Methodology
The practical case study approach used was based on the theory and practice of action learning
(Holford & Griffin, 2004). As stated by Holford and colleagues, action learning is a process of
communication in project management, that involves a sequence of experiential and reflective
learning cycles, so that cooperation between group of people can aid to facilitate the way they learn
and understand from the real-time experience, in this case students, teachers & management of ICC.
According to Holford and colleagues, they stated that, Reg Revans (1979; 2011), who is also known
as one of the founders of this approach, strongly emphasized the benefits of this approach. One of
the benefits is the learners develop their skills by themselves as they are learning from a practical
model in action and are able to solve problems in real-time. This explains well how the ICC digital
learning team shaped and handled in response to being early adopters in the use of RIOPE pattern
in fully online practical facial services examination. When & where problems were encountered in
the respective implementations of RIOPE, coordinators requested each other’s assistance and
learned as well as shared experiences and problem-solving techniques in an interactive chain of
small organization meetings and stakeholder’s involvement.
Research involves 2 purposeful samples: in total 14 adult learners and 2 teachers – one from Latvia
internal invigilator & the other from United Kingdom external/remote invigilator. Learners’ profile:
All the 14 students who appeared for the CIBTAC examination CBC11-Level 2 Certification in Facial
Services, were full-time students of the ICC, Riga, Latvia, who have successfully graduated and
received a diploma in Aesthetic Cosmetology. The external invigilator from the UK was the CIBTAC
official remote invigilator assigned for ICC to conduct RIOPE on the 27th September 2021. The
internal invigilator was ICCs full-time teacher.
Research methods: 1) data collection – learners’ survey (closed and open questions), 2) learners’
unstructured observation done by teachers. This type of observation considers various aspects such
as students’ performance under RIOPE format, students’ effectiveness, hesitancy, time management
skills, promptness in answering, organizational skills, and many more. The structured interview
with ICC teacher & the CIBTAC external invigilator from UK. The interview consisted of various
questions that were divided into 6 categories that is Working with colleagues in RIOPE format,
Expectations/perceptions/attitudes from RIOPE, Organizational & technological benefits according
to them of RIOPE, Technology, Limitations with RIOPE, suggestions or feedback. Mixed–methods
data analysis strategies – data interpretation and comparison were applied. For qualitative data
analysis content analysis was applied – the basic analytic method of interpretivism. For quantitative
data – descriptive analysis and frequency calculations were carried out.
The technology paradigm was used as it works on the belief that a new technology (in this case
RIOPE), will revolutionize the educational process by changing pedagogical approaches and
methods and turning the learning experience into more effective and meaningful incorporating

digital tools. This has been a part of the educational technology paradigm since the 1920s (Funk,
2013). Further, Funk (Funk, 2013), states that technology paradigms stress for a fundamental
reconsideration of traditional management intelligence about technologies and innovations. The
framework created by Funk's helps in analyzing and forecasting the future of technology and its
direction in contrast with the acceptance of the end users, in this case stakeholders of HEIs.
RIOPE setup: RIOPE, was carried as per the allotted time for each group set. The total time for the
exam per group was 1 hour 50 minutes. Each student had their practical bed set up with their real
model to perform before the timer started. ICC teacher monitored students work personally & the
external invigilator monitored students with 3 sets of cameras connected by ZOOM meetings.
The Research question: Can the RIOPE model be used to successfully conduct practical exams &
lessons?
Research period: September 2021 – Jan 2022.
Findings
Students' evaluation of RIOPE: 90% of the students answered they faced no difficulties and liked
it. 10% complained of difficulty in hearing the external invigilator, reason connection + language
barrier. Students were in 100% agreement that the teacher took a practice exam according to the
CIBTAC criteria. This is another important aspect as RIOPE needs practice before actually
conducting the exam as well as giving the exam. Overall, students liked the RIPOE form of
examination. 11% students stated that the understanding of English language was difficult, also the
conversation time that is invigilators’ questions, the translating time and replies of the students are
done under exam time limit, which itself is a challenge and thus valuable practical time of the
student is limited. Therefore, 45% of the students were of the opinion that the time limit given for
the exam is not enough and, must be increased. Students responded that they were taught all the
procedures that is required for the CIBTAC examination, and thus did not find any techniques or
methods asked by external invigilator as unknown to them.
The internal invigilators’ evaluation: The internal invigilator stated RIOPE gives the possibility
of uninterrupted education with students learning time management skills. Also, RIOPE gives a
possibility to practice before the exam in the same environment. The internal invigilator also added
that because of RIOPE the exams can be taken often, as it is easier to organize RIOPE. As per the
internal invigilators’ observation, it is learned that the students were a bit camera conscious, and
when a mobile camera was focused to them and their client they seemed under an anxious pressure.
Also, students, lost a lot of time running back and forth to one common place where all the massage
lotions, make–up kits, brushes etc. were kept to be used, instead it would have been better if every
student was provided with a kit next to their client bed. According to internal invigilators’
observation, conduction RIOPE is easier if the protocols are followed. As per the internal invigilator
RIOPE has its benefits when compared with traditional approach of examination i.e. (face to face),
it gives the liberty to carry out various examination in situations like Pandemic, also it provides the
possibility to record and view the process for further improvement of teaching practices and
engages students with verbal communication and question & answers that helps them brainstorm
their skills and think more with ease.

External invigilators’ comments: RIOPE gives the opportunity to analyze grading on multiple
levels, it paves way for the management to achieve their intended digital learning objective IDLO.
RIOPE also curtails the chances of cheating and helps in maintaining quality standards. However,
the external invigilator also highlighted the point that, when conducting the exam remotely, it is
possible to miss out on some positive or negative points of student’s performance or activities
during the exam. The external invigilators’ observation revealed that students were facing language
barriers. Students could have been adjusted in the groups where other students were absent or did
not appear for the exam, thus could have resulted in time management. Another limitation,
sometimes with online monitoring the connection lags as multiple devices are connected to one
digital platform and therefore the video quality deteriorates, thus making the external invigilator
to go again to the same student when the connection gets better and re–check the results.
Discussion-Lessons learned
As the team at ICC advanced via each meditative learning sequence, a lot of lessons were learned during
the implementation and execution of RIOPE successfully, which involved turning plans into actions.
The first lesson is time management, it is to be understood that RIOPE is not just any online exam,
as shown in table 1, in the exam ambit, RIOPE aids both practical and theory modes of examination
with live feedback & question and answer possibilities. The students need to practice beforehand
to keep buffer time in case the external or internal invigilator interrupts in between and asks
questions or points out mistakes. There is no extra time allotted for Q&A and students need to learn
time management skills.
Another side is that without technological support RIOPE cannot be executed and therefore the time
interval between each exam needs to be well balanced so that batteries can be recharged, files can
be transferred, and electronic gadgets get enough time to cool down.
RIOPE demands extensive multi-tasking not only from the invigilators but also from the students,
as invigilators are continuously monitoring they also need to check the ongoing recording quality,
grade students on the spot and also engage them in Q&A, with sometimes, acting as a language
translator and digital tools operator.
RIOPE is only practical and feasible for a larger group of exam takers, as it requires a lot of resources,
manual as well as technical, it cannot be recommended for limited number of students or learners
appearing for such an exam.
In RIOPE platform, the students are evaluated at 2 levels internally & externally. It highlights the
course teachers' knowledge of the subject. Management receives feedback from the external
invigilator and the recordings are available for cross verification.
RIOPE provides ease in monitoring, teachers can use the recordings to figure out knowledge
overlaps of void in the course. Students learn new skills, such as time management and effective
practical techniques to show their skills over the camera. The least developed are language skills.
The students, in order to appear the RIOPE form of examination needs practice in advance in the
similar set-up. This not only helps students to practice their examination skills on RIOPE platform
but also gives them a chance to learn from the mistakes and have a practice before their final exam,
thus enabling less or minimum number of negative results.

Conclusion
1. RIOPE, is a platform that is designed considering various practical situations, one such is the on-
going global pandemic which considerably impacted the facilitation of practical lessons and
examinations.
2. The flexibility and extensivity RIOPE offers, can further be implemented for conducting practical
lectures in HEIs. RIOPE furthermore, needs in-depth technical support, it is a new platform that
can open ways to conduct practical lectures online in European HEIs
3. RIOPE also gives various possibilities of improvements in the course materials, pedagogical
approach, and learning aids. RIOPE, method can not only be limited to examination purpose but
can be effectively incorporated for practical lessons, being taught remotely bringing in new
dimension to continuous education and supporting the hybrid form or learning that can also aid
practical learning in a digital way.
References
Al-Mashaqbeh, I. F., & Hamad, A. A. (2010, June 21). Student's Perception of an Online Exam within the Decision Support
System Course at Al al Bayt University. 2010 Second International Conference on Computer Research and Development. DOI:
10.1109/ICCRD.2010.15
Böhmer, Feldmann, & Ibsen (2018, April 1). E-exams in engineering education – online testing of engineering competencies:
Experiences and lessons learned. IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), 571–576. DOI:
10.1109/EDUCON.2018.8363281
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VALSTS EKONOMISKO RĀDĪTĀJU IETEKME UZ TAUTAS ATTĪSTĪBAS RĀDĪTĀJIEM LATVIJĀ
VALSTS EKONOMISKO RĀDĪTĀJU IETEKME UZ TAUTAS

ATTĪSTĪBAS RĀDĪTĀJIEM LATVIJĀ
IMPACT OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC INDICATORS ON HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS IN LATVIA
Aldis Bulis
Biznesa augstskola Turība, Latvija
E-pasts: [email protected]
Oskars Onževs
Abstract
The aim of the paper is to investigate if economic growth provides human development in
Latvia. The study is devoted to analysing indicators that are set in the Sustainable
Development Strategy of Latvia until 2030 finding the correlation between indicators of
economic growth and indicators of human development. The methods of the research are
literature review and regression analysis. Our study reveals that economic growth
provides human development in Latvia. Total real GDP has direct positive correlation with
GDP per capita (0.99), despite the fact that the number of inhabitants are declining in
Latvia. Both types of GDP have positive correlation with the Human Development Index.
Keywords: sustainable development, competitiveness, Latvia
Atslēgas vārdi: ilgtspējīga attīstība, konkurētspēja, Latvija
Ievads
Valsts ekonomiskā attīstības snieguma novērtēšana ir būtiska vairāku iemeslu dēļ. Pirmkārt, tā ļauj
novērtēt valsts labklājības līmeni un salīdzināt to ar citām valstīm. Otrkārt, sniedz noderīgu
informāciju, kas ļauj paaugstināt pieņemto lēmumu kvalitāti valsts iestādēs, uzņēmumos un
mājsaimniecībās. Mūsdienās galvenais valsts labklājību raksturojošais rādītājs ir iekšzemes
kopprodukts (Mankiw, 2021). Pastāv vairāki ar iekšzemes kopproduktu (IKP) saistīti rādītāji,
izplatītākie no kuriem ir kopējais reālais IKP, IKP gada izaugsmes temps un IKP uz vienu iedzīvotāju.
Šie rādītāji ir ietverti arī Latvijas ilgtspējīgas attīstības stratēģijā līdz 2030. gadam kā vieni no
rādītājiem, ar kuriem novērtēt Latvijas attīstības progresu. Bet IKP kā rādītājs tiek kritizēts par to,
ka tas nepietiekami visaptveroši raksturo nacionālās ekonomikas attīstību, jo tā attīstība vien
neliecina par uzlabojumiem izglītības sistēmā, veselības sistēmā un dzīves kvalitātē. Tāpēc valstis
un starptautiskās organizācijas izmanto dažādus citus rādītājus un indeksus, lai pilnīgāk novērtētu
valsts ekonomisko attīstību.
Ņemot vērā augstāk minēto tēmas aktualitāti un izvirzīto problēmu, šī pētījuma jautājums ir: vai
valsts ekonomisko rādītāju uzlabojumi pozitīvi ietekmē tautas attīstības rādītājus Latvijā? Līdz ar

to pētījuma mērķis ir noskaidrot, vai valsts izaugsme nodrošina tautas attīstību Latvijā. Pētījumā
izmantotās metodes ir literatūras analīze un regresijas analīze. Šīs metodes ir vispārpieņemtas un
plaši izmantotas, lai noskaidrotu savstarpēju saikni starp attīstības rādītājiem. Pētījumā tiek analizēti
dati periodā no 2015. līdz 2020. gadam. Pētījuma galvenais ierobežojums ir saistīts ar datu
pieejamību, jo ne visiem analizētajiem rādītājiem ir pieejami dati visā pētītajā periodā.
1. Nacionālās attīstības mērīšana
Attīstības mērīšana ir aktuāls jautājums visā pasaulē. Ar to nodarbojas gan starptautiskās

organizācijas (piem., Apvienoto Nāciju Organizācija, Pasaules Banka, Eiropas Savienība), gan valsts
iestādes (piem., nacionālie statistikas biroji), gan zinātnieki un analītiķi. Galvenais ekonomiskās
attīstības mērs ir IKP, bet kopš 20. gadsimta vidus pastāv centieni ekonomisko attīstību mērīt ar
papildu rādītājiem vai indeksiem, kuri sastāv no dažiem vai daudziem rādītājiem (UNDP, 2020;
Mankiw & Taylor, 2020; Šenfelde, 2014). Galvenā IKP problēma ir tā, ka tas ir materiālistisks
rādītājs, kurš ņem vērā saražoto gala preču un pakalpojumu vērtību naudas izteiksmē, visus
ienākumus un visus izdevumus ekonomikā, bet neņem vērā cilvēku dzīvības un vides kvalitāti.
Piemēram, ANO Attīstības programma (UNDP) jau 30 gadus valstu labklājību mēra ar Tautas
attīstības indeksu, kas tika izveidots, lai izaicinātu valstu centienus izmantot tikai ekonomisko
izaugsmi (parasti IKP) par valsts progresa mēru (UNDP, 2020). Šis rādītājs novērš tādus IKP
trūkumus kā nevienlīdzība un dzimumu nelīdztiesība, iekļaujot rādītājus, kas raksturo dzīves
ilgumu, izglītību, ienākumus.
2. IKP saistība ar tautas attīstības rādītājiem Latvijā
Latvijā attīstība tiek mērīta ar indikatoriem, kas noteikti Latvijas ilgtspējīgas attīstības stratēģijā līdz
2030. gadam. Nosacīti šos indikatorus dala divās grupās:
1) valsts ekonomiskās attīstības indikatori (IKP uz vienu iedzīvotāju un Globālās konkurētspējas
indekss);
2) tautas attīstības indikatori (iedzīvotāju skaits, Tautas attīstības indekss).
Šajā pētījumā tiek izmantoti rādītāji, kas noteikti Latvijas ilgtspējīgas attīstības stratēģijā līdz 2030.
gadam kā stratēģiskie indikatori, izņemot ekoloģiskās pēdas nospiedumu un IKP uz vienu
iedzīvotāju reģionālās atšķirības – reģionālā IKP uz vienu iedzīvotāju dispersija (%), jo par šiem
rādītājiem nav pieejami ikgadējie valstu dati (Latvijas ilgtspējīgas attīstības stratēģija līdz 2030.
gadam, 2010). Dati par iedzīvotāju skaitu Latvijā, IKP uz vienu iedzīvotāju (EUR pēc pirktspējas
paritātes) iegūti no Latvijas Republikas Centrālās statistikas pārvaldes (Centrālā statistikas
pārvalde, 2022). Dati par Džini indeksu Latvijā iegūti no Pasaules Bankas interneta lapas (Pasaules
Banka, 2022.). Tautas attīstības indekss (vieta pasaulē) iegūta Apvienoto Nāciju Organizācijas
Attīstības programmas (UNDP) interneta lapā, bet Globālās konkurētspējas indekss (vieta pasaulē)
iegūta no Pasaules ekonomikas foruma interneta lapas (attiecīgi UNDP, 2022; World Economic
Forum, 2022).
Pētījums balstās uz savstarpējo korelatīvo sakarību analīzi. Indikatori pieejami dažādos laika
periodos, un korelācija tiek rēķināta tikai periodiem, kuros abiem mainīgajiem ir pieejami dati.
1. tabulā apkopoti laika periodi, kuros bija iespējams nodrošināt rādītāju savstarpējo korelāciju
aprēķinu.

1. tabula
Datu pieejamības laika periodi savstarpējo korelāciju aprēķinam
Gini Kopējais Globālās Globālās
Iedzīvotāju IKP uz Tautas
koeficients, IKP bāzes konkurēt- konkurēt-
Rādītājs skaits gada cilvēku, attīstības
%, World gads 2015, spējas spējas
sākumā tūkst. eiro indekss
Bank tūkst. eiro indekss indekss
Iedzīvotāju skaits gada sākumā 2005–2021
Gini koeficients, %, World Bank 2005–2018 2005–2018
Kopējais IKP bāzes gads 2015, tūkst. eiro 2005–2020 2005–2018 2005–2020
IKP uz cilvēku, tūkst. eiro 2005–2020 2005–2018 2005–2020 2005–2020
Tautas attīstības indekss
2005–2019 2010–2018 2010–2019 2010–2019 2010–2019
(dati no UNDP)
Globālās konkurēt–spējas indekss
2005–2019 2005–2018 2005–2019 2005–2019 2010–2019 2005–2019
(vieta starptautiskajā rangā)
Globālās konkurēt–spējas indekss
2005–2017 2005–2017 2005–2017 2005–2017 2010–2019 2005–2017 2005–2019
(punktu vērtējumā)
Avots: autoru veidota tabula
Pētījumā tiek ietverti divu veidu IKP: kopējais IKP (bāzes gads 2015) un IKP uz cilvēku. Abi IKP
grafiski attēloti 1. attēlā. Redzams, ka no formālā viedokļa līknes praktiski kopē viena otru.
Korelācija starp abiem lielumiem 0.99, tāpēc tālākajā savstarpējo sakarību analīzē abi ir praktiski
līdzvērtīgi.
30000000 16000
Kopējais IKP (bāzes gads 2015, tūksoši
IKP uz cilvēku (tūkstoši EURO)

14000
25000000
12000
20000000
10000
15000000 8000
EURO)
6000
10000000
4000
5000000
2000
0 0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Gadi
Kopējais IKP (bāzes gads 2015, tūksoši EURO) IKP uz cilvēku (tūkstoši EURO)
1. attēls. IKP un IKP uz vienu iedzīvotāju Latvijā

(Avots: autoru veidots attēls)
Apskatām tagad saistību starp IKP un iedzīvotāju skaita izmaiņām (skat. 2. attēlu). Iedzīvotāju
skaitam ir raksturīga praktiski lineāra samazināšanās. Vienīgi pēdējos gados parādās neliela
tendence uz samazināšanās tempa palēnināšanos. Turpretī IKP ir raksturīga praktiski lineāra
palielināšanās (ja neņem vērā relatīvi īslaicīgo ekscesu līknes vidusdaļā). To arī parāda korelācijas
koeficienta vērtība -0.91. Izriet acīmredzams secinājums: ekonomika attīstās pietiekami veiksmīgi,
jo tiek kompensēta darbaspēka noplūde.

30000000 2700000
Kopējais IKP (bāzes gads 2015, tūksoši EURO)
Iedzīvotāju s kaits gada sākumā

28000000
2500000
26000000
24000000
2300000
22000000
20000000 2100000
18000000
1900000
16000000
14000000
1700000
12000000
10000000 1500000
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Gadi
Kopējais IKP (bāzes gads 2015, tūksoši EURO) Iedzīvotāju s kaits gada sākumā
2. attēls. Kopējais IKP un iedzīvotāju skaits Latvijā

Nākamajā solī izvēlamies IKP uz cilvēku, pētām tā saistību ar Globālās konkurētspējas indeksu
(versiju, kad tiek mērīta vieta starptautiskajā rangā) un attēlojam grafiski savstarpējo saistību
3. attēlā. Redzams, ka abi indikatori svārstās pretfāzē. Tas arī loģiski un saprotami, jo, palielinoties
IKP, paaugstinās vieta globālajā konkurencē. To parāda arī korelācijas koeficients -0.48.
3. attēls. IKP uz iedzīvotāju un Globālās konkurētspējas indekss


Tagad novērtējam, kāda ir saistība starp IKP un Tautas attīstības indeksu (skat. 4. attēlu). Redzams, ka ir
praktiska sakritība (korelācija 0.99). Tas liecina, ka IKP viennozīmīgi nosaka Tautas attīstības indeksu.
29000000 0.870
Tautas Attīstības indekss (4Dati no:

Kopējais IKP (bāzes gads 2015, tūksoši
28000000 0.865
27000000 0.860
26000000 0.855
0.850
25000000
0.845
UNDP)
24000000
0.840
EURO)
23000000 0.835
22000000 0.830
21000000 0.825
20000000 0.820
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020
Gadi
Kopējais IKP (bāzes gads 2015, tūksoši EURO)

Tautas Attīstības indekss (Dati no: UNDP)
… .
4. attēls. Kopējais IKP un Tautas attīstības indekss
Globālās attīstības indeksa un Gini indeksa uzvedības tendences ir līdzīgas (skat. 5. attēlu). Tas
liecina par zināmā mērā pareizu tautas labklājības attīstības politiku. Korelācija starp šiem
indeksiem ir 0.42.
75 36
Globālās konkurētspējas indekss (Vieta starptautiskajā rangā)
35.8
70
35.6
Gini koeficients (%), World Bank
65 35.4
35.2
60
35
55
34.8
50 34.6
34.4
45
34.2
40 34
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020
Gadi
Globālās konkurētspējas indekss (Vieta starptautiskajā rangā)

Gini koeficients (%), World Bank
Poly. (Globālās konkurētspējas indekss (Vieta starptautiskajā rangā))
Poly. (Gini koeficients (%), World Bank)
5. attēls. Globālās konkurētspējas indekss un Gini koeficients


Secinājumi un priekšlikumi
Latvijas iedzīvotāju skaits konsekventi samazinās, pie tam kopējais IKP un IKP uz vienu iedzīvotāju
lineāri pieaug. Starp IKP un iedzīvotāju skaita samazinājumu ir spēcīga negatīva korelācija (-0,91),
kas norāda, ka, neskatoties uz to, ka iedzīvotāju skaits samazinās, ekonomikas apjoms pieaug.
Globālās konkurētspējas indekss norāda valstu rangu konkurētspējas jomā. Saskaņā ar šo indeksu
vairākas valstis atrodas tuvu viena otrai, tāpēc nelielu izmaiņu dēļ to vieta rangā katru gadu bieži
vien būtiski mainās un ietekmē citus formālos indeksus. Īpašu vietu ieņem Gini koeficients, kuram
ir korelatīva saistība (korelācija 0.42) ar Globālās konkurētspējas indeksu, kas norāda uz to daļēji
formālo saikni – daļa no tos ietekmējošajiem faktoriem pārklājas.
Vēl viens apskatītais rādītājs ir Tautas attīstības indekss, kam ir cieša korelācija ar abiem pētītajiem
IKP un iedzīvotāju skaitu. Tas nozīmē: jo labāk attīstās ekonomika, jo šis indekss ir augstāks, kas
pašlaik arī notiek Latvijā.
References
Centrālā statistikas pārvalde. Iegūts 12.01.2022. https://www.csp.gov.lv/lv
Latvijas ilgtspējīgas attīstības stratēģija līdz 2030. gadam (2010). Iegūts 12.01.2022. https://pkc.gov.lv/lv/valsts-
attistibas-planosana/latvijas-ilgtspejigas-attistibas-strategija
Mankiw, N. G., Taylor, M. P. (2020). Macroeconomics, 5th ed. Hampshire: Cengage Learning
Šenfelde, M. (2014). Makroekonomika, Rīga: RTU
The World Bank. Iegūts 12.01.2022. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI
UNDP. Iegūts 12.01.2022. https://hdr.undp.org/
World Development Forum. Iegūts 12.01.2022. https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-global-competitiveness-
report-2020
Zhang, Y. (2020) Iegūts 12.03.2022. https://www.undp.org/blog/measuring-development-progress-beyond-income

DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN CHINESE SMES IN THE POST-COVID-19 ERA

Linmu Cui
Aldis Bulis
Abstract
The digital transformation of enterprises is a huge trend in the last decades, especially in
the last several years. In the context of a digitalized economy system, digital
transformation has become a necessity for the survival and growth of enterprises. This
trend becomes particularly significant, under circumstance of global pandemic of Covid-19.
In the post-Covid-19 era, digital transformation will continue to play a significant role in
business and organizational operations. SMEs are an important part in the Chinese
economy, however, lacking capital, resources and knowledge compared to their non-SME
competitors, SMEs are facing huge impacts with both active and passive digital
transformation processes, even though they see potential gains and opportunities with
digital transformation. To analyse the impacts and find potential opportunities of digital
transformation in SMEs, semi-structured interviews have been conducted (n=36) with
Chinese manufacturing and service SMEs. A catalogue consisting 68 digital transformation
related items has been generated. With these items, evaluation of digital transformation
impacts in SMEs are analysed. Future potentials and challenges for SMEs are also discussed.
Keywords: digital transformation, China, SMEs, Industry 4.0, Covid-19, manufacturing and service
Introduction
Globalization, rapidly changed business mode, continuously iterated technological progresses in

recent decades have pushed modern businesses to upgrade. This requires businesses to efficiently
integrate (Kraus et al., 2021). And efficient integration can only be achieved through digital
processes and collaborative tools (White, 2012). The digital transformation can lead to increased
efficiency, improved product quality, and many other benefits (Doh & Kim, 2014; Kusiak, 2018).
Digital transformation is not only a technological innovation, but also a revolution in cognition,
value, strategy, and leadership. During the Covid-19 pandemic, both the internal organizational
operation form, e.g., internal communication, production regularities, and the external connections
with customers, partners, suppliers are changed hugely in companies. Thus, the digital
transformation is an important factor, deciding whether an enterprise is successful or not, in the
post-Covid-19 era.
Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) play a significant role in economic growth and employment
worldwide, also in China. Digital transformation, on the one hand, introduces positive opportunities,
e.g., generally higher efficiency for internal management and higher average revenues (e.g.,

Singapore SMEs who embrace digital transformation expect to see average revenue gains of 26%
(Singapore News Center, 2018)). On the other hand, brings several aspects of challenges for SMEs
(Shettima & Sharma. 2018), which are normally lack of corresponding resources, capitals, etc.,
compared to larger companies (Brunswicker & Vanhaverbeke, 2015). Lack of knowledge on new
technologies, insufficient funds and poor infrastructure, inefficient regulatory framework, lack of
competent management with Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills and
governance challenges are the five main challenges of SMEs in digital transformation. After
implementing proper digitalization solutions, however, SMEs benefit in several fields: higher
revenue generation, increased customer base, improved operational efficiencies and enriched
customer engagement, etc (Shettima & Sharma. 2018). Digital transformation has both direct and
indirect effects on SMEs performance, in particular, on financial and operational performance. And
marketing, communication, networking and resource planning are the areas that ICT impacts the
most in SMEs (Tarutė & Gatautis, 2014).
Differences of industries, growth phases, organizational structures, scales of business, should also
have influences on the impact of digital transformation for SMEs. Among different sectors in SMEs,
the digitalization solution is conducted differently as well, e,g., between service innovation and
information service (Barrett et al., 2015).
To analyse the impacts and find the potential opportunities of digital transformation in Chinese
SMEs, 36 SMEs from cities of Binzhou (tier 4 city in China) and Hangzhou (digital hub of China) in
manufacturing and service sectors are interviewed. A catalogue consisting of 68 items are selected,
optimized and finalized using quantitative analysis methodology. This refined system is then used
to evaluate the impacts of digital transformation and provide with corresponding opportunity
analysis for the SMEs.
In the following, Section 1 conducts a literature overview of background of digital transformation
and its history. The next Section 2 addresses the research methodology used. The research result
with a catalogue of 68 items are generated and impact evaluation analyses and opportunity seeking
analyses are then conducted in Section 3. Finally, the authors summarize and comment on the
results, including the limitations and propose further research possibilities.
1. Literature Review
This section delivers an overview of the current literature of digital transformation. In the
subsection “Digital Transformation”, the historical development of digital transformation is
illustrated and the technology driven situation is explained. Next, impacts and opportunities in
SMEs are addressed. At the end of this section, the identified gaps are listed.
Digital Transformation
Digital transformation is considered a significantly important part for both business strategy and
business process optimization within modern enterprises, which involves all departments within a
company, especially strategy and IT departments (Bharadwaj et al., 2013; Matt et al., 2015). In 2008,
Martin (Martin, 2008) defined digital transformation as the use of information and communication
technology, not when trivial automation is performed, but in the case where fundamentally new

capabilities are created in business, public government, and in the lives of people and society.
According to Fitzgerald et al. (2014), however, digital transformation is the use of new digital
technologies such as social media, mobile technology, analytics, or embedded devices to enable
major business improvements including enhanced customer experiences, streamlined operations,
or new business models. Hinings et al. (2018) concluded that digital transformation is the combined
effects of several digital innovations bringing about novel actors (and actor constellations),
structures, practices, values, and beliefs that change, threaten, replace, or complement existing
rules of the game within organizations, ecosystems, industries, or fields.
More and more attentions are received by digital transformation during last several decades, as
computing science rapidly develops, especially within the recent decade. Jensen (1981) is
considered to firstly highlights the subtopic of technology and data management in digitized
systems. Especially since 2018, topic of digital transformation extracts more attentions and the
growth of scientific production has been exponential and this trend will continue in the next years
(Kraus et al., 2021). Investigation of digital transformation in enterprises is continuously being a
hot topic. The effective digital transformation within enterprises is necessary to generate business
performance (Gerth & Peppard, 2016). Not only does it optimize the business process, digital
technologies could facilitate the development of new business models which break the previous
business boarders and generate revenues in other dimensions (Li, 2020). Jiang and Katsamakas
(2010) provided with an example, that the e-book technology takes part of the book distribution
market from the online or brick-and-mortar shops by enabling offering a new way of supplying
books. Therefore, it is essentially important for enterprises to get themselves digitally transformed
so as to stay competitive in the market.
It’s seen that digital transformation is strongly related to digital technologies. Digital technologies
can be considered as a key driver as well as an instrument for achieving a competitive advantage
through digital transformation (Kraus et al., 2021). In recent years, the emerging technologies
represented by artificial intelligence (AI), 5G, Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, big data,
3D printing, augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR) and blockchain, etc. (Moreira et al., 2018)
are forming a new ecosystem for global economy. Blockchain, for example, protects the financial
security with distributed storage and tracking system, which helps enterprises solving problems
and improving efficiencies (Shi & Ma, 2019). The metaverse, for example, which is technically based
on blockchain technology, becomes quite popular in 2021, which provides enterprises more
possibilities. Additionally, the cutting-edge technologies are updated extremely frequently in recent
years, which motivates enterprises to invest more capitals and efforts. In 2015, along with the
German version of intelligent manufacturing program Industry 4.0, China lunched its Made in China
2025 plan, which aims to upgrade its manufacture industry with new digital technologies (Wang et
al., 2020).
Analysis of Digital Transformation Adoption in SMEs’ Environment

According to the Chinese updated definition for SMEs in 2017. The criteria for tiny, SMEs differ
among business sectors. In industrial sector, numbers of employees below 20, between 21 and 299,
and between 300 and 999 are ranges for tiny, SMEs respectively. Simultaneously, their annual
business revenue should be below 3 million, between 3 and 20 million, and between 20 and 400
million Chinese Yuan (CNY) accordingly. In most service and other sectors, these numbers for tiny,

SMEs are: below 10 employees and less than 1 million CNY (tiny), between 10 and 100 employees
and between 1 and 20 million CNY (small), between 100 and 300 employees and between 20 and
300 million CNY (medium), respectively (Chinese National Bureau of Statistics, 2017). The SMEs
mentioned in this research refers to the tiny, SMEs in the Chinese circumstance. Liu (2007)
mentions that there were more than 40 million SMEs which accounted for more than 99.6% of the
total number of enterprises in China. SMEs contribute as much as 59% of GDP and represent more
than 65% of the imports and exports of the country. The tax revenue paid by SMEs in the same year
also accounted for more than 48% of the overall tax collected by the government. Disregarding the
importance of SMEs in the economy, the majority of researches and developments are focused on
larger companies, even though SMEs face more digital transformation challenges such as less
resource, and technology-awareness limitations.
SMEs see quite some positive financial benefits in a more digitalized way:
1) SMEs connect themselves with their customers in a more engaging way with the data
produced by digitalization;
2) introduction of higher customer satisfaction via digitalization of products and services;
3) digital transformation creates efficiencies and improves internal business workflows and
empowers employees increasing their skill set (singtel.com, 2019).
Using Chi-Square to analyze around 500 SMEs samples to get impacts of digital transformation on
SMEs, research gave three recommendations for SMEs: 1, improvement on the strategies made in
the process of ICT inclusion in business operations, 2, access improvement to information so as to
boost networking opportunities, 3, the cost of digital consultation and professional advice to SMEs
should be minimal or even free of cost (Shettima & Sharma. 2018). The relative importance and
relative feasibility measures for the seven clusters (competence development, understanding and
use, attitude and behavior, relational capital, services and deliverables, digital strategy, evaluation
and support) indicate significant statistical differences in ratings among the subgroup profiles,
found by another research (Pelletier & Cloutier，2019). Digital transformation for SMEs has two
orientations: internally-oriented and externally-oriented digital approaches (Paolo et al., 2017).
Internally orientation includes items that enhance working satisfaction of employees, relations
among colleagues, administration efficiency, etc. Interaction, communication, collaboration, within
the firm, are central points of interests which are under digitalization scope (Oney et al., 2018).
While external orientation is productivity oriented: the items that affect production, product
development, marketing, customer relationship management (CRM), supply chain optimization,
cost reduction, and innovation, etc. (Hess et al., 2016). SMEs have to build intelligent platform to
manage costs, human resources, project developments (Yang, 2020). Company scale, business
sector, growth phase, organizational structure, commercial environment, market culture are
several factors that could affect SMEs’ digital transformation capabilities and decision-making
determinations. After analysis of 284 SMEs, N. Paolo found that environment influences the
development of digital capabilities of SMEs depending on their size. Within munificent
environments, ICT-based capabilities are more diffused among larger SMEs, whereas under
environmental complexity, this pattern is inverted, with larger SMEs exhibiting a more limited
deployment of IT in support of both their internally and externally-oriented processes. Under
environmental dynamism, medium-sized firms tend to develop more internally-oriented ICT
capabilities, but fail in reporting superior capabilities for managing external relationships (Paolo et
al., 2017). Moreover, influences to digital transformation for SMEs of factors like market size,

cultural background, political system differentiation, acceptance degree, etc, were researched. For
example, the previous research work compared and listed actions and results for digital
transformation in China and Europe (Zhang, 2010). Results of a research show that developing and
emerging countries are not gaining more from investments in ICT than developed economies
(Niebel, 2018). The I4.0 or 4th industrial revolution has impacted SMEs tremendously in the last
years. Digital transformation was driven, depending on countries, mostly either by government or
tech-giant companies. However, most start-up companies and small sized businesses do not have
the capabilities, of developing their own digital eco-system.
The main risks for SMEs to get themselves digitally transformed are the comparably limited resource
and low Return on Investment (ROI) rate: the main barrier for SMEs to digital adoption can be the
existence of cheaper alternatives to internal information processing, their limited resources for
external information processing, and the limited learning-related scale in digital adoption projects
(Paolo et al., 2017). Most of the SMEs are involved in the global digital wave, with great uncertainty
and challenges. With updated technologies and lack of a proper long-term approach, SMEs invest too
much effort of finding a balance between investment and output. Andriole (2017) provides a different
perspective on organizations’ technology transitions by claiming that not every company, business
process, or business model implicitly needs digital transformation. For instance, in case of
transforming an existing business model to a more novel and innovative one is not necessarily as
profitable as the traditional business model. Moreover, companies with successful track do not often
accept changes, and employees are resistant to digital change, which leads to difficulties in
implementing digital transformation in the enterprises (Kraus et al., 2021).
However, facing on one hand the existing challenges, and on the other hand, the frequently iterated
newer digital technologies, SMEs need a proper approach for digital transformation instead of
staying away from digital progress. Parviainen et al. (2017) provide an approach by suggesting four
necessary steps to benefit from digital transformation. Firstly, recent trends have to be analysed by
a company to decide which position to take toward the change impact of digital transformation.
Second, the current state in regard to the desired positioning and digital impact is reviewed. In the
third step, the authors propose defining concrete actions to close the gap between the current state
and desired position of the organization. The fourth step seeks to implement and validate the
actions with technical support. With the new possibilities brought by the newer technologies, digital
solution or approach for enterprises must be updated and adapted to the newest implementations
of technology with plenty of budget. For small enterprises, consequently, it is uncomfortable and
financially ineffective to adapt.
Issues for supporting Chinese SMEs to digitalize

When companies, especially SMEs, assess their digital transformation options, they prefer to refer
to external search (Lorenz et al., 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to provide SMEs with a
constructive overview that help them to evaluate their current digital matrix and provide with a
systematic suggestion for them to proceed.
Previous literatures and researches have listed several of the digital transformation dimensions,
and case studies have been conducted to pursue digital integrations into SMEs (Amaral & Pecas,
2021). However, a systematic structure, analysing impact of digital transformation to SMEs and

guiding them to get effectively digitalised with lower cost and less resource investment is absent.
Trials were made to list the concrete digital items to map to business operation fields. Among them,
Mittal et al. (2020) provided with a technology-centric solutions that enable manufacturing SMEs
to use variety of technologies to get digitalized, while Schoenfu et al. (2021) proposes a problem-
centric view with a catalogue of digital solution areas for prioritising the digital needs of SMEs. The
technology-centric approach, which lists the necessary technologies in market and finds how these
technologies could help the SMEs to get digital transformed, ignores the alignment with company
needs and makes decision making managers confused lacking of professional background
knowledge while the pure problem-centric one, which focus on the problems within SMEs that need
to be digitalized, could limit the creative thinking of SMEs and miss the opportunities that newer
technologies could bring to SMEs. Moreover, they did not consider the specific situation in the post-
Covid-19 era that are digital transformation related.
Research Methodology
To answer the research question how to find a structured way with detailed and broken-down
items to analyze the impact of digital transformation and find its potential opportunities in Chinese
SMEs, this research aims to provide a refined evaluation system, which is a catalog containing items
that are digital transformation related for Chinese SMEs. Based on the shortages of either problem-
centric view or technology-centric view mentioned in Section 1.3, these items are reviewed and
listed from both views. With these items, the SMEs are then interviewed to find the impacts and
opportunities of digital transformation based on each item and thus provides them the results as
reference for their next digital transformation guidance. The qualitative and quantitative mixed
methodology is used.
With a mixed problem-centric and technology-centric view, the research seeks a balance between
eliminating the SMEs’ lack of background professional knowledge regarding technologies and
alignment with SMEs’ current needs from internal perspective. There are several attributes
including size range of the SME and business sector are also considered, which are essential for
evaluation (Kraus et al., 2021; Morgan-Thomas, 2016). Cities of Hangzhou and Binzhou are picked
and semi-structured interviews are used for data collection. The combination of a tier1 city which
is also the digital hub in China and a tier4 city could provide with SMEs’ samples which generate
objective results.
Developing the library starts from academic research and experience-based exploration, while the
initial list of items is generated. The second step is to pick up 12 SMEs from the 36-SME pool to
conduct semi-structured interview so that these items are selected, enriched and confirmed.
Figure1 shows exactly how this works. An iterative process research approach is followed (Platts,
1993). The 12 picked SMEs within each iteration includes 6 SMEs from industry sectors and 6 from
service sectors, and within each 6 SMEs, there are 3 with less than 100 employees and 3 more than
100 employees, respectively. After one iteration, another 12 SMEs are added in until there is no
newer item added into the list.

Figure 1. The approach stages to obtain the list of items
With the generated list of items, the 36 selected SMEs are then interviewed to analyze the
importance recognition of each item and their self-evaluation results, to provide an object
evaluation reference for the manufacturing and service sector SMEs in the future. Moreover, the
interviewed 36 SMEs have are sorted into 4 sub-groups, 18 with over 100 employees and 18 with
under 100 employees, within each 18 SMEs, there are 9 SMEs from service sector and the other half
from industrial manufacturing sector. In this way, the difference of sectors as well as employment
sizes are also been analyzed as change factors. Qualitative content analysis in this case is used.
Result and Discussion
The list of items is finalized after 2 iterations, i.e., interaction with 24 SMEs, and shown in the
following tables. After several rounds of collections, refinement and removement of the duplicated
ones, there are totally 68 items and multiple digital technologies in the final list.
According to the operational sectors of the generated items in enterprises, they are classificated
into 4 groups:
1) management and operation;
2) marketing, sales and customer management;
3) research, design, development and production of service/product;
4) purchase, logistics and supplier management.
The lists for groups 1 to 4 are shown in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4, respectively.
Table 1
List of management and operation items
No. Item（Problem） Listed Digital Technologies
1 remote working cooperation AR, Software as a Service (SaaS)
remote real-time communication and
2 digital communication (e.g., slack)
documentation
3 team meeting and recording (remote and on-site) digital communication (e.g., Zoom)
management, approval and documentation of specified SWs (e.g., Sage), face recognition
4
employees’ holidays, sick leave, working time check-in system
5 work progress management & KPI visualization management information system (MIS)
SaaS for automatic analysis, public platforms
6 recruitment need analysis and job listing
(e.g., LinkedIn)
HR tool for process documentation, optimization
7 employees' onboarding/offboarding processes
and guidance
internal communication optimization and
8 big data, analysis SW
efficiency improvement

company property management (depreciation,

9 SaaS for management
loss, damage, storage, sale, efficiency of use)
10 external visitors' management electrical entry documentation system
real-time monitoring in operating site of
11 digital monitoring system and analysis software
enterprise
working environment monitoring (hygiene,
IoT (sensors and devices) and backend server,
12 temperature, humidity, etc.) and automatic
digital actuators, 5G
adjustment
13 documentation and file management cloud storage
thermal imaging equipment, IOT, 5G, early
14 emergency, safety and natural disaster response
warning monitoring system
encryption technology and cyber monitoring
15 data & cyber security
system
big data and analysis of need for training, SaaS
16 skill trainings of employees
for training management
automated visualization of human resource
17 MIS
effectiveness & turnover rate
18 internal reporting activities SaaS for reporting
office automation system (OA) for human
19 promotion activities
resource
suggestion management (product, colleagues and
20 SaaS for reporting
company)
organization of various internal team building
21 VR, enterprise resource planning tool (ERP)
activities
salary distribution and insurance management for
22 human resources software
members
business travel related: approval, hotel and
SaaS for travelling planning to find balance
23 transportation reservation, expense
between comfort and effectiveness for members
reimbursement, insurance
24 ICT&IT device operation and maintenance ERP systems, intelligent monitoring system
regular security check of office and production digital monitoring system and analysis software,
25
materials, water and electricity cloud storage of data, IoT, 5G etc.
cloud storage of health data of members,
26 regular health check of members
automatic data analysis and reporting system
Cooperation and communication between
27 ERP, project management tools
departments
28 financial security financial SW tools, digital keys
29 financial payment approval financial management tools, OA
financial SW tools, analysis tools for automatic
30 Income statistics and accounting
and real-time reporting
automated budgeting software assists
31 budget planning, approval and control
big data analysis
investment and business development risk and data analysis tools, investment simulation
32
opportunity analysis, strategy formulation visualization tool
overtime-working requirement and arrangement
33 OA
management
This above table shows the 33 items belong to management and operation sector of enterprises,
which contribute almost half of the items on the whole list. This also indicates that most SMEs are
still in the early age of digitalization (Pech & Vrochta, 2020). Items cover mainly human resource
management, internal process optimization, etc.. In the post Covid-19 era, remote communication
and cooperation is becoming more and more important, its effectiveness is a key factor for the
productivities of the enterprises.

Table 2
List of marketing, sales and customer management items
34 New Media Operation (Mobile Internet) platforms like tiktok, wechat, weibo
live broadcast, web3.0(blockchain), AI,
35 new sales channels
metaverse, AR, VR for virtual shopping hall
tracking, discovery and trial of new sales channels automatic pushing service of new technologies
36
in future and analysis
37 Traditional channel advertising, exhibition big data analysis for potential growth
38 feedback to users big data
CRM tools, big data for personality analysis and
39 intended customer guidance
consuming habit tracking
market development with previous consumers and big data, analysis tools, information pushing
40
new service/product marketing for them tools
41 data management Analysis of customers customer relationship management
42 data privacy protection of customers blockchain and encryption technologies
43 Payment digital currency, wechat Pay, Alipay
customer maintenance, communication, processing
44 customer relationship management
and analysis of feedback
Table 2 lists the marketing, sales and customer management items which are directly profit-
producing items, which are typically a very important part in enterprises, especially in SMEs.
Multiple new technologies are implementing within the scope of these items.
Table 3
List of research, design, development and production of service/product items
requirement management (market demand, as requirement management tool (e.g., DOORS),
45
well as business customer's requirements) data analysis tool
46 customer's complaints, suggestions and feedback AI for collection, sorting and distribution
PLM (Product Lifecyle Management) program
47 project management and efficiency approvement
Agile development tool
48 product design and management Computer Aided Design (CAD), etc.
49 quality management robots, quality control tools
comparing and optimizing with competing
products (collecting data, etc.) Familiar with new
50 data analysis tools, simulation tools
cutting-edge technologies/trends regarding the
product/service
51 prototype for product or services 3D printers, CAD
52 patent and Brand Protection automatic AI searching tool on the internet
53 product and service testing, validation Robots, big data for analysis, simulation tool
54 product and service change demand analysis PLM (Product Lifecyle Management)
IoT, production automation system, service
55 customized product/service production
designing documentation tool
Robert Processing Automation (RPA),
production automation system, human-computer
56 production automation interaction, Total Quality Management (TQM),
Just in Time (JIT) manufacturing
Lean Manufacturing (LM)

Equipment status monitoring (temperature,

automatic monitoring system, visualization
57 vibration, etc.)
system
Automatic bottleneck identification
Pollutant Emission Monitoring & Carbon IoT, visualization system, automatic analysis
58
Emission Monitoring tool
Automatic calculation of material cost by batch
tracking system with visualization, data
59 (raw material, water and electricity consumption,
analysis tool
mechanical consumption)
remote control and monitoring of production remote monitoring and visualization tool, data
60
process analysis tool
Automatic monitoring of incoming and outgoing remote monitoring and visualization tool, data
61
materials and goods in the production base analysis tool
Raw material monitoring system (monitoring,
62 IoT, 5G, cloud data storage and tracking
early warning, alarm)
63 digital simulation of production process simulation tool
Table 4
List of purchase, logistics and supplier management items
64 Traceability, evidence and data on supplier cloud data storage and analysis tool
65 Inventory management and early warning IoT, cloud data storage and tracking
Supplier/3-party contractor comparison and
66 data analysis tool, CRM
selection and post-maintenance
Digital monitoring, ordering, warehousing and
67 ERP
verification of supply chain
68 digital tracking of logistics IoT, 5G, visualization system
The corresponding technologies are the most suitable and advanced solutions for the current age,
however, as newer technologies and implementations coming up, there could be better solutions to
support the digital transformations for SMEs.
Alignment of business goals and digital solution areas is an important success factor for digital
transformation in SMEs (Li et al., 2016). During each interview, each SME will give an estimated
mark for the importance of each item and another mark for whether their current status is well
digital transformed or not. The impacts of digital transformation in scope of each item are then
discussed with the SMEs. To evaluate the importance of each item to their company, they are
required to consider the digital transformation benefits within this item for their profit growth
protentional, working efficiency, employee satisfaction, increase in market position. The potential
opportunities are then also been discussed.
In the management and operation category, SMEs listed the most items, but compared to marketing
& sales, and product/service development & production, SMEs give less priorities to the items in
this category. SMEs have limited resource and focus mostly on the items that could generate profit
for companies other than the ones that optimize internal operations. The Covid-19 has great impact
on how they internally cooperate. How to catch up with digital transformation in the remote
working items is quite unclear for some SMEs, although they all see a better remote working
digitalized structure could support their operations hugely. Traditional administration items

attract less attentions from SMEs to implement much digital ways of management. Here there
should be quite a lot opportunities, for SMEs to upgrade digitally to improve their operation and
management efficiency. Compared to manufacturing SMEs, the service sector SMEs shows
optimized result, that they implemented more digital ways so that to achieve more efficiency.
Marketing, sales and customer management are the most important part from profit point of view,
which is also essential for SMEs to survive in highly competitive market. In recent years, more and
more marketing/sales channels are developed in the ecosystem, the reason was that new channels
attract much more liquidity of potential customers as development from web2.0 (traditional internet
to mobile internet) to web3.0 (blockchain and metaverse). Once the SMEs could not catch up with the
newest technologies or ways of promoting, it is easy to fall behind. This makes not too much
differences between bigger SMEs and smaller SMEs, and between manufacturing SMEs and service
SMEs, either. SMEs have limited resources and capital to invest, low-cost implementations, heavily
based on open-source software and low-cost components is recommended (Toapanta et al., 2020).
The product/service design, development, production and supplier & logistic management for
manufacturing SMEs are relatively more complex than service SMEs. The digital transformation has
a greater impact. The upgraded digital solutions help SMEs a lot for automation, higher efficiency and
higher yield. In smaller SMEs, role definition is not as clear as in bigger SMEs, they emphasize more
on digital technologies to improve their work flow and increase their compativeness in market.
Digital transformation is a continuous approach for enterprises, it is highly recommended for SMEs
to build a digital transformation strategy department which could shape the future compativeness
It is also found that smaller SMEs are relatively more flexible and open to digital transformation
changes compared the bigger SMEs. Liu et al. (2011) defined organizational transformation as a
complex, revolutionary, and continuous process that demands fundamental changes in the
organizational structures and systems leading to reassessments of organizational norms and
values. It is relatively more complex for bigger SMEs to transform within the digital scope.
Conclusions
The authors conducted a literature view to analyze the current research on digital transformations
in SMEs. A total number of 68 items, which are sorted in:1, management and operation, 2,
marketing, sales and customer management, 3, research, design, development and production of
service/product and 4, purchase, logistics and supplier management are listed. These items are also
viewed and given corresponding technologies which are suitable for helping Chinese SMEs to be
digital transformed. With these finalized items, the second round of semi-conducted interviews
were conducted. Result shows that SMEs evaluate themselves relatively lower in group 1 items and
they under evaluate the importance of the internal process items. For SMEs, they focus and have
more interest of improving their digital solutions and approaches in marketing and sales sector
items. Result shows slight difference between manufacturing and service sector SMEs and sizes
with less than 100 employees and more. Future Chinese SMEs could use this catalog of items and
results in this research for self-evaluation, importance reference and improve their weaknesses.

Limitations & Future Work
The sampling SMEs are from only two cities, this could generate deviations in the result. Further
sampling is recommended for future research work. Even through manufacturing and service SMEs
contributes the most in the Chinese economy, the items’ list could still benefit to extend from only
these two branches of industries to the rest economic sectors. The items are evaluated and thus
could be used and referred for further modelling of a digital solution for Chinese SMEs.
New thinking of impacts of newer and subversive technologies could have on SMEs is highly
recommended. Because of the limitation of resource and capitals for SMEs, as well as the quick
upgraded new technologies that are implemented within enterprises, it could make sense, if an
effective, adaptive, and long-term digital solution model/mechanism could be developed to help
SMEs to improve their compativeness in market with limited budget.
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THE ROLE OF FILM POLICY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF FILM PRODUCTION IN THE BALTIC FILM INDUSTRIES
THE ROLE OF FILM POLICY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF FILM

PRODUCTION IN THE BALTIC FILM INDUSTRIES
Audrius Dabrovolskas
Abstract
Film policy and how it is being implemented highly affects national film industries
throughout Europe. One of the most important instruments how to manage and develop
film policy is related to financial support administration. Institutions that were and are
responsible for implementing national film policy in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were
established during different periods of time. The National Film Centre of Latvia was the
first one to start operating in 1991 and later the Estonian Film Institute and the
Lithuanian Film Centre were established in 1997 and 2012. Even though financial support
had direct impact on national film production and the number of feature films produced,
the development of it was also dependent on updates of financial support administration
process, the way film commissions, boards and councils were organized and how the aims
and objectives of film centres were identified in their statutes.
Keywords: film policy, development, film production, film industry, Baltic film industries, film centres
Introduction
Film production and film policy is highly interrelated in different countries, but especially in
Europe. It is paramount to emphasize that film industry is the target of national cultural policies,
because many governments spend large sums to maintain a presence in the film industry (Crane,
2014) and involvement in their domestic film industries is motivated by the states’ obligation to
preserve and encourage art, and the growth of public control over economic matters (Guback,
1969). On the other hand European film industries and their distribution markets are dominated
by Hollywood film industry, which is also widely discussed topic among various authors – Thomas
Schatz (2009, 2012), Janet Wasko (2005), Alejandro Pardo (2007, 2012). For instance, the role of
Motion Picture Association of America in assisting Hollywood film industry was highlighted by M.
Pendakur (2012) and the ways how Hollywood film industry maintains the dominance is related
not only to content quality, but also to market concentration in theatrical distribution where
European films represent only 3.6 percent of the North American market (Pardo; Sanchez-
Tabernero, 2012). Douglas Kellner stressed the importance of political economy and that
“production, distribution, and reception of culture take place within a specific economic and
political system that are constituted by relations between the state, the economy, social institutions
and practices, culture, and organizations such as media” (2009). Furthermore, the system of
production and the relations between the economy and state sector are important in determining
what sort of cultural artifacts are produced and how they are consumed (Kellner, 2009). State’s
intentions toward media industries are related to growth, competition and distribution of its

products (Richeri, 2014), therefore, the role of the state in regulating financial support and its
administration through public institutions is crucial. The aim of the article is to analyze film policy
and its importance for the development of film production in the Baltic film industries. The article
also argues that financial support for national film production and the number of national films
produced in Baltic States were influenced by the updates of financial support administration
processes and the way how film commissions, boards and councils were organized within
institutions responsible for the administration of financial support.
1. Theoretical framework
European film production financing and models were analyzed by Angus Finney (1996, 2002),
where he indicated 5 financial support mechanisms that are applied in European film industries
mostly in Spain, France, United Kingdom, Italy and Germany. Later Anne Jäckel (2003) investigated
European film support models, film production; however, Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian film
industries and their financial support for national film production were not studied. Alejandro
Pardo (2007, 2012) developed research on the Hollywood and European film industries where he
compared them and also highlighted market concentration problem in film exhibition. Zane Balčus
(2011) analyzed Latvian film industry from 1991 to 2010, but fragmentally and only referring to
institutional changes, but not giving any attention to statistical data and administration of financial
support, which had impact for the growth of national film production in Latvia. Tomas Mitkus wrote
an article named Lithuanian Film Industries in Twenty-First Century: State Supported Art or
Business? (2011), which was based more on film industry and audience attendance ratio without
paying attention to the impact of film policy. Eva Näripea and Andreas Trossek concluded
monograph called Via transversa: lost cinema of the former Eastern bloc (2008), but it is based only
on the artistic, but not film policy or economic analysis. Therefore, there are no research conducted
about film policy and its development in the Baltic States.
2. The role of film policy for the development of film production
Film policy in Europe is highly related to the active support of government and other elements of
state for national film production. Mostly governments have set up agencies, commissions, boards,
corporations and other instruments through which a wide range of supportive and protective
measures are implemented (Moran, 1996). In European film industries there are different film
financial support models: starting with granting of prizes, loans and credits for film producers, and
finishing with the most common assistance to production – subsidies. Consequently, in the film
industry, production has been the segment upon which financial assistance has been most
concentrated (Guback, 1969).
While taking into consideration East European film industries, they were the first ones to suffer
massive cuts and withdrawal of secure funding early in the 1990s (Iordanova, 1999). New system
of financing for film production where public funding bodies grant subsidies on project basis had
to be established and developed. In newly emerging film industries such as in Latvia, Lithuania and
Estonia public institutions that administrate financial support for film production were established
during different period of time. Latvia was the first one to establish National Film Centre of Latvia

in 1991 1. Estonian Film Institute was established in 1997 2 and Lithuanian Film Center started to
operate in 2012. Before establishment of Film Centres in Estonia and Lithuania ministries of Culture
were involved in allocating financial support for film production 3.
While comparing feature film production in Lithuania from 1993 till 2012 4 – 46 feature films were
produced, while during 2013–2016 – 51 (Figure 2). In Latvia the number of feature films produced
from 1993 ranged from 0 to 7 and it did stabilize only from 2003 even though Latvia already had
an institution that was responsible for financial support administration for national film
production. In Estonia the number of feature films produced started to rise from 2005 and not less
than 4 feature films were produced per year later on.
In total from 1993 till 2016 – 97 feature films were produced in Lithuania, 86 in Latvia and 111 in
Estonia. Even though Estonia is the smallest in population among Baltic States, but produced the
most feature films and at the same time provided exclusively larger financial support for its national
film production than Latvia and Lithuania (Figure 1).
It is possible to notice that the number of national films produced in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia
grew in accordance with allocated financial support (Figure 1 and Figure 2). Even though the
growth of allocated financial support for national film production might be influenced by the
general economic situation in the state, but more importantly the growth of economies could be
associated with the satisfaction of immaterial wants, including cultural products; therefore, the
expansion of the commercial cultural sector needs to meet the resulting demand (Garnham, 2014).
Furthermore, as countries get richer they want and can afford to support more indigenous national
or regional production (Garnham, 2014).
According to economic development theory, “economic growth is not simply an expansion of
economic activity driven by capital accumulation and new technology, but involves change in the
institutions that coordinate the economy, along with structural change in the composition of
economic activities” (Potts, 2011). Therefore, important structural and procedure changes were
necessary for public institutions in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia that were responsible for the
administration of financial support for national film production. In order to meet the growing
demands of cultural goods and films in particular National Film Centre of Latvia, Estonian Film
Institute and Lithuanian Film Centre had to make certain changes that shaped allocation and
administration of more financial support. These changes were present not only in provisions of
national film centres, how their main mission was identified, but also in structure especially in the
composition of commissions and boards which were evaluating film projects and which of them
will receive funding.
1 From 1991 till 2005 Latvian National Cinematographic Centre and from 2005 National Film Centre of Latvia (Balčus,
2010).
2 From 1997 Estonian Film Foundation and from 2013 Estonian Film Institute.
3 It is also important to emphasize that not only film centres and ministries of Culture were allocating financial support in
Baltic States, but also Culturual Funds. For instance, Cultural Capital Foundation in Latvia started to operate in 1998, Riga
Film Fund was established in 2010, Cultural Endowment in Estonia restored in 1995, Press, radio and television suppot
fund was created in Lithuania in 1996 and in 2014 Lithuanian Council for Culture started to operate.
4 2012 selected since Lithuanian Film Centre was established and started to operate.

3. Research methods
In order to analyze the administration of financial support for national film production processes
in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia content analysis of documents was selected (Bryman, 2004).
Among selected documents were the Statutes of Estonian Film Institute, Estonian Film Foundation,
National Latvian Cinematographic Centre, National Film Centre of Latvia and Lithuanian Film
Centre. Descriptive statistics method was implemented in order to analyze secondary date sources
about financial support for national film production and numbers of national films produced in the
Baltic film industries (Figure 1 and Figure 2). Also information from interviews with former
directors of Estonian Film Foundation (Riina Sildos), National Film Centre of Latvia (Ilze Gailite-
Holmberg) and Lithuanian Film Centre (Rolandas Kvietkauskas) were taken in order to supplement
content analysis.
4. Results
Financial support for national film production is directly administrated by film centres in Baltic
States, but there are specific regulations that public institutions need to follow. For instance,
according to their statutes there are two main directions of their activity in forming and
implementing film policy: administration of allocation of financial support for film production and
film production, distribution and exhibition process regulation through legislation. Therefore, the
aims of film support for film production of film centres in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were
compared. It is important to note that in 1991 National Film Centre of Latvia did not have the aim
of its activity and only tasks were identified.
Table 1
Provisions of financial support administration for national film production of Lithuanian
Film Centre, National Film Centre of Latvia and Estonian Film Institute
National Film Centre
Categories Lithuanian Film Centre Estonian Film Institute
of Latvia
Provisions that 1. To promote national 1. To summarize and justify 1. To support films and their
were identified in film production and co- commissions of experts production, development
the beginning production in Lithuania validated information about and dissemination that are
(2012) necessary annual produced in Estonian
government orders and language and oriented
financing of towards Estonian culture
cinematography from the (1997)
budget
2. To ensure the
preparation of normative
and methodological
documents and information
that is related to film
(1991)

Provisions of 1. To administrate 1. To distribute state’s 1. To establish and

financial support financial support for film financial support for film implement transparent and
administration for and audiovisual sector industry – film production efficient mechanism for film
national film in accordance with the and projects that are support in cooperation with
production that procedure established related to film industry; ministry of Culture and
were valid in 2016 by the Minister; 2. To promote the Cultural Endowment;
2. To consult about film development of Latvian 2. To distribute financial
pre-production, films, their production, support for film
development and distribution and exhibition; development, production
production; 3. To administrate the and marketing (including
3. To distribute state’s rights of use of films that international co-production)
financial support for film were supported; based on corresponding
pre-production and 4. To promote Latvian film regulations;
production, industry’s cooperation with 3. To develop international
dissemination, the members of European film cooperation including
distribution and Union and other states. co-production and film
exhibition, film heritage, export;
film education and other 4. To consult filmmakers on
film projects. copyright issues
Source: compiled by the author based on the Estonian Film Institute, Estonian Film Foundation, National Latvian
Cinematographic Centre, National Film Centre of Latvia and Lithuanian Film Centre statutes
While comparing the provisions of financial support administration for national film production
that were valid in the beginning of financial support administration in the Baltic States to the later
period especially after 2008, it is paramount to note that financial support for national film
production was not detailed 5. Thus, it had impact for public institution budget in Latvia and Estonia
since they received substantially lower amount of financial support to distribute. For instance, in
Latvia during the period of 1993–1996 financial support for national film production did not exceed
more than 490 000 euro per year (Table 2). After updating the regulations and aims of the film
centres allocation of finances for national film production started to rise (Figure 1).
10000000
8000000
6000000 Lithuania
4000000 Latvia
2000000 Estonia
0
Figure 1. Financial support for national film production in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia
during 2001–2016 from national film centres (in Euro)
Latvia was the first in Baltic States to introduce National Cinematography Centre in 1991, which
had council and expert commissions (NKC Statute, 1991). Experts had the right to decide which film
5 National Film Centre of Latvia updated its statute in 2009, Lithuanian Film Centre adopted its statute in 2012 and
Estonian Film Institute – in 2013

projects (applications) will receive financial support. From 1992 film production in Latvia was
funded only from state’s budget and till 1996 “all types of film in Latvia were tried to be supported
by the budget allocated for short documentary film production” (Latvijas Kino glabšanas
programma parejas periodam, 1997). For instance, only 1,7 percent of state financial support for
culture was distributed for film in 1996 (1997). It meant that national film production did not
receive enough financial support and mostly feature films form the basis of the national film
industry (1997).
In 1997 National Film Centre of Latvia implemented new film production department, which aimed
to renew national film production that would meet the demand of society since national films
influence the state of all cinematography, therefore, the production of artistic films became
prioritized (Latvijas Kino glabšanas programma parejas periodam, 1997). Also film centre started
to foster participation in international organizations and programs such as MEDIA II and
Eurimages. In 1998 the expert commission function was introduced and regulated by specific
instruction (Latvijas Nacionalais Kinematografijas centrs Instrukcija Nr. 1–98, 1998). It was
indicated that expert commission functions were: the evaluation of film project applications and
conclusion preparation for the board of Latvian National Cinematographic centre (1998).
When Bruno Aščuks became a new director of Latvian National Cinematographic Centre in 1999,
he started to question expert commission eligibility, responsibilities consulting film authors on
budget and legal issues (Filmu nozares valsts parvaldes koncepcija un attistibas projekts, 1999).
However up till 2008 there were no film project evaluation rules and regulations and the members
of expert commission were representatives that were not related to film industry, they were mostly
from ministries (interview with Ilze Gailite-Holmberg). According to Ilze Gailite-Holmberg,
evaluation of the film applications were performed very subjectively on the like or dislike practice
without checking out the quality of the script, business and film distribution strategy (Interview
with Ilze Gailite-Holmberg).
In 2008 new provisions of allocation for national film production were approved. According to new
provisions, film centre had to form expert commissions for feature film, documentaries, animation
and other film industry projects (Procedures for the Granting of Financing from the State Budget
for Film Industry Projects, 2008). Moreover, at least one member from the film centre had to be in
the expert commissions. The structural and procedural change in the way the expert commissions
were formed was proposed by former National film centre of Latvia director Ilze Gailite-Holmberg
since before the members of expert commissions were changing every three years and newly
appointed members were not familiar with ongoing film projects and their financing. According to
I. Gailite-Holmberg, decision making in allocating financial support started be more supervised
(Inteview with I. Gailite-Holmberg).

Table 2
Financial support for Latvian film production in 1993–1998 and 2002 (in Euro)
Year Financial support
1993 311 312
1994 502 414
1995 489 914
1996 489 914
1997 1 106 593
1998 1 323 529
2002 2 009 112
Financial support for Estonian national film production after establishment of Estonian Film
Foundation was rising every year.
Table 3
Financial support for Estonian film production in 1994–1999 (in Euro)
Year Financial support
1994 364 505
1995 605 260
1996 1 479 484
1997 1 541 592
1998 1 486 224
1999 1 539 798
Estonian Film Foundation had an advisory body of financing for film production that consisted of 5
experts. This commission had to revise, analyze and evaluate film projects and applications. The
authority of this commission was valid for two years and their decisions for financial support
allocation were approved by the council. In the year of 2000 the statute of Estonian Film Foundation
was renewed.
According to the Estonian Film Foundation statute of 2000, the institution was managed by board
and council. The board consisted of 2 members – general director, who was responsible for
financial-economic activity of institution and chief expert, who was responsible for film project
application review and management of expertise (Eesti Filmi Sihtasutus Statute, 2000). The
functions of the board expanded into the organization of film project application review,
management of expertise and also it had the right to make decisions related with allocation of
financial support. Moreover, the term of office of the board members has been revised up to 3 years.
With reference to Riina Sildos, who was the director of Estonian Film Foundation back then and
initiated such procedural and managerial changes of financial support model, this system helped to
eliminate subjective decision making since the beginning of Estonian Film Foundation, members of
expert commissions were involved in film production which they were supporting financially
(Interview with R. Siildos).
In 2006 the aim of the statute was revised where „2.1. The aim of Estonian Film Foundaiton is to
encourage and support Estonian film culture and delevopment of film production“ (Eesti Filmi

Sihtasutus Statute, 2006). This revision was connected to the growth of financial support for
national film production since already in 2007 the allocation of financing started to increase and
decreased only during financial crisis in 2009–2013.
In 2013 Estonian Film Foundation changed its name into Estonian Film Institute. The preservation
and development of Estonian national film culture became the man goal of Estonian Film Institute
(Statutes of the Estonian Film Institute, 2013). Board and executive board became main managers.
Only one member was part of executive board – the director of Estonian Film Institute who was
responsible for economic activity and the organization of the evaluation of submitted project
applications for film funding 6, expert analysis of the use of support (2013). Institute’s director was
appointed for five year period.
Up till 2012 film policy in Lithuania was formulated and implemented by the ministry of Culture.
Already in 2008 the concept of film centre was being prepared where it was stated that “The
analysis of Lithuanian film sector shows that the state must have an institution which administers
and coordinates film sector, a body for the development of film industry, which would provide
quality administration of funds for film projects” (Dėl nacionalinio kino centro koncepcijos
patvirtinimo, 2008).
Former director of Lithuanian Film Centre emphasized that film centre was established because of
growing needs in film production and the idea of implementation was born already in 2002 when
film law was adopted (Interview with Rolandas Kvietkauskas). There were positive and negative
reasons that fostered the establishment of Lithuanian Film Centre. Positive reasons were:
integration of Lithuanian cinema into European cinema infrastructure, growing state budget
appropriations for film production and distribution, development of co-production. The negative
reasons were: limited human resources, which could not ensure systematic development of film
policy and financial support for film production and the result was visible and noticeable in the
numbers of national film production which was behind Estonia, Latvia and other European states.
Furthermore, the percentage of Lithuanian films show in Lithuania was very low (Dėl nacionalinio
kino centro koncepcijos patvirtinimo, 2008).
Before Lithuanian Film Centre was established, film council assisted ministry of Culture. Main
functions of film council were related to the analysis of the development and distribution of
Lithuanian films, review and evaluation of film programs and film production projects that apply
for state support (Ibid). Council consisted of 9 members who had their authority of 2 year period. 7
(Dėl kino tarybos nuostatų ir jos sudėties patvirtinimo, 2002). In 2013 film council became an
advisory body for Lithuanian Film Centre. The number of members was reduced to 7 and the
consistency changed as well where only artists, professional film art appraisers, filmmakers and
one representative of the film centre were involved (Kino tarybos nuostatai, 2013) 8.
6 Film project applications for script, development and production support shall be evaluted by the head of the production
unit of the institute or by an expert in the field who shall involve at least two external experts (Conditions of and
procedure for allocation of support, 2016, p. 7).
7 3 members from Lithuanian Filmmakers Union, one member each from association of producets, distributors and
exhibitors and Lithuanian Radio and Television Association, Lithuanian Radio and Television and ministry of Culture.
8 Latvian Film Council is an advisory board to the ministry of Culture, which takes care of the development of national
cinema through administrative means: cooperates with the ministry of Culture in developing the film industry strategy,
budged and investment policy, takes care of the preparation of legal acts, analyzes the actitvities of institutions of
audiovisual sector and makers proposals for the improvement of their activities (National Film Centre of Latvia).

On the other hand, financial film support in the Baltic States was depended on special cultural
support funds. For instance, Estonia reinstated Cultural Endowment in 1994 and established
Estonian Film Foundation in 1997. Then film production was financed by three institutions together
with ministry of Culture. Latvia established Culture Capital Foundation in 1998, which was
allocating 1/10 of support for film production, in 1999 – 1/3 in comparison with Latvian National
Cinematographic Centre, and in 2004 even more than Latvian National Cinematographic Centre.
However, ministry of Culture is not present in giving financial support for film. Ministry of Culture
and Department of Physical Education and Sports Fund were allocating financial support for
national film production in Lithuania from 2001 till 2012 9, but when Lithuanian Film Centre was
established the year later it had become the only institution, which is allocating financial support
for national film production in Lithuania.
Thus, while comparing the Baltic States, only Lithuanian Film Centre is using system where film
council analyze and evaluate applications of film projects. National Film Centre of Latvia use film
council only as assisting body for the development of film policy and strategy while the formation
of expert commission is based on the nature of film projects. This commission also evaluates film
project applications. Expert commissions in Estonia were abolished already in 2000 and later film
project applications were analyzed by Estonian Film Instutute‘s director who is assisted by the head
of production department of institute who can also use at least two external experts. If in Estonia
film project applications were evaluated by 1 to 3 experts, in Lithuania – by 7, in Latvia this number
is not detailed.
25
20
15
Lithuania
10 Latvia
Estonia
5
0
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Figure 2. Feature film production in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia in 1991–2016
Discussion and conclusions
Financial support for national film production is of critical importance while implementing film
policy in European film industries. The position of national cinema in local and international film
distribution market depends on financial support as well and it also shows the viability of the film
industry. Therefore, development of Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian national film production was
9 Since restoration of independence in Lithuania, funding for film production has been provided by the Lithuanian Ministry
of Culture, and the Physical Culture and Sports Support Fund who has been operating since 1996

directly influenced by the establishment of National Film Centre of Latvia, Estonian Film Institute
and Lithuanian Film Centre that were responsible for financial support administration. Hence one
of the most important functions of these institutions is administration of financial support for
national film production and it has been acknowledged in statute of National Film Centre of Latvia
as a main objective.
While evaluating the regulation documents (statutes) of these institutions it is paramount to
highlight that improvement of their structure in a way how film commissions, boards and councils
were organized and film funding administration processes had impact for the growth of financial
support for its national film production. On the one hand, the objectives declared at the beginning
of these institutions were not sufficiently detailed since these institutions supposedly were
established by following the examples of other countries and there were not settled practice in
financial support administration. On the other hand this was connected to improving administrative
procedures of film financing and introducing a more transparent and clear system. Accordingly, the
growth of financial support for national film production in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia facilitated
higher numbers of national films produced 10. In Lithuania at least 4 national films have been
produced since 2012, at least 6 in Estonia since 2011 and at least 3 national feature films per year
were produced in Latvia since 2006.
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DIGITAL SERVICES DEVELOPMENT TRENDS UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF COVID-19
DIGITAL SERVICES DEVELOPMENT TRENDS UNDER

THE INFLUENCE OF COVID-19
Victoria Gudovskaya
Turiba Univeristy, Latvia
Abstract
The modern world community does not stand in one place, it is constantly undergoing
changes and this has become especially noticeable over the past three years under the
influence of Covid-19. Many jobs that were commonplace in the past are non-existent on
resumes today. Some disappeared thanks to advances in technology, and now we can
observe the active development of jobs of the future, which are directly related to the
digital industry. Currently, the company's main means of communication with consumers
are digital devices and innovative solutions. In the context of a global pandemic, one of the
results of which was the widespread transition of business communications to the online
environment, not a single business could continue to function without moving to the digital
world. In order to follow this trend, many companies turn to digital agencies to develop a
promotion strategy. The purpose of this article is to consider the trends in the development
of the agency market of digital services, considering negative environmental factors. We
sought to set industry trends for brand promotion through digital communications by
content type. One of the research methods was to analyse the dynamics of demand for
digital services in recent years, as well as to assess the general trends in digital
communication based on modern Internet platforms and services, which allowed us to
identify relevant business development strategy tools.
Keywords: Digital service, Digital development trends, Covid-19, Jobs of the future, Advancing
technology, Market of digital services, Digital communication
Introduction
The unprecedented crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic has demonstrated the vital role of
digital technologies in our time. Since this period, we have witnessed a new round of technology
development. The world is witnessing an accelerated digitalization of many activities and services,
including education systems, telework and video conferencing in and out of the workplace, access
to healthcare systems, and essential and non-essential goods and services.
One of the visible results of the Covid-19 pandemic that broke out in early 2019 was a sharp
acceleration in the development of a large group of ICT services and online services. The widespread
lockdown and self-isolation of the population contributed to the explosive growth of online services,
remote education, remote employment, the development of technological substitution processes for
all types of labor, as well as the emergence of new promising professions.

China has become the first country that has gone through the process of creating favorable
conditions for continuing to work in the new pandemic reality. Not without reason in Chinese the
word “crisis” consists of two hieroglyphs, the meaning of the first "危" (wei) is danger, and "机" (ji)
is an opportunity. That is, China has become an example of how a crisis can push people to the rapid
development of technology. Against this background, the thesis has become widespread that the
epidemiological crisis has created favorable conditions for an unprecedented phenomenon in
history, designated as a revolutionary transformation, when in fact, in real time, one can observe
the breakdown of the existing structure of the world economy and even a change in the socio-
economic formation. This process is carried out through the forced transfer of humanity into a new
digital society or even the world order.
The purpose of this article is to determine how justified is the assumption that the crisis caused by
the Covid-19 pandemic has become one of the stages in the transition of humanity to a new digital
reality, and whether the “forcing online” provoked by global quarantine and forced social disunity
can really radically accelerate digital transformation and lead to a total transformation of the world
economic and financial systems. This topic causes great discussion and the answer to the question
posed is quite ambiguous.
Our hypothesis is that the digital development trends we observe, high technologies and the
expanding digital services market give us the opportunity to say that the forced measures to reduce
personal contacts between people due to the pandemic still indicate a sharp impetus to the
development of digital communication, which in turn, it contributes to the accelerated development
of new trends in the field of IT, education, medicine and business development.
The novelty of this study lies in the review of new trends in digital services that have emerged since
the start of the Covid-19 pandemic, as well as in the review of new promising areas of professional
growth in this area.
The objectives of this study are:
1) to designate digital services that have been especially in demand since the start of the
pandemic in 2019;
2) to follow the path of development of digital communication in the conditions of lockdown;
3) to establish which jobs of the future will be most in demand in the coming years;
4) to analyze the development path of the digital services market, identify among them those
that could provide significant assistance in the development of small businesses;
5) to draw certain conclusions about what functions and advanced technologies companies
and small businesses should focus on in the future.
Theoretical framework and methodology
Our literature review gathered the opinions of various researchers on the theory of digital economy
and digitalization of business. The term “digital economy” first appeared in 1995, when the Internet
became an important source of "free" content (Jorgenson, 2001). The basis of the digital economy
is the so-called digital area – IT/ICT, which produces basic digital goods and services. That is, the
increased use of ICT in all sectors of the economy, this is a digital economy (Bell, 2001). The
development of the digital economy contributes to the fact that digital information technologies,
such as the Internet or other means of communication, change global economic and social relations.

This, in turn, leads to the fact that international economic relations become freer, and within one
country the likelihood of successful business becomes easier. In this context, it is appropriate to
mention the statement of T. Friedman, the essence of which is that new technologies have the ability to
unite the world, forming their own strong relationships through the latest means of communication.
(Friedman, 2007).
After the spread and strengthening of the term digital economy in the business sphere, the terms
digitalization, business digital trends and digital marketing are increasingly appearing. In various
studies devoted to the study of advanced technologies and digitalization of production, we come
across the terms digitalization and digital transformation as well. These terms are considered from
different points of view. The Gartner Glossary gives us the following definition of digitalization – it
is the use of digital technologies to change a business model and provide new revenue and value-
producing opportunities; it is the process of moving to a digital business (Gartner Glossary, 2022).
There is also an opinion that digitalization refers to “the sociotechnical process of using digitized
products or systems to develop new organizational procedures, business models or commercial
proposals” (Saarikko, Westergren, & Blomquist, 2020). From the definition of this concept, we can
say that digitalization means the partial or complete transformation of the elements of activity and
business models of the company's value chain into digital platforms through the introduction of
new digital technologies, such as advanced cloud computing technologies, mobile and visual
communications, robotics, new smart computers, artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, 3D printing
and the Internet of Things (IoT) (Soto-Acosta, 2020). Such a transformation can occur within
integrated digital platforms as innovative modern ways of doing business. And in this context, the
Covid-19 pandemic has accelerated the adoption of advanced technologies.
Effective business management includes an analysis of the current market situation, including the
digital economy. There is an adaptation to a rapidly changing market environment, the
implementation of modern and innovative technologies and trends, an increase in the effectiveness
of marketing communications by strengthening consumer loyalty, and searching for new promising
markets (Melekhova, 2020). The choice of effective communication channels for a brand is one of
the key aspects of its promotion and fixation in the minds of consumers. The priority tasks in the
field of marketing communications are: the search for new market segments, a new target audience,
a deep understanding of the interests of consumers in a rapidly changing environment, matching
their interests, lifestyle, expectations and preferences.
Today, there are many ways and tools with which you can talk about your product or service.
Thanks to scientific and technological progress, the digital economy is rapidly developing and
spreading (Alekseev, 2016). Starting from 2019, when the whole world faced new challenges of the
Covid-19 pandemic, new opportunities for the development of digital marketing began to actively
appear, as consumers always prefer those brands that master digital channels faster (Chaffey &
Chadwick, 2016). And in the conditions of lockdown, these functions generally become
indispensable. With the development of the Internet and new technologies, we can safely say that
digital marketing tools and channels are the most popular and effective (Verhoef et al., 2021).
This business structure, based on electronic interaction, is becoming a new vector for the
development of the global economy in the 21st century. It acquires the status of a digital economic
activity based on digital technologies. Communications, which, after all, is what we understand by
digital technologies and means of communication, is not just a sector of the economy. Communication
is the economy itself (Kelly, 1998).

We started our research with a search for books, articles and monographs on the phenomena of
digitalization of production, new business trends, digital marketing, physical marketing, phygital
marketing or related areas. We used Google Scholar, EBSCO, SCOPUS and SCIENCEDIRECT
databases to conduct this search. We used the resulting primary list of collected sources to compile
additional references through bibliographic analysis and identify relevant materials. Eligible
materials to include in our review included academic articles, books, and industry publications from
a variety of disciplines, including business, management, IT, advanced technology, small business,
and crisis management. An interesting stage in the process of literary review seems to us to be the
analysis of the phygital marketing phenomenon. This seems to us to be an important part of the
process, since this phenomenon is relatively recent, so it is not yet subject to systematic study and
therefore lacks a coherent literature base, which means that our conclusions were mostly
interdisciplinary. Much of the collected research in this area was in the disciplines of business,
marketing, buyer psychology, behavioural psychology, and economics.
The fundamental concepts presented in the works of experts of digital economy theory and
publications of modern researchers on topics related to new digital services trends and
digitalization of business processes are used as a methodological basis for the study. Our research
is carried out using theory analysis, mathematical data processing analysis and logical-constructive
analysis with the priority of the systems approach, as well as using methods of statistical analysis,
expert assessments and forecasting methods.
In the process of writing this article, methods such as the study of scientific and professional
publications and monographs, methods of comparison, forecasting and system analysis were used.
As data sources for developing a forecast, the author used scientific publications of modern
researchers such as Dannenberg P., Fuchs M., Riedler T., Wiedemann C., Rejeb A., Rejeb K., Keogh
J.G., Goddard E. and others. We also used up-to-date statistical data, research results from Nielsen
marketing agency, the world’s learning company Pearson, global innovation foundation Nesta and
consulting companies McKinsey, PricewaterhouseCoopers and others, as well as factual information
about new digital services trends and consumer behaviour for 2020 and 2021 years.
Digital marketing as one of the components of the digitalization

of small businesses
As we noted earlier, the pandemic and, as a consequence, restrictions on the work of companies,
contributed to the rapid transition of companies to the digitalization of production. The task of any
company is to retain customers and attract new ones using various marketing tools, which now
occupies one of the most important positions among the trends in the development of digital
services. Today in a society of mass consumption, advertising is forced to change its role (Boström,
2020). To retain and attract customers, it is very important for companies to decide what tools they
will work with, what strategy to follow.
Digital marketing communications are the online interaction of a company with customers through the
use of digital communication channels. Digital marketing is an integrated approach to the promotion
and sale of goods and services, which includes the integration of a huge number of different
technologies. We presented the most popular tools that are usually included in the complex of digital
marketing promotion in our Table 1, which was compiled on the basis of McKinsey's research.

Table 1
Tools included in Digital marketing 2022
Marketing Tool Description Advantages
Content- A set of marketing techniques Almost all large companies maintain their own blogs,
marketing aimed at gaining trust and where they share useful and relevant information,
attracting potential customers, showing expertise in their chosen niche. This increases
based on the creation and user confidence and increases brand awareness. Blog
dissemination of information readers are potential customers.
useful to the consumer.
Automatic Automatic chatbots process Clients often do not like to wait long for answers to
chatbots requests and provide instant questions. Previously, chatbots and quick customer
answers at any time of the day. advice in messengers were seen as an additional
advantage, but today it is a common and even a
prerequisite for sales. It takes a few seconds for the
robot to perform these actions, and users do not have to
spend time contacting specialists and a bunch of
bureaucratic procedures.
Micro Influencer Purchasing advertising in small Until 2020, the trends were classic influencer, when firms
marketing thematic communities or from an tried to get advertising from popular bloggers with a
individual who specializes in the million-strong audience. However, despite the huge
topic you need coverage of advertising records, the results were not
always positive, since there was no exact hit on the target
audience. In 2022, conventional influencer marketing has
been replaced by micro influencer marketing, when
advertising is bought from bloggers with a small audience
of 10,000–100,000 subscribers. Channels of a narrow
theme are selected, corresponding to the promoted
product. As a result, the conversion is higher with lower
reach and financial costs.
SMM (social Social media marketing is the use Users trust information in social networks, as they do not
media marketing) of social media as channels for perceive it as direct advertising. Large coverage of the
promoting companies or brands target audience and independence from the region – it is
and solving other business much easier to attract an audience from other cities and
problems. countries than with other types of promotion. Feedback
and fast response. Unlike SEO, you can quickly get a
response to a blog post, video, or other social media post.
The high speed of collecting and exchanging information
helps to quickly adjust the SMM strategy, respond to the
wishes and comments of users and offer the most
interesting content to your audience.
SEO (search A set of actions that bring the site People intuitively do not trust advertising, so organic search
engine to the top of organic issuance engine results have special privileges and the greatest trust.
optimization) search engines. SEO has existed since the mid-90s and is actively used in our
time, being one of the most popular types of promotion on
the Internet. SEO activities are difficult to pause, even if you
stop promoting in search engines, you will still continue to
receive visitors from them.
Interactive Among the types of interactive Such content gets the attention of the user, has a high
content content are quizzes, tests and level of interaction with the client, increases brand
online surveys, slide shows, loyalty and contributes to the growth of conversions.
constructors and others.

Adaptation for The ability to find the necessary According to this study, the use of this tool has increased
voice search information using voice search, by 15% by 2021 due to its convenience during the
in cases where the user does not lockdown and pandemic. Sales of smart speakers are
have the ability to hand-write a also on the rise. According to forecasts, by 2023 more
request. than 8 million such devices will be sold, and search
algorithms are fully adapted to voice queries.
Omnichannel The trend implies an increase in Today it is not enough to have only one channel to
the number of points of contact attract customers, you need to develop and support
with users. several directions at once. At the same time, it is
important to combine information from all channels into
a single system. Omnichannel is a good basis for building
your own sales funnels. Information about customers
from different channels can be combined using CRM
systems.
Video Marketing Commercials to attract a new Video marketing is an effective tool for turning people
audience, increase audience from sceptical about your business to neutral or
loyalty, strengthen the brand. positive. Video content also improves the SEO
performance of the site.
UGC – User This is the content that the The main advantage is that it is a free and friendly way
Content audience of a company or brand to promote your business. User-generated content
creates. Since the end of 2021, works better than regular content, as people tend to
such a promotion has been share information with friends and acquaintances on
gaining momentum and will social networks. Such posts have high reach and often a
remain relevant for a long time. lot of comments.
Source: created by the author based on McKinsey 2020 research, "Modern marketing: What it is, what it isn't, and how to do it".
As we can see from this table, a large number of new trends in digital services have appeared in
recent years. It is also an obvious fact that the growth of new media and tools in the digital space is
undoubtedly having an impact on the increase in advertising costs around the world. According to
the Statista Research Department for 2021, ad spend has grown steadily since 2019 and will
continue to rise in the coming years. It has been estimated that global digital advertising spend was
$378.16 billion in 2020, up, not down, from 2019's $335.6 billion spent on ads, despite the economic
impact Covid-19 pandemic. The projected growth can be seen in Figure 1.
700 645.8
585.96
Spending in billion U.S.
600 524.31
500 455.3
378.16
dollars
400 335.6
300
200
100
0
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Figure 1. Digital advertising spending worldwide from 2019 to 2024 (in billion U.S. dollars)
Source: Statista Research Department, 2021

Phygital Marketing as the next stage of development

of digital service trends
The concept of Phygital Marketing is relatively new, reflecting the novelty of emerging digital
technologies that expand and enrich their capabilities (Cabigiosu, 2020). This type of marketing
involves creating a consumer journey that seamlessly integrates physical and digital experiences,
creating experiences that are only possible through the development of new visual digital
technologies (Kiewell at al., 2021). Among them, we can note contactless payment systems,
interactive fitting rooms in online stores, touch screens and augmented reality (Nofal at al., 2017).
Experts say that the use of such digital trends is widely used in various industries, such as business,
education, tourism, banking, restaurants and many other areas.
The further development of omnichannel will inevitably be phygital marketing, which will be
implemented both as technological solutions and as creating comfort and providing entertainment
at points of sale thanks to VR/AR, that is, Virtual Reality and/or Augmented Reality. This will be
especially true for young people who, even before the Covid-19 pandemic, came to shops and
shopping centers not only to shop, but also to gain new experiences and have a good time (Peeters
& Späne, 2019). As digital technologies and ways to increase the convenience and attractiveness of
the shopping process for customers through a variety of entertainment spread, the need and
complexity of combining these methods will increase. In this case, the role of building in these
processes the necessary points of contact with the brand at all stages of the interaction between the
buyer and the seller increases dramatically. Such modeling becomes an inevitable condition for the
rational choice and effective application of new technologies. The combination of virtual and
physical reality, the use of innovative technologies and creative strategies for interacting with
consumers personalize the marketing experience and promote customer engagement and retention
(Melekhova, 2020). The emergence and development of such a phenomenon as phygital marketing
lays the foundation for the spread of the so-called professions of the future. All of them will
undoubtedly have to be directly or indirectly connected with the world of virtual reality and high
technologies.
Being a topic of course related to the development of trends in digitalization services, we would like
to share some of our research specifically in the field of the employment market in the future. Our
world is arranged in such a way that demand always creates supply. The general theory of supply
and demand, as the cornerstone of the neoclassicism created by Alfred Marshall, is convincing in its
own way (Marshall, 2013). This is also the case with the labor market. The emergence of new digital
services trends in the world over the past few years has contributed to the emergence and
development of the professions of the future. The labor market is one of the first to respond to
changes in technology and business processes, flexibly formatting its requirements for specialists.
However, it is worth noting that professional higher education is a more fundamental structure and
it responds to technological changes in the world much more slowly. There is often a shortage of
specialists in demanded professions on the market. But the conditions of the modern world allow
professionals from related fields to quickly retrain, replenish knowledge and fill the vacancies that
have appeared. For young people, the labor market can provide a wide range of professions, thanks
to this they have the opportunity to choose the right area in which to get an education, and
subsequently get a prestigious profession.

According to a study by the World Economic Forum in 2020 (World Economic Forum, 2020), at the
end of 2019 there was a risk to labor market stability due in large part to automation, technology
and globalization. In the first half of 2020, there was an unexpected disruption in labor markets that
immediately affected the livelihoods of individuals. The Covid-19 pandemic has exacerbated
existing inequalities in labor markets, while at the same time hastening the future of work and
accelerating the spread of so-called jobs of the future.
As we know, due to the spread of the Covid-19 virus, governments have passed laws to completely
or partially close business operations, which caused a sharp shock to the economy, society and labor
markets. Many businesses have closed their physical offices and faced restrictions in doing face-to-
face business. According to World Economic Forum research statistics, from mid-March to mid-
April, almost 55% of countries (about 100 countries) closed jobs, affecting all but essential
businesses. This has led to the fact that many people have switched to working remotely and, with
good luck, have kept remote work even further. Scientists note that high-speed mobile Internet,
artificial intelligence, big data analytics and cloud technologies are designed to become the
initiators of the introduction of new technologies in companies between 2020 and 2025. Many will
also look to machine learning, augmented reality and virtual reality for significant business
investment. Stationary robots are likely to be the most widespread by 2022, but there are different
use cases and preferences across industries.
The study notes that data entry operators, accountants, auditors, administrators, secretaries,
assemblers and factory workers, customer service and other employees whose workflows are easy
to automate will lose their jobs most quickly. Experts expect that by 2025 half of the work will be
done by computers or robotic lines. And on the contrary, growing careers include data analysts,
software and application developers, e-commerce and social media professionals. However, it is
also expected to see growth in job roles based on characteristic “human” qualities such as customer
service, sales and marketing, training and development, people and culture, organizational
development, and innovation managers.
Conclusion
The crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic has accelerated digital transformation trends around
the world, as evidenced by the development and expansion of digital infrastructure in all areas. The
transition to the digital provision of services by various firms and organizations, for example, in the
fields of education, healthcare, trade, entrepreneurship, as well as the wider introduction of digital
technologies into production. While the pandemic has had a negative impact on many businesses,
it has also opened up new business opportunities.
The world is constantly changing and evolving. Phenomena such as the crises caused by the
pandemic are changing the way the world works. The changes that we now have the opportunity to
observe in the business environment, digitalization, small business and many other areas, of course,
were started even before 2019. The Fourth Industrial Revolution began to change the work
landscape in all industries around the world. However, the Covid-19 pandemic has accelerated
these processes and changed the way some industries develop. According to research by the World
Economic Forum, 75 million jobs are expected to be displaced in the future due to the introduction
of new technologies and structural changes in the labor market.

It is certainly impossible to predict the future course of the job market right now, but there are
certain opportunities that can help protect future careers. An undoubted important condition for
development in the business environment will be following the new trends in digitalization
services. Skills acquired in technology and finance will continue to be in demand, but will also
require skills that cannot be automated in the foreseeable future. These include communication
skills, emotional intelligence for communication and conflict resolution, critical thinking, problem
solving, and basic social skills such as friendliness, an open mind, and the ability to engage in
constructive dialogue.
Summing up our work, it is important to note that the functioning of the digital services business is
associated with solving many problems of our time. Among them are the consequences of the
economic crisis caused by the global pandemic, and the growth of competition, the emergence of
new digital channels that need to be studied, as well as the difficulties in mastering and processing
a large amount of digital data (Ivanchenko at al., 2019). The importance of digitalization and digital
marketing cannot be underestimated now. The high importance of digital trends for business is
determined by the fact that any information can be available to consumers at any time and in any
place. Digital communications simplify communication between people in any life situations.
In this work, we have completed all the research objects set, we have identified digital services that
have become especially in demand since the beginning of the pandemic in 2019, we examined the
concepts of digitalization and digital marketing, we examined the study of the World Economic
Forum regarding the professions of the future, we also analyzed the ways of developing the digital
market services, drew some conclusions about what features and advanced technologies companies
and small businesses should focus on in the future. We believe that this study will become the basis
for further research in the field of digital marketing and digital trends of entrepreneurship and
small business in the near future.
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PROTECTION OF CONSUMERS’ RIGHTS WHEN BANKS CLOSE ACCOUNTS UNILATERALLY
PROTECTION OF CONSUMERS’ RIGHTS WHEN BANKS

CLOSE ACCOUNTS UNILATERALLY
Aleksejs Jelisejevs
Abstract
When unilaterally closing a customer’s account as part of a policy of so-called “de-risking”,

the customer’s interests are not only ignored by the bank but their human rights, including
respect for their private life and presumption of innocence, are also severely violated. De
facto, de-risking stigmatises discarded consumers as being involved in criminal activity
without a court conviction. The protection of the interests of such consumers is impeded
by the formal application of legal rules and contractual terms, which ultimately
contradicts public interests, including combating money laundering and preventing the
financing of terrorism. To overcome this conflict, the research proposes a doctrinal
approach according to which the bank’s right to withdraw from a customer contract
unilaterally should be limited by the systemic and teleological interpretation of regulating
rules in combination with the general civil principle of good faith, which, by analogy with
the original source of the problem, is called the “Good-Faith-Based Approach”. This paper
is its summary and presents general research conclusions.
Keywords: Good Faith, De-Risking, Bank Account Closure, Consumers Rights, Unilateral Termination
of Contract, Human Rights, Sanctions
Introduction
The Russian military invasion of Ukraine with its horrendous crimes against humanity and the
sanction response to it from the civilized world exacerbated many problems of modern civil
circulation. There was a reasonable need to look at them differently and clarify scientific and practical
ways to solve them. The subject of my research was no exception since the unilateral termination of
contractual relations is both at the forefront of the sanction state regulation and in the arsenal of tools
of private businesses to demonstrate their political and ethical positions. At the same time, the
essential features of payment relations and the backbone role of payment service providers in the
current economic conditions undoubtedly require a unique approach to this matter.
On the one hand, the applicable legal rules, per se, do not require closing bank accounts of the
sanction subjects and the complete termination of contractual relations with them. Imposed
restrictions may include denying access by the subject of sanctions to financial resources
(instruments) and prohibiting the provision of specified financial services. However, the central
core of financial and civil legal restrictions within sanction regulation is freezing funds 11, which
11 See, for example, Art. 5(1) of the Law on International Sanctions and National Sanctions of the Republic of Latvia.

cannot be executed without an existing bank account. Moreover, the sanction restrictions do not
prevent crediting the frozen account with funds that, of course, should also be frozen 12.
Nevertheless, within so-called “zero-tolerance practice”, banks 13 prefer to cease their partnership
with customers to whom sanctions apply or if there is any doubt about this matter 14 (although they
have no such legal obligations). Therefore, we see that in this situation, banks terminate business
relationships with clients to avoid rather than manage risks. That is, they close accounts within the
same de-risking policy that is a generalised reason to unilaterally withdraw from payment service
contracts for all cases subjected in my research.
As I have written in previous articles 15, the letter of the law allows banks, like any other private
businesses, to choose their customers. However, such formal application of the legal rules and
contractual provisions leads to an impasse of both the interests of the rejected consumers and their
human rights 16.
Statistical data from the Financial and Capital Market Commission of Latvia [FKTK] 17 clearly shows
this problem has a systemic character 18. Over the past six years, customer complaints about banks
unilaterally terminating cooperation with them or refusing such cooperation have consistently
accounted for most claims against Latvian financial institutions. But what is even more significant
is that out of all 1406 complaints submitted during this run, the FKTK did not satisfy any of them 19.
Indeed, the absence of at least one random violation of customer rights by even one Latvian bank
in such a long time and with such a large number of customer claims plainly contradicts even the
probability theory. This can only indicate the complete failure of the legal regulation system per se,
which is unable a priori to protect the rights of payment services consumers in this matter.
To solve this grave problem and overcome this legal collision, I have proposed a doctrinal approach
according to which a bank’s right to unilaterally withdraw from a payment service contract against
the consumer's will and the actual exercise of this subjective right should be limited by tools of good
faith including the systemic and teleological interpretation of legal and contractual regulations
under this general civil principle. By analogy with the original source of the problem 20, I have called
this conception a Good-Faith-Based Approach.
12 Art. 7(1) of Council Regulation (EU) No 269/2014 of 17 March 2014 concerning restrictive measures in respect of actions
undermining or threatening the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of Ukraine.
13 In this paper, banks encompass any payment institutions as defined in Art.1(1) and Art.4(11) of Directive (EU)
2015/2366 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015 on payment services in the internal
market, transposed to Latvian national law through Art. 1(2) of the Law on Payment Services and Electronic Money of the
Republic of Latvia.
14 See, for example, the press release of Citadele Bank, 2022.
15 Jelisejevs, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c
16 For more details see Jelisejevs, 2022, at 163–180
17 According to Art. 2 (1) of the Law on the Financial and Capital Market Commission, "The Commission is a lawful,
autonomous public institution, which, according to the objectives and tasks of its operation, governs and supervises the
financial and capital market and the activities of its participants."
18 Compilation of complaints regarding the activities of financial and capital market participants that were received by
FKTK, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021.
19 There were 161 complaints to FKTK in 2016, 189 in 2017, 290 in 2018, 213 in 2019, 277 in 2020 and 276 in 2021, with
none finding any law violations for all these years (ibid.)
20 Overall, overzealous account closure is motivated by a risk-based approach introduced by the Financial Action Task Force
[FATF] and included in the financial sector regulations of almost all states, including the EU and Latvia. In short, it implies
anti-money laundering [AML] measures and combating terrorism financing [CTF] risks to mitigate these risks.

Studied conflict is common in all payment relationships, but payment service users with consumer
status (that is, individuals who use payment accounts and banking services for purposes not related
to their economic or professional activities 21) must be protected in a special way. That is why my
proposed approach is focused above all on consumer protection, though some of its elements could
be used with respect to other payment service users including entrepreneurs, business entities and
even other payment institutions 22.
My research was based on qualitative methods of scientific analysis where a hypothetico-deductive
model was employed as a principal toolkit to elaborate the doctrine. At the same time, comparative
legal and system structure analysis methods assisted my argument in favour of the above approach.
Discrete aspects of my research are presented in several papers, some of which have already been
published. Others are still waiting in the wings. At the same time, the recent challenges mentioned
have forced me to summarise and present the main points of my doctrinal approach promptly and
severally in order to provide the scientific community and law enforcement actors with an efficient
toolkit for solving the issues that have arisen.
The task of interpreting legal rules is divided between case law and legal doctrine. When case law
is faced with a problem of interpretation to solve a particular case, proposals for solving this
problem are considered from the point of view of legal doctrine 23. That is why I dare to hope this
outline could pave the way for an academic discussion to leave aside political insinuations and
create a basis for developing this public-interest topic within science and legal practice.
Good faith v. unilateral account closure
From the viewpoint of legal regulations, researched issues involve the unilateral termination of a
payment account contract by the bank against the will of the payment service user (Art. 55(3) of EU
Directive No. 2015/2366 transposed to Latvian national law through Art. 67(3) of its Law on
Payment Services and Electronic Money). This context also allows discussion of the termination of
business relations by the subject of the Latvian Law on the Prevention of Money Laundering and
Terrorism and Proliferation Financing with its customer following Art. 28(2) of this Law (Art. 14(4)
of EU Directive No. 2015/849 24).
Of course, the bank’s obligations to dissolve business relations under anti-money-laundering
requirements should be distinguished from its discretionary and optional right to terminate a
payment service contract for de-risking. However, both these legal grounds ultimately mean the
same legal construction of unilateral withdrawal from a contract under Art. 1589 of Latvian Civil
21 According to Art. 2(1) of Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011,
consumer means any natural person acting in contractual relations "for purposes outside his trade, business, craft, or
profession"
22 Obviously, other categories of customer can have other legal grounds for implementing my approach to protect their
rights when banks close their payment accounts. For example, if some large or systemic bank terminates a correspondent
account of a smaller payment service provider, we may raise the issue of fair competition violations and abuse of the
dominant position to construe such a bank’s behaviour in view of provisions of the Latvian Law on competition and, in a
broader sense, use Art. 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
23 Iļjanova (Rezevska), 2007, at 62
24 Directive (EU) 2015/849 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 May 2015 on the prevention of the use of
the financial system for the purposes of money laundering or terrorist financing

Law. Thus, there are no reasons to consider any of these cases outside the framework of civil law
regulation, where the good-faith principle is one of the main cornerstones. In its legal essence, any
closure of a payment account by a bank against the consumer’s will should be recognised as a
unilateral transaction 25 in which the subject matter is to terminate contractual legal relations 26.
Therefore, this legal action must be performed in a “permissible manner” and following the general
provisions on principles and methods contained in the introductory part of the Civil Law 27 (Art.
1403 of Latvian Civil Law).
Latvian Civil Law starts with the general concept of good faith avowed in its Art. 1 as "Rights shall
be exercised and duties performed in good faith." Generally, such a fundamental obligation is a
standard rule for many countries’ civil legislation 28. In particular, the Civil Code of Lithuania
similarly exacts the subjects of civil relationships to act according to the good-faith principle (Art.
1.5(1)) 29. It refers to the good-faith rule a total of 103 times regarding various aspects of civil
regulation. Estonian civil law provides requirements to act in good faith (Art. 138 of the General
Part of the Civil Code Act) that includes not only a general obligation to observe the principle of
good faith (Art. 6(1) of the Law of Obligations Act) but also a possibility not to apply legal rules,
usages and contractual provisions if they would be contrary to good faith (Art. 6(2) of the Law of
Obligations Act) 30.
While in English law good faith has no general application as a legal principle 31, it has assumed
extensive scope and great importance in defining the final outcomes of court judgments. Common
law’s academic debates separate definitions of good faith between two poles: procedural and
substantive 32. Procedural good faith focuses on improprieties and defects during the negotiations
and the conclusion of the contract. Accordingly, it would include, inter alia, every kind of technique
to prevent unfair and dishonest behaviour. Substantive good faith is independent from any
procedural consideration and instead aims to impose an abstract standard of contractual justice
drawn “from somewhere else” 33. “The foundations of a general rule of good faith can be discerned
in the common law dust” 34 but the time the UK spent under EU jurisdiction significantly
strengthened the legal significance of this principle. Even despite Brexit, it remains relevant,
especially in light of consumer rights protection.
At the same time, no features of legal regulation for the prevention of money laundering and
terrorism financing may justify abandoning this approach since the relevant rules of special
legislation also requires the bank to act in good faith when terminating business relations with a
client (for example, Art. 40(3) of the Latvian Law on the Prevention of Money Laundering and
Terrorism and Proliferation Financing).
25 Kalniņš, 2005, at 139

26 Balodis. 2007, at 162
27 See, for example, Balodis, 2007, at 25, and Judgment of Department for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court Senate of the
Republic of Latvia of 18 December 2018 in case No. C73346818, para. 6.5(2)
28 Varul, 2006, at 331
29 Astromskis, 2017, at 486–492
30 Poola, 2017, at 116
31 Beale and Chitty, 1999, para. 1-039
32 Nebbia, 2007, at 147
33 Ibid.
34 Clarke, 1993, at 318–319

The essence of good faith is that everyone may exercise his or her subjective rights considering the
reasonable interests of others 35. When widely applied, this principle requires the participants of
civil relations to reckon, first of all, with each other and allow for interests of the counterparty 36.
However, given the place and functions of payment service providers in modern civil circulation,
we should also include the public interest in this equation.
In fact, the state obliges payment institutions to be analysts in the fight against financial crime and
participate in money laundering prevention 37. Therefore, any enjoyment of the bank’s subjective
rights must respect the interests of society to be protected from using the financial system for
criminal purposes.
Returning to the above sanction restrictions, for example, we can see that if a bank preventively
closes a payment account, then it will not be able to freeze future funds owned by a sanctioned
subject. At the same time, herein, the public interest is to find and block as much sanctioned money
as possible. That is why, when a bank terminates such an account, it de facto evades its obligations
to identify funds and transactions subject to sanction restrictions. It is evident that such behaviour
cannot comply with the public interest.
The good-faith principle helps prevent cases where persons exercise their subjective rights or
perform their duties in an unjustified manner or for unjustified purposes, acting according to the
letter of the law or a legal transaction 38 but contrary to their true goals 39. However, it does not give
the court the authority to create new rules or adapt and adjust each legal situation based only on
general considerations of fairness 40. Instead, the good-faith tenet seems to be a tool to assist in
interpreting legal rules and contractual provisions 41.
Following this approach, I have framed general measures of good faith 42 to use the systemic and
teleological interpretation of legal rules and contractual provisions for the researched issue in the
following manner:
1) freedom of contract should be respected, and there are valid reasons for intervention in
private autonomy;
2) the interests of both the bank and the consumer should be assessed in order to measure
whose interests have priority and should be protected in this situation according to the
purpose of the law and the circumstances of the particular case;
35 See, for example, Balodis, 2002, at 280 (later, Balodis, 2007, at 141; Brox and Walker, 2010, at 640; Bar, 2011, at 288;
Judgment of Department for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court Senate of the Republic of Latvia of 4 October 2006 in case
No. SKC–540, at 4; Judgment of Department for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court Senate of the Republic of Latvia of 12
March 2020 in case No. C68278418, para. 3(1); Judgment of Department for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court Senate of
the Republic of Latvia of 18 December 2018 in case No. C73346818, para. 6.5(2) and others
36 See, for example, Judgment of Department for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court Senate of the Republic of Latvia of 17
December 2019 in case No. C04169414, para. 7.1(2)
37 Kūtris, 2020, at 16
38 Judgment of Department for Administrative Cases of the Supreme Court Senate of the Republic of Latvia of 12 January
2005 in case No. SKA-22, at 4
39 Krons, 1937, at 271 and 291
40 Ibid., at 299; as well as Judgment of Department for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court Senate of the Republic of Latvia of 16
December 2020 in case No. C30501917, para. 6.3(2); Judgment of Department for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court Senate
of the Republic of Latvia of 12 March 2020 in case No. C68278418, para. 6.3(3)
41 Balodis, 2002, at 282; Meļķisis, 2000, at 42; Poola, 2017, at 116; Judgment of Department for Civil Cases of the Supreme
Court Senate of the Republic of Latvia of 17 December 2019 in case No. C04169414, para. 7.4(5)
42 Jelisejevs, 2021a, 2021b, 2022

3) there is an objective incompatibility of results of applying a specific legal norm or transaction

with the sense, meaning and goals of regulating the relevant legal relationship or the general
idea of law, including from the viewpoint of justice and public interest;
4) the bank uses its subjective rights in a form formally consistent with the letter of the law or
the text of legal transaction but contradicts their true goals and meaning, as well as does not
take into account the interests of the consumer.
Benchmarks for the Good-Faith-Based Approach
Although each case requires an individual attitude, the objective nature of the good-faith principle
and the general trends of EU legal regulation still make it possible to develop a uniform approach
and to formulate universal conclusions on this issue as follows:
1. Freedom of contract and private autonomy
When a bank closes a consumer’s account unilaterally, the court has a valid reason to intervene in
the private autonomy and doing so is legally acceptable to restore justice and contractual equality.
Therefore, a framework contract interpretation and correction favouring the payment service
consumer based on a good faith approach respects freedom of contract.
The fact is that the modern civil circulation realities and the regulating rules de facto significantly
limit the freedom of a payment service consumer to enter or not to enter into contractual relations
with a bank. Besides, such a consumer has no real opportunity to influence the contractual terms.
Finally, with respect to such kinds of contracts per se, the non-discussion presumption has been
established by law.
This all leads to a contractual imbalance against the consumer that can only be corrected by court
proceedings – that is, by positive actions of a judge as someone unconnected with the parties to the
contract. A tool and yardstick for such influence over contractual relations is good faith declared by
the legislator as a general guideline to eliminate injustice and to restore legal equality in favour of
the consumer.
So, when examining unilateral closure of the consumer’s payment account by the bank, a court has
not only the option, but also the duty to intervene in such legal relationships by interpreting or even
correcting both contractual conditions and the actual use of the bank’s subjective rights under the
good faith requirements.
2. Assessment of interests and their balance
The doctrinal assessment shows that within de-risking, the conflicting interests of consumers vis-
à-vis banks have priority in their legal protection. This precedence should survive until it is proven
that the particular consumer acted unlawfully or was otherwise implicated in money laundering
and/or terrorist financing.
As long as the consumer’s contractual relationship with the bank continues, this limitation of basic
rights may be justifiable to prevent money laundering. But while severing these relations, only strict
adherence to the good faith principle can guarantee that bank’s subjective right to withdraw from
the agreement unilaterally is not used formally and unreasonably. Otherwise, the bank’s abstract

application of the terms of an undiscussed contract and the effect of the formal exercise of the bank’s
subjective rights could become entirely unfair for the discarded consumer.
In view of the circumstances of each dispute, including the objective consequences of closing an
account, for the life of every specific consumer, the contractual terms and the bank’s actions must
be assessed for compliance with the good faith requirements, which in turn should be recognised
as not only permissible, but also obligatory. When terminating contractual relations within de-
risking, only close adherence to the good faith principle can guarantee that the bank’s rights are not
used formally and unreasonably, that is, against the regulating sense, meaning, and goals or
contrary to the general idea of law.
That is why following the good faith principle, courts should have the authority to prevent the bank
from exercising its subjective right to withdraw from the contract unilaterally if the conflicting
interests of the consumer take priority under the circumstances of the particular case.
When assessing the parties’ interests, it is crucial to understand whether there have been significant
and unpredictable changes in the ratio of the parties’ obligations, which have worsened the
contractual position of the bank in comparison with its counterparty. Next, one should determine
whether the bank has taken all necessary measures to adapt the terms of cooperation with this
consumer to preserve their contractual relationship, considering the objectively arising changes.
Finally, it is necessary to determine whether the consumer has fulfilled his or her obligations to the
bank reasonably to protect the bank from possible damage in connection with the unpredictable
changes that have arisen.
3. Legal and contractual framework
Along with formally following the text of the relevant legal rules and contractual conditions, to
determine whether under specific circumstances the law and the contract allow the bank to
withdraw from the contract without its client’s consent, the good faith approach must clarify
(a) whether the bank has sufficient, reasonable, justified, and legitimate grounds to terminate the
payment service contract unilaterally, and it has informed its client; (b) whether any
transformations in the counter execution of the consumer’s obligations can correct the emergent
imbalance of counterparties’ interests without a clean break of the contractual relationships;
(c) whether it is possible to preserve the effect of the payment service contract by establishing
related (additional) bank obligations to which the bank could agree following a reasonable
assessment of the case circumstances if it wanted to keep this contract in force.
An example of an adjustment in the amount and composition of the consumer’s counter execution
would be an increase in banking service charges to cover the bank’s expenses and enable it to
provide payment services profitably in changing circumstances. In turn, the related (additional)
obligations necessary to keep the contract in force may, in particular, require banks to provide
consumers with the necessary information to fulfil contractual obligations that consumers
themselves cannot obtain. For instance, in the spirit of good faith, the bank should inform the client
in advance about categories of transactions that could be undesirable for the bank due to money
laundering risk management, as well as disclosing to the client all negative data it has collected
about him or her from public, and therefore non-confidential, sources.

4. Implementation of subjective rights

Implementing the bank’s subjective right to terminate a payment service contract unilaterally also
requires strict adherence to the good faith principle. This assertion remains true even when the
above interpretation of legal rules and contractual terms allows the bank to withdraw from
business relations without the consent of its client.
On the other hand, contract dissolving initiated by one party but not agreed by another, by its legal
nature, is per se recognised as a unilateral dispositive transaction in which the subject matter is to
terminate contractual legal relations. In this context, good faith should be an objective criterion to
interpret such a legal transaction, both from ascertaining the real will of its participants at the time
of its conclusion and from determining whether this transaction is valid and legally effective.
Based on the meaning and purpose of legal regulation, the unilateral termination of a payment service
contract by a bank is an impermissible action and, respectively, void if this deal may be adjudicated
as (1) an abuse of the right (aemulatio vicini) that occurs when the bank does not have sufficient,
reasonable, and objectively justified grounds to refuse service to a consumer, or the bank’s behaviour
is formal and unfair, or the bank acts contrary to the idea and purpose of its subjective rights; (b)
contradictory conduct (venire contra factum proprium) when unilateral severance of the contractual
relationship conflicts with the bank’s previous behaviour, including previously given legally non-
binding but sufficiently concrete promises to the client, or if the bank, while encouraging or provoking
the client’s manner and actions, later declares them as grounds to withdraw from contractual
relations with this client; (c) loss of right when the bank forfeits the right to terminate a payment
service contract unilaterally due to extended disuse of this subjective right.
Undoubtedly, closure of bank accounts that de facto is not connected with business relations with
particular clients but is only the result of a general change in the bank’s policy or its superficial
approach to fulfilling obligations to the state regulator (for example, to provide formal statistics in
exchange for reduced punishment for actual violations of AML procedures) is an abuse. One
example of contradictory bank conduct would be when a bank first encourages its client to increase
account turnover by accruing bonuses or providing discounts and then accuses the client of
exceeding the allowable limit of transactions and closes the client’s account because of rising risks.
Loss of the bank’s right to terminate the payment service contract may arise when the bank has
learned negative information about a client but has continued contractual relations with such a
client without asking for any explanation. Accordingly, after a reasonable time, the bank should lose
the subjective right to use this information as a basis for unilateral withdrawal from the contract
with this client.
Conclusions
Based on the above reasoning, there is every reason to conclude that when examining the unilateral
closure of a consumer’s payment account by a bank, a court has not only the option but also the
duty to intervene in these legal relationships by interpreting or even correcting both contractual
conditions and the actual exercise of the bank’s subjective rights under the good-faith
requirements. Such intervention in private relations should be recognised as legally acceptable to
restore justice and contractual equality.

At the same time, in view of justice, even if a bank has acted in violation of the good-faith principle,
the special public functions imposed on it by the state should release it from any responsibility
when the account closure comes as a predictable consequence of the consumer’s misconduct which
is directly or indirectly related to money laundering or the financing of terrorism.
References
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LOCAL GOVERNMENT USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON SUSTAINABLE URBAN MOBILITY: THE CASE OF VILNIUS MUNICIPALITY
LOCAL GOVERNMENT USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON SUSTAINABLE URBAN

MOBILITY: THE CASE OF VILNIUS MUNICIPALITY
Oleksandr Kalinchuk
Vilnius University, Lithuania
Abstract
While global motorization and car dependency in urbanized areas cause an environmental
impact on nature, governmental institutions are responsible for raising awareness on
sustainable mobility solutions. The overall purpose of the following research is to
investigate how social media are being used or as well underused by the local government
to communicate the topic of sustainable urban mobility for the local city inhabitants. By
case-studying the official Facebook page of Vilnius municipality, the mixed research
analysis was conducted on the published online content and initial public reaction and
engagement to it. Research showed that social media was used as a platform for primarily
informing citizens on public transportation services, road infrastructure and encouraging
visits to public lectures on sustainable mobility. To a lesser extent, the messages of
published content further consisted of requesting essential information from citizens on
their use of urban mobility transportation, as well as educating citizens on the importance
of minimizing car-use, thus increasing their awareness of sustainable car usage. In the end,
it is suggested that local governments can efficiently use social media for communicating
messages on sustainable mobility, however, citizens reactions may differ on their initial
engagement levels.
Keywords: government public relations, social media, sustainability, urban mobility, Facebook,
case study
Introduction
Urban sustainability is a recent idea which emerged in the developed cities around the world to
cope with the arising global problems caused by the human activity, such as air pollution, use of
non-renewable sources of energy, climate change etc. According to UN more than half of world’s
population live in the cities, it is estimated that numbers will rise to 70% by 2050 and thus comes
the problem of satisfying the upgrowing demand for the public services in larger cities. Usually,
those are the capital city regions as they function as centers of education, technology, innovation
for most countries and account up to 52% of the country’s GDP (Statista, 2021).
The rise of urban population creates challenges as demand for services is increasing and local
governments along with urban and mobility planners have to develop a responding policy on urban
sustainability. Urban sustainability can be defined as “a city that motivates its inhabitants to change
their travel behaviour towards minimising their emissions and noise impacts on health and the
environment” (Foltýnová, Vejchodská, Rybová, Květoň, 2020).

These policies are developed to promote active mobility solutions, such as cycling, pedestrian
walking, car-sharing, usage of public transport and minimizing the use of individual transport for
the day-to-day trips.
The transition to sustainable mobility can be achieved through the management of three coordination
mechanisms: markets, hierarchy, and institutions. Institutions such as private companies or
governments function as coordinators to limit the choice, give orientation and minimizing the
uncertainty (Elzen, Geels, Green, 2004). Governments as initial executives and developers of the
urban mobility policy engage citizens in the policy development by raising their awareness on the
issue. With the transition to the digital age, governments shifted to the use of information
communication technologies for the governance process (e-governance) and in public relations
social media became a crucial part of it.
Therefore, a question arises as to how implementation of sustainable urban mobility policy can be
achieved through the usage of social media?
Hence, the research goal is to document and describe the content of sustainable urban mobility in
social media by local government.
To achieve the mentioned goal the research tasks are defined as follow:
1) define the messages on sustainable urban mobility in social media;
2) categorize the content of messages on the social media;
3) analyse the public perception of the urban mobility messages on social media.
The literature is presented with a wide scope of scholar’s initial findings, as well as official
documents issued by governmental and non-governmental authorities.
In legal framework the concept of sustainability was brought up by UN Commission on Environment
and Development, also known as the Brundtland Commission, in 1983. They emphasized that the
concept of sustainability can be used in the developed globalized world and so the concept of
sustainable development was created. According to Our Common Future, a Brundtland Commission’s
report, sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on
Environment and Development, 1987, p. 41). The report also mentioned the rising levels of
urbanization, automobiles, car exhaust fumes and mobility, as improved communications and
growth of economic opportunities enables population to become more mobile.
An important event was followed in 1992 at the United Nation’s Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, as the main document Agenda 21 of the “Earth Summit” was
conducted. Report mentions that to combat the problem of pollution caused by motorization one of
the propositions is to encourage the non-motorized modes of transport by providing safe cycleways
and footways in urban and suburban centers in countries. One of the ways to implement this is to
raise the public awareness of the environmental impacts of transport and travel behaviour through
mass media campaigns and support for non-governmental and community initiatives promoting
the use of non-motorized transport, shared driving and improved safety measures (United Nations
Conference on Environment & Development, 1992).

Within the academic field, the literature provides reviews on urban mobilities and its correlation
with sustainability. According to Ke Fang, urban mobility in a traditional way can be described as
movement of people from one location to another within or between urban areas. The role of the
mobility was thought to be functioning with regards to these two assumptions:
1) people access their houses, jobs, and urban services, such as education and entertainment;
2) people prefer the use of motorized vehicles over the non-motorized, as it is financially
efficient especially in the growing cities. (Fang, 2015)
At the same time, author points out that these perceptions were doubted over time with the rise of
online services and the increasing use of bicycles for the transportation in the developed countries.
He concludes that modern definition of urban sustainability should rely on the accessibility to the
city services (Fang, 2015).
Urban Sustainable Mobility as a concept was firstly introduced by Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) in 2000. Environmentally sustainable transport system was
defined as the one that provides access to people, places, goods, and services in an environmentally
responsible, socially acceptable, and economically viable manner. It does not endanger the public
health or ecosystem and meets needs for access consistent with use of renewable resources below
their rates of regeneration, and use of non-renewable resource below the rates of development of
renewable substitutes (OECD, n.d.).
Sustainability within an urban mobility relates to the trends and the overall quality satisfaction of
passengers. For example, Bruun and Givoni emphasize that a higher quality public transport with
accessible option for other mobility would be able to compete with private cars and therefore
improve the overall urban mobility (Brun, Givoni, 2015).
To efficiently transit to sustainable mobility the management of three coordination mechanisms are
vital in the process: markets, hierarchy and institutions. According to scholars, institutions such as
private companies or governments function as coordinators to limit the choice, give orientation and
minimizing the uncertainty (Elzen, Geels, Green, 2004).
Social media in that way then act as a plausible way for governments to the raise the public
awareness towards demanding problems. Chun and Luna Reyes (2012) look at government’s social
media use from three models’ perspective:
• Social Media-based Citizen Engagement Model – social medias act as transforming agent in
activating citizens engagement from grass-root level activism to shared governance promoting
democracy;
• Social Media-based Data Sharing Model – social medias act as a big tank of unstructured data
from the citizens, which makes governments engage in social media use creating a perception
of governmental authority for a more meaningful engagement. It is also acts to filter the low-
quality and low trust-worthy information;
• Social Media-based Real-time Collaborative Government Model – social media acts as a
platform of near-real time interaction between governments and citizens, where governments
can receive a reaction from the citizens to force change the policies (Chun, Luna Reyes, 2012).
The usage of social media by governments is still dependent on the level of developed countries and
in many relations, they act as solely information providers. For example, Al-masaeed states that in

online communication there should be an offer for a constant interaction between users and
governments (Al-masaeed, 2019).
Therefore, social media through the relevant governmental management on all levels can act as a
platform of communication exchanges between governments and its citizens, provide information
and initially have an influence on raising the basic awareness on the many problems of unsustainable
use of public resources.
2. Methodology
The research question of the study can be formulated as follows: how can municipality raise the
public awareness on sustainable urban mobility using social media?
To answer the research question in an elaborate way, the study should be based on the analysis of
the real-life examples on how local governments deal with the public awareness through the usage
of social media. For this matter, the case study as the main research type was chosen, as it allows us
to gather the data in the most logically enhanced way and systematically investigate them to answer
the research question.
For the case-study type the Vilnius municipality was chosen for a few reasons. Firstly, it is a capital
city of Lithuania with the highest numbers of residents making it the most urbanized Lithuanian
city. Secondly, Lithuania has a high rank of Sustainable development index – 0,293 with the 19
among other countries – making it a higher efficient than average country in implementing the
Sustainable development goals (Sustainable Development Index, n.d.).
Therefore, Vilnius being the capital and the biggest city in Lithuania acts out as the primary urban
area to implement the goals of sustainability, including sustainable urban mobility.
A mixed methods analysis, both qualitative and quantitative content analysis, of primary analysis
object – social media was conducted. As such, during the period of the conducted research Vilnius
municipality has 4 official social media pages, mentioned on the official web-page (Vilniaus miesto
savivaldybė, n.d.):
• Facebook (https://www.facebook.com/vilnius.lt);
• Instagram (https://www.instagram.com/i_am_vilnius/);
• LinkedIn (https://www.linkedin.com/company/vilnius-city-municipality/);
• YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRiA1g5YC2GK5ex3VFRx7nQ).
For this research Facebook was chosen as a primary social media to analyse, since it is the most
followed page of Vilnius municipality among other social media pages (69 thousand followers
during the research period), provides a wider range to inform and engage citizens, and overall acts
as a main platform on social networks (Facebook, n.d.). The analysed period was chosen of one
quarter from September to December 2021.
The research design was divided in two respective parts based on the specific objects of social
media research:
1.1. Content of the written texts of one post related to the urban mobility (i.e. mentioning of
transport of any kind in the texts, public transport services, pedestrian activity, having
photos or videos of roads or public transport) was conducted with mixed analysis:

1.1.1.1. Qualitative to comprehend the messages and information of a post and classify
it to a specific category;
1.1.1.2. Quantitative to count the numbers of the content categories.
1.2. Public engagement of the content was analysed quantitively based on the number of likes,
reactions and comments, which one post received.
Analysis was conducted using Microsoft Excel, where research samples were filled with the following
data:
• Posted Text;
• Date;
• Description;
• Content Category;
• Supported Content;
• Number of Likes;
• Number of Comments;
• Number of Shares;
• Link.
To categorize the texts of each posts the classification was borrowed from a research of M. Magnusson,
P. Bellström, C. Thoren. They categories are the following ones (Magnusson, Bellström, Thoren, 2012):
• Request Information from Citizens – Ask citizens to provide their information and insides
through surveys;
• Event promotion – Encouragement to the different events happening in the city;
• Promotion of Municipality – Promotion of the work of municipality;
• Promotion of Services – promotion of the services citizens can receive from municipality;
• Education – Enlighten citizens by sharing some factual information;
• Service Maintenance – Providing information on ongoing repairs or malfunctions.
After the research samples were collected, the tables then were merged to count the specific number
of posts per category, engagement of the users to them and how additional content influenced their
reactions.
3. Results and Discussion
Content analysis
To address the research question, the mixed methods content analysis of Vilnius municipality was
conducted and for that matter divided into qualitative and quantitative analysis parts.
The qualitative analysis
The qualitative analysis of published posts on the Facebook page shows that the information in the
written texts differed depending on the category it was mentioned. To enrich the published text for
the more accessible and clear reader's understanding, the posts featured additional visual data –
specifically, hashtags and emojis.
A significant emphasis in clearing out the understanding of sustainable mobility was put on public
transportation services, as these services are directly linked to the local government competency
and are being financed from the local budget. In these posts, the messages were related to the

accessibility of using the public transport, its’ schedule on holiday days, the opening of new lines,
availability of night buses, and services for specific users.
The hashtag “#JULU” (given by the name of a company that operates the public transport in Vilnius)
and emojis of buses and trolleybuses were used to make the content more engaging for the users.
Additionally, some content was addressed to drivers and people owning private cars. Main
messages within published posts were providing information on the use of public roads and
infrastructure, such as opening a roundabout on specific streets, maintenance of road intersections
and bridges, increase of traffic congestions, car parking availability. At the same time, a supportive
message in the texts was explaining the importance of following the traffic laws, minding on the
safety of themselves, pedestrians, and the surroundings. It can be hypothesized, that with these
messages there was an intended to educate drivers on understanding the responsibility for private
car use.
Other content consisted of public events promotion, such as city initiative on greening the streets
“Žalioji Vilniaus Banga”, promotions of the public lectures on sustainable mobility for businesses
and green mobility lectures.
Other content was intended to inform citizens on transportation service maintenance
municipality’s work for improving mobility in the city, and request citizens to complete a survey on
the quality of public transport and the use of electric cars.
To some extent, the content categorizing was hardened since some of the texts had more than one
message and in this case, the dominant messages were within the written text. Therefore, it is clear
to presume that municipality intended to not only provide a piece of viable information on
transportation in the city but also on educate citizens on making the service sustainable.
The quantitative analysis
The quantitative analysis provided an insight on how regularly the topic of sustainable urban
mobility was brought up by the municipality in social media. Combined with the qualitative analysis
of structuring the messages in a consistent category, it was discovered how the messages were
prioritized based on their importance and number of mentioning (see Table 1).
Table 1
The regularity of content on sustainable urban mobility of Vilnius municipality
Facebook profile with the usage of additional content and initial users’ perception
during September–December 2021
Number of
Number of Number of Number of
Content category categories
likes comments shares
mentioning
Education 2 178 130 11
Link 1 80 38 6
Photo 1 98 92 5
Event promotion 7 831 235 19
Photo 1 207 66 7

Poster 3 39 37 1
Video 3 585 132 11
Promotion of Municipality 4 831 97 27
Photo 4 831 97 27
Promotion of Services 7 1758 540 155
Photo 6 1736 530 152
Poster 1 22 10 3
Request Information from Citizens 3 620 98 51
Photo 2 593 91 48
Poster 1 27 7 3
Service Maintenance 2 87 66 7
Not given 1 39 27 4
Photo 1 48 39 3
Total 25 4305 1166 270
As to the regularity of posting content, Vilnius Municipality mostly used the profile to promote
events related to urban mobility and inform on the public services available for the citizens on the
usage of transportation services. These categories were posted the most regularly.
Then the content that contained information about the work and achievements of Vilnius
Municipality, which was done in the field of mobility, was mentioned.
Out of all gather data samples, only 3 of them were requests from citizens to complete the survey.
The least Vilnius Municipality used the profile to share information on service maintenance, which
included the major breakdowns on public mobility and education.
Supportive content to the posts varied depending on the topic, as in most categories photos
containing public transportation were used. Posters to support the visual messages were used less,
while videos were linked to a single event. Through the research period only one posts contained
no additional content, which can be linked to the urgency of informing users on traffic congestions
during the public protest.
Public perception
As to public perception, primarily the quantitative attributes of visible likes, shares and comments
were analysed to determine the engagement of users in social media (see Table 1).
For the Facebook users, the most engaging content contained information on the public transport
services, specifically the information on renewed busses with new accessible features for people
with disabilities, the opening of new bus routes and free use of public transportation for a specific
passenger group.
The second most engaging topic was the promotion of the events and the work of the municipality.
These categories although have the same total number of likes (831), they are visibly different in
how users commented and shared the content. For the events, the ratio of comments to shares is
much higher, while for the municipality’s work content it is lower.
People were less engaged with the request to complete the surveys about the transport. Despite
having published a few posts the overall sharing of the content still can be considered high.

Information about the maintenance of the road or public transport infrastructures, such as work
repairs or some break-down was the least engaging for citizens. Despite having no additional
content in this category, users still engaged in discussion, as if there was an additional image
attached to the post.
The similar findings were obtained from the research of local government Facebook pages in
Croatia, where citizens engagement level was low, as users tended to “like” the posts more often,
than commenting or sharing them to others (Andrijaševićteorija, 2017). Alike tendency is observed
in New Zealand, where users engaged more frequently with the Facebook posts of two local councils
by “liking” and less commenting and sharing (Alam, Meenar, Barraza, Khalil, Knopp, 2022). In this
regard, it can be argued that ‘meaningful’ engagement in social network e.g., Facebook, should not
be observed only from the perspective of visible likes, since this type of reaction can be seen as an
information acknowledgement of the recipients rather than an active participation in the discussion.
Suggestions
As for the future research in the field of the usage of social media for sustainable urban mobility
promotion by the local governments, there should be made some suggestions.
1. The researched period for the data gathering from social media should cover at least a year of
posting. The content, which is depended on the traffic levels and the usage of specific
transportation can vary on different seasons and the weather conditions (Tao, Corcoran, Rowe,
Hickman, 2018). As such, future research can reveal how social media content differs
throughout different seasons of the year.
2. Having analysed two or more social media can potentially unveil the consistency of content
messages, as well as show how users’ reaction varies in the discussion of topic of sustainable
urban mobility.
3. A detailed and clear understanding of written texts in foreign language should be prioritized.
Using the third party’s online translation may worsen the initial perception of the published
social media texts and for that matter contacting the native speaker is suggested.
Conclusions
In this paper, the research was made to investigate how local governments can use social media to
increase public awareness of sustainable urban mobility. Based on the Vilnius municipality case
study, it was found out that local governments can use their social media accounts mostly for
sharing informational messages on transportation services in the city. This can be achieved by
promoting the public transport services, pedestrian walking, use of micro-mobility transport,
encouragement to follow traffic laws, requesting vital information from citizens and inviting them
to the urban mobility events. In addition, it was found out that within one posted content several
messages can be included to educate citizens on the importance of minimizing the car-use and
increasing awareness on how citizens can use transport sustainably. The social media user’s
perception however may be subject to the messages and the quality of the posted content. In the
end, the provided research may be useful for local government representatives in research-based
policy development and communication strategies on sustainable urban mobility through social
media.

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ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN RESHAPING THE FUTURE OF THE INDIAN TOURISM INDUSTRY
ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN RESHAPING THE FUTURE OF THE

INDIAN TOURISM INDUSTRY
Shashikanth Reddy Kotha
Abstract
The paper covers the significance of sustainable tourism and the way it has been supported
in promoting the tourism activities of India. Further, the concept of sustainable tourism is
vital as providing a positive experience to tourists through this is quite easy. In the long
run, every nation is focusing on sustainability as this type of tourism has potential in terms
of reaching and properly targeting tourists. The most vital part is that sustainable tourism
focuses on social, environmental and economic issues and its management becomes quite
easy. Strategically, sustainable tourism rebuilds the nation's wealth and brings a better
future for the country. This research article has highlighted the key positive aspects of
sustainable tourism and it is highlighted as the future of Indian tourism.
Keywords: sustainable tourism, economy, social, environmental, Indian tourism, nation's wealth
Introduction
Background to the research

In the global tourism sector, sustainable tourism has become one of the important topics which
need emphasis and already have acquired support from experts (Jovicic, 2014). The concept of
Sustainable tourism first appeared in the 1980s in the global tourism industry but the views
regarding this concept and practice have evolved in recent years (Bramwell et al., 2017).
Sustainable tourism is connected with the growing issues of environmental, social, and cultural
prospects. Tourism is one of the first sectors which has taken the initiative to be sustainable and
hold the responsibility for the environmental, social, and cultural values of the host community. The
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) is the agency that has the mission of developing sustainable
tourism which is defined as the practice of tourism that aims to be ecologically sustainable, having
the responsibility of upholding cultural values and fulfilling social needs along with focusing on the
needs of travellers (Budeanu et al., 2016). According to Pan et al. (2018), sustainable tourism is
embedded with four dimensions that include culture, society, economy, and environment. In Figure
1, the dimensions of sustainable tourism along with its key elements are depicted. Due to the use of
natural resources by the tourism sector, it creates impacts the environment, society, and culture
adversely.

Figure 1. Four aspects of sustainable tourism

(Source: Pan et al., 2018)
As reported by the Ministry of Tourism, Government of India (2021), India ranked 128 in 2019
under Environment Sustainability, but the Ministry is guiding the tourism industry to promote
sustainable use of natural resources so that this industry can reduce the adverse impact of tourism
on society and environment. The Ministry of Tourism (2021) has also reported that India has a rich
natural heritage that includes 70% of the Himalayas, a coastline of almost 7000 km, and it is also a
nation where both cold and hot desert is present. With these immense rich natural resources, India
has the great opportunity to develop its ecotourism and sustainability in all tourism dimensions
that can attract more travellers to this country increasing the tourism demand.
Research aims and objectives
The primary aim of this study is to interpret the significance of sustainable tourism and how it
enhanced the demand for tourism activities in India.
The major objectives of the present study are:
• to understand the significance of sustainable tourism and the benefits it provides to a nation.
• to recognize how sustainable tourism has been developed by the Indian tourism industry.
• to identify the impact of sustainable tourism on the Indian tourism industry.
• to identify the challenges in developing sustainable tourism in India and the ways to overcome
these challenges.
Research questions
1. What are the significance and benefits of sustainable tourism in a nation?
2. How the Indian tourism industry has developed sustainable tourism in the country?
3. What is the potential impact of sustainable tourism on the Indian tourism industry?

4. What are the challenges to developing sustainable tourism in India and how to mitigate them
effectively?
Significance of the research
In recent times, the tourism industry on a global scale has experienced growth due to the increased
rate of travelling for leisure and business purposes (Lock, 2021). Sustainable tourism has gained
importance in recent years to mitigate the environmental and socio-cultural issues caused by tourism
activities. Travellers also tend to prefer sustainable tourism for its positive impact on the society and
environment. Therefore, it is important to understand how this sustainable tourism practice
contributes to the tourism demand in a country like India where many travellers visit each year.
Research Problem
The growth in the tourism industry has a positive impact on employment and economic
development but environmental issues tended to rise due to the emission of greenhouse gases, and
the gathering of numerous people at a place. Thus, the initiative toward sustainable tourism has
been taken by the government of many nations in recent times. Travellers also seek to experience
sustainability in tourism as they have become increasingly aware of social and environmental
accountability (Lock, 2021). Therefore, the Indian tourism industry has taken initiative to develop
sustainable tourism but it gives rise to barriers like extensive energy and water consumption, which
are required to be addressed with proper strategies (Pan et al., 2018).
Scope of the research
This study is focused on the tourism industry in India and seeks to understand the tourism demand
enhanced due to sustainable tourism. The Indian tourism sector will be covered in this study to
explore the role of sustainable development in terms of economic, cultural, environmental, and
social aspects which are impacted by tourism activities.
1. Conceptual Review
Concept of sustainable tourism

The 20th century has experienced rapid growth in the tourism industry and its contribution to the
economic growth, providing jobs to 70 million individuals in the present era and generating $ 1,000
billion in revenue (Bac, 2014). But the challenges that emerged due to the growth in tourism
practices have increased the concern of the industry and the governmental bodies to mitigate the
negative impact of the tourism activities on the nation. According to Bac (2014), the adverse impact
the tourism industry posed on the environment and socio-culture in terms of increasing pollution,
economic inflation, trailing traditions, and culture. To mitigate these challenges to tourism
practices, mass tourism has tended to be substituted with a different and improved form of tourism
known as sustainable tourism (Roblek. et al., 2021). The study of Amerta et al. (2018), explained the
concept of sustainable tourism and stated that the entire world has shown concern for preserving
the natural resources, traditional values, cultural heritage, and social values. The principles that are
followed in sustainable tourism involve fostering the significant connection between tourism and
the environment; encouraging all the stakeholders of the industry to collaborate in sustainable
development; equipping the communities, local people, and tourists with valuable benefits;

harmonizing the relationship of native people with the natural resources; and maintaining the
balance in the ecosystem (Amerta et al., 2018).
Sustainable tourism development in India

As shown in the study by Venugopalan & Kumar (2017), India has taken the initiative to develop
sustainable tourism by following the principles which are designed by international bodies, and the
Ministry of Tourism in India also implemented campaigns such as the Atithi Devo Bhava campaign,
Incredible India campaigns and Bharat Dharshan campaign for the development of sustainable
tourism. In India, Rajasthan is considered to be a major tourist destination that attracts travellers,
and India has a significant potential to drive the revenue generation from the tourism industry as
this country attracts many tourists from various countries in the world (Sharma, 2015). Making
people aware of the rich natural and cultural heritage in the state of Rajasthan is a step taken by the
nation through educational tourism so that sustainable development can be accomplished in the
state with increased awareness of local people, and these initiatives tend to increase the attraction
of domestic and international tourists towards the splendid places in Rajasthan (Sharma, 2015).
The Ministry of Tourism also developed Sustainable Tourism Criteria for India (STCI) intending to
develop sustainability in the environment, economy, and socio-culture in India (Bose &
Chattopadhyay, 2020).
2. Research Methodology
Research Methodology
Research methodology encompasses all the methods, procedures, and techniques used to gather
information and analyse them to conduct research (Melnikovas, 2018). It is a vital portion of
research work that emphasize the reliability and validity of the study and its findings. The
methodology entails research philosophy which describes the nature of the study, research approach,
and strategies along with data collection and analysis method used for gathering information and
deriving meanings from it so that a logical conclusion can be drawn. The research onion developed
by Saunders depicts all the necessary steps that need to be taken in designing the entire research
methodology. The layers in the research onion represent the stages in the methodology of a specific
research (Saunders et al., 2019). The first layer shows the research philosophy then step-by-step it
proceeds to the research approach, then research strategy, choice, time horizon, and then the
innermost layer represents the techniques and procedures used in the study.
Research philosophy
Research philosophy delineates the core beliefs based on which the research has been designed and
conducted. Every research work tends to base on a philosophy that contains some assumptions and
encompasses the nature of the research. Thus, in research methodology, the philosophical approach
is required to be explained in the first place so that the base of the research can be interpreted.
There are mainly four philosophical approaches in research that include realism, positivism,
interpretivism, and pragmatism (Žukauskas et al., 2018). The assumptions and beliefs of these
research philosophies differ from one another. The realism philosophy contains a set of beliefs that
states that the real world is not dependent on the way humans perceive the real world. Human

senses and perceptions about the real world can be deceptive or humans tend to believe the image
of the world to be real. The positivism philosophy has a belief that factual information which means
statistical data or facts is considered to be reliable and real. Positivist researchers focus on
hypothesis testing and use statistical methods or tools for conducting research, On the other hand,
interpretivism philosophy considers human feelings and emotions and is not based on only factual
information. Interpretivist researchers focus on findings and in-depth information with meanings
and factors (Alharahsheh & Pius, 2020). The pragmatism philosophy is based on the belief that
truths do not need to be either subjective or objective, as they cannot be interpreted from a single
viewpoint, thus; pragmatist researchers do not rely on fixed ideas. This study is based on
pragmatism philosophy as both objective and subjective data have seemed to be appropriate for
answering the research questions.
Research approach
The research approach delineates the plan and steps followed to conduct the study. The research
approach can be categorised into the deductive approach, inductive approach, and abductive
approach. The deductive approach is adopted with a hypothesis or the hypotheses formulated at
the beginning of a study need to be tested which signifies that either they would be confirmed or
rejected at the end of the study. The inductive approach is deployed when research objectives are
to be achieved at the end of the study that does not contain any formulated hypothesis. The
inductive approach helps expand the spectrum of knowledge in the study area (Woiceshyn &
Daellenbach, 2018). Whereas, the abductive approach is adopted to reveal incomplete facts. In the
present study, the abductive approach has been adopted to conduct the entire study by setting
research objectives that would be achieved by collecting and analysing data. The abductive
approach is selected for this study due to the flexibility to derive research findings without getting
restricted by a structured hypothesis.
Research method
Research methods entail the processes or tools used for conducting research works including data
collection and analysis. Research methods are mainly classified into quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed methods. The quantitative research method is adopted when numerical data is required to
be collected followed by analysing the data with statistical tools. The quantitative research method
allows the researcher to collect objective data. Surveys and questionnaires, structured interviews,
and experiments are the popular tools used for conducting quantitative research. On the other
hand, qualitative research methods entail the gathering of non-mathematical data that contain in-
depth meanings and explanations (Queirós et al., 2017). One of the popular tools for collecting
qualitative data is an in-depth interview. This kind of research method is used to gather descriptive
data that does not include statistics or numbers. The third category of research method is the mixed
method and as the name implies this method mix both the qualitative and quantitative elements of
research and proceeds towards achieving the research objectives with the combined approach. In
the present study, the mixed research approach has been used for getting both qualitative and
quantitative data which enables the study to be equipped with a comprehensive set of information.
Thus, both qualitative and quantitative data have been gathered and analysed in this study to
answer the research questions with efficiency.

Data Collection Method

Data collection is one of the major processes in research work which entails gathering relevant and
reliable information for achieving the research objectives and addressing the research problem.
The data collection process consists of two different kinds of methods for gathering information
which include the secondary method and the primary method. The primary data collection method
is conducted by collecting data directly from participants through surveys, interviews, focus groups,
observation, and so on. On the other hand, the secondary data collection method is conducted by
gathering information from existing scholarly works such as journal articles, books, research
papers, reports, news articles, and so on. Secondary data in research allows the researcher to collect
a large volume of information with in-depth meanings feasibly using access to the internet (Cheng
& Phillips, 2014). In this present study, the secondary data collection method has been used to
collect qualitative and quantitative data from existing literature. This study has gathered in-depth
information from previous research on the present study area. This data collection method is
feasible and the perquisites are less in number which allows the researcher to accomplish the study
cost-effectively and within a less period. Some of the tools which have been used in the present
study to collect secondary data are Google Scholar and ResearchGate.
Data analysis method
The data analysis process is conducted to transform the collected raw data into meaningful data
which contains certain patterns and relations with the study area. This process is carried out after
data collection and is another crucial process that drives the research work towards a logical
conclusion. The data analysis method also entails two types namely primary data analysis and
secondary data analysis. In this study, secondary data analysis has been conducted as information
from previous works of scholars has been gathered. This secondary data analysis process is
appropriate for this study to find meaningful insights into the collected secondary data. The
thematic analysis technique has been used to develop themes so that the secondary data can be
analysed with proper patterns and themes. This technique helps develop patterns from the
developed themes for data analysis (Vaismoradi et al., 2016).
Ethical consideration
The research significantly involves ethical considerations to uphold the research values, integrity,
and principles that make the work reliable. In this study, only secondary data has been used to
achieve the objectives, but in the entire process, ethics has been maintained in terms of taking
approval from the authorities for the present study, taking consent of the research participants for
their involvement and proper information about the research has been provided to maintain
transparency and integrity. The information collected by other authors has been used in this
present study and it is ensured that acknowledging the data sources has been done by providing
proper in-text citations and references in the form of a list at the end of the study. Sensitive personal
data has not been used in this study and any kind of harm has not been made to any individual while
conducting the research. Data has been protected and secured from being misused during the
research work. The GDPR guidelines have been followed while dealing with secondary data. The
researcher also ensured that there are no copyright issues in the data sources and also the
participants of the original research had not been de-anonymised. The present study has
maintained integrity and followed proper ethics and rules for conducting the entire work.

3. Data Analysis and Findings
In the present study, secondary data has been collected from existing scholarly works like journal
articles. Followed by the data collection, the data analysis process is conducted to derive meanings
and patterns from the raw data. In this study, secondary data analysis has been conducted with the
use of the thematic analysis method to analyse the collected data. In the following sections, the
themes are developed and consequently, the data analysis process has been conducted.
Theme 1:
Sustainable Tourism and its worldwide importance
The term ‘Sustainable Tourism’ was derived during the 1980s when tourism researchers focused
on sustainability and connected it with real-world tourism practices all over the world (Buckley,
2012). However, the tourism industry is highly responsible for economic growth in a nation as well
as the migration of people, this industry is also accountable for air and water pollution. The rate of
travelling due to personal desire or business factors continued to rise, and some tourist places
encountered climate change. Tourism activities lead to pollution due to carbon and harmful gases
emission from travelling, increased energy and water consumption as well as the release of wastes
into water and land (Buckley, 2012). Thus, sustainability in tourism has been initiated to ensure
corporate social responsibility, upholding environmental policies, and taking proper measures
towards management to reduce the adverse impact of tourism on society, culture, and the
environment. In the last decade, Scott (2011), argued that the tourism sector has made less effort
for sustainable tourism as the growth has not been improved much in 15 years and the tourism
sector must address the issues related to climate change in tourist destinations. On the other hand,
Angelevska-Najdeska & Rakicevik (2012) stated that sustainable development in tourism can be
entailed if the sector put equal efforts and importance into all four aspects namely cultural, social,
economic, and environmental. The principles of sustainability in tourism include cultural development
through strengthening the cultural values of the host community, social development by strengthening
traditional values, environmental development by maintaining and preserving natural resources,
biodiversity, and ecosystem, and economic development which is contributed through employment
opportunities and other possibilities of income from tourists, providing economic benefits to the
tourist places (Angelevska-Najdeska & Rakicevik, 2012). There has been a long debate on the
concept and development of sustainable tourism mainly on the prerequisite to taking transformational
approaches so that the barriers to development can be mitigated in the context of climate change
(Aall, 2014).
Theme 2:
Advantages of sustainable tourism for a nation
Sustainable Tourism encompasses economic, environmental, cultural, and social aspects and aims at
maintaining balance among these four aspects along with ensuring the satisfaction of tourists and
promoting practices of sustainable tourism with the involvement of all the stakeholders of the
industry. Sustainable tourism practices provide benefits to all four aspects. Sustainability in the
environment is developed by sustainable tourism by reducing the exploitation of natural resources
which helps in maintaining ecological balance. Sustainable tourism is also accountable for reducing

environmental issues mainly pollution and global warming that are caused by deforestation and
carbon emission. Moreover, these tourism practices make all the stakeholders in the industry aware
of the need for sustainability to reduce the adverse impact of tourism on the environment. As stated
by Mitra (2021), sustainable tourism provides a great opportunity for India to enhance its economic
growth in the country by increasing the employment rate in rural areas as well which preserves
natural resources and attracts tourists. The local people in India have got the opportunity to get
employed and improve their lifestyle through the promotion of local activities of sustainable
tourism. Another important privilege of sustainable tourism is the positive impact on social and
cultural aspects as this tourism can be practised without violating the socio-cultural values of a
nation. As per Nunthasiriphon (2015), sustainable tourism is connected with the environment,
socio-culture, and an economy which benefits community-based tourism with the opportunity of
promoting awareness of people regarding the preservation of environment and culture as well as
increase the income rate of people. Eco-tourism which is an integral part of sustainable tourism act
as an enticement for the environment and socio-culture conservation.
According to Acquah et al. (2017), ecotourism has a positive impact on the socio-cultural values of
a country as community services and involvement gets developed, as well as traditions and identity
of the region and culture get strengthened. Sustainable tourism is beneficial for a stronger culture
and tradition. According to Perkumienė et al. (2020), the concept of sustainable tourism is
embedded with green activities which have the prerequisite of involving green logistics that
ensures the tourist flow is managed effectively at the tourist destinations, the levels of noise are
reduced along with the traffic flow. These green activities conducted by sustainable tourism benefit
the environment by reducing the negative impact of tourism on the ecosystem. Tourism activities
in a country are highly responsible for driving economic growth through the enhancement of
employment rate and also revenue generation by the government as well as increased foreign
exchange (Manzoor et al., 2019).
Theme 3:
Sustainable Tourism in the Indian Scenario and its impact on the Indian tourism
industry
As stated by PK (2008), tourism sectors are highly responsible for economic growth in a nation, and
especially it provides the opportunity to develop countries like India to get immense economic
benefits with the distinct features that mainly promote tourism in India. India has a rich cultural
heritage and natural resources that make this country appealing to tourists due to the presence of
numerous historical places and one of the seven wonders of the world Taj Mahal, as well as a hill
station, forests, deserts, water bodies, and coastal areas. The distinct geographical features of India
with a land of prosperity make this country stand out from other nations in the world. One of the
most appealing tourist destinations in India is extraordinarily splendid Kerala. The study of PK
(2008), focused on sustainable tourism development in Kerala. The Indian traditional culture to
preserve nature, especially in rural and tribal areas promote sustainable tourism in India. The
religious places, rivers, mountains, and monuments are preserved in this nation as per the moral
rules of maintaining the sacredness of these holy places in India. The natural preservation in tourist
places in India attracts travellers from different parts of the world. The report of the World Bank
has stated that the demand for Indian tourism has increased as the transport system improved as

well as people's lifestyle and disposable earnings, and the also the visit of international tourists to
India has enhanced by 33% from 2010 to 2016 (Bose & Chattopadhyay, 2020). The tourism
industry in India has a contribution of almost 7.6% of total GDP and 9.9% of total employment in
the nation, along with that this nation has got the opportunity to develop sustainable tourism and
the Government has taken initiative in 2014 by introducing STCI that stands for Sustainable
Tourism Criteria for India (Bose & Chattopadhyay, 2020). In Figure 2., it is depicted that the visit of
tourists from foreign countries and residents of other countries to India has increased from 2015
to 2019.
The mass tourism practised in India has shown drawbacks in terms of environmental impacts and
barriers to sustainability (Mitra, 2021). According to Thottekat (2021), sustainable tourism has
become the major initiative of the Indian tourism industry for socio-economic development and
environmental sustainability. Thus, India has the prerequisite to develop sustainable tourism to a
greater extent shortly.
Figure 2. Facts about the Indian Tourism Industry

(Source: Mitra, 2021)
Furthermore, it is notable that sustainable tourism has the potential of satisfying tourists. The study
of Jasrotia et al. (2021), has considered eight states in India and found that there is a positive
connection of the aspects of sustainable tourism like environmental, institutional, social and
cultural aspects with the satisfaction rate of travellers who visits the tourist destinations. According
to Joseph et al. (2020), the negative impact of mass tourism in India can be mitigated with
sustainable tourism, and the initiative of the government officials also has a positive influence on
the stages of planning and making policies for sustainable development.

Theme 4:
Sustainable tourism amid the Covid-19 pandemic
The emergence of the Covid-19 pandemic has adverse impact on the economic, social, and lifestyle
of people, and mainly it restricted the mobility of people resulting in a remarkable pause in the
tourism industry. However, the tourism industry from a global perspective has been potential to
deal with crises and epidemics that occurred before the Covid-19 pandemic (Ioannides & Gyimóthy,
2020). As stated by Orîndaru et al. (2021), the Covid-19 pandemic has severely affected the travel
and tourism industry worldwide, and to be more specific the visits of foreign tourists have declined
by 98% from 2019 to 2020, even local tourists also decreased and their spendings declined by 45%.
The study of Ioannides & Gyimóthy (2020), revealed that the crisis caused by the pandemic also
provides an opportunity for the tourism sector to rethink the future of the industry in a more
sustainable way which can increase the positive impact on the environment, economy, society, and
culture. The findings of Orîndaru et al. (2021) also aligned with this notion that the pandemic has
paved the way towards sustainable tourism for the recovery from the crisis as customer behaviour
changed amid the pandemic and they tend to get attracted to the sustainable and safe tourist
destinations. It is also stated by Volkmann et al. (2021), that tourists tend to select the destinations
based on hygiene factors, fewer crowds, and ecotourism. The Governmental bodies have also taken
the initiative to design sustainable recovery strategies for the tourism industry to create a
sustainable framework for the transformation in the post-pandemic era.
Theme 5:
Challenges in developing sustainable tourism in India
The recent outbreak of Covid-19 has had a severe impact on the economy and prosperity of India
as the number of international tourists declined and restrictions in the hospitality industry posed
challenges for travel and tourism. In Figure 3., the rate of international tourist arrivals has been
compared between 2019 when the pandemic did not arrive and 2020 after the emergence of the
Covid-19 pandemic, and it is depicted that the rate has been severely declined (León-Gómez et al.,
2021).
Figure 3. The decline in international tourism after the Covid-19 outbreak

(Source: León-Gómez et al., 2021)

In India, the promotion of sustainable tourism has faced several barriers that include the difficulty
in transforming mass tourism into sustainable tourism practice as people restrict to change unless
they become aware of the cause and the need entirely. Moreover, the Ministry of Tourism is
required to make an immense investment for carrying out the activities of STCI practices and
develop sustainable or green products which are eco-friendly, and thus India being a developing
country faces the barrier to making a huge investment in sustainable tourism (Mitra, 2021). The
study of Bose & Chattopadhyay (2020) also showed that India faces challenges in developing
tourism practices in such a way that harmony with the cultural environment can be maintained, as
per the responses of the Indians. Moreover, India faces some other barriers to the development of
sustainable tourism such as a lack of trained and skilled tourist guides, a lack of awareness among
people regarding the need for sustainability and how to achieve it, and a lack of proper
infrastructure and marketing techniques as well (Mishra, 2021). The problem of funding for the
sustainable management of tourism practices has been identified in developing countries like India
(Yadav et al., 2018). The communities also fall short of motivation and participation in sustainable
development. Sustainable tourism management (STM) is beneficial for the tourism industry in India
these kinds of issues obstruct the path of development, and thus, proper measures and planning are
required to improve STM in India.
Discussion
The secondary data analysis conducted in this study has helped to achieve the research objectives
and drive the study towards a relevant conclusion. Theme 1 has discussed the worldwide
significance of sustainable tourism and it is found that the concept of sustainable tourism has been
devised to mitigate the negative impact of tourism on the environment such as pollution, and
exploitation of natural resources, and on socio-culture such as degrading the traditional and
cultural values. Sustainable tourism helps in strengthening the cultural and social values of the host
community and protecting the environment by reducing harmful gas emissions and product usage
along with preserving the natural heritage of the nation. These findings successfully achieve
objective 1 of the present study. In Theme 2, it is found that sustainable tourism is beneficial for a
nation like India to drive economic growth with an increased employment rate and revenue
generation of the nation, and also to preserve the natural beauty and resources along with the rich
heritage of India. Furthermore, sustainable tourism strengthens the identity of culture and regions
which promote socio-cultural development. These findings also helped to achieve objective 1 in
terms of identifying the benefits of sustainable tourism for developing countries. Theme 3 has
delineated sustainable tourism in India and it is found that India has a rich heritage and natural
resources like hills, deserts, water bodies, and coastlines which appeals to the tourists and increases
demand for Indian tourism. Sustainable tourism is practised in India as per the initiative of the
Ministry of Tourism in India by introducing Sustainable Tourism Criteria for India (STCI). The
sustainable tourism practices in different states in India have led to tourist satisfaction and also
impacted the environment, economy, and socio-culture positively by substituting mass tourism.
The findings of this theme achieved objective 3 by expressing the development of sustainable
tourism in India and the impact on various aspects. In theme 4, the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic
on the development of sustainable tourism has been found which revealed that the pandemic has
posed both challenges and opportunities for sustainable tourism development. The pandemic has
reduced the rate of foreign tourist arrival in 2020 which negatively impacted the economy of the

country, but the increased awareness of people to select a destination based on sustainability. The
pandemic has provided the opportunity to redesign tourism strategies focusing on sustainability.
In addition, theme 5 discussed the challenges of developing sustainable tourism in India that
including lack of knowledge and awareness among local people, and lack of proper planning,
infrastructure, and resources. Thus, proper strategy and collaboration among private and public
organizations are required. These findings achieved objective 5 successfully in understanding the
challenges in developing sustainable tourism.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Conclusion
From the entire discussion, it can be concluded that sustainable tourism is highly beneficial for
developing countries like India as it is required to replace mass tourism in India with more
sustainable practices that can reduce the issues of tourism like pollution, increased energy and
water consumption, losing cultural values and changing climate. The principles of sustainable
tourism are maintained in India as per the initiative of the Ministry of Tourism. It is interpreted that
the Indian government and the Ministry of Tourism have taken measures to promote sustainable
tourism in India by implementing SCTI and major campaigns; thus, the nation has the opportunity
to develop the tourism practices in such a way that the natural resources and cultural heritage can
be preserved to attract more tourists as well as upholding the values of the culture, tradition and
also maintain the ecosystem for the betterment of the people residing in India. However, developing
sustainable tourism cannot be easily accomplished as the country does not have adequate resources
to build sustainable tourism management, infrastructure, and facilities and it is also difficult to
educate native people about the need for sustainability in the environment, economy, and socio-
culture. Therefore, all the stakeholders including the tourism industry, tour operators, guides, local
people, communities, tourists, and private sectors collaborate and initiate planning and programmes
to proceed step-by-step and give importance to all the aspects of sustainable tourism.
Recommendations
Sustainable tourism has undoubtedly helped the tourism industry in India to improve the positive
relation of tourism with the socio-culture, environment, and economy. Sustainable tourism is also
accountable for satisfying the tourists. However, it is unrealistic to achieve total sustainability as
issues will prevail in the tourism industry, but possible solutions can also be generated to improve
the development of sustainable tourism and mitigate the challenges faced by the developing
country India. It can be recommended to focus on educating the local people regarding the need for
sustainability and its importance. Though, this cannot be achieved rapidly but will take time to
make people aware of the need to preserve the environment and socio-culture.
Travellers should also be made aware of making responsible choices for their journey toward a
tourist destination. Moreover, the intervention of the Government is extremely important and it has
been seen that the Ministry of Tourism in India takes initiatives and designs campaigns for
promoting sustainable tourism. The private sectors and government sectors in India should work
in collaboration to overcome the challenges such as lack of skills, resources, infrastructure, and
planning. The participation of local communities is mandatory as they are major stakeholders who

can improve the sustainability of the environment, society, and culture. It is not feasible to make
behavioural changes in local people as well as travellers; thus, proper strategies are required to
make the governmental bodies, private sectors, tourism industry, communities, and tourists
collaborate and cooperate in this process of mitigating the adverse impact of tourism on
environment and socio-culture. Tour operators have a vital role in this context, and therefore they
should take the initiative to make their clients aware of the regulations and policies of sustainable
tourism. In this way, it is possible to make the tourism practices more sustainable in India and make
the country more appealing to international and national tourists.
Research Limitations
The present study has followed every step of conducting the research with the use of suitable
methods and available tools. However, some limitations exist in this study caused due to lack of
resources and some challenges. The present study has used secondary data which provided ample
information regarding the research questions but the data is not unique and entirely specific to the
present research. Moreover, the access to any scholarly articles is restricted and could only be
accessed with the permission of the institution. Some data sources are subscription-based and have
restricted access. This factor and also the limited financial resources caused challenges in obtaining
desired secondary data.
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PIEGĀDES ĶĒŽU VADĪBAS ATBILSTĪBAS KRITĒRIJI LOĢISTIKĀ. LITERATŪRAS APSKATS
PIEGĀDES ĶĒŽU VADĪBAS ATBILSTĪBAS KRITĒRIJI LOĢISTIKĀ.

LITERATŪRAS APSKATS
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA FOR SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT IN LOGISTICS.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Normunds Kozlovskis
Biznesa augtskola Turība, Latvija
Abstract
At the current stage of economic development attention to the supply chain service
management is increasingly paid by both practitioners and academics. At the same time
measurement of service performance in supply chains still remains less explored. Most of
logistics service firms realize that, in order to evolve an efficient and effective supply chain,
its management needs to be assessed in terms of performance for clients and customers.
A literature review was conducted on performance measurement issues of supply chains.
This paper develops a particular literature review of supply chain service performance
measurement.
Based on the strategic, tactical and operational level performance in a supply chain,
measures and metrics are discussed. The emphasis is on performance measures dealing
with supply chain processes such as demand management, customer relationship
management, supplier relationship management, capacity and resource management,
service performance, information and technology management and supply service chain
finance.
The developed literature review of supply chain performance measurement is particularly
based on the author’s experience as well.
The results of this study should be useful for both practitioners in supply chain service and
researchers carrying out further studies in the field.
Keywords: logistics, management, performance measurement, supply chain
Atslēgas vārdi: loģistika, piegādes ķēde, vadība, veiktspējas mērījumi
Ievads
Gan lokālā, gan arī starptautiskā biznesa vidē piegādes ķēžu (PĶ) vadības kvalitāte un atbilstība
kļuvusi par konkurētspējas noteicošo faktoru visiem uzņēmumiem, kas veic saimniecisko darbību.
20. gadsimta otrajā pusē uzņēmēji sāka analizēt katru piegādes ķēdes aspektu – sākot no izejvielu
iepirkuma ražošanai līdz gatavās produkcijas piegādēm dīleriem, vairumtirgotājiem un
mazumtirgotājiem, ar mērķi ražot vairāk, samazināt izmaksas, pārdot vairāk un palielināt peļņu.

Radās nepieciešamība radikāli mainīt loģistikas procesu filozofiju, apvienojot tos visus un veidojot
sarežģītas loģistikas ķēdes ar centralizētu vadību un nošķirtu atbildību par katru posmu.
Ražošanas un piegādes ķēdes sastāv no piegādātājiem, noliktavām, ražotnēm, distribūcijas centriem un
pārdošanas vienībām, starp kurām, pārvietojot izejmateriālus, nepabeigtos ražojumus un iepakojumu,
preces tiek saražotas un izplatītas patērētājiem. No šī procesa globāli atkarīgs jebkurš uzņēmums –
sākot ar enerģētikas vai IT gigantu un beidzot ar advokāta biroju vai individuālo uzņēmumu.
Loģistikas procesi ir unikāli tieši ar to, ka tiek pielietoti praktiski visās uzņēmējdarbības formās un
visās uzņēmējdarbības nozarēs, līdz ar to piegādes ķēdēm jābūt pietiekami elastīgām, lai vienus un
tos pašus resursus piemērotu dažādu preču un pakalpojumu nodrošināšanā. Tieši šī īpašība
nepieciešama uzņēmumiem, lai ātri piemērotos mainīgajām tirgus prasībām, saglabājot rentabilitāti
un uzturot konkurētspēju.
No cita skatu punkta veroties, – konstatējams fakts, ka Latvijā loģistika un piegādes ķēdes netiek
apskatītas kā atsevišķa uzņēmējdarbības nozare, bet statistikas datos iekļautas kopējās sadaļās –
kā ražošana, lauksaimniecība un mežsaimniecība, vaitumtirdzniecība un mazumtirdzniecība, valsts
pārvalde, izglītība u.tml. Iespējams tikai aptuveni nojaust loģistikas pienesumu tautsaimniecībai,
attiecinot statistikas datus pa nozarēm uz IKP. Tā 2016 gadā IKP Latvijā sasniedza 24 926 688
tūkstošus EUR faktiskajās cenās (Centrālā statistikas pārvalde, 2017, 47.–48. lpp.). 2015. gadā šis
rādītājs bija 24 384 454 tūkstoši EUR, no kuriem transports un uzglabāšana veidoja 2 042 287
tūkstošus EUR jeb 8,2%. (turpat) Pieņemot, ka nozares daļa kopproduktā saglabājusies, varam
secināt, ka 2016. gadā transports un uzglabāšana sasniegs 2 043 988 tūkstošus EUR faktiskajās
cenās. Pēc esošās uzskaites sistēmas nav iespējams secināt reālo loģistikas un piegādes ķēžu
darbības pienesumu tautsaimniecībai, jo nekur netiek apskatītas tādas PĶ un loģistikas sastāvdaļas
kā kraušanas pakalpojumi, iepirkumu loģistika, informācijas un finanšu plūsmu apkalpošana.
Bijušais Lielbritānijas premjers V. Čerčils teicis: “Pesimists saredz šķēršļus jebkurā iespējā,
optimists redz iespēju šķēršļu pārvarēšanā” (A pessimist sees a difficulty in every opportunity and an
optimist sees an opportunity in every difficulty). Trūkumi PĶ organizācijā Latvijas ekonomikā un
Eiropā kopumā uztverami kā iespēja transformēt mazāk optimālus un neelastīgus procesus un
izveidot pastāvīgus, optimālus un straujus piegādes kanālus. Īpaši šeit jāpiemin tranzīta kravu
piegāde uz austrumiem, kur konkurēt varam tikai ar kvalitāti, jo cenu dempings no Krievijas
Federācijas puses neļauj to darīt, konkurējot ar pakalpojuma cenu.
1. Piegādes ķēdes definīcijas dažādos literatūras avotos
Zinātniskajos rakstos terminu “Piegādes ķēžu vadība” sāka lietot pagājušā gadsimta piecdesmitajos
gados vienlaikus ar ražošanas–piegādes sistēmu izpētes uzsākšanu (Forester, 1958, p. 44).
Konceptuāli līdzīgs ražošanas–piegādes procesu risinājums tika pielietots jau 18. gadsimta beigās
Skotijas tērauda rūpniecības procesu veidošanā, kā arī Henrija Forda radīto automašīnu ražošanas
konveijerā, kura būtība un novitāte balstījās tieši uz piegādes ķēdes ekspluatācijas pienesumu,
revolucionāri pārplānojot auto ražošanas procesus.
Sabiedrības sapratne par piegādes ķēdēm un to ietekmi uz uzņēmējdarbību ir polarizējusies divās
galējībās. No vienas puses, ir konstatējami nozares speciālisti un uzņēmēji, kas spēj novērtēt
efektīvas loģistikas (kā piegādes ķēdes sastāvdaļas) ietekmi uz biznesa rezultātiem. Starpnozaru un

uzņēmumu sadarbības organizēšana piegādes ķēdes ietvaros dod būtisku izmaksu ietaupījumu,
paveiktā darba apjomu un peļņas rādītāju pieaugumu. No otras puses, sabiedrības daļai, kam nav
skaidrs termins “Piegādes ķēde”, nav izprotama tās būtība un vadīšanas nepieciešamība, kas visus
loģistikas procesus saista tikai ar transporta operācijām.
Lai saprastu piegādes ķēdes uzbūves modeli, nepieciešams atpazīt principus, kas nosaka piegādes
ķēžu galvenās teorētiskās uzbūves sastāvdaļas. No fundamentālo teoriju viedokļa varam runāt, ka
visu procesu pamatā ir vadības teorija, transakciju izmaksu un aprēķinu teorija un uzņēmumu
sadarbības vadības teorija (Croom, 2000, p. 67). Šie ir trīs galvenie pīlāri, uz kuriem jābalsta
piegādes ķēdes izveidošana, tādā veidā nepieciešamā apjomā pievēršot pietiekamu uzmanību
galvenajiem procesiem piegādes ķēdēs. Pamatideja šādam dalījumam ir akcentēta ar mērķi pievērst
uzmanību visiem procesiem un nepieļaut koncentrēšanos uz kaut ko atsevišķu –, piemēram, tikai
uz izmaksu samazināšanu. Pēc autora novērojumiem šāda kļūdaina pieeja noved pie visas ķēdes
degradācijas un pastāvēšanas beigām.
Pie apakšnozares teorētiskajām pmatnostādnēm var minēt vairākas zinātņu disciplīnas, kas
piedalās piegādes ķēdes teorētisko procesu veidošanā. Tās ir: sistēmiska domāšana, informācijas
teorija, ražošanas attīstības teorija, ražošanas ekonomika, ražošanas plānošana, matemātiskās
analīzes (spēļu) teorija, sabiedrības attīstības teorija, psiholoģija.
Ar pārējām uzņēmējdarbības formām piegādes ķēdes vadību saista stratēģiskās vadības teorija un
mārketinga nozare (Venus, 2014, p. 21).
Loģistika un piegādes ķēdes vadība ir samērā jaunas zinātnes ekonomikas jomā, līdz ar to
zinātnieku radītās definīcijas ne vienmēr atspoguļo vienotu viedokli par procesiem. Šāda situācija
liecina, ka šajā jomā vēl daudz kas jānoskaidro un jādefinē, līdz ar to paveras plašs lauks
turpmākajai izpētei. Kā piemērs apkopotas vairākas loģistikas un piegādes ķēdes definīcijas (autora
tulkojums):
• Loģistika ir produktu un pakalpojumu pārvietošanas vadība, kas ietver sevī uzglabāšanu,
noliktavu procesus un transportēšanu pa gaisu, pa ūdeni un pa zemi (Coyule, 2009, p. 34).
• Piegādes ķēde tiek definēta kā organizāciju tīkls, kas saistīts ar augšupejošiem un lejupejošiem
savienojumiem dažādos procesos un aktivitātēs, kas rezultātā rada vērtības (produktus un
pakalpojumus) gala patērētājiem (Christopher, 1998, p. 15).
• Piegādes ķēde ir tradicionālo biznesa funkciju un konkrēto kompāniju iekšējo uzņēmējdarbības
funkciju sistēmiska saskaņošana piegādes ķēdes ietvaros ar mērķi uzlabot gan atsevišķu
uzņēmumu sniegumu, gan rezultātus piegādes ķēdē kopumā (Mentzer, 2004, p. 18).
• Ir divas pamatdarbības, lai celtu piegādes ķēdes konkurētspēju. Pirmā ir iesaistīto organizāciju
tuvāka integrācija un otrā – materiālu, informācijas un finanšu plūsmu uzlabota vadība
(Christopher, 2011, p. 112).
• Piegādes ķēdes vadība ir “Attiecību vadība ar un starp tīklā iekļautām neatkarīgām organizācijām
un uzņēmējdarbības vienībām, sastāvošām no materiālu piegādātājiem, iepirkuma, rūpīcām,
loģistikas, mārketinga un citām saistītām sistēmām, kas atvieglo materiālu, pakalpojumu,
finanšu un informācijas kustību turp un atpakaļ sistēmas ietvaros no primārā ražotāja līdz
gala patērētājam, radot ieguvumus un pievienoto vērtību, ceļot rentabilitāti uz efektivitātes
pieauguma rēķinu un nodrošinot klienta apmierinātību” (Stock & Boyer, 2009, p. 698).
Visās definīcijās tiek apskatīti tādi procesi kā veicamās aktivitātes, iegūtie labumi – kā procesa
mērķis, procesa sastāvdaļas, uzņēmējdarbību veicošie subjekti un sadarbība kā galvenais noteicošais

faktors veiksmīgai piegādes ķēdes vadībai. Līdz ar to iespējams sintezēt jaunu piegādes ķēdes
definīciju atbilstoši identificētajiem procesa pamatelementiem.
2. Piegādes ķēdes vērtēšanas kritēriji
Lai spētu sekmīgi vērtēt dažādu piegādes ķēžu atbilstību un piemērotību, nepieciešams definēt
faktorus, pēc kuriem sekmīgi iespējams veikt novērtēšanas procesu. Būtiski svarīgi, lai
novērtēšanas faktori būtu unificēti un piemēroti dažāda veida loģistikas sistēmu un piegādes ķēžu
novērtēšanai. Ideālā variantā nepieciešams identificēt pietiekamu daudzumu kritēriju tā, lai tie visi
būtu pieejami visu veidu loģistikas ķēdēs un tādā veidā veidotu stabilu un izmērāmu vērtēšanas
sistēmu.
Kā papildu nosacījums jāievēro vērtēšanas kritēriju daudzums – tam jābūt pietiekamam, lai
saprastu sistēmas atbilstību, tajā pat laikā kritēriju nedrīkst būt pārāk daudz, lai pārlieku nesarežģītu
piegādes ķēžu un sistēmu novērtēšanu, lai vērtējums būtu skaidrs, saprotams un vienkārši veicams.
Pieejamajā literatūrā tiek apskatīti piegādes ķēdi raksturojošie kritēriji, lai būtu iespējams izvēlēties
atbilstošākos pietiekamā apjomā.
Viens no galvenajiem raksturojošiem lielumiem piegādes ķēdes novērtēšanā ir piegādes ķēdes
veiktspēja. Dati par piegādes ķēdes veiktspēju loģistikas vidē tika analizēti no pagājušā gadsimta
deviņdesmitajiem gadiem. Pirmie mērījumi tika saistīti ar plūsmu finanšu un nefinanšu datu
apstrādi. Citi avoti atspoguļo materiālo un nemateriālo ieguvumu mērījumus. Visbeidzot piegādes
ķēdes veiktspējas mērījumos tika integrēti arī tādi jēdzieni kā biznesa vides attīstība un piemērošanās
dinamiskai nozaru uzstādījumu izmaiņām (Beamon, 2008, p. 16)
Finanšu datu analīze loģistikas ķēdēs tiek skaidrota kā finanšu ietilpibas analīze – finanšu resursu
nepieciešamība, pirmkārt, loģistikas ķēdes organizēšanai un, otrkārt, procesu uzturēšanai. Praksē
ir novērots, ka loģistikas ķēdes darbības sākumposms ir finansiāli ietilpīgs – prasa papildu resursu
piesaisti par spīti tam, ka procesi jau iepriekš izstrādāti un aprobēti uz citām loģistikas ķēdēm. Tas
izskaidrojams ar to, ka praksē grūti sastapt identiskas loģistikas ķēdes un katrā no tajā esošajiem
procesiem nepieciešams veikt izmaiņas.
Finanšu ieguldījumi organizēšanas posmā saistīti ar personāla apmācību, IT vides pielāgošanu,
jaunu dokumentu izstrādi katram klientam individuāli. Var rasties nepieciešamība piemērot
instrumentus, mašīnas un noliktavu vidi jaunām kravu plūsmām – tas būtiski palielina pirmā posma
finanšu ieguldījumus.
Izstrādājot piegādes ķēžu novērtējuma metodes, tika secināts, ka galvenā uzmanība jāpievērš
sekojošām problēmām:
• klientu segmentācija – sadalīt klientus skaidri noteiktās grupās, balstoties uz to vajadzībām;
• plānošanas vadība – plānot piegādes ķēdi stingri atbilstoši sniedzamā pakalpojuma veikšanas
īpatnībām;
• prognozēšanas atbilstība – saskaņot piedāvājumu ar tirgus vides pieprasījumu maksimāli
garākam periodam;
• veidot pakalpojuma piedāvājumu pēc iespējas vairāk piemērotu klienta pieprasītajam darbību
un procesu modelim;
• vadīt piegādes ķēdi no stratēģiskā skatu puncta, saredzot un saskaņojot darbības lielā mērogā;

• attīstīt kompleksu tehnoloģiju pielietošanas stratēģiju, kas spētu nodrošināt visaptverošu

kravu informācijas un pakalpojumu plūsmu piegādes ķēdē;
• mērot piegādes ķēdes veiktspēju, panākt visa kanāla caurskatāmību ar mērķi efektīvi sasniegt
gala patērētāju un efektīvi strādāt katrā posmā un visā piegādes ķēdē (Gunasekarn, 2008).
Pētot jaunākos literatūras avotus, jāsaskaras ar problēmas interpretācijām, analizējot reversās
piegādes ķēdes (Verveji u.c., 2016). Lai sekmīgi vadītu reversās piegādes ķēdes, ir nepieciešams:
• stratēģisks mērķis, lai izvairītos no atgriešanas;
• precīza izpratne par izmaksu saistību ar veiktspēju;
• stratēģiska sadarbība starp ķēdes posmiem un izpildītājiem;
• perfekta izpratne par ķēdes vadību;
• spēja nopelnīt arī uz atpakaļplūsmu;
• izpratne par produkta vērtību un dzīves ciklu;
• procesu atkārtojamība;
• efektīva piegādes ceļu izmantošana un uzturēšana;
• izsekojamība visā plūsmu garumā uz visām pusēm.
Citi autori veic piegādes ķēžu veiktspējas novērtējumu faktoru uzskaiti, dalot tos vairākās lielās
grupās atbilstoši skatupunktam, no kura veiktspēja tiek vērtēta (Butzer u.c., 2017):
• no sabiedrības un tiesību aktu perspektīvas – apkārtējās vides un sabiedrības interešu
aizsardzība, sabiedrisko normu ievērošana, oglekļa emisijas (melnā pēda) apjoms procesos,
saražoto atkritumu un otreizējās pārstrādes izmaksas.
• no finanšu perspektīvas – izmaksu reducēšana un peļņas palielināšana; reverso piegāžu
ķēdes izmaksas un saistītie nodokļi, reģenerēto produktu realizācijas vērtība, blakusproduktu
un atlikumu iznīcināšanas izmaksas;
• no īpašnieku (lietotāju) perspektīvas – īpašnieku apmierinātības celšana, patērētāju un
klientu apmierinātības celšana, ķēdē iesaistīto sadarbības partneru apmierinātība, piegādes
ķēdes pārskatāmība un caurspīdīgums;
• no procesu perspektīvas – klientiem svarīgo procesu uzlabošana – piedāvāto produktu
(pakalpojumu) kvalitāte, procesu izpildes laiks gan ķēdē kopumā, gan katrā tās posmā;
• no inovāciju un izaugsmes perspektīvas – nodrošināt konkurētspēju un ilgtspējību –
investīcijas iesaistītā personāla apmācībā, investīcijas loģistikas procesos.
• no piegādes ķēdes elastības viedokļa – celt piegādes ķēdes elastību un iesaistītā personāla
spēju piemēroties mainīgajiem uzņēmējdarbības nosacījumiem.
Nepieciešams atzīmēt, ka tieši starptautiskajās piegādes ķēdēs sastopami visi apskatītie kritēriji un
ķēdes lielums ir tieši proporcionāls tās sarežģītībai.
PĶ elastība izpaužas starptautiskajā biznesa vidē kā spēja piemēroties dažādu valstu normatīvajiem
aktiem, veidojot segmentāciju piegādes ķēdēs atbilstoši lokālajām paražām, ceļu un infrastruktūras
stāvoklim, kā arī vietējā darbaspēka apmācības un izglītības līmenim. Šādā vidē sākotnēji esošās PĶ
ir ne tikai primitīvas, tām nepiemīt arī elastības potenciāls, lai ieviestu pārmaiņas ātri un vajadzīgajā
apjomā. Tajā pat laikā tieši šadi apstākļi spiež ieviest izsmalcinātus un sarežģītus procesus, lai pēc
iespējas ātrāk sasniegtu līmeni, kādu sagaidām 21. gadsimta uzņēmējdarbības procesu nodrošināšanai.
Jaunas PĶ ieviešanas veiksmes stāsts balstās uz gatavību ātri un efektīvi reaģēt uz ķēdes sistēmas
pārrāvumiem un izmaiņām, ieviešot elastības un kvalitātes vadības procesus esošajās loģistikas
sistēmās.

Piegādes ķēžu vadības apakšteorijas sevī ietver amorfu resursu plūsmu aprakstus, sākot ar izejvielām
un noslēdzot ar gala patērētājiem, pieprasījuma virzītas (pull) piegādes ķēdes, izsekojamu
informācijas izplatīšanu visas ķēdes garumā. Tāpat tiek apskatīta sadarbība un partnerattiecības,
kas ietver sevī abpusēju ieguvumu no partnerības un pievienotu vērtību visiem ķēdes subjektiem,
kopīgas atziņas, projektus un attīstību. Iespējams atrast teorētiskos aprakstus par informācijas
tehnoloģiju pielietošanu, “produkti tieši plauktā’’ teoriju, “partijas iepakojums” pārvēršanu par
“pārdošanas normu”, teorijas kas tendētas uz klienta vajadzību apmierināšanu, elastīgas un lētas
piegādes ķēdes, masveida pielāgošanas un tirgus segmentācijas teorijas piegādes ķēžu vadībā.
Analizējot PKM praksi un ikdienu, tiek identificēti dažādi šķēršļi, kas traucē ideālai piegādes ķēdes
darbībai. PĶ vadības teorijas koncentrējas galvenokārt uz noviržu kontroli un izslēgšanu. Mainīgajā
ekonomikā un turbulentā vidē stingras un limitētas struktūras nespēj pretoties neparedzamam
pieprasījumam un straujām izmaiņām piegādes ķēdes procesos. Rīki, lai vadītu piegādes ķēdes,
paliek iepriekšējie, taču rodas nepieciešamība tos lietot pilnīgi citā kontekstā – kā galveno
parametru izvirzot piegādes ķēdes elastību (Christopher & Holweg, 2011, p. 69).
Secinājumi un peiekšlikumi
Piegādes ķēžu straujās attīstības fakts beidzamajās desmitgadēs rada dilemmu – vai to pētījumiem
ir aprakstošs, vai arī prognozējošs raksturs (Croom, 2000, p. 74). Turpmākajā izpētē būtu lietderīgi
noskaidrot, vai loģistikas biznesa kompilētās formas vadība tiek ietekmēta no procesiem loģistikā,
vai, pilnīgi pretēji, procesi tiek radīti, balstoties uz pieredzi un teorētiskiem pieņēmumiem.
Turpmākajos pētījumos nepieciešams koncentrēties uz piegādes ķēdes definīcijas formulēšanu vai,
iespēju robežās, uz esošās definīcijas atrašanu, kas pilnībā apraksta piegādes ķēdi, parāda tās
būtību atbilstoši pēdējiem zinātnes pētījumiem par tēmu.
Pašlaik nav plaši peejams liels un strukturēts zinātnisko teoriju klāsts par šo tēmu. Arī esošie raksti
vairāk koncentrējās uz specifisku procesu aprakstu, nespējot aptvert visu piegādes ķēžu darbības
spektru.
Pētot esošo teorētisko bāzi, var konstatēt, ka galvenās teorētiskās atziņas skar integrācijas un
saskaņošanas aspektus piegādes ķēdēs, tajā pat laikā atstājot novārtā tādas būtiskas koncepcijas kā
piegādātāju un klientu segmentācija, stratēģiskā integrācija, win/win stratēģija un partnerattiecību
veidošana starp ķēdes subjektiem, kopēju mērķu uzstādīšana un izvairīšanās no oportūnisma
mērķu sasniegšanā, stratēģisku apvienību veidošana, godīgi uzņemoties un sadalot gan ieguvumus,
gan riskus (Venus, 2014, p. 19).
Klienta vēlmju apmierināšana ir viens no svarīgākajiem, ja ne pats galvenais uzdevums, uz kuru
balstoties tiek būvēti un konsolidēti piegādes ķēdē esošie procesi. Piegādes ķēdes funkcionē, lai
apmierinātu klientu un patērētāju vajadzības, nodrošinot ritmisku darbu, veidojot lētus procesus
un lietojamu rezultātu, tai pat laikā ievērojot lokālās vides normatīvos aktus, paražas un biznesa
ētikas normas.
Pēc pieredzes – katram klientam tiek veidota sava – individuāla piegādes ķēde, jo faktori, kas nosaka
ķēdes konfigurāciju, ir daudzi un ļoti dažādi. Jebkurš process var tikt nopietni izmainīts, ja mainās
kāda no to veidojošajām darbībām. Piemērs: naudas aprites ātrums ES valstīs un Āfrikas valstīs, kas
būtiski ietekmē piegādes ķēdes aprites ātrumu no finanšu viedokļa.

Redzot notiekošo ekonomikā un saprotot, ka biznesa vide arvien straujāk mainās un pārveidojas,
vairs nav jēgas kontrolēt piegādes ķēdes atbilstību un attiecināt procesus uz iepriekš definētiem
kanoniem. Tā vietā jārada struktūras, kas, savstarpēji kombinējot, veido vēlamo rezultātu katram
konkrētam piegādes ķēdes procesam. Pie tam – jo sīkāk strukturēts katrs process, jo vieglāk veikt
tajā pielāgošanas izmaiņas.
References
Beamon, B. (2008). Sustainability and the Future of Supply Chain Management. Operations & Supply Chain Management,
1(1)/2008, 4–18
Butzer, S., and others (2017). Development of a performance measurment systenm for international reverse supply chains.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 24th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering. Pieejams:
https://ac.els-cdn.com/S2212827116314391/1-s2.0-S2212827116314391-main.pdf?_tid=c2da5f36-125d-11e8-980e-
00000aacb35d&acdnat=1518705634_8b7a2a98335ed7c0251f3e8f6b110b10, skatīts 11.02.2018.
Centrālā statistikas pārvalde (2017). Latvijas statistikas gadagrāmata 2016. Centrālā statistikas pārvalde, Rīga, 644 lpp.
Christopher, M. (1998). Logistics and Supply Chain Management – Strategies for reducing cost and improving service, 2nd ed.,
London
Christopher, M. (2011) Logistics & supply chain management: creating value added networks. 4th edition, Financial Times,
Prentice Hall, UK
Coyle, J. J., Langley, C. J.,Gibson, B. J., Novack, R. A., Bardi, E. (2009). Supply Chain Management a Logistics Perspective, 8th ed.,
Ohio, South Western/Thomson Learning
Croom, S., Romano, P., Giannakis, M. (2000). Supply Chain Management: an analytical framework for critical literature review.
Purchasing and Supply Management, 6, 67–83
Forrester, J. W. (1958) Industrial dynamics: A major breakthrough for decision makers. Harvard Business Review: 36(4), 37–66
Gunasekaran, A., Patel, C., Tirtiroglu, E. (2001). Performance measures and metrics in a supply chain environment.
International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 21(1/2), 71–78
Kozlenkova, I., et al. (2015). The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management. Journal of Retailing, 91 (4): 586–609
Mentzer, J. T. (2004). Fundamentals of supply chain management: twelve drivers of competitive advantage. London
Statistic Times, GDP Nominal ranking. Pieejams: https://statisticstimes.com/economy/projected-world-gdp-ranking.php,
skatīts 12.04.2022.
Venus, K. (2014). Supply chain management impact on competitivness of business organisations, Doctoral thesis. Rīga: LU, 143
Verweij, H., Dang, N., Bonney, G., Janse, B. Reverse Logistics. How to realise an agile and efficient reverse chain within the
Consumer Electronics industry. Pieejams: http://www.pwc.nl/nl/assets/documents/pwc-reverse-logistics.pdf, skatīts 10.08.2017.
http://www.csb.gov.lv/statistikas-temas/iekszemes-kopprodukts-galvenie-raditaji-30248.html, skatīts 1.02.2018.

IMPACT OF REFINANCING RATE ON INTERNAL INVESTMENT VOLUME

Valeri Mosiashvili
Georgian National University SEU, Georgia
Ani Bibiluri
Georgian Technical University, Georgia
Abstract
Despite its long and difficult history of statehood Georgia is facing a different and new
reality, and therefore many challenges. A modern banking system is beginning to take
shape, which today is analogous to a foreign system, regulated by domestic law and
responding to the demands facing the financial sector
The National Bank of Georgia issues of money, which implies the exclusive right to print
the national currency, the Georgian Lari, which has been in circulation since 1995. The
active international political, economic and cultural activity of the country necessitates
the establishment of an exchange rate of the Lari with other currencies. Accordingly one
of the preconditions for the sustainable and stable development of the country's economy
is to ensure the stability of the national currency, which is slightly devalued in relation to
reserve currencies. Therefore, the aim of our research is to analyse the National Bank of
Georgia’s anti-inflation and anti- devaluation policies and to pave the way for the use of
alternative tools, which in our opinion will be relatively "painless" for the country's
economy and will not negatively affect business activity.
In carrying out the present study, we analysed the statistical material obtained based on
official information from the NBG, using a variety of research methods to make the
arguments presented comprehensible to the general public (including non-specialists).
The study clearly showed that the current anti-inflation and anti-devaluation policies
pursued by the NBG partially ensure the stability of the national currency, but overall have
a negative impact on business activity and reduce solvent demand.
Keywords: Monetary policy, Refinancing rate, Devaluation, Deposit, Loan, Interest rate
Introduction
As the world practice proves, one of the preconditions for the sustainable development of the
country's economy is to ensure the stability of the national currency,which is slightly devalued in
relation to reserve currencies. The issue is further aggravatedin the reality of our country, when the
devaluation of the national currency – Lari is taking place at a not-so-desirable rate, which is
particularly acute and perceived by the general public.

During the last two years, the Lari has undergone quite a high devaluation, for example if on
20.11.2019. 1 $ – 2.6593 ₾, today (07.04.2022) the exchange rate is 1 $ – 3.0839 ₾ (devalued – by
16%), which means on equal terms that every citizen of Georgia who has income in national
currency, expenses have increased. “Life” has become moreexpensive and accordingly pays 16 Tetri
for one GEL spent. This had an impact on inflation processes and according to the official data of the
National Bank of Georgia (NBG), instead of the target 3%, the real inflation rate was 11.8%.
1. Monetary policy instruments
The country's monetary authority is rightly trying to ease devaluation and inflationary “pressure”
and create a stable currency and monetary environment in general.We think that the result of this is
the use of monetary policy instruments such as foreignexchange intervention and changes in the
refinancing rate.
We think that these measures have not yielded the results expected by both the public and the
business sector, as the GEL is still at a “low level”, which increases distrusttowards it and reduces the
public solvency.
In general, the devaluation process, if it does not exceed the “reasonable target”, is acceptable,
economic growth is more a contributing factor to development than a hindrance. We will not dwell
on this issue here, we want to review the results of the anti- devaluation policy pursued by the
National Bank of Georgia and show an alternative path that can be used to achieve results in the not
too long term (GEL revaluation at the initialstage and stability in the long run). At the same time, so
as not to hinder business activityand less “increase” the cost of credit resources.
Table 1
Monetary Policy Instrument Rates
Effective March 31, 2022 Term Rate (%)
Determined by auction
Refinancing Loan 7 days
(minimum 11.00%)
One month Open Market Determined by auction
28 days
Instrument (minimum 11.00%)
One-day Deposits 1 day (11.00 –1.75) %
One-day Loans 1 day (11.00 +0.75) %
Certificates of Deposit 3 months Determined by auction
Treasury Securities 1/2/5/10 year Determined by auction
For funds raised in For funds raised in foreign
national currency currency
Reserve request 5.0% 10%–25%
Loans with a maturity of more than 1 year in national currency and more than 2 years in foreign currency
according to residual maturities are exempt from reserve requirements, while the reserve rate for funds
borrowed in foreign currency with a maturity of 1 to 2 years is 10% –15%.
In March 2022, the National Bank of Georgia used the increase in refinancing ratein one of the most
transformative economies and countries of the Third World, to increaseits monetary policy by 0.5

percentage points. Given the current practice, this change has one of the consequences for the
stability or even revaluation of the national currency. However, it should also be noted that such
measures reduce the solvency demand in the country and worsen the social background.
In order to clarify all the above, based on the official data of the National Bank of Georgia, we
conducted a study, which gives us a more or less clear idea about the expediency of increasing the
refinancing rate.
Due to the fact that the refinancing rate has increased, in line with the practice in the banking sector,
the bank's clients who have benefited from loans secured by real estate in the national currency
(and not only), the vast majority of them have increased the amount of the loan by a certain
percentage due to the contract (according to expert estimates, at least 80% of the borrowers belong
to this category).
For example, term loans secured by real estate issued in the national currency of 2019 to individuals
(as of the end of October) amounted to 4 005 853 GEL. According to simple mathematical calculations,
80% of this volume of credit is 3 204 682 400 GEL, its 1% is 32 046 824 GEL. This means that the
borrower has paid an additional amount to the commercial banking sector to individuals.
Analysis of these data as a whole allows us to say that even then the decision reduced the solvency
demand by about 32.5 million GEL, if we add this to the total volume of mortgage-backed real estate
loans (as of the end of October) – 5 780 755 GEL, similar The amount is even higher and amounts to
46 246 040 GEL.
There was also an even more unfavorable picture of the losses in terms of the volume of loans to
households, in particular, according to the data of October – from loans to households (15 132 018 GEL),
loans secured by real estate amounted to 9 526 469 GEL. According to the methodology used by us,
households (one of the most sensitive areas of the economy), the payment for loans secured only
by real estate was increased by 85 738 221 GEL. Which also had a negative impact on the social
background of the society.
If we go further and take the aggregate data, the debt owed by commercial bankson loans to the
national economy (resident legal entities and individuals) is 28 834 963 GEL, according to our
methodology the solvency demand decreased by 230 679 704 GEL.
Based on our research based on the official data of the National Bank of Georgia,we can conclude
that in March this year and in the last two years in general, the measurestaken by the monetary
authorities, aimed at reducing the GEL devaluation process and hence inflationary “pressure” on
the national economy Solvent demand has been reduced by almost GEL 300 million or the economy
has potentially run out of this domestic investment.
As an alternative to this monetary policy, we should use the monetary policy instruments of the
National Bank of Georgia – the reserve requirement, which we think is quite different for funds
attracted in national currency (5%) and for funds attracted in foreign currency (10–25%). It may
be justified to pursue a policy of dedollarization, but as practice has proven ineffective for the
stability of the national currency in general, it leads to an increase in inflationary “pressure”, which
has the most painful impact on the population. According to our recommendations, the reserve
requirement should bereduced to 20% instead of the existing 25% for foreign currency attracted
funds, and increased to 10% in parallel (or sequentially) for national currency attracted funds, in

anycase before the inflow of foreign investment into the national economy. Will not reach/exceed
the “historical maximum” (1 980.8 million USD in 2019).
The larization rate of deposits as of March 1 of the current year was 40.75 percent. Compared to
February 1, the larization of deposits decreased by 0.67 percentage points (excluding the effect of
the exchange rate increased by 0.14 percentage points).
Conclusions
If we make calculations based on the available data, “easing” the minimum reserve requirements
from 25% to 20%, the banking sector will additionally release aconsiderable amount of foreign
currency (which is supplied to the national economyin the form of credit or the demand for foreign
currency will increase by approximately the same amount Currency supply. By all simple logic, this
will not only stabilize the exchange rate of the national currency, but also revalue it. However,if the
minimum reserve requirement for funds attracted in the national currency increases from the
existing 5% to 10%, it will limit the supply of GEL to the economy.
Understands that this decision may in the short term lead to an increase in interest rates on loans
in national currency (commercial banks will have limited credit potential in GEL), but as long as the
credit potential of commercial banks increases in foreign currency, we think it will increase or
compensate. In the case of “returning to the previous level”, although an increase in the refinancing
rate already leads to an “increase in credit”, the difference is that an increase in the refinancing rate
increases the cost of credit for those who have already taken it, and increases the minimum reserve
requirement in GEL. They are going to take over or they will already know what interest rate they
have to pay, unlike those who are already taking out a bank loan.
References
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CONTRIBUTION OF SMALL AND MEDIUM CREATIVE ENTERPRISES TO THE NATIONAL ECONOMY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
CONTRIBUTION OF SMALL AND MEDIUM CREATIVE ENTERPRISES

TO THE NATIONAL ECONOMY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Aahulnath Kottiyattil Rajeev
Abstract
Creative enterprises use intellectual property, convert this intellectual property which is
often human creativity into profits. Small and medium creative enterprises not only
contribute to the economy but also promise social values like employment and
sustainability. The study aims to research the contributions of these small and medium
creative enterprises to the EU economy and how they influence the GDP of the European
economy. Analysis of various factors like employment, value creation, statistics of creative
jobs within the EU, enterprise to employment ratio in the various sectors within the
creative industry are studied to reach a palpable conclusion. A combination of quantitative
and qualitative research methods like statistical data processing, comparison of various
national and institutional data is done to reach the results. There is also a comparison
performed between conventional creative sectors to neo creative sectors to further
understand the number of people employed to the turnover generated. With conventional
creative sectors taking the back seat and neo-creative sectors leading the industry, this
study further explains the expected trends for the future. This study will be a valuable
addition to get in depth knowledge about small and medium creative enterprises and also
directions for future research are discussed.
Keywords: Small and medium enterprises, creativity, small and medium creative enterprises,
economic development, Gross domestic product, intellectual property
Introduction
The need of creatives is on the rise, and it is no surprise creatives will join together and start small
or medium enterprises monetizing their creative products and services. The rise in demand for
managing this talent is becoming a problem for young managements. Today creative industries are
the suppliers of mass media content and traditional arts (Roodhouse, et al., 2006). Creative
industries can be defined as, the modern economy is built on the use of imagination, creative energy
and knowledge to create new ideas and values. The success of an enterprise therefore depends on
the use of the synthesis of creativity, entrepreneurship and technological innovation (Dronyuk &
Moiseienko, 2019). The industry is acknowledged to suffer from chronic recourse constrains and
growth issues (Landoni et al., 2020).
Small and medium enterprises (SME) in the creative industry are no stranger to the contribution to
economy. Small and medium enterprises are always innovative (Khurana, et al., 2020). In the
European union, firms operating with less than 250 employees and an annual turnover of 50million
euros or less are classified as small medium enterprises (Ndubisi et al., 2020). Even though small

and medium enterprises represent grown, they are not for of limitations. The weak performance of
SME, the demand of small and medium enterprise product is limited and unable to reach to the
foreign markets as well as expertise, as compared to the big industries (Al-Haddad, et al., 2019).
High costs of R&D, lack of innovation, financing SME, limited knowledge about foreign market
opportunities, bureaucratic and political instability sometimes limit the growth of small and medium
enterprises in an economy (Karadag, 2015). Small and medium creative enterprises cannot employ
defensive strategies when said situation occurs like the bigger players in the market. In such scenarios
pro-active process management solutions is the cost-effective solution.
Process management is the art and science of overseeing how work is performed in an organization
to ensure consistent outcome and to take advantage of improvement opportunities (Dumas, et al.,
2018). The aim of business process management is to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of
organizational process through their improvement and introduction of innovation (Lemanska-
Majdzik & Okreglicka, 2015). Process management is not a standalone method for increasing
efficiency, process management is a mix of various methods that ensures efficiency.
Good management is the only key to maximize efficiency while handling such a fragile resource. To
further understand the need of a good management, problems within creative enterprise are narrowed
down below:
• the limitations of managing creative enterprises using conventional management theories,
principles and practices;
• creative capital not used in its full potential;
• incorrect combination of process management principles limiting the creative workflow;
• process efficiency shows negative trend when creative work is managed using conventional
guidelines.
What happens if creative enterprises are treated like conventional entities? As we know socio
organizational factors like management, organizational hierarchy, stakeholders’ pressure and over
expectation depletes creativity. This is a problem for quite a few Small medium enterprises especially
young SME’s when managing creative projects. This problem of managing creative enterprises will
increase as complex creative outlets are emerging. How would decision makers update themselves
with this dynamic climate of change in the creative space? How will conventional concepts of
management be able to cater to these complex creative entities? Measuring efficiency of such
organizations are also in consideration, as creative success may not always be quantifiable but
conventional scales of success like turnover and profit can still be used to measure such creative
organizations. As creative organizations turn intellectual property into financial profits, a tailor-made
process management model will give them competitive advantage over competition. According to da
Silva (2012), process management will advance business organization to have better control over
their results, accurate prediction of goals, factors like cost and performance. Process management
enables the business organizations to become more efficient not only achieving set goals but also
improving the ability of the management to propose innovations. The solution for the identified
problem is to develop a process management model for small medium creative enterprises with easy
implementation and maximizing efficiency as the central aspect.
The aim of article is to study the various economic activities of small and medium creative
enterprises and how they directly contribute to the GDP of economy

1. Theoretical background
Creativity and creative jobs are on the rise. Demand for creatives is also on the increase. They have
become powerful tropes in contemporary social life. Younger generations are following their life to
places that provide creative work opportunities. Creative works in contemporary work
environment is the neo-management policies are promoters of creative jobs (Holt & Lapenta, 2010).
According to the European union in the Green Paper, creative industries are defined as “those
industries which use culture as an input and have a cultural dimension, although their outputs are
mainly functional. This classification includes architecture and design, which integrate creative
elements into wider processes, as well as subsectors such as graphic design, fashion design or
advertising” (Rosso, 2012).
According to United nations conference on trade and development (UNCTAD), creative industries
have the following characteristics:
• creative industries turn intellectual property into jobs and wealth. The continued process
deals with creation, production and distribution of creative products and services;
• activities are knowledge centered, in the arts, which has potential to generate property rights;
• creative industry outputs can be intangible, intellectual, or artistic intangible services and
offer creative content that has economic value and meet market demands;
• they can be positioned somewhere between artistic, service oriented and industrial sectors.
• creative industries are the current dynamic sector in the world economy (Guilherme, 2017).
According to UNCTAD, Creative industries contribute 646 billion in US dollars in worldwide trade
with a growth rate of 8.8% yearly. Creative industries generated 300 000 employment outlets. In
Argentina and Morocco. This is 3.5% of Argentina’s GDP. Unemployment within young population
was drastically reduced in Bangkok with 20000 business formed most of them being in fashion and
related industries. This shows the deep interconnection between creative industries and economic
development (Correa-Quezada, et al., 2018).
Small and medium enterprises were the answer to the great unemployment crises of the 1980’s.
They generate new job opportunities as well as possible large-scale organization of the future.
Innovation are flexibility are the main characteristics of small and medium enterprises
(Abouzeedan, 2011). The main characters of small and medium enterprises affecting their financial
decisions and behavior and performance and growth include size and age, size of small medium
enterprises have an impact on small and medium enterprise activity and its potential to expand.
Small and medium enterprises are better in performance when compared to micro enterprises.
Most of the small and medium enterprises in the sector have large scale employment potential.
Investment and technological change are often increase productivity among small and medium
creative enterprises. Small and medium enterprises are more flexible with fluctuation in the
economy when compared with larger organizations (Berry, et al., 2001).
Organizations having effective process management have been shown to increase the quality of
products and services, decrease costs and make business functions more reliable (Žemgulienė &
Valukonis, 2018). According to (Hung, 2006), process management has seven guiding rules, they
include:
• mapping and documenting of main actives in an organization;
• process management must me customer centered by connecting key activities;

• documented procedures and systems are the main supporting factors of process management;
• performance assessment is done through the measurement of activities;
• process management is a Continuous approach;
• process management is often. Inspired by best practice;
• process management incubates cultural change.
Core elements of process management efficiency are, people, strategic alignment, governance,
culture. Skill and knowledge of people contribute to the efficiency of process management. Culture
is a soft factor that impacts the attitude and behaviors among process participants (Ahmad & Van
Looy, 2019). Process management if mapped and executed properly it has the following advantages,
it improves efficiency and effectiveness of an enterprise by constant improvement of processes.
Innovation supports organizational growth and change management. Process management is the
key path to get an organization up to speed on new technology (Lemańska-Majdzik & Okręglicka,
2015). Process management is a promoter of creativity, strategic initiatives and their achievements,
product quality, competitive advantage of the organization (Alzoubi & Khafajy, 2015).
Methods. Research context

This study portrays the results from the analysis of contributions by small and medium creative
enterprises to a nation’s economy. The small and medium creative enterprise under discussion is
mainly within EU. Various economic growth indicating factors such as employment, value creation,
contribution to GDP is studied within in the scope of this research. Most of the prominent creative
sectors both conventional and neo are considered for this study. Concepts like human creativity,
intellectual property, management of intellectual property are also discussed as a part of this study.
Research question
How does small and medium creative industries contribute to the GDP and to the growth of a
nation’s economy
Research methods
The study commenced by developing a research question. Followed by researching relevant works
within the sphere of the study. Appraising and identifying works for document analysis to extract
data, synthesizing collected data to reach a valid conclusion. For this purpose, a combination of
qualitative and quantitative research methods such as statistical data processing, analysis and
synthesis, and comparison methods were used.
2. Results and discussions
Small and medium creative enterprises are of high economic importance and for us to further
understand the economic indicators, the various factors are to be analyzed. Creative SMEs are the
forerunners of the emerging digital economy. They demonstrate new forms of employment,
revolutionary new business models and exhibits innovations when it comes to networking and co-
operation. The database use to acquire information for this review is from and not limited to

sources like Scopus and ScienceDirect. The following factors are to be considered in order to
identify the contribution of creative SMEs to the economy, the key factors include:
Finance: Even though uncertainties regarding the demand of creative products and services are
higher leading to a very volatile market certain analysis show that the return on sale of creative
products and services are substantially higher than average economy. When estimating the
financial stability of a creative SME, most often the intangible assets intellectual property (IP) is not
valued. Even though dependents on public investment and having very complex models, the profits
are significantly higher. Creative SMEs thus being high volatile yet high profit generating sector,
they indeed contribute to the EU economy.
Human resource: The labor force within Creative SMEs is known to have some unique
characteristics. These characteristics are high level of education, high flexibility and mobility. Most
of the labor force within the creative SMEs are between 15 and 29 years of age. Because of the very
particular nature of the output of this sector, the business model is often not limited to the usual 9
to 5. Hybrid way of working offering temporary forms of employment and high flexibility based
mobile work model guarantees exciting job opportunities within the creative enterprises and most
of the younger labor force are drawn towards such employment opportunity.
Markets and customer: It are very common to see B-to-B relationships within creative enterprises.
The B-to-B trend is on the rise and is very common to find a creative SME working for a very well
reputed larger organization. With the demand for the creative enterprises on the rise, determining
accurate value is not possible. Because of cooperation and networking creative SMEs has high
market potential. Having cross border clients and international relationship are very common
because of digitalization and innovative management. Creative SMEs are not only creative within
their organizations, but they are very creative and innovation drivers of the economy (Europe, 2016).
The above said factors being the main characteristics of Creative SMEs taking those factors and
connecting them to creative industry within the EU is a vital part of this systematic review. The following
section discusses statistical contribution of creative SMEs to the EU economy and its development.
Creative population within Europe are divided into various sectors and scattered over various
nations. When most of these creative population can be seen as enterprises some work as
freelancers. In Table 1 the creative population within Europe is illustrated. The total populations of
creatives within EU are compared to contribution of various sectors of creative industry to identify
the impact of small and medium creative enterprises.
Table 1
Population of creative enterprises within the EU (eurostat, 2021)
Country No. of enterprises in creative sector
Belgium 41,165
Bulgaria 10,757
Czechia 53,805
Denmark 13,639
Germany 135,740
Estonia 3,787
Ireland 13,496
Greece 29,302
Spain 129,684

France 160,507
Croatia 6,877
Italy 183,102
Cyprus 2,544
Latvia 5,190
Lithuania 12,560
Luxembourg 1,632
Hungary 31,697
Malta 1,787
Netherlands 99,821
Austria 16,892
Poland 88,126
Portugal 34,393
Romania 19,520
Slovenia 9,727
Slovakia 14,562
Finland 10,108
Sweden 51,837
Iceland 2,576
Norway 17,411
The creative population of Italy is highest with 183,102 number of creative enterprises followed by
France with 160,507 number of creative enterprises. Germany takes third place with 135,740
creative enterprises. Luxembourg has least number of creative enterprises with 1,632.
Contributions by industries to an economy is the go-to index to understand how well they are doing.
The prominence of an industry can be found by examining the economic contributions they make.
Along with economic contributions they promise employment and promise societal value. Figure 1
shows the volume of various creative enterprises involvement of people in those creative
enterprises to make economic turnover.
Video & film

Software & games
Radio & TV
Performing arts & artistic creation
Music
Design & Visual arts
Cultural education
Books & press
Archives,Libraries, Cultural heritage
Architecture
Advertising
Figure 1. Sectoral contribution of creative industry to the economy in Europe

(Soendermann, 2019)

Creative industries are divided as above. Further studying Figure 1, it is understood that creative
enterprises come around to 2,282,400 units conducting business within EU. These creative
enterprises are together employed 7,347,100 people. These people and enterprises work together
to generate a turnover of 903,900 million in euros every year.
Further analyzing Figure 1, it is clear that industries related to books and press create more
turnover while also employing a greater number of people in 446,300 enterprises. When neo-
creative industries like software’s and games follow this trend creating a. turnover of 118,400, they
significantly employ a smaller number of people and there are only half the number of enterprises
when compared to books and press. Advertising industries are always seen as a very important
space within creative industries. They fall third in terms of turnover created, but they have stood
the test of time and proved to be consistent over the years. Recreational creative industries like
video and film, radio and TV, performing arts and artistic creations come close to software and game
industry in terms of turnover created.
Adding value is very important in any economic activity. Creative industries also add value to the
final product, for 903,900 million euros turnover the creative industry adds, 379,100-million-euro
value. One can find a lot of research being done on small and medium creative enterprises as it is
one of the drivers of economic development. This may also be the main reasons why researchers
always pick this space for research.
After understanding the importance of creative industries to the EU economy, the challenges and
weakness of creative SMEs were identified by EU commission, and they are as follows:
• addressing changing skills needed;
• improving access to finance;
• enlarging the marketplace;
• expanding international reach;
• reinforcing multidisciplinary environment.
It is identified that creative SMEs face special challenges. The uncertainties of demand of their
products and services create greater complexities for these enterprises. Exploring international
opportunities is being treated as a great opportunity as creative products and services are not
limited to a certain region. A key initiative to this was the European Creative Industry Alliance
(ECIA). The aim of this to make the community in Europe to actively support creative industry for
competitiveness, job creation and developing better policies and tools for creative industry.
Conclusion
Based on the results, it is clear that small and medium creative enterprises contribute to nation
economy. Creativity and creative jobs are very prominent in European economies. Conventional
creative enterprises still lead to be the biggest employer within the creative industry. Neo-creative
industries are catching up to conventional creative industries while employing substantially less
people while contributing more turnover.
Neo-creative industries are perceived as indicators of digital development within an economy. They
are very sustainable and require very minimal input compared to conventional creative enterprises
in generating one unit of output. The growth of creative industries within an economy will also drive

in foreign investment. This can be found in creative enterprises in Italy and France as they are seen
as a hub of high fashion commodity, many creative enterprises from these countries provide
creative solutions to enterprises in foreign countries.
Small and medium creative enterprises being a subset of the SME space, have a very high potential
in generating value and contributing to the economy. The scarcity of creativity in doing certain tasks
have also increased demand for such creative enterprises to take shape in helping bigger
established enterprises with creative needs. With a very positive climate for growth and creating
creative goods this study further explains the future potential of enterprises in this space.
Future study direction to further expand this paper can be through further studying neo small and
medium creative industries, their potential of driving in foreign investment, generating diverse
employment opportunities, creating turnover with very minimal input and less wastage of
resources. A study of these industries paired with a sustainable vision will be a very valuable study.
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EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF THE HR MANAGEMENT AND CYBERSECURITY IN BANKING SECTOR
EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF THE HR MANAGEMENT

AND CYBERSECURITY IN BANKING SECTOR
Mario Neel Kamal Sarihaddu
Ivars Linde
ISMA University of Applied Sciences, Latvia
Abstract
This article aims to change the way customers communicate with one another by
addressing issues such as insufficient information about employee positions and unique
employee training programs. Not only do we need to do more practical work, but we also
need to understand the employees' initiative at work and job duties both practically and
intellectually. Another goal of the article is to introduce some new approaches to
customers, such as explaining how their security system works and what the importance
of the Cyber security system is to people, so that they can learn about it. Employees must
also be educated in order to comprehend and explain to customers. This article will explain
how the banking industry's human resource management will operate and what changes
will be made, as well as how cyber security works in the banking sector, what its
importance is, and how both HRM and cyber security are critical in the banking sector, as
well as reveal public opinion by conducting a survey of questions.
Keywords: HRM – Human Resource Management, EEOC – Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,
HRFM – Human Resource Financial Management
Introduction
Presently the world is run through money and the money is saved in the lockers or in fixed deposits
and will be used for other purposes. The banking sector is an ocean which contains lots of
opportunities like getting jobs in the various sectors in the banking sectors in which it sectors
related jobs, cashier job, foreigner financial dealing jobs, administration jobs and Human Resource
Management jobs, in this book I have chosen my HR management in the banking sectors and the
financial of cybersecurity in the banking sectors.
The general description of the Human Resource Management is an operation in companies plan to
maximize representative execution in arrange to meet the employer's key objectives and targets.
More accurately centers on administration of individuals inside companies, emphasizing on
arrangements and framework.
The topic which has been chosen is that human resource management in the banking sectors, in
which the way of receiving costumers and dealing with them and dealing with employees needs
and that lead the company into good environment, so that the repetition of the bank will be in the

high standards and it’s beneficial for the company. At the present generation is getting so fast
growing in their level of priorities and the decisions are making is so quick and everyone needs
some new thing to in their daily life, so the HR representative members need to have some patients
and HR members needs to study the costumer's mindset and must Enroute them into us and make
them a conventional way and they will be so happy and willing to be our part of the bank. Whereas
the employees also need the same type of qualitative HR for that team, and HR needs to learn what
the employees’ hunger for and need to be so smart to deal with the both the costumers and
employee. In this world everything need to be to handle with care and every word which need to
talk is more important but for the HR management team members these are more valuable, so some
changes to be needed for the HR management and the those changes will be explained by the further
and also by the practical way of approaching will also be beneficial and few things can be learn and
few things can be change and also need to learn about the banking sector systematic works, so that
the HR can able to know the all the work duties and maintain the staff members in a proper way
and needs to interact with the clients and the costumers more.
While dealing the clients the most important thing is that most of the customer will ask about the
security of the banking system internally which means the cybersecurity will asking few questions,
because money security is the main thing the customers would like to know about more because
they are some customers will be investing their money in the bank and some people will open the
bank account and that account will be used for the their personal needs so they need to be secure
about their money. So, these kinds of securities are important.
The general description of the Cyber security is the use of technology, procedures, and policies to
prevent cyber assaults on systems, networks, programs, devices, and data. Its goal is to limit the
risk of cyber assaults and secure systems, networks, and technology from unauthorized use
(itgovernance.co.uk, n.d.). Well, that is the general description of the cyber securities of it and the
article which is going through in this is related to the cyber securities of the banking sectors which
can be say as, the goal of cybersecurity in digital banking is to safeguard the assets of customers. As
more individuals go cashless, more activities and transactions are taking place online. People utilize
digital money, such as credit cards and debit cards, to conduct transactions that must be
safeguarded by cybersecurity (Shaji, June 17,2020).
The cyber security is the one most important security in the banking sector because it plays a crucial
role in all the aspects of the banking sector, need to protect the all the customer personal
information data and the money which is stored in the bank what are the customers related
questions which need to be fulfilled by the head of the bank people or the bank represented people.
So, the bank people also need to explain about their security system and approaches, and it is also
not necessary that bank people need to say the whole security process but at the initial steps of the
security systems need to be explain, so that customer feels a bit of comfortable about the bank to
open an account.
Here in this article which is going to explain about the how the banking sectors Human Resource
Management is going to work and what are the changes are going to made and also Cyber security
how does it works in the banking sectors what are its importance and how does both HRM and
Cyber security is important in the banking sector and what are the changes should have to bring in
the banking sectors and how to use those changed methods in reality,these are explained in this
article.

Overall take into consideration first compare the both the Roles of HRM and Cybersecurity in
Banking sector how does both related each other, what are the complaints which I have personally
seen few incidents in banks related to HRM and Cybersecurity so by observational and self
experience in the company what are the changes required and how does to it going to be working
in the both HRM and Cybersecurity and which role is more efficient to work and what des the
changes can we make in these two sectors and also put the survey on the this banking sector
regarding the changes what do the bank people need to changes in the public point of view.
1. Literature review
Human Resource Management in banking sectors

The key role of the Human Resource Management in the banking sector is to maintain the group of
members in the organization and by managing all the financial and economic risks (JOSH, 27 May
2016), and this HR management is also responsible for the searching the new talented manpower
and recruit them in a suitable position. The HR people also must take care about the employee work
at the initial stage of every employee and the clients of his works this is a type of job which must be
manageable in all sorts of problems in the job. Any business that deals with people must have a
robust human resource management system in place to ensure that the organization runs smoothly.
Banking has always been and always will be a “People Business”. Human resource management that
is efficient and effective in the organization makes it successful.
Because of the nature of the banking sector, which is mostly service driven, human resource
management has become increasingly important. The most significant issues facing the banking
business in any given time are the management of people inside the company, as well as the
management of financial and economic risks on a larger scale (JOSH, 27 May 2016). The financial
risks that banks must incur on a regular basis can only be managed by efficient and skilled staff in
the field. The Human Resource department oversees locating such skilled employees and placing
them in appropriate positions within the institutions.
The employees who work at the front desk become the bank's face, thus it is HR's obligation to
ensure that there are qualified people working there. They must ensure that applicants hired by
banks receive the appropriate training before starting work, so that they are better acquainted with
the complexities of the core banking business and client relationships. In the banking business, HR
management must consider both quantity and quality requirements, as well as how to effectively
address the qualified workforce shortage (JOSH, 27 May 2016).
Importance of HR Management in Banking Sector Some of the important things which can be handle
by the HR’s are,
1) Planning and Recruiting – many openings and general growth in the banking business have
arisen from the industry's ever-changing nature and sustained expansion over the last decade.
The number of branches in the public sector has increased dramatically, and the demand for
competent labor has risen in tandem. The banking industry is predicted to make a quantum leap
ahead as the economy grows at a consistent pace of roughly –8% (Chakrabarty, Human
Resource management in banks – need for a, 1 June 2012.), wages rise, and demographic
dividends begin to accrue. Are banks prepared to deal with a new group of workers who will be

culturally distinct from those who came before them in the post-nationalization era? It all starts
with a staffing strategy. Banks must prepare for the following:
• A constant, precisely calibrated recruiting drive.
• As rapid technology advances transform company – ongoing skill up-gradation.
• A new generation of workers will collaborate with an older generation.
2) Getting the appropriate people on board – with the rise of internet banking and core banking
services, the banking sector is changing, and there is a need to bring youth energy and
enthusiasm into work. However, to make it a successful and beneficial mix, there must be a
delicate balance between youth energy and seasoned professionals, just as in any other field
(JOSH, 27 May 2016).To induct professionals at various levels with unique skill sets and
experience pool, banks should carefully consider lateral recruitment. While people often leave
banks to work in financial, legal, or accounting organizations, we seldom hear about people
leaving these professions to work in banks.
3) Retaining and Developing Employees – we might be able to find the best individuals for the job,
but then the problem is to keep them and grow them. Employee training/reskilling, performance
evaluation, promotion policy, transfer policy, talent management, and communication are all
aspects of this problem.
4) Management of Performance – this is the most crucial aspect of human resource management,
and discrimination is at its core. Regrettably, present methods are incapable of distinguishing
between performers and non-performers. In fact, determining who are the performers and who
are the non-performers is impossible. Because an effective Performance Management System is
the key to talent management and succession planning, all banks must have a fair, transparent,
and objective process for performance management.
5) Managing in the Knowledge Economy – we are living in the knowledge era, which means that
our existing management theories, which are geared toward making the industrial society more
productive, as well as the ethics that surround it, will need to undergo a complete overhaul,
we're referring to the management of knowledge workers, and there are a few prerequisites:
• they cannot be handled as subordinates, but as associates;
• they cannot be managed;
• but must be led; they will work flexibly;
• but must have a “home base”; and, most importantly, they cannot be bought or bribed; they
must be empowered.
Future leaders should emerge through a Performance Management System. This may appear to be
an easy task, but we must understand what we want from these leaders. What are the expectations
of a leader? Three things are demanded of a leader:
1) make a strategy (the tasks);
2) motivate (people) Inspire the aspirant, the aspirant, the aspirant, the aspirant, the aspirant,
the aspirant Moreover;
3) deliver (on results).
If a leader fails to deliver, he or she is no longer a leader.
• Communication – Employee communication is an important aspect of the HR process since it
helps to increase transparency in HR processes, giving them credibility. It is critical to be
objective, transparent, and non-discriminatory while dealing with people, and this must be
successfully communicated. The employee must state that the management possesses all of

the attributes listed above. The Board must devote time to developing methods and mechanisms
for this communication, as well as establishing appropriate structures for the purpose.
Employees can be reached using a variety of modern communication methods, such as
intranets, corporate e-mails, and so on.
• Keeping track of resignations and retirements – the HR department is also in charge of talent
retention. The HR department is also in charge of making arrangements to prevent employees
from resigning from a specific company. They must review and analyze the causes behind
employees' decision to leave the company and attempt to improve the situation. The HR
department should also keep track of upcoming retirements and make sure that they have
recruitment notices ready to fill the vacancies. The banking business is a large financial and
economic industry that relies heavily on its workers.
These are the primary obligations that the HR must fulfill in order to fulfill his job role in the banking
sector, and while doing so, the HR will be under a lot of strain and will be responsible for a lot of
things, all of which must be handled by the human resource department. HR managers must also
deal with legal difficulties, as well as pay employees and organize promotions and demotions (Jane,
25, 26 Jan, Sep 2019, 2017).
When it comes to the decoration, it is important that not only the promotion and the publicity will
be helpful but also the decorating bank in a specific order that everything will be in a well manner,
and few people will be impressed by the seeing the outer look of the office or bank and few
costumers will be asking about the lockers of the bank that is the predominant in the bank and also
make sure that bank is having the good furniture make the costumers feel like homey. Point up the
achievements, gifts and awards given to the bank make them visible for the clients and also
certification of the bank and some of the educational achievements can be fix to the walls so that
the clients will be impressed (Jane, 25, 26 Jan, Sep 2019, 2017).
The main accurate points of the where the HR team should be focused on the delivery of the projects
and some of the predominant points are (Roth, 2012),
• capacity to back quick, adaptable organizational change in reaction to changing advertise
conditions;
• create world-class working proficiency;
• provide high-quality worker benefit to bolster those locked in in front-line client interaction;
• viably source and oversee an expanding complex and worldwide workforce;
• create workforce arranging methodologies that source the driving industry talent/leaders for
most key positions;
• create nowadays and tomorrow's pioneers with the abilities to drive key development;
• increment back for household and worldwide compliance and announcing;
• bolster partnership/channel due constancy;
• encourage the organization's operational execution through a coordinate's ability administration
approach.
Different kinds of pressures in HR Management

By depending on all this the HR management team will be having the two pressures will be handing,
which are (Roth, 2012).

External pressure:
• Government regulations (principles of management, HR Management : Laws and Regulations);
• Budgeting the market values (i4cp, n.d.);
• Customer expectations (Angre, MARCH 9, 2016);
• Global development and developing countries (hrmhandbook, HR Roles in Globalization, n.d.).
Internal pressure:
• Product and the channel development (Asmus Komm, 2021);
• Framework (SAIs, 2019);
• Organization models (Asmus Komm, 2021);
• Workforce arranging and administration (Asmus Komm, 2021).
These are some of the pressures that the HR management team must consider, and they must also
be brave enough to handle any situation by employing their technical expertise and presence of
intelligence. They must also keep an eye on the team members; a few benchmarks have been
established in some of the specific bank industries, and they are more prestigious for that bank.
Planning, data collecting, and presentation are the essential features for the HR management team
members.
Cybersecurity in Banking Sectors

With As the world has become more digital, cyber-threats have increased dramatically. You may have
heard recently about the theft of billions of dollars from the world's top financial institutions. As the
globe becomes more digitally connected, fraudsters have more entry points; as a result, cybersecurity
in digital banking is more important than ever. Cybersecurity is the process of defending against
harmful assaults on electronic systems such as computers and data. It's also known as electronic
information security or information technology security. The term “cybersecurity” refers to a set of
technologies and procedures aimed to secure networks, devices, and other computer systems from
assault and damage caused by unauthorized access (Shaji, June 17,2020).
The major goal of cybersecurity in digital banking is to safeguard the valuables of customers. As
more individuals go cashless, additional activities and transactions are taking place online. People
utilize digital money, such as credit cards and debit cards, to conduct transactions that must be
safeguarded by cybersecurity (Shaji, June 17,2020). Banks must have good cybersecurity because
security breaches can make it difficult to trust financial institutions. Banks may face serious
difficulties as a result of this. Cybersecurity in digital banking assures the safety and security of your
sensitive data, which if exposed could result in a slew of troubles, including fraud.
Customers are not the only ones affected by cybercrime in digital banking; banks are also affected
as they try to restore data. To recover the information and data, the banks may have to pay a large
amount of money. If someone's data isn't safeguarded by Cybersecurity, those can be simply hacked.
In the event of cybercrime, a person may suffer significant financial loss as well as psychological
anguish (Shaji, June 17,2020).

Importance of Cybersecurity
Huge amounts of money are processed daily by banking institutions, with the bulk of them taking
place through online payment transfer systems. Here is the some of the importance of Cybersecurity
in the banking sector which are,
• keeping the bank's reputation safe – the reputation of a company can be severely harmed by
a single weak link in its financial technology's cybersecurity (Nag, 2021). If a company's data is
hacked, 80 percent of customers will stop doing business with them, and 85 percent (Banking,
2021) of those customers will tell others about their bad experience. Good cybersecurity
practices and ongoing security monitoring impact favorably on a bank and help to build
confidence. As a result, establishing a powerful group of information security analysts, cyber
security analysts, and other cyber security jobs (banking, 2020) becomes critical. Banks should
also inform their clients about how to protect themselves against cybersecurity attacks.
• minimizing customer money and time loss – a breach of a bank's cybersecurity can wreak
trouble in both its clients' and the bank's lives. When a bank suffers a data breach, it not only
damages its reputation but also costs its clients' money. In most cases, a consumer who loses
money due to card fraud can get it back from the bank. However, in cases such as data breaches,
recovering payments takes time, which can be worrisome for clients (banking, 2020). Not only
does it harm the bank's reputation, but it also puts the consumer under a lot of stress.
• keeping the customer's information safe – many fraudulent situations have occurred in
which the personal information of unsuspecting consumers has been utilized to commit crimes
(Nag, 2021). Customers find it difficult to deal with data breaches when they are aware that their
personal information has been exposed. Furthermore, even if customers restrict their cards, any
cybercriminal may access their personal information (banking, 2020). Personal information is
sold on the black market by cybercriminals to be utilized in future hacking operations and
breaches. Banks must ensure that suitable cybersecurity solutions are in place to secure their
network and, most critically, their customers' personal information as their clientele grows.
• nobody bank wants to be penalized for non-compliance since it would be difficult to
recover. Banks are required by compliance rules to adopt proper cybersecurity safeguards to
avoid cyberattacks. If a bank fails to follow the guidelines and becomes a victim of cyber-attacks,
the FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) (banking, 2020) will impose fines. These fines
can be difficult to recoup from, and they may cause prospective clients to doubt their bank's
honesty. If a bank is hacked because of non-compliance, it is likely to suffer a succession of
setbacks.
• safeguarding data – people have started adopting digital payment applications for online
shopping, ordering food, transferring money, and other activities as the digitalization tsunami
continues to sweep the globe (Nag, 2021). As a result, banking technology must be strict and
watchful in the face of cyber-threats. To create a strong defense against such cyber security
threats, more cyber security jobs are required.
• push notification – messages that appear on your mobile device are known as push
notifications. They can be sent at any moment by application producers. These usually notify
you over something that is happening in real time, such as the latest sports results or a flash
sale (Arthur, 2021). Push notifications are like SMS text messages and mobile alerts, except
that they are only sent to people who have downloaded your application. Push notifications
are an excellent approach to answer consumer issues in real time while also providing value.

As a result, they have double the click-through rate of email, making them a highly successful
tool to reach people (Arthur, 2021).
These are the importance of the Cybersecurity in the banking sectors and need to be more careful about
the security systems and also have to be protect all the information of the clients and also the banking
people have to be careful about everything in their duties and head or the manager or respective
representative of the bank members have to be very careful about the information of the customers and
have to be explained every detail of the work if necessary well not all the secrets but few initial things
which the customer is having doubts need to be clarify by the head or the responsible person.
Banks suffer cyber security problems

To begin, it's important to be aware of the current cyber security dangers that a bank encounters
on a regular basis. Banking technology has faced new obstacles as the meaning of banking has
evolved over time, most notably cybersecurity issues. Here are a few serious worries regarding
banking cybersecurity that are making users nervous.
App-related dangers – malpractices can occur as a result of technical advancements, such as harmful
malware already installed on the phone or a lack of strict security when using the application
(banking, 2020). Because most users do not actively safeguard their personal devices, they have
little to no security protection in the case of an attack. As a result, the scale of an assault is greatly
increased. To avoid harmful activity from your mobile applications, you'll need to use a safe banking
software solution.
Third-party entities are a target for hackers – many banking institutions employ third-party
solutions to provide better service to their consumers, such as chatbots and customer relationship
management software provided by other private organizations. Hackers will constantly come up
with new ways to attack data security. A new door has opened thanks to modern bank services and
internet technologies that allow for quick transactions and account maintenance (Musthafa, March
19, 2021). Hackers can quickly access the network if these systems are not adequately safeguarded
by a cybersecurity plan. The degree of connection that third-party technologies have with core
banking systems and systems that store client data should be regularly monitored and reviewed.
Data is under constant danger – encrypting personally identifiable information and protecting it
from fraudsters is the primary and most crucial duty in cybersecurity professions. Customers'
personally identifiable information, such as their name, address, credit score, PII, and non-public
personal information, is held by banks, and if it gets into the wrong hands, it may cause problems
for both the consumer and the bank. Mischief-makers aren't usually out to steal information As a
result, in recent years, there has been an increase in the need for cybersecurity positions (Musthafa,
March 19, 2021).
Phishing attack – phishing is a deceptive method of getting specific banking information through
illegal means, the most prevalent of which is through phony emails that appear to be from the firm.
Phishing tries to collect personal information such as banking logins, PINs, bank account numbers,
and credit card details in the banking industry. Fraudsters use this information to gain access to
accounts, execute transactions, perpetrate credit card fraud, or sell it on the illegal market. We can

defend yourself against fraudulent email phishing attempts by taking the following steps
(rbadvisory, n.d.):
• check the sender's source Validate the link;
• evaluate the email's objective;
• review the email for any mistakes;
• inform authorities about any suspicious activities;
• spoofing;
• ransomware is a sort of malicious software (malware);
• disconnect systems and, if required, turn them off;
• remove the danger from the system;
• ransomware-as-a-Service (RaaS) (book).
Some of the incidents in HR Management in Banking sectors

No good communication with the people, like if any person comes and says about an issue they will
be not be solved within time and, they will take time much time and also will mot say exact problem
if we go certain issue.
Lack of training to the staff, sometime there will be no good behavior from the staff people they will
disrespect the people by not wishing by seeing their skin color and some people will not give proper
reply also this is main disrespectful behavior.
While the HR management in the banking sector in India is that having HRM is fundamentally
defined as the "planning, organizing, directing, and managing of activities connected to employee
training and development in terms of allowing people to gain competences necessary to do their
current and future roles with ease and passion. Fairly frequently, officials in HR departments have
little or no experience or training in HR administration, and they end themselves there by chance
rather by purpose. The failure of HR people in banks, and the influence on their performance, has
also been hidden in part by a shortage of competition in the banking sector. PSBs frequently shifted
trained people to younger banks due to more appealing remuneration structures and greater career
advancement chances.
There is a scam which has happen in India in 1992 scam with the most precious bank in India of SBI
which a very big scam happened in 1992, the person behind it is Harshad Mehta and his brothers it
now the bank hasn’t retained the full amount of money in this scam, The scam caused substantial
disruption to India's stock market, robbing investors of more than 10 million USD. In a case of
defrauding the State Bank of India (SBI) to the tune of Rs 105 crore (1992 SBI fraud: 8 bank officials,
Harshad Mehta''s brother acquitted,, 2018 November 6), When the scheme was revealed in April
1992, the Indian stock market crashed, and the same banks suddenly found themselves holding
millions of INR in now-useless debt.
Bankrupt of Vijay Mallya, A collection of 17 Indian banks is attempting to recover roughly $90 billion
(US$1.2 billion) (Angre, MARCH 9, 2016) in loans that Mallya is believed to have funneled in order to
obtain a 100 percent or partial ownership in approximately 40 enterprises throughout the world.
Several organizations, including the Income Tax Department and the Central Bureau of Investigation,
are looking into Mallya for financial fraud and money laundering, and the Attorney General stated
that Mallya's assets overseas are "far in excess of loans obtained by him. On 13 March 2016, the High

Court of Judicature in Hyderabad issued a non-bailable warrant against Mallya for his failure to
appear in court on an accusation of scamming the GMR Hyderabad International Airport Ltd by
sending them a dishonored cheque for 5 million (US$ 66,000) (Angre, MARCH 9, 2016). Mallya was
detained on 18 April 2017 by the UK Metropolitan Police extradition section “on authority of the
Indian government in relation to allegations of fraud”, and was freed on bail awaiting further
investigation of the matter. A UK court has ordered Vijay Mallya to pay £ 200,000 (18.1 million) to
Indian banks on June 16, 2018. He was also ordered to pay for the filing of a worldwide freezing
decision and the establishment of Karnataka's Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT) (Desk).
I just want to share my own experience in one of the bank (Swedbank) I have experienced in Latvia
I just took an appointment for a bank issue of my account I went to the front-end desk for the help
and they said they can’t understand English and they told me to come tomorrow, it’s not a good
thing to say that it is so straight way to say that and also they didn’t ask me any kind of next
appointment and also they didn’t ask any problem and it’s a king of rude towards a foreigner it
sounds a bit of racism, because of my skin color and also being a government kind of bank and they
are having a good number of foreigner students the bank need to provide a good English speaker
and the team of HRM need to understand the situation what’s happening and also have find the
where the wrong went and also hiring the raciest people in the bank and also while giving the
training they need to say few important issues or the laws how to treat the people and also need to
know how to treat the people and fault in the HRM by not giving them proper training and not say
them the proper rules and regulation for them and not hiring the good crew.
Some of the incidents in Cybersecurity in Banking Sector

Two second-year IT students from Kenya's Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
(JKUAT) appeared in court after allegedly hacking into a local bank, stealing KES24.4 million
(US$224,150) (Odhiambo, 29th October, 2020).
The worldwide aspect of cybercrime is most visible in wire fraud. Vladimir Levin, a Russian
programmer at a computer software business in St. Petersburg, engineered one of the largest and
best-organized wire fraud scams. Levin began moving $10 million from Citibank, N.A. subsidiaries
in Argentina and Indonesia to bank accounts in San Francisco, Tel Aviv, Amsterdam, Germany, and
Finland in 1994, with the help of hundreds of confederates. According to Citibank, all but $400,000
(Dennis) of the monies were finally recovered as Levin's associates sought to withdraw them. Levin
was eventually extradited to the United States in 1998, while he was imprisoned to three years in
prison and compelled to repay Citibank $ 240,015 (Dennis).
In an inquiry into the role of global banking in laundering money, six Pakistani institutions have
been listed, with a total value of at least $ 2.5 million (SECTIONS, September 24, 2020). Allied Bank,
United Bank Limited (UBL), Habib Metropolitan Bank, Bank Alfalah, Standard Chartered Bank
Pakistan, and Habib Bank Limited are the six financial institutions. According to newly disclosed
information on Pakistani banks, the received transactions totaled $ 1,942,560, whereas the sent
transactions totaled $ 452,000 (SECTIONS, September 24, 2020), with at least 12 suspicious
transactions by Allied Bank, eight flagged transactions by United Bank Limited, three by Bank
Alfalah, four transactions by Standard Chartered Bank, and one by Habib Bank Limited.

The Reserve Bank of India has been informed that Indian Bank has identified a fraudulent involving
over Rs 266 crore (RBI) (Punj, 30 October, 2021). Three non-performing accounts have been flagged as
fraudulent by the bank. The public service lender stated in a regulatory filing that these non-performing
accounts had been identified as fraud and notified to the RBI as per regulatory requirements.
I have to share with you the important incident happen in my life is that in 2018 I just came new to
Latvia I was staying in my friend's house and there were sudden police attack in my Neighbor house
where there is a house checking is going on and that Neighbors also Indians, they took 2 people to the
station and without saying any reason and after 48 hours they were released and after that I has a
chat with them what happen the reason behind their bars is that few years back some of the fraud
bank people have took their bank account and shifted the amount of money to their account from
unidentified account from UK and after 1 year this illegal money transition came inti consideration to
the cybersecurity's and after that they inform to UK banks and after that they inform to Latvian
government about the illegal money transition and filed a case and gave search orders to the bank
officers and they approach the police and they have taken all the personal data and approached all
the students and their bank details and police approached the students. After 1 year of doing the scam,
this incident happens and they couldn't find the hacker and fraud bank members also, this is too late
by the Cybersecurity operators and because of this main fraud member is away and they couldn’t find
the main illegal person and so many students have affected by this.
There is another incident happen to my close friend about the money hacking in his account, my is
having SWEDBANK account he has 240 euros in his account and suddenly in his account 200 euros
have been deducted and he is so confused and after that he approached the bank and bank people
told him that someone is hacked his account and after that he approach the bank and he told he
need his money and the bank people couldn't do anything and they told him that he need to order
a new card and also they couldn’t do anything for his money this is so ashamed of the banks about
the security systems and also they approach him so negatively and that make a very negativity of
the bank and not only for my friend for few people also have does the same kind of issue faced by
the hackers doing hacking their account and the bank does same thing as like my friend does.
Methodology of the HR Management in Banking Sectors

• Employment needs
• Clients’ satisfaction
• Inadequate information
• Good Leadership
• Responsibilities of organization
Methodology of the Cybersecurity in Banking Sectors

• The most appropriate security solution
• Employees Should Be Trained
• Audit all systems on a regular basis.
• Keep your data safe
• Consumer Education
• Anti-virus and anti-malware software are two types of anti-virus and anti-malware software

These are the proposed methods which will be helpful for the doing the article and also these are
the important to be followed the banking sectors and I think these are main methods which need to
be implement in both sectors and in these both sectors the main segment is the training to the
employee to give training and to educate the banking customers are the common responsibilities
which the people need to understand the responsibilities of the employees have and also the
employers also need to understand the customers point of view.
Research and Methods
The scenario here is the observation and talking to clients to get their feedback on how the bank
employees treat them. What are the consequences they have faced, and which sector, such as HRM
and Cybersecurity, has the most common and efficient impact of changing the banking sectors
according to the given methodology, and there must be a bit of comparison with the collected data
or information? We can easily find out what the possible ways to improve HRM and Cybersecurity
are in these proposed methods. Having the surveying process also important because to know the
people point of view about the banking sector, how it is working.
Results
Determination of sample size needs to calculate the number of required respondents from
population.
Formula to be used for infinite population:
Where as
S = Sample size (to be found)
𝑠𝑠 2 ×𝑝𝑝(1–𝑝𝑝)
𝑠𝑠 =
𝑒𝑒 2
z = z- score, that is confidence level. For 95% value of z will be 1.96 p = population proportion (50%=
0.5)
e = acceptable error (the precision) that is 0.05
Hence, according to formula given
(𝑧𝑧–𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)2 ×𝑝𝑝(1−𝑝𝑝) 1.962 ×0.5(1–0.5) 3.8416×0.25
s= = = = 384.16
(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒)2 0.052 0.0025
The required sample size is 384 with the Margin of error less than 5% or 0.05. We consider the
sample size of 400 which is closest to the required sample.
Conclusion
According to my option and the people opinion the results will be evaluated and my opinion both HRM
and Cybersecurity’s are having the training session same the kind of teaching in their specific fields and
the employees need some of the professional ethics according to the jobs and to the organization.
Customers are also needed to understand the situation of the bank people, the methodology is which

are proposed need to be followed by the banking sectors. Both sectors are having the equal importance
in their own prospective views, both are important to the banking sector and need to implement the
proposed methods, so that some changes can take place for further coming years.
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https://enterslice.com/learning/cybersecurity-in-digital-banking-threats-challenges-and-solution/

PUBLISKAS PERSONAS NEKUSTAMĀ ĪPAŠUMA NODOŠANA BEZATLĪDZĪBAS LIETOŠANĀ LATVIJĀ
PUBLISKAS PERSONAS NEKUSTAMĀ ĪPAŠUMA NODOŠANA

BEZATLĪDZĪBAS LIETOŠANĀ LATVIJĀ
REGULATION OF USE PUBLIC PERSON PROPERTY

WITHOUT COMPENSATION IN LATVIA
Ernests Saulītis
Abstract
The prohibition to transfer public person property to a third person for use without
compensation and exceptions to this general principle have long ago been included in
the Latvian regulatory framework. The use without compensation within the meaning
of the regulatory enactment envisages the obligation of the recipient of the grant to
ensure the maintenance of the relevant property, as well as to cover the related
expenses. At present, the regulation covers the transfer of the property of a public
person to a private person for the performance of public administration tasks
delegated to it, including the provision of public person services, public benefit
organizations and social enterprises. The transfer of the property of a public person
for use without compensation to another public person (its institution) is excluded
from the subject of direct regulation. The aim of the research is to provide an insight
into the transfer of public property for use without compensation in the historical
development of the regulatory framework in Latvia and the problems identified in
practice, as well as to provide recommendations for its application in practice and
improvement of the regulatory framework.
Keywords: Public property, use without compensation, public services, public good
Ievads
Aizliegums nodot publiskas personas mantu trešo personu bezatlīdzības lietošanā un izņēmumi no
šā vispārējā principa tika ietverti jau Publiskas personas finanšu līdzekļu un mantas izšķērdēšanas
novēršanas likuma (PPFLMINL, 1995) (turpmāk – PPFLMINL) pamata redakcijā. Šie izņēmumi
sākotnēji tikai attiecināti uz publisku personu savstarpējām mantiskajām attiecībām,
aprobežojoties ar norādi PPFLMINL 5. panta otrās daļas 5. punktā ar gadījumiem, ka citos likumos
vai Ministru kabineta noteikumos ir atļauts valsts vai pašvaldību mantu nodot bezatlīdzības
lietošanā. Vēlāk PPFLMINL vispirms tika ietverts regulējums, ka publiskas personas manta var tikt
nodota privātpersonām bez atlīdzības (PPFLMINL, 2008). Savukārt vēlāk, tiesību doktrīnai un
likumdošanas praksei attīstoties, no PPFLMINL tika lietošanā izslēgtas norādes par publisku
personu savstarpējo tiesisko attiecību regulējumu šajā jomā (PPFLMINL, 2012). Publiskas personas
mantas nodošana trešo personu bezatlīdzības lietošanā jānošķir no finanšu līdzekļu vai mantas
dāvinājuma. Bezatlīdzības nodošanas lietošanā vispārējā gadījumā neparedz īpašuma tiesības

pāreju lietotājam, kā arī šī tiesība PPFLMINL ietvaros ir definēta kā terminēta, t.i., piešķirama uz
laiku. Līdz ar to nodošana bezatlīdzības lietošanā civiltiesiski atbilst Civillikuma (LCL, 1992)
(turpmāk – LCL) 1947.–1967. pantā ietvertajam patapinājuma līgumam. Uz šo papildus norāda arī
PPFLMINL trīs prim daļā ietvertais regulējums, kas paredz, ka tiesību subjekts, kuram nodota manta
bezatlīdzības lietošanā, nodrošina attiecīgās mantas uzturēšanu, arī sedz ar to saistītos izdevumus
(sal. ar LCL 1953. pantu).
PPFLMINL 5. pantā ietverto publiskas personas mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā ir jānošķir
no administratīvo tiesību doktrīnā ietverto publisko lietu parastās izmantošanas koncepcijas, kas
vispārējā gadījumā paredz publisko lietu lietošanu bez atlīdzības, vai arī prezumējot, ka šāda
atlīdzība tiek noteikta (tieši vai netieši) ar normatīvu aktu. Res publica (publiskās lietas) aptver
publisko personu aktīvu (mantas kopuma) daļu, kas tieši vai netieši ir paredzēts vai tiek izmantots
sabiedrības vajadzībām kopumā. Vācijas administratīvo tiesību doktrīnā pausts viedoklis, ka
publisko lietu tiesībām ir visai nosacīta saistība ar lietu tiesībām privāttiesiskā izpratnē, jo šīs
tiesības nav nedz pretstatā civilo lietu tiesībām, nedz to papildinājums (Paine, 2002, 407). Šis
viedoklis mūsdienās uzskatāms par pamatotu, lai arī diskusijai vēl arvien ir atvērts jautājums par
piemērojamo tiesību prioritāti (Danovskis, 2015, 95–96). Vienlaikus jānorāda, ka arī publisku lietu
var nodot sevišķā lietošanā konkrētai personai (par atlīdzību vai bezatlīdzības lietošanā), kas var
radīt zināmus jautājumus par piemērojamajām tiesībām vai lietas piekritību. Šādas situācijas īpaši
var rasties gadījumos, ja daļa no lietošanā nododamajiem aktīviem ir uzskatāmi par publiskām
lietām, bet otra daļa – publiskas personas aktīvi ar privāttiesisku statusu (piemēram, biroju ēka ar
tai pieguļošu publisku laukumu vai ielu) (SKA-11, 2020). Šajās situācijās jautājumus par
piemērojamajām tiesībām un/vai lietas piekritību var radīt ne tikai strīdi, kas izriet no tiesiskajām
attiecībām starp pusēm (lietas nodevēju un lietotāju), bet arī trešajām personām, kuru subjektīvās
tiesības vai intereses var būt aizskartas ar šādu piešķīrumu (ART- A42-01372-21/14, 2021).
Lai arī jautājums par piemērojamajām tiesībām vai lietas piekritību nav uzskatāms par īpaši
komplicētu, piemērošanas praksē šie jautājumi mēdz radīt zināmus izaicinājumus kā praktiķiem, tā
arī doktrīnai. Atšķiras gan bezatlīdzības lietošanā nododamo publisko personu aktīvu sastāvs,
izmantošanas veids, pamats un arī lietošanai noteiktais mērķis. Vienotas, publiski pieejamas
informācijas par publisku personu mantas piešķīrumiem bezatlīdzības lietošanā nav, un tās
iegūšana ir apgrūtināta gan subjektu, gan arī objektu daudzveidības dēļ. Jāatzīmē, ka pastāv vienots
publiskošanas risinājums valsts iestāžu un kapitālsabiedrību mantas iznomāšanas gadījumā. Tā
papildināšana ar jaunu līguma veidu nevarētu radīt īpašu finanšu slogu vai būtiskus tehniskus
izaicinājumus. Tomēr normatīvā līmenī pilnībā pietiekami būtu papildināt PPFLMINL 5. pantu ar
regulējumu, ka informācija par šiem piešķīrumiem un noslēgtajiem līgumiem ir publiskojama
publiskās personas interneta vietnē.
1. Ar publiskas personas mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanu saistītais

regulējums ārvalstīs
Ņemot vērā, ka pētījuma objekts ir Latvijas normatīvais regulējums un tā piemērošanas prakse, tad
ārvalstu pieredzes izpēte tiek aprobežota ar kaimiņvalstīm – Lietuvu un Igauniju. Kopīgā vēsturiskā
pieredze tomēr nav novedusi pie normatīvā regulējuma un doktrīnas unifikācijas. Vienlaikus
konstatējams, ka ar publiskas personas mantu saistītais regulējums ir vērtējams kā visai līdzīgs

vismaz pēc tajā ietvertajām vadlīnijām. Lietuvā un Igaunijā rīcība ar publisko personu mantu ir
noregulēta vienā normatīvajā aktā. Igaunijā tas ir Valsts aktīvu (īpašuma) likums (Riigivaraseadus)
(IVAL, 2009) (turpmāk – IVAL), bet Lietuvā – Valsts un pašvaldību īpašuma pārvaldīšanas, lietošanas
un atsavināšanas likums (turpmāk – VVĪPLA) (Lietuvos Respublikos valstybės ir savivaldybių turto
valdymo, naudojimo ir disponavimo juo įstatymo) (VVĪPLA, 2014). Igaunijas normatīvo regulējumu
var uzskatīt par nosacīti šaurāku, jo tas ir attiecināms tikai uz valstij piederošajiem aktīviem ar
zināmiem izņēmumiem (skat. IVAL 2. pantu). Savukārt VVĪPLA regulējumi attiecas arī uz valsts un
pašvaldību mantu, kas ir nodota trešo personu pārvaldīšanā, tādējādi subjektu loks ir plašāks.
Latvijas normatīvais regulējums sistēmiski ir saskaņots ar Valsts pārvaldes iekārtas likuma (VPIL,
2002) (turpmāk – VPIL) regulējumiem, attiecinot to uz visām publiskajām personām, kā arī tām
piederošajām kapitālsabiedrībām.
IVAL un VVĪPLA ir ietverti regulējumi, kas paredz iespēju nodot publiskas personas mantu
bezatlīdzības lietošanā trešajām personām. Vienlaikus regulējumā skaidri ir iezīmētas publisko
personu savstarpējaās attiecības šajos jautājumos, kas Latvijas gadījumā ir noregulētas tikai daļā ar
nekustamo īpašumu un kustamas mantas nodošanu bez atlīdzības īpašumā Publiskas personas
mantas atsavināšanas likumā (turpmāk – PPMAL) (PPMAL, 2002) ietvaros. VVĪPLA 14. pants paredz,
ka valsts un pašvaldību īpašumu uz laiku var nodot bezatlīdzības pārvaldīšanā un lietošanā starp
dažāda līmeņa valsts un pašvaldību institūcijām, juridiskām personām ar sociālā uzņēmuma
statusu, biedrībām un arodbiedrībām (šā panta otrajā daļa – biedrībām, kuru galvenais mērķis ir
sniegt labumu sabiedrībai vai tās daļai sociālās vai valsts nacionālās drošības stiprināšanas
jomā; arodbiedrībām īslaicīgai bezatlīdzības pārvaldīšanai un aizņēmumu lietošanai drīkst nodot
tikai pašvaldības nekustamo īpašumu noteiktajos gadījumos); politiskajām partijām, citiem
subjektiem, ja to nosaka likumi, starptautiskie līgumi vai starptautiskie līgumi. Lietuvas regulējumā
ietverti arī minimālie priekšnoteikumi (14. panta trešā daļa), kas jāizvērtē pirms lēmuma
pieņemšanas par nekustamā īpašuma nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā. Interesanti, ka izvērtējumu
jāveic arī attiecībā uz valsts institūcijām, kas netiek finansētas no budžeta un pašvaldībām. Viens no
izvērtējuma kritērijiem ir: vai konkrētajam subjektam šajā pašvaldība pieder, vai arī ir jau iepriekš
nodots bezatlīdzības lietošanā kāds nekustamais īpašums. Latvijas prakse rāda, ka šis kritērijs var
būt aktuāls, jo konstatējami gadījumi, ka sabiedriskā labuma organizācijām vienas pašvaldības
teritorijā ir nodoti bezatlīdzības lietošanā vairāki nekustamie īpašumi. Piešķīruma saņēmējam ir
jāpamato, ka aktīvi, kurus lūgts piešķirt, ir nepieciešami tā veiktajām darbībām, un to izmantošanas
mērķis atbilst norādītajiem subjekta darbības mērķiem, kā arī jāpamato, ka tā darbības rezultāti
sniedz labumu sabiedrībai vai tās daļai. Latvijā piešķīruma pamatā ir vairāk formāli kritēriji:
deleģēta uzdevuma vai publiska pakalpojuma sniegšana, kā arī formālais statuss, kuru piešķir valsts
noteiktā kārtībā (sociālais uzņēmums, sabiedriskā labuma organizācija).
No VVĪPLA 14. panta ceturtās daļas secināms, ka lēmumu par aizdevuma līgumā paredzēto valsts
aktīvu nodošanu pieņem valdība, bet attiecībā uz budžeta iestādēm – centralizēti pārvaldīts valsts
īpašuma pārvaldnieks. Pašvaldību gadījumā lēmumu par pašvaldības īpašuma nodošanu
bezatlīdzības lietošanā pieņem pašvaldības dome vai tās pilnvarota institūcija. Valsts un pašvaldību
ilgtermiņa materiālie aktīvi var nodoti bezatlīdzības lietošanā uz laiku, kas nepārsniedz 10 gadus,
ja vien normatīvajā regulējumā nav noteikts citādi. Lēmumā jānorāda piešķīruma līguma termiņš
un mantas lietošanas mērķis, kā arī citi piešķīruma nosacījumi, kas jāiekļauj šajā līgumā. Pirms
līguma noslēgšanas piešķīruma saņēmējam ir jāiesniedz rakstveida apņemšanās izmantot savus
līdzekļus nodotā nekustamā īpašuma kārtējam un kapitālajam remontam un citu ilgtermiņa

materiālo vērtību remontam ar aizdevuma līgumā paredzētajiem nosacījumiem. No normas teksta

var secināt, ka noslēdzamajam līgumam ir piemērojami Lietuvas Civilkodeksa (LCKD, 2000)
(regulējumi par uzticības (trasta) līgumu – 6.953.–6.968. pants). Vienlaikus, kā to paredz arī
Lietuvas Civilkodeksa 6.968. pants, valsts un pašvaldību mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanas līgumos kā
īpašie nosacījumi ir jāietver piešķīruma saņēmēja pienākums veikt nekustamā īpašuma kārtējo un
kapitālo remontu, citu ilgtermiņa materiālo vērtību remontu, samaksāt visas uzturēšanas izmaksas
un apdrošināt ilgtermiņa aktīvus. Piešķīrējam noteikts imperatīvs pienākums lauzt piešķīruma
līgumu, ja saņēmējs neveic darbību, kuras veikšanai tika nodots valsts vai pašvaldības īpašums, vai
izmanto šo mantu citiem mērķiem. Piešķīrējam arī ir tiesība līgumu lauzt, ja saņēmējs nepilda
pienākumu par saviem līdzekļiem veikt nekustamā īpašuma kārtējo vai kapitālo remontu vai arī
citu materiālo pamatlīdzekļu remontu. Papildus tam, personas, kurām valsts un pašvaldību īpašums
nodots bezatlīdzības lietošanā, nedrīkst to iznomāt vai citādi nodot lietošanā trešajām personām.
IVAL 18. pants paredz, ka valsts mantu var nodot lietošanā par maksu, kas ir zemāka par tirgū
noteikto lietošanas maksu, kā arī var nodot lietošanā bez atlīdzības, ja tas nepieciešams: pašvaldībai,
lai veiktu tās likumā noteiktās funkcijas, apgrūtināt ar apbūves tiesību par labu ekonomiskās
aktivitātes veicināšanai, publisko tiesību juridiskajai personai likumā noteikto funkciju veikšanai,
privāto tiesību juridiskajai personai ar likumu vai administratīvo līgumu noteiktas publiskas
funkcijas veikšanai, valsts dibinātai vai dibināmai bezpeļņas organizācijai vai nodibinājumam
statūtos paredzēto funkciju veikšanai, bezpeļņas organizācijai vai nodibinājumam statūtos
paredzēto funkciju veikšanai, kas saistītas ar glābšanu, izglītību, pētniecību, kultūru, valodu vai
darbu ar jaunatni, vai veselības aprūpes un sociālo pakalpojumu sniegšanai vai citiem
sabiedriskiem mērķiem, kā arī citos likumā paredzētajos gadījumos. Kā redzams, tad atšķirībā no
Lietuvas Igaunijas regulējums neparedz iespēju nodot publiskai personai piederošu nekustamo
īpašumu politiskai partijai, kā arī regulējuma speciālo subjektu lokā nav ietvertas arodbiedrības.
Atšķirībā no Latvijas un Lietuvas, Igaunijas regulējumā īpaši ir noteikti gadījumi, kad valsts
nekustamā īpašuma nodošanai ir nepieciešama valdības piekrišana, kad lēmums pieņemts
diskrecionārā kārtībā un piešķīruma termiņš pārsniedz 10 gadus (IVAL 19. panta otrā daļa). Prasība
par valdības lēmumu ir attiecināta arī uz valsts kustamo mantu, kuras vērtība ir lielāka par
1 000 000 euro un piešķīruma termiņš ir ilgāks par vienu gadu. Lēmumā par valsts mantas
nodošanu lietošanā (tai skaitā bezatlīdzības lietošanā) jābūt vismaz lietošanā nodoto līdzekļu
aprakstam, par lēmuma izpildi atbildīgajai institūcijai, termiņam, uz kādu aktīvi tiek nodoti
lietošanā, vai paziņojumam par to, ka līdzekļi tiek nodoti lietošanā uz nenoteiktu laiku, līdzekļu
nodošanas lietošanā veidam, lietošanas maksas noteikšanas nosacījumiem un maksas apmēra
pamatojumam, maksas par lietošanu koriģēšanas noteikumiem, papildu nosacījumiem aktīvu
nodošanai lietošanā atlases konkursa kārtībā, ja lēmums pieņemts konkursa kārtībā – lietotāja
nosaukumam un reģistrācijas numuram vai personas kodam. Prasības lēmumam, kas tiek pieņemts
IVAL 19. panta otrajā daļā paredzētajā gadījumā, ir noteiktas IVAL 21. panta trešajā daļā. Papildus
minimālajām prasībām šāda piešķīruma lēmumā ir nepieciešams ietvert pamatojumu tiesību
piešķīrumam bez procedūras, tā termiņam, lietošanas līguma nosacījumiem un informācijai par
iespējamajiem valsts izdevumiem līguma izpildei. Lēmumam arī pievieno lietošanas līguma projektu
un dokumentus, kas apliecina iesniegto informāciju, un citus dokumentus, kuriem ir nozīme
lēmuma pieņemšanā.

IVAL 18. panta trešā daļa paredz, ka valsts mantas lietošanas maksai bezatlīdzības lietošanas
gadījumā ir jānodrošina vismaz mantas ekonomiskā saglabāšana, kas ir lietotājam no līguma
izrietošs pienākums. Tāpat valsts mantas pārvaldītājam lietošanas līgumā jāparedz, ka jebkādus ar
mantu saistītos blakus izdevumus, nodokļus vai apgrūtinājumus sedz mantas lietotājs proporcionāli
lietošanas tiesību apjomam, kā arī ikvienā lietošanas līgumā, kas noslēgts uz laiku – ilgāku par trim
gadiem, īpašuma pārvaldītājam jāparedz nosacījumi lietošanas maksas koriģēšanai. IVAL 18. panta
septītā daļa arī paredz nosacījumu, ka ar mantas nodevēja lēmumu var tikt veikts ieskaits, lai
atlīdzinātu lietotājam radušos izdevumus par mantas uzlabošanu. Šādu nosacījumu ir jāietver
lietošanas līgumā un tas saistāms uzlabojumiem, kas veikti ar piešķīrēja piekrišanu. Tāpat jebkuru
ieskaitu veikšanai nepieciešams līgumā noteikt ieskaita laiku, apjomu un nosacījumus. Tādējādi
secināms, ka Latvijas, Lietuvas un Igaunijas regulējumi ir visai līdzīgi jautājumos, kas saistīti ar
piešķīruma izlietotāja pienākumu uzturēt bezatlīdzības lietošanā nodoto nekustamo īpašumu un
segt ar to saistītos izdevumus. Tas arī parāda, ka tiesiskās attiecības satur dāvinājuma elementu, jo
piešķīruma izlietotājam nav jāmaksā ekonomiski pamatota (tirgus) maksa par lietošanu, tomēr
lietotāja pienākums ir uzturēt lietošanā saņemto objektu un segt ar tā lietošanu saistītos izdevumus.
Līdz ar to var izdarīt secinājumu, ka bezatlīdzības lietošanas piešķīrumam Latvijas normatīvā
regulējuma izpratnē piemīt patapinājuma līguma tiesiskā daba.
2. Publiskas personas mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanas objekti

un subjekti Latvijā
Atbilstoši PPFLMINL 5. pantā ietvertajam regulējumam publiskas personas bezatlīdzības piešķīruma

objekts ir publiskas personas manta. No PPFLMINL 1. panta un tam sekojošā regulējuma secināms,
ka likumdevējs ir izvēlējies noteikt atšķirīgu regulējumu rīcībai ar publiskas personas finanšu
līdzekļiem un pārējo mantu. Finanšu līdzekļi var būt bezatlīdzības piešķīruma objekts aizdevuma
vai dāvinājuma formā. Tomēr no PPFLMINL 4. un 10. pantā ietvertā regulējuma secināms, ka
bezatlīdzības lietošanas objekts nevar būt publiskas personas finanšu līdzekļi šā likuma 5. panta
izpratnē. Vienlaikus jānorāda, ka publiskas personas finanšu līdzekļu un mantas dāvināšanas
regulējuma izpētei būtu nepieciešams plašāks pētījums, jo šāda veida piešķīrumu iespējamība un
pieļaujamība tieši un netieši ietverta visai daudzos normatīvajos aktos. PPFLMINL 5. pants tiešā
veidā satur norādes, ka bezatlīdzības lietošanas objekts var būt publiskas personas nekustamais
īpašums un kustama manta. No normu konteksta nav pamatoti izdarīt secinājumu, ka publiska
persona var nodot bezatlīdzības lietošanā tikai ķermeniskas lietas LCL 842. panta izpratnē.
PPFLMINL un PPMAL izmantotā terminoloģija kopumā ir vērtējama kritiski, jo ar civiltiesību
kontekstā visai diskutablo mantas jēdzienu tiek apzīmēts publiskas personas aktīvu kopums,
izslēdzot no tā finanšu līdzekļus. Līdz ar to var izteikt apgalvojumu, ka bezatlīdzības lietošanas
objekts PPFLMINL 5. panta izpratnē var būt jebkurš publiskas personas aktīvs (manta), kas nav
finanšu līdzekļi. Šeit gan jāņem vērā citi no normatīvā regulējuma izrietoši ierobežojumi, no kuriem
secināms, ka bezatlīdzības lietošanā nevar nodot publiskas personas mantu, kuru pamatā var
izlietot tikai patērējot (atvietojamas lietas LCL 844. panta izpratnē, skat. arī LCL 845. pantu).
Jau iepriekš tika norādīts uz problemātiku, kuru rada publisko lietu nodošana sevišķā lietošanā.
Jebkurš publiskas personas īpašuma objekts, kas pēc savas būtības ir paredzēts vispārējai
sabiedrības lietošanai, piemēram, ielas un laukumi, pirmšķietami ir identificējams kā publiska lieta.
Pašreiz Latvijas normatīvais regulējums neprasa īpašu procedūru lēmuma pieņemšanai par

publisko personu īpašuma objektu nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā. Tomēr, ja neskaita piešķīruma
tiesiskumu, par obligāti izvērtējamiem ir uzskatāmi lietderīguma apsvērumi. Pirms publisko lietu
nodošana bezatlīdzības lietošanā būtu nepieciešams veikt sabiedrības informēšanu par šāda
piešķīruma iespējamību. Šāda pieeja ļauj noskaidrot sabiedrības viedokli, kā arī identificēt iespējamos
konfliktus, kurus iespējams novērst jau lēmuma sagatavošanas stadijā.
Atbildot uz prakses izaicinājumiem, likumdevējs PPFLMINL 5. pantā ir noteicis vairākus subjektus,
kuriem publiskas personas manta var tikt nodota bezatlīdzības lietošanā. No nomas teksta var
izdarīt secinājumu, ka likumdevējs ir izvēlējies klasificēt subjektus pēc piešķīruma mērķa,
vienlaikus izvirzot arī speciālas juridiskās formas (statusa) prasības. Saskaņā ar PPFLMINL 5. pantā
otrās daļas 21. un 41. punktu publiskas personas mantu var nodot lietošanā sabiedriskā labuma
organizācijai vai sociālajam uzņēmumam, bet atbilstoši šā panta 5. punktam publiska persona savu
mantu var nodot privātpersonai vai kapitālsabiedrībai tai deleģēto valsts pārvaldes uzdevumu
pildīšanai, kā arī publiskas personas pakalpojumu sniegšanai. Šo uzskaitījumu nevar uzskatīt par
slēgtu, jo PPFLMINL 5. pantā otrās daļas 6. punktā ir ietverta norāde, ka šāds piešķīrums ir
iespējams arī citos likumos vai Ministru kabineta noteikumos paredzētajos gadījumos. Publiski
pieejamajās datu bāzēs šādu piešķīrumu gadījumi pētījuma ietvaros netika identificēti. Tādējādi
identificējami gadījumi, ka publiskas personas manta var tikt nodota subjektam ar speciālu
juridisko formu (statusu), lai sniegtu atbalstu šo subjektu dibināšanas dokumentos noteikto mērķu
sasniegšanai un privāto tiesību subjektiem (privātpersonām) – tādu valsts pārvaldes funkciju
izpildes nodrošināšanai, kas privātpersonai uzdota ar deleģēšanas līgumu, vai publiskas personas
pakalpojumu sniegšanai.
Sabiedriskā labuma organizācija pēc savas būtības nav subjekta juridiskā forma, bet gan tiesiskais
statuss, kuru privāto tiesību subjekti – biedrības un nodibinājumi, reliģiskās organizācijas un to
nodibinājumi ir ieguvuši Sabiedriskā labuma organizāciju likumā (turpmāk – SLOL) noteiktajā
kārtībā. Sabiedriskā labuma organizācijas statusa piešķiršanas procesu administrē Valsts
ieņēmumu dienests, balstoties uz Sabiedriskā labuma komisijas atzinumiem. Sabiedriskā labuma
komisija tiek izveidota atbilstoši SLOL 6. pantam un darbojas saskaņā ar nolikumu, kuru apstiprina
Ministru kabinets. Saskaņā ar Ministru kabineta 30.11.2004. noteikumu Nr. 976 “Sabiedriskā
labuma komisijas nolikums” (turpmāk – MK Nr. 976) 2. punktu Sabiedriskā labuma komisijas
sastāvā ir 12 komisijas locekļu. No tiem sešus pilnvaro MK Nr. 976 4. punktā noteiktās valsts
iestādes un sešus izraugās atklātā konkursā no Latvijas Republikā reģistrēto biedrību un
nodibinājumu izvirzītajiem kandidātiem. Informāciju par subjektiem, kas ir ieguvuši sabiedriskā
labuma organizācijas statusu, iespējams iegūt Valsts ieņēmumu dienesta uzturētajā reģistrā, kura
informatīvā daļa ir pieejama interneta vietnē: https://www6.vid.gov.lv/SLO. Informācija par
subjektu skaitu, kam ir spēkā esošs sabiedriskā labuma organizācijas statuss, šobrīd publiski nav
pieejama, bet SIA “Lursoft” publiskotā informācija liecina, ka 26.05.2020. spēkā esošs sabiedriskā
labuma organizācijas statuss bija reģistrēts 2454 organizācijām, savukārt 1159 organizācijām šis
statuss ir ticis atņemts (Lursoft, 2020). Kā norāda Valsts ieņēmumu dienests, tad informācijai, kas
saņemta no šīs publiskojamo datu bāzes, ir tikai informatīvs raksturs un tai nav juridiska spēka. Tas
nozīmē, ka pirms lēmuma pieņemšanas par publiskas personas mantas nodošanu sabiedriskā
labuma organizācijai ir nepieciešams vērsties Valsts ieņēmumu dienestā, lai pārbaudītu, vai tā
publiskotajai informācijai ir juridisks spēks. Šāda pieeja nav uzskatāma par atbilstošu labas
pārvaldības principam un savienojama ar valsts pārvaldes deklarētajiem mērķiem publisko
pakalpojumu pieejamībai elektroniskajā vidē. Jāatzīmē, ka, sabiedriskā labuma organizācijai zaudējot

savu statusu, publiskai personai ir pienākums izbeigt piešķīrumu un pārņemt ar bezatlīdzības

lietošanas līgumu nodoto mantu. Par izņēmumu būtu uzskatāmi gadījumi, ja sabiedriskā labuma
organizācija vienlaikus atbilst arī PPFLMINL 5. pantā otrās daļas 5. punkta kritērijiem.
Sociālajiem uzņēmumiem ir salīdzinoši jauns saimnieciskās darbības subjektu statuss Latvijā, kuru
var iegūt noteikts kapitālsabiedrību veids – sabiedrība ar ierobežotu atbildību. Atšķirībā no
“klasiskā” komersanta, kura mērķis ir saimnieciskā darbība peļņas gūšanas nolūkā (skat.
Komerclikuma (KCL, 2000) 1. panta otro daļu), sociālā uzņēmuma darbības mērķis ir noteikts
Sociālā uzņēmuma likuma (SUL, 2017) (turpmāk – SUL) 2. panta pirmajā daļā un ir vērsts uz
darbību, kas rada labvēlīgu, nozīmīgu un ilgstošu pozitīvu sociālo ietekmi. Jautājumus, kas saistīti
ar sociālā uzņēmuma statusa iegūšanu, administrē Labklājības ministrija. Atbilstoši Labklājības
ministrijas mājas lapā publiskotajai informācijai pētījuma veikšanas brīdī Latvijā sociālā uzņēmuma
statuss bija 224 kapitālsabiedrībām (197 – aktīvi uzņēmumi, 27 – neaktīvi) (LM, 2022). Līdzīgi kā
sabiedriskā labuma organizāciju gadījumā SUL 6. pants paredz speciālas komisijas izveidi, kuras
izveides un darbības kārtību nosaka Ministru kabineta 20.02.2018. noteikumi Nr. 101 “Noteikumi
par Sociālo uzņēmumu komisiju” (MK Nr. 101, 2018) (turpmāk – MK noteikumi Nr. 101). Minēto
noteikumu 2. punkts paredz, ka komisijas sastāvā ir 10 komisijas locekļi. No tiem piecus komisijas
locekļus izvirza MK noteikumi Nr. 101 5. punktā minētās tiešās pārvaldes iestādes un piecus izvēlas
atklātā konkursā no kandidātiem, ko šajos noteikumos noteiktajā kārtībā izvirzījušas Uzņēmumu
reģistra Biedrību un nodibinājumu reģistrā (turpmāk – biedrību un nodibinājumu reģistrs)
reģistrētās biedrības un nodibinājumi. Papildus tam regulējums paredz, ka Izglītības un zinātnes
ministrijas un Veselības ministrijas pārstāvis piedalās komisijas darbā uzaicināta speciālista
statusā. Arī, sociālajam uzņēmumam zaudējot savu statusu, publiskai personai ir pienākums izbeigt
piešķīrumu un pārņemt ar bezatlīdzības lietošanas līgumu nodoto mantu, ja tās lietošanas
turpināšanai nav cita tiesiska pamata.
Publiskas personas mantas nodošana privātpersonai vai kapitālsabiedrībai tai deleģēto valsts
pārvaldes uzdevumu pildīšanai, kā arī publiskas personas pakalpojumu sniegšanai ir salīdzinoši
mazāk reglamentēta. Normatīvais regulējums tieši neizvirza īpašas juridiskas formas vai statusa
prasības privātpersonām, kas nodrošina pārvaldes uzdevuma vai publiskas personas pakalpojuma
sniegšanas funkciju. Tomēr jāņem vērā, ka šādas formas vai statusa prasības var pastāvēt, ievērojot
paša uzdevuma vai pakalpojuma sniegšanas noregulējumu. Piemēram, prasība pēc speciālas
licences konkrētajā darbības jomā vai pakalpojums, kuru var sniegt tikai noteikta veida komersants.
Atšķirībā no sabiedriskā labuma organizācijām un sociālajiem uzņēmumiem publiskas personas
mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanas piešķīrums ir tieši saistāms ar pakalpojuma vai deleģēšanas līguma
darbības termiņu. Vides aizsardzības un reģionālās ministrijas publiskotajās vadlīnijās par pārvaldes
uzdevumu deleģēšanu pašvaldībās izteikts apgalvojums, ka: “… publiskā iepirkuma rezultātā kā
iepirkuma līgums nevar tikt noslēgts deleģēšanas līgums, kas turklāt atšķirībā no iepirkuma
līgumiem ir publisko tiesību līgums, nevis privāto tiesību līgums.” (VARAM, 2021). Šāds apgalvojums
vērtējams ļoti kritiski, ievērojot administratīvo tiesu praksi, skat., piemēram, Latvijas Republikas
Augstākās tiesas Senāta Administratīvo lietu departamenta 27.11.2009. lēmumu lietā
Nr. A8033609/25 (SKA–853, 2009) vai 24.03.2010. lēmumu lietā Nr. A8080309/2 (SKA–293,
2010), kā arī Valsts pārvaldes iekārtas likuma 45. panta ceturtajā daļā un 45.1 pantā ietvertos
regulējumus, kas satur ieteikumu, ka, deleģējot pārvaldes uzdevumu privātpersonai, priekšroka
dodama pārvaldes uzdevuma deleģēšanai publiskās un privātās partnerības ietvaros. Jāatzīmē, ka
publiskās un privātās partnerības līgumu noslēgšana, ievērojot Publiskās un privātās partnerības

likuma 4. pantā ietverto regulējumu, pamatā slēdzama, piemērojot Publisko iepirkumu likumu vai
Sabiedrisko pakalpojumu sniedzēju iepirkumu likumu.
Atšķirībā no VVĪPLA un IVAL PPFLMINL nav ietverts regulējums, kas tieši būtu attiecināms uz
publisko personu mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā citai publiskai personai vai tās iestādei.
Šeit var norādīt, ka tiesību doktrīna šajā jautājumā ir attīstījusies pārāk ātri un nav atstājusi avotus,
kas ļautu izvērtēt šādas pieejas motīvus. Dr.iur. E. Danovskis, atsaucoties uz Saeimas Juridiskā
biroja 2014. gadā sniegto skaidrojuma par Publiskas personas finanšu līdzekļu un mantas
izšķērdēšanas novēršanas likuma piemērošanu mantiskām attiecībām vienas publiskas personas
ietvaros un starp vairākām publiskām personām, norāda, ka valsts pārvaldes iekšējie lēmumi,
tostarp lēmumi par publiskas personas mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā citai publiskai
personai, nav pakļauti vispārējam likuma atrunas principam (Danovskis, 2015: 66) Turklāt
atbilstoši Dr.iur. E. Danovska viedoklim publisku personu rīcību ar mantu publiskās pārvaldes
iekšienē nosaka VPIL 91. pants, kas paredz, ka publiskai personai ir tiesības pārvaldīt savu
mantu, tostarp nodot mantu citu tās pašas publiskās personas iestāžu vai citu publisku personu
lietošanā, ciktāl normatīvie akti neparedz pretējo. Publiskas personas finanšu līdzekļu un mantas
izšķērdēšanas novēršanas likums nav vienīgais likums, kas regulē rīcību ar publiskas personas
mantu. Atsevišķos gadījumos noteikumi par rīcību ar publiskas personas mantu var būt ietverti
arī citos normatīvajos aktos. Tomēr jebkurā gadījumā, pieņemot lēmumu par rīcību ar
publiskas personas mantu, ievērojams pienākums ar publiskas personas mantu rīkoties
saprātīgi un lietderīgi (Danovskis, 2015: 67). Jānorāda, ka šis visnotaļ loģiskais un pamatotais
skaidrojums ir radies vairāk nekā četrus gadus pēc atbilstošo grozījumu ietveršanas PPFLMINL
un nav atrodams likumprojekta anotācijā vai Saeimas sēžu stenogrammās. Līdz ar to šobrīd praksē
ir sastopama neizpratne par piemērojamajām tiesībām un publisko personu rīcības brīvības
robežām jautājumos, kas saistīti ar publiskas personas mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības
lietošanā citai publiskai personai vai tās iestādei.
3. Lēmuma pieņemšana par publiskas personas mantas nodošanu

bezatlīdzības lietošanā, nosacījumi un termiņi
PPFLMINL 5. pants ietver vairākas normas, kas tieši saistītas ar lēmumu pieņemšanu par publiskas
mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanu. Vispirms jau likumdevējs ir noteicis subjektus, kas ir tiesīgi pieņemt
šādu lēmumu. Nav izticis arī bez gadījumiem, kuros likumdevēja griba ir izteikta neskaidri, un
tādējādi tiesību piemērotājam var rasties nepieciešamība interpretēt minētajā pantā ietvertās
normas, lai nonāktu pie pamatota un tiesiska risinājuma. Šādu interpretācijas problēmu rada
PPFLMINL 5. panta ceturtā daļa, kas paredz, ka gadījumos, ja bezatlīdzības lietošanā paredzēts
nodot publiskas personas nekustamo vai kustamo mantu uz laiku, kas ilgāks par pieciem gadiem,
lēmumu par to pieņem attiecīgi Ministru kabinets vai atvasinātas publiskas personas orgāns.
Norma korelē ar PPFLMINL 5. panta piekto daļu un piekto prim daļu. PPFLMINL 5. panta piektā daļa
paredz, ka lēmumu par publiskas personas mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā sabiedriskā
labuma organizācijai vai sociālajam uzņēmumam pieņem attiecīgi Ministru kabinets vai atvasinātas
publiskas personas orgāns, bet šāda piešķīruma viens termiņš nevar pārsniegt 10 gadus. Savukārt
PPFLMINL 5. panta piektā prim daļa attiecināta uz gadījumiem, kuros publiska persona nodod
mantu bezatlīdzības lietošanā sabiedriskā labuma organizācijai vai sociālajam uzņēmumam, bet

mantas bilances vērtība saskaņā ar grāmatvedības uzskaites datiem nav lielāka par 1500 eiro vai
termiņš mantas nodošanai bezatlīdzības lietošanā nav ilgāks par vienu mēnesi, paredzot, ka šajos
gadījumos lēmumu par šādas mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā sabiedriskā labuma
organizācijai vai sociālajam uzņēmumam pieņem tā publiskas personas iestāde, kuras valdījumā ir
attiecīgā manta.
No normu konteksta vispirms var izdarīt secinājumu, ka lēmuma pieņemšana par publiskas
personas nekustamās vai kustamās mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā uz laiku, kas ilgāks
par pieciem gadiem, ir Ministru kabineta vai atvasinātas publiskas personas orgāna ekskluzīvā
kompetencē neatkarīgi no subjekta, kas ir piešķīruma saņēmējs. Šāda izpratne atbilst normu
gramatiskajai konstrukcijai un kā tāda tiek atzīta arī praksē. Problēmu rada divu turpmāko
PPFLMINL 5. panta daļu (piektā un piektā prim) piemērošana šajā kontekstā. Pēc savas būtības šīs
daļas ir uzskatāmas par speciālajām normām, jo ir piemērojamas tikai bezatlīdzības lietošanas
piešķīrumiem diviem subjektiem – sabiedriskā labuma organizācijām un sociālajiem uzņēmumiem.
Rodas jautājums: vai tiešām PPFLMINL 5. panta ceturtās daļas regulējums kā vispārīgā norma ir
attiecināms tikai uz privātpersonām un kapitālsabiedrībām, kurām ir deleģēta valsts pārvaldes
uzdevumu pildīšana vai publiskas personas pakalpojumu sniegšana? Tiesību normu vēsturiskā
izpēte skaidri parāda, ka tā ir bijusi likumdevēja izšķiršanās noteikt atšķirīgu regulējumu attiecībā
uz sabiedriskā labuma organizācijām (vēlāk arī uz sociālajiem uzņēmumiem), paredzot, ka lēmuma
pieņemšana par publiskas personas nekustamās vai kustamās mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības
lietošanā šiem subjektiem ir Ministru kabineta vai atvasinātas publiskas personas orgāna
ekskluzīvā kompetencē, izņemot PPFLMINL 5. panta piektā prim daļā paredzētos gadījumus. Tomēr
šāda regulējuma vēsturiskā izpēte arī parāda, ka sākotnēji norma tika attiecināta tikai uz publisku
personu savstarpējiem mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanas piešķīrumiem. Tikai vēlāk tajā ir tika
ietverti subjekti – privātpersonas, kurām ir deleģēta valsts pārvaldes uzdevumu pildīšana vai
publiskas personas pakalpojumu sniegšana, kas šobrīd ir palicis vienīgais normas adresāts.
Ievērojot kaimiņvalstu pieredzi, var pieļaut, ka būtu lietderīgi regulējumu pārskatīt un PPFLMINL
5. panta ceturtās daļas regulējumu attiecināt uz visiem publiskas personas mantas bezatlīdzības
lietošanas piešķīrumiem neatkarīgi no subjekta.
Neatkarīgi no lietas nodošanas bezatlīdzības lietošanā termiņa PPFLMINL 5. panta trešā daļa
paredz, ka kompetentā iestāde par to pieņem lēmumu. Atbilstoši norādītajai normai lēmumā
nepieciešams ietvert šādu minimālās informācijas apjomu:
1) bezatlīdzības lietošanā nododamā manta, tās apjoms, bilances vērtība, stāvoklis un apraksts;
2) nodošanas nepieciešamība un lietderība;
3) nododamās mantas lietošanas vai izmantošanas mērķis un termiņš;
4) gadījumi, kad nodotā manta atdodama atpakaļ;
5) citi nepieciešamie noteikumi, tai skaitā noteikumi, lai nodrošinātu attiecīgās mantas saglabāšanu
un atbilstošu izmantošanu.
Tomēr ne mazāk būtisks ir PPFLMINL 5. panta trīs prim daļā ietvertais regulējums, kas paredz, ka
tiesību subjekts, kuram nodota manta bezatlīdzības lietošanā, nodrošina attiecīgās mantas
uzturēšanu, arī sedz ar to saistītos izdevumus. Šis pienākums ir imperatīvs un nav grozāms ar
pušu vienošanos. Jāatzīmē, ka VVĪPLA un IVAL satur līdzīga rakstura normas, uzliekot piešķīruma
saņēmējam pienākumu saglabāt lietas ekonomisko vērtību, kā arī paredzot iespēju publiskai
personai atkāpties no līguma, ja šis pienākums netiek pildīts. PPFLMINL 5. panta trešajā un trīs prim

daļā ietvertais regulējums nepārprotami parāda bezatlīdzības lietošanas līguma juridisko sasaisti
ar LCL regulēto patapinājuma līgumu.
Rīcība ar publiskas personas mantu primāri ir vērtējama kā privāttiesiska darbība. Tomēr
mūsdienu tiesību telpā privāttiesību elementu ienākšana tradicionāli publisko tiesību jomā vairs
nav izņēmums. Mijiedarbība notiek arī pretējā virzienā un dažās tiesību nozarēs privātautonomijas
princips tiek būtiski ierobežots ar imperatīviem regulējumiem. Latvijas gadījumā likumdevējs ir
izvēlējies diezgan detalizēti regulēt atsevišķus jautājumus, kas saistīti ar rīcību ar publiskas
personas mantu. Tādējādi par pamatotu ir uzskatāms Dr.iur. E. Danovska viedoklis, ka Latvijā
publiskas personas rīcība privāto tiesību jomā var darboties privāttiesiskās attiecībās tikai saskaņā
ar likumu. (Danovskis, 2015: 66) Minētā tēze nav uztverama veidā, ka publiskai personai nav rīcības
brīvības privāto tiesību jomā un visi lēmumi rīcībai ar tās mantu ir skatāmi no administratīvo
tiesību prizmas kā administratīvi akti. Likumdevējs ir tieši noteicis atsevišķus gadījumus rīcībai ar
publiskas personas mantu, kur nepieciešama privātpersonu papildu aizsardzība. Kā piemēru var
minēt PPMAL 4. panta ceturtajā daļā minētos gadījumus, kuros privātpersonai ir paredzēta tiesība
ierosināt publiskas personas mantas atsavināšanu. Publiskas personas mantas nodošanas gadījumā
bezatlīdzības lietošanā šāds īpašs regulējums nav noteikts. Līdz ar to secināms, ka lēmumiem par
publiskas personas mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā parasti ir privāttiesisks raksturs ar
ievērojamu rīcības brīvību.
Tomēr šādam apgalvojumam nav absolūta rakstura, t.i., tiesību piemērotājs nevar akli paļauties, ka
pieņemtajam lēmumam un tā sekām – noslēgtajam līgumam par publiskas personas mantu vienmēr ir
privāttiesisks raksturs. Pirmkārt, jau šādam lēmumam, kas ir pieņemts publiskas personas iekšienē,
piemēram, nododot mantu citai publiskai personai bezatlīdzības lietošanā (šīs personas iestādei), ir
pārvaldes lēmuma raksturs. Jau iepriekš tika norādīts arī uz citu problemātiku, kas ir saistīta ar publisku
lietu nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā konkrētai personai. Ja nododamā publiskas personas manta
identificējama kā publiska lieta, lēmums par tās nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā ir uzskatāms par
administratīvu aktu, bet tā rezultātā noslēgtais līgums – par publisko tiesību līgumu. Šāda situācija var
veidoties arī gadījumos, kuros piešķīruma pamats ir deleģētas uzdevuma izpildes nodrošināšana vai
publiskas personas pakalpojumu sniegšana. Tiesu praksē atrodamas norādes, ka īpaša vērība
pievēršama tieši piešķīruma mērķim un tā realizācijas veidam, kas ļauj identificēt piemērojamās
tiesības. (SKA-1640, 2019) Tādējādi tiesību piemērotājam pirms lēmuma sagatavošanas ir jāizvērtē visi
norādītie apstākļi, lai nodrošinātu atbilstošu tā sagatavošanas un pieņemšanas procedūru, kā arī
noteiktu iespējamās tiesiskās sekas, kuras var radīt šāda lēmuma pieņemšana.
Jautājumi, kas saistīti ar publiskas personas bezatlīdzības lietošanai izvirzītajām prasībām un šo
lietošanu saistītajām izmaksām, rada izaicinājumus arī praksē, par ko liecina valsts pārvaldes
iestāžu savstarpējā korespondence, kas gan nav pieejama publiski (TM Nr. 1-17/2823, 2021, FM
Nr. 11-2/7-2/3722, 2021, RDĪD Nr. DI-21-980-nd, 2021). Vienlaikus jānorāda, ka normas gramatiskais
saturs ir pietiekami skaidrs un piešķīruma saņēmējam ir pienākums segt visus izdevumus, kas
saistīti ar bezatlīdzības lietošanā nodotās lietas uzturēšanu, tai skaitā publiskās nastas. Tas gan
neatņem iespēju publiskai personai izmantot citus atbalsta risinājumus, kas aptver arī šo izdevumu
segšanu, tomēr arī tam ir nepieciešams skaidrs juridiskais pamats un atbilstošs piešķīruma
atļāvums ārējos normatīvajos aktos. Papildus tam šādi publiskas personas mantas lietošanas
piešķīrumi ir jāizvērtē kontekstā ar valsts atbalsta piešķīrumu nosacījumiem un to pieļaujamību,
kas ir vērtējams jau kā atsevišķa pētījuma tēma.

1. Publiskas personas mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanas tiesības piešķīrumam ir LCL ietvertā

patapinājuma līguma raksturs. Uz to norāda PPFLMINL 5. pantā noteiktais piešķīruma saņēmēja
pienākums nodrošināt attiecīgās mantas uzturēšanu, arī segt ar to saistītos izdevumus. Pēc sava
rakstura līdzīgi noteikumi ir ietverti arī atbilstošā kaimiņvalstu – Lietuvas un Igaunijas
normatīvajā regulējumā, kas saistīts ar publiskas personas mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanu.
2. Lēmumu pieņemšana attiecībā uz publiskas personas mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanas
piešķīrumu attiecībā uz sabiedriskās labuma organizācijām un sociālajiem uzņēmumiem ir
ekskluzīvā Ministru kabineta vai atvasinātas publiskas personas orgāna kompetencē, izņemot
gadījumus, ja mantas bilances vērtība mazāka par 1500 eiro vai piešķīruma termiņš nepārsniedz
vienu mēnesi. Lēmumu pieņemšana gadījumos, kas publiskas personas manta tiek nodota
privātpersonai kā deleģēšanas līguma izpildei nepieciešamais resurss vai tas ir nepieciešams
publiskas personas pakalpojuma sniegšanai, ja līguma termiņš pārsniedz piecus gadus, ir
Ministru kabineta vai atvasinātas publiskas personas orgāna kompetencē. Ņemot vērā
PPFLMINL 5. pantā ietverto subjektu loku, var izteikt priekšlikumu vienādot nosacījumus
lēmumu pieņemšanai par publiskas mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības lietošanā, paredzot, ka
neatkarīgi no subjekta, ja piešķīruma termiņš pārsniedz piecus gadus, lēmuma pieņemšana ir
Ministru kabineta vai atvasinātas publiskas personas orgāna kompetencē. Regulējumu
iespējams precizēt, nosakot nekustamā īpašuma un kustamās mantas vērtības slieksni.
3. Publiskas personas mantas nodošanas termiņš bezatlīdzības lietošanā sabiedriskā labuma
organizācijām un sociālajiem uzņēmumiem nevar pārsniegt 10 gadus, bet ir iespējams atkārtots
piešķīrums uz īsāku vai tādu pašu termiņu. Pieņemot lēmumu par deleģēšanas līguma
noslēgšanu Publiskās un privātās partnerības likumā noteiktajā kārtībā, publiskas personas
mantas bezatlīdzības lietošanas līguma termiņš tiek noteikts atbilstoši šajā normatīvajā aktā
paredzētajam regulējumam un nav tieši saistīts ar PPFLMINL 5. pantā minētajiem termiņiem.
4. Normatīvais regulējums Latvijā tieši neregulē publisku personu mantas nodošanu bezatlīdzības
lietošanā citai publiskai personai vai tās iestādei. Atbilstoši doktrīnā sniegtajam skaidrojumam
par publisku personu rīcību ar mantu publiskās pārvaldes iekšienē nosaka VPIL 91. pants, kas
paredz, ka publiskai personai ir tiesības pārvaldīt savu mantu, tostarp nodot mantu citu tās
pašas publiskās personas iestāžu vai citu publisku personu lietošanā, ciktāl normatīvie akti
neparedz pretējo. Publiskas personas finanšu līdzekļu un mantas izšķērdēšanas novēršanas
likums nav vienīgais likums, kas regulē rīcību ar publiskas personas mantu. Pieņemot
lēmumu par rīcību ar publiskas personas mantu, ievērojams pienākums ar publiskas
personas mantu rīkoties saprātīgi un lietderīgi.
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Tieslietu ministrijas 22.06.2021. vēstule Nr. 1-17/2823. Nav publicēta

THE ORIGIN AND CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT STYLES AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LARGE GERMAN COMPANIES
THE ORIGIN AND CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT STYLES AND THEIR

APPLICATION IN LARGE GERMAN COMPANIES
Lana Sosnovika
Abstract
This article analyses the appearance, existence, and application of different management
styles in large German companies. The representation of different management styles and
their specific approaches will be emphasized and accentuated. It is essential to highlight
that applying the correct management styles in large German international companies is
crucial and might significantly impact successful business development and stabilization.
While choosing the suitable management styles after analysing the microenvironment:
companies' size, number of employees, level of employee diversification, employee values
and beliefs, several macro-environment aspects such as: political, economic, social,
technological, et al., have to be considered. Those aspects might put significant restrictions
and limitations on applying one of all management styles. The article argues, and the
research results show the variety of different management styles and their suitable application
in large German companies, which lead to the company’s successful development.
Keywords: Management styles, large German companies, leadership, leadership rules, psychology
at work, employee satisfaction, companies’ profitability
Introduction
The idea of the Management concept has been ancient. Its roots go more than a thousand years
back. The most elementary Management approaches go back to at least 3000 years BC when priests
from the Middle Eastern did the first business records. “Socrates, around 400 BC, stated that
Management was a competency distinctly separate from possessing technical skills and knowledge”
(Higgins, 1991).
During the Middle Ages, many different goods appeared on the market. From the late 1700s till the
1800s, considerable changes in the way people lived and worked began to occur within the epoch
of the Industrial Revolution. It was the transition from farming and working in rural communities
to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States (Adda 247 Publications, 2021).
Approximately 100 years later, in 1913, Henry Ford developed a moving assembly line to produce
the cars. This innovation is still one of the most moving innovations that had a massive impact on
the work change in society. The reduction time for car production from 12 hours to one and a half
hours became a base for the development of automatization in the industry (History, 2020).
Those changes in society and the working methods had a curtail influence on the development of
the new employer and employee relationships, communication patterns, and psychological

behaviors within the companies. What today is acknowledged to be one of the most important
aspects has been proved to directly influence the company's profitability (Sousa, et al., 2008).
Nowadays, the importance of the statements, observations and studies were done by Herzberg and
other economists and scientists on the leadership and management styles, and how they can
influence the positive attitude of employees in the company is gaining their importance every day
as never before.
Managers in the 21st century must deal with the fast changes in the economic and political world as
also changes in society, cultural differences, the influence of the pandemics on the operating rules
and habits, human value siftings and development. Those kinds of changes and challenges were
hardly imaginable only a few years ago. What makes the current research topic highly important
and present in the contemporary business world.
Based on the facts and statements provided above this scientific article will review and describe the
situation in the large German companies: the introduction and application of the different
Management styles as also all the conflicts and obstacles that have to be regarded while deciding
on the use of the particular Management style(s) and not only from the internal, but also from the
external point of view.
The application of the different Management styles in the companies is a highly present topic
nowadays, underlined by many theories, practical observations and researches. This scientific article
will concentrate on the analysis of the theories of several well-known researchers and scientists, who
state that the correct application of the Management styles has a positive influence on companies’
development in several areas – internal psychological atmosphere within the company, which is
directly leading to the companies’ positive development in financial, social and political areas.
Besides, the problems that might appear in the application process and external influences will be
analyzed based on the current market political, economic, and other global aspects.
Management styles nowadays

Today the importance of innovation and hi-tech has been increasing because of the use of mobile
and tablet technology as well as internet access and cloud solutions all over the world. There are
many different patterns and examples of how companies have entirely changed their working
structure and overall business performance, which significantly impacts the working atmosphere.
This impact on the growing wave of technology and changes in the artificial intelligence and
evolving nature of globalization as also the push-pull tug between the different companies that are
getting more and more global is also putting a particular portion of stress on the current
Management situation (Yichuan, 2016).
It is a well-known fact that due to the changes in our society, the workers' character has also been
changed drastically over time. Compared to the middle of the 20th century, workers are getting
more self-confident and demanding to their jobs and Management. The freedom of the word begins
to gain a particular strength around the workers and starts to get more challenging for the manager
(Nie, et al., 2021).

To support the situation and be able to deal with strong vs. weak performers, through time, many
different Management directions and styles have appeared, such as Micro-Management, Macro-
Management, Hands-on Management, Management by objectives, Management by observation,
Workers' Self-Management and many others (Nie, at al., 2021).
The most challenging aspect for the Managers is to know which Management style to attempt
towards different employees to achieve sustained change in employee behavior, which will help
them perform and help keep the company's financial figures on the profitable side.
Importance of application of different Management styles

Nowadays, independent of business size, companies cannot survive without implementing different
Management Styles. Several studies on the importance of different Management styles have proved
that its presence in a company is directly correlated with its development. The internal and external
appearance of the company, atmosphere in the company, business development, efficiency and
success of more or less all the other business aspects is highly dependent on how the employees
have been guided and their satisfaction level (Aquila & Rice, 2017). This hance to be proved by a –
Shareholders Value Added (SVA), the strongest relationship that results from a Business Unit
Employee Satisfaction Factor with Business Unit Financial Metrics. Where SVA measures the
economic profit of value-added for the company and such aspects like job satisfaction, promotion,
involvement and participation, use of knowledge and skills, possibility to improve and develop on
the job place, diversification, fair treatment and creativity have been considered (Topolosky, 2014).
At the beginning of the 19th, Maslow included many of the employee satisfaction variables in the
concept called “self-actualization”, which shows that people have to use their skills and recognition
for the desire to develop, accept new challenges, and be willing to develop their surroundings.
Which automatically will lead to the development of the company. He also stated that to develop
employees – employees have to be challenged and the satisfaction of the self-actualization need has
to be met (Lawler, 1994).
Such researchers like Argyris and Huselid stated that how the employees have been led
demonstrates a strong relationship to the financial variables and states that the concentration on
finding the correct Management style for the employees is crucial. They also state that it is essential
for the companies to make a financial investment in the employee development and make
companies Management aware of the development and implementation of the correct Management
styles toward the employees, differentiation between the different employees their background,
culture, nature as also personal needs and interests (Huselid, 1995).
To survive in fast-changing markets and a complex business world and keep the company on the
profitable and developing side, companies’ Management must adapt rapidly and cost-efficiently to
changes. Agile companies can grow fast and take advantage of opportunities. Application of the
correct Management style towards the employees can support companies to deal with unpredicted
risks and new regulations as well as competition and client preferences. Management’s ability to
create a dynamic Management style concept and its correct application to the right employees
separates winners from loser companies in mindshare and market share. Still, the challenge behind
those theories is the ability to define the concrete Management style that might be applied towards
the concrete employees (Evans, 2001).

Management styles around the World

As already stated above, it is a well-known fact that success in the global marketplace depends on a
manager’s ability to provide leadership. Not for nothing, the appearance and development of the
different Management styles might take one to the centuries and decades away.
Today there are many Management styles and directions that have been used and practiced
worldwide. Many of them are so similar in their appearance that it becomes hard to set a particular
differentiation between them; others are completely different. Analyzing the differences amongst
the Management styles worldwide, the most significant differences might be regarded amongst the
various countries and cultures (Business Insider, 2015).
Due to the diverse structures, political, economic and cultural development, people have different
values, rules and perceptions not just in private but also in the business world, which directly
influences the way the business has been conducted (Rao, 2010). Still, three broad categories
worldwide have established themselves: autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire (genuine style).
They all have different approaches to exercising power and dealing with the staff (Capon, 2008).
• Autocratic Management style follows a top-down approach with one-way communication,
which goes from Management to employees. Amongst another two Management styles it
appears to be the most controlling Management style, where only the Management is in charge
of making all workplace decisions. Employees have been treated hardly and have been
monitored closely and controlled. The employees cannot bring in new ideas, share their
thoughts, or work with Management on improvement processes. This Management style has
several subtypes where authoritative, persuasive and paternalistic are the most common
(Dolly & Nonyelum, 2018).
• Using a democratic Management style, managers encourage employees to provide their
input during the decision-making process. Still, they take all the responsibility for the final
decision for the company. The communication within this Management style functions in both
ways, top-down and bottom-up, which automatically stimulates team spirit to work together
to develop new ideas that might be used for the companies’ decision-making. The most
common subtypes of this Management style are consultative, participative, collaborative and
other Management styles (Lloyd, et al., 2009).
• Laissez-fair Management style is a well-known style for the hands-off approach in
leadership. The employees are trusted to do their work without supervision and can
independently make all the decisions and solve problems. Management is present in all the
delegation and escalations in the strategic and operative area, but otherwise, do step back and
provide the employees complete freedom in each work area. Only when the employees
request hieratical support Management is there to provide it. Delegation and Visionary
Management styles are the most common subtypes of this Management direction (Marquis &
Huston, 2008).
2. Research Methodology
Large German companies are one of the fastest developing, productive and modern companies in the
world. Therefore, the lack of knowledge on how to lead a different types of workers depending on the
different diversification levels and specifications of the companies and the responsibility of the

workers in the company might lead to the unprofitable outcome and even bankruptcy of the firms. As
employees are significant contributors to the profits and worth of the organization, it is essential to
keep them motivated and satisfied with their jobs (Hobson, 2021). So, the main aim of the research is
to identify the current Management styles applied in the large German companies that support the
companies in their growth and success, despite the external factors that influence the application of
the desirable Management styles, making the application procedure more inflexible.
The present state of the large German companies and businesses development in Germany leads to
the main research questions:
• How the companies in Germany are classified, based on their size and which companies in
Germany are considered to be large companies?
• What are the most common Management styles applied all over the world?
• What are the most common Management styles and their aspects applied in the large German
companies?
• How and which different Management styles are used on the various Management levels in
the large German companies?
• Which macro-environmental aspects influence the application of Management style in large
German companies?
The following research methods and actions will support the response to the main research questions:
• firstly, the number and state of the art of the big companies on the German market should be
defined. This will be done by conducting online research using the newest market date due to
the constant changes and development on the market;
• secondly, analysing the most common Management styles applied in the world, emphasizing
the large German companies by examining a wide range of literature and theories from the
books and journal articles will be concluded;
• thirdly, the Management structure in the large German companies: their job profile,
responsibilities and correlation with each other should be regarded. For conducting this part
of the research, besides analysis of the scientific articles and information gathered online
experience and knowledge of the researcher, representing an employee of one of the large
German companies, will be applied;
• finally, by the support of the PESTLE analysis, the external influences on the application of the
different Management styles will be analysed and structured.
3. Findings and Conclusions
This Chapter will represent and define the classification of the different companies’ sizes on the
German Market, stating out the large German companies. Also, the Management styles application
in the large German organizations on various Management levels will be regarded, considering the
limitations that might be put on the Management styles application from the outside.
Large German companies – definition and description

Germany is a country in Central Europe, the second-most populous country in Europe after Russia
and the most populous member state of the European Union. With a population of over 83 million,

where round about 45,3 Million people are employees, it offers a wide range of different business
entity types and company sizes (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2021).
All companies in Germany might be divided into three sectors, according to the annual revenue of
the company:
• 'Classic' – Small and medium-sized enterprises firms (SME), which account for 99% of
German firms (revenue below 50 million EUR);
• 'Upper'-sized firms, which account for 0.34% of German firms (revenues between 50 million
EUR up to 1 billion EUR);
• Large corporations, which account for 0,02% of German firms (revenues over 1 billion EUR)
and are more well-known companies, including the DAX 30 companies (SME, 2003).
Out of the information above, the research and analysis will be concentrated on only 0,02% of the
German companies such as Volkswagen, Daimler, Allianz, BMW, Siemens, Bosch, DHL, Byer, et al.
(Statista, 2021).
Different Management styles applied in the large German companies

Through the decades and history, Germans have been known as people who prioritize, have a good
structure, put an accent on privacy and punctuality. The German people embrace the values of
thriftiness, spend many hours working hard and feel most comfortable when there is clarity and
organization in place. Germans tend to strive for perfectionism and precision in each of the areas.
They hardly admit faults, even jokingly, and rarely make compliments. They often come over cold,
unfriendly and uninterested, but when the ice seems to be broken, Germans appear to be very open-
minded, positive, creative and helpful (Bax, 2020).
In the Business World, Germans have a clear chain setup of commands and tasks in each
department, and all the information and tasks have been created on the higher
Management level and forwarded to the bottom, which shows that in general the autocratic regime
is still highly present, especially in the smaller and middle-size companies. However, this does not
mean that all the Management is exclusively autocratic: due to the clear structure and task clearance
in each department, the hands-off method has been used by Management in many situations.
German managers motivate their employees by providing a comfortable psychological working
atmosphere and showing trust. This helps to motivate employees for another extra working hour,
knowing that there will be a good financial reward for the work done. At this point, it becomes
obvious that there is a high connection between job satisfaction, trust and financial reward (Wael
& Farouk, 2017).
At this point, it becomes important to emphasize that due to fast economic and political development
and globalization, there is a wide gap between the small and medium companies and the large German
companies. The small and medium companies in the first row are not so international and have a
number of employees that do not overcome 50.000 people all over the world. Whereas the large
German companies, like Daimler, Bosch, VW – have more the
400.000 Employees spread all over the word in more than 100 locations around the world per
company (Zutun, 2021). There is a huge difference in the salary and extra hours revenge between
the large and other German companies: the average loan for the average employee in a large

German company is about 100.000 EUR gross when the medium size and small companies are
paying just half of it. Also, the Extra hours in the large German companies have been rewarded in
different ways. For example, each extra hour employee is working on top might be able to be taken
off, which is not typical for companies of another size (Dahlke, 2020).
Analysing the Management styles in the different sized companies it might be regarded that all the
small and mid-size companies are highly guided by the Autocratic Management styles with some
touches of the democratic and vary little Laissez-fairs Management style, which is a complete
opposite to the Management styles applied in the large German companies (Santander, 2022).
The interesting fact that comes out is that large German companies use to apply all the three
Management styles to keep the company profitable and growing. To rule and guide large companies
toward their mission, vision and strategy, it is crucial to have strict rules, guidelines and regulations,
which have to be followed by the employees. To keep the company structured, there are around 10
Management levels in the large companies. All the structure planning and operative decisions have
usually been taken on the Management's middle level due to the fact that the middle Management
is close enough to the operative working employee level and not so far from the highest
Management. So, middle Management is considered to be an interface between the highest and
lower working-class employees (Lussier, 2020).
At the middle level all the important decisions concerning the rules and regulations towards the
working class have been made. These decisions have then been communicated to the upper Management
Infront – to get the confirmation for the new processes or changes. After the confirmation has been
done, the new guidelines and processes get communicated from the middle Management to the
employees (Machado & Melo, 2013).
One should not forget that there are fixed strategic rules and goals set up from the highest
Management to the higher Management, but those regulations do not change so frequently and have
only a strategic manner. This means that the communication from the highest level to the higher
level has an authoritative manner, as the highest Management has a sharp focus on the strategic
situation on the market and defines the general direction to go, without leaving any space for the
adjustments (Taylor, 1985).
The highest Management class considers the corporate goals and tasks that have to be achieved and
forwards the information further towards the middle Management class, people who are close to
the employees, implementing the aspects of the democratic Management style. There are still strict
rules that have to be followed by everybody, but at this level the appears certain flexibility on the
task set up. Middle-level managers are now allowed to come up with more concrete ideas on how
to achieve the upper set goals and meet the expectations of the highest-class Management
(Bannock, 2005).
The workers’ level is where most of the Management styles have been applied. Firstly, there is a
significant percentage of tasks and systems that have been standardized and have to be handled
according to the defined processes, in this case, one can directly feel the presence of the autocratical
Management style. Secondly, there are still tasks that might be adjusted and discussed with the direct
managers. In case one sees the development potential while proceeding with the task – direct
feedback and constructed discussion are appreciated. And last but not least, the workers of the large
German companies are generally aware of the guidelines and rules they have to follow. That

knowledge has been transferred to the workers by obligatory seminars, workshops, and training.
Reporting and tracing have to be done using the standardized level. Still, each employee in his task is
free to find the problem-solving way on his own and apply it to the particular situation, which shows
that the level of laissez-fair Management is highly present on the lowest worker level (Slotta, 2017).
Analyzing the information provided above it comes out that the higher is the working position in the
large German companies, the more autocratical Management style has been used and the more it
comes to the workers level, the more flexibility the employees have to while conducting their tasks.
Macro-Environmental aspect analysis (PESTLE) of the implementation

of the different Management styles in large German Companies
One of the most well-known macro-environmental analyses is PESTLE. Analysis of Political,
Economic, Social, Technological, Legal and Environmental factors is important in identifying the key
factors that might influence business development in large German companies (Bradford, 2020).
Analysis of the three main above-named Management styles will help to analyse and compare the
background of the implementation of the different Management styles in different companies and
potentials in their adjustment and development.
Political and Legal aspects

Because all the large German companies are located in one country, they all have to face equal and
similar political and legal issues. The German government strongly concentrates on the fast
development and improvement in the production and export field and decrease of the number of
unemployed people. For example, there are many production standard requirements and
certificates like ISO, GS, IATF, et al. that provide clear guidelines and identification of what the
company should be capable of and what standards must be fulfilled 8 and followed (Kymal, 2004).
In addition, there are many regulations concerning the employee policy, and all the large German
companies have a works Council. This union has been established to protect the rights and interests
of employees. Workers’ council organization actively represents the interests of workers in specific
industries (Hübler & Jirjahn, 2001). Here, the workers’ council members are acting independently
from the company and might support faster and easier on the fulfillment and control of the
governmental regulations and changes within the policy of the whole country (Heise & Stegen, 2006).
Also, there is legislation regarding personal data protection, information usage restrictions and
regulation, rules on data safety, technical infrastructure standards and other points that are
required to be fulfilled by the companies providing new products developed on the German market
(European Commission, 2020).
Due to the existing workers’ council and other strict rules that have to be followed, managers have
been put in the particular Management frames; there are many rules and guidelines that have to be
followed by each manager in the workplace. What from one perspective makes the working concept
more structured and from another might put particular limitations and restrictions on the specific
situations with the employees.

Economic aspects
Germany is highly developed and one of the economic leaders globally. Germany has been ranked
fourth concerning the budget and revenues, having 1,53 trillion-dollar revenue. German
government debt in 2022 is in total around 410 billion euros. The German government has already
spent tens of billions of euros on pushing up the economy during the pandemic with cash or loans
for companies and financial support for millions of workers on furlough (Rogers, 2021).
Still, the coronavirus pandemic's economic effects were not as crucial as previously expected.
“According to data from the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, Germany's GDP fell
by 4.6 percent in 2020. In its autumn forecast 2021, the German government cut its GDP growth
forecast for 2021 from 3.5 percent to 2.6 percent – mainly due to supply disruptions. For 2022 the
government, however, expects a growth of 4.1 percent” (Current Economic Developments, 2021).
The labor market is also recovering. As the Federal Employment Agency reports, unemployment
and underemployment rates decrease drastically. The number of people employed is growing from
day to day. Due to the global coronavirus pandemic, many new start- ups were half so fast in their
development in 2020. Now the new companies are getting back on track and increasing their
development speed, which is also crucial for the new beginners (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2021)
“According to the European Commission, large catch-up and carry-over effects in 2021 and 2022
should buoy the German economy, with projected GDP increases of 2.7 percent and 4.6 percent
respectively – allowing Germany to reach its pre-crisis level in 2022 at the latest” (European
Commission, 2021).
Summing up the current economic situation in Germany, despite the pandemic situation on the
market, Germany is still is in a good financial situation, and regardless of the shorter working hours
in many German companies, employees still receive good support from the government over their
working companies. Nonetheless, the situation led to several conflicts between Management and
employees. Due to the highly appreciated Home-Office work, many managers were pressured by
new Management circumstances and the adaption of the Management styles towards their
employees (Parker, 2021).
Sociological aspects
Even if the growth effect might not be noticed at once, the population in Germany is constantly
growing all the time. Analysing the whole EU, the largest nations are only increasing due to
migration aspect. Germany's population, especially in the Western part of the county, continues to
grow but slower than at any time since 2012. Today 83.2 million people live in Germany, which is
an increase of 200,000 compared with the previous year (Worldometer, 2022).
Analysis of this growth shows that the total population increase in Germany comes out of the
migration aspects. The statisticians revealed that the German population would be shrinking
without migration gains. In 2019, it was estimated that between 770,000 and 790,000 people were
born in Germany, while roughly 930,000 died. Numerical assessments put the number of new
arrivals from abroad at between 300,000 and 350,000, which shows that many people are striving
to come to Germany (Deutsche Welle, 2021).

Interestingly, the average age of people who are immigrating to Germany is from 30–36 years old,
which means that people are economically active and are mostly interested in getting good jobs and
automatically support the financial and economic development of the country. This is a positive
aspect for the large companies in Germany as it helps to enlarge and diverse the working conditions
and services and raise the working standards (Statista, 2021).
The high level of diversification and internationality might become quite challenging in the
Management leading styles. Analysing the cultural dimensions using the Geert Hofstede country
comparison analysis, it comes out that Germans are common for the high “Power Distance” and
“Masculinity” index. This shows that people have respect from their Management in the company,
but there is no high distance between them. Higher than average Masculinity index shows that
people in Germany are motivated to work and achieve a better life and working conditions. In
contrast, a low Masculinity index stands for an inability and unwillingness to develop further. And
this might take an influence on the Management style application when working with the
employees that are coming from abroad (Varvouzou & Zasepa, 2013).
The attitude of Germany in the “Individualism”, “Uncertainty Avoidance” and “Long Term
Orientation” aspects towards other European countries is similar. It seems that in Europe people
tend to be less individual and tend to listen, respect and adopt societal trends and directions. The
higher score in “Uncertainty Avoidance” and “Long Term Orientation” indicates that employees in
Germany are more likely to accept risk, live in the here and now, and also accept dealing with the
challenges and new changes in society more easily (Hofstede, 2015).
Also, this aspect has a strong influence on the application of the Management styles in the big
German companies. Management has to be able to make a good balance between letting employees
take the risk and being responsible for the projects and tasks they have to work on and, on the other
hand, have control and responsibility on the tasks to be fulfilled according to the norms, regulation
and companies' guidelines.
Technological aspects
Germany is not only one of the world's best-developed countries economy and policy, but also in a
technological manner. Such large German companies as Siemens, Bosch, Daimler, Airbus, et al.
might be found in the top lines of the world's innovative companies rankings (Ang, 2021). It is a
great benefit for the employees of big technology companies to work in an innovative atmosphere
as the level of creativity is automatically increasing. People also start to learn from each other and
create new Know-How and problem-solving directions in the groups. It becomes more accessible
for the Management to apply the correct Management style as the atmosphere is positive and
people tend to be more open-minded for the new things and changes (Ephross & Vassil, 2005).
Besides, large innovative and technological companies tend to apply technology not only for the
optimization of the company's production and sales but also for tracking the employee satisfaction
level and supporting them in further development: workshops, questionnaires, training, personal
development conversations and so on. Further technological development and stabilization in all the
areas are one of the critical elements large companies are putting much effort into (Bernstein, 2022).

Environmental aspects
In recent years, due to the rise of many green movements, global warming and other aspects of
environmental issues have become one of the main topics in societies worldwide. The importance
of recycling, replanting, using bio and organic products, reducing CO2 emission has increased.
People have become more aware of food and its origin, aspects that influence the high level of CO2
consumption as flights, cars, meat consumption. In response to this, all the large German companies
have changed their internal policy and rules (what was partially forced by the governance) to
reduce the business's environmental impact (Eriksen, 2019).
This has an important impact on the Management within the company, due to the new regulations
and rules, there are many changes in the surrounding that have to be adjusted and accepted by the
employees. In many cases, Management has to consider the conflicts that might appear due to the
adjustment of the working processes (Segal, 2022).
Conclusions
All the mentioned opinions and conclusions from the survey indicate that being aware and
understanding the correct usage of the different Management Styles is a highly important topic and
increasingly takes presence in the Management world. Application of the right Management style
by the Managers towards their employees is a matter of general need. Experiences show us that
applying the random Management Styles by learning a significant number of employees with
different backgrounds is not always enough.
The research states that there are several very successful large companies in Germany, which
despite the high number and diversity of the employees, manages to apply different Management
styles on the different Management levels, which lead companies to further growth and success,
despite the outstanding factors that also take a significant influence on the companies' Management
putting several restrictions and limitations on the free choice of the Management styles.
So, to manage employees successfully, besides all the obstacles, one should not forget the
importance of communicational balance between Managers and employees, especially in crisis
situations. Due to the high workload and fast development, all the actions have to be planned and
considered effectively. Also, the role of Manager’s mental conditions and skills play an important
role in leading the employees.
Experiences from long-lasting work in large German companies show that clear communication,
open-minded leading, mental flexibility, and understanding of the employee needs lead to a better
atmosphere in the company and successful development of the enterprise in general.
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Appendix
Abbreviations
BC – Before Christ
DAX – Deutscher Aktienindex
EFA – Example of First Abbreviation GDP – Gross domestic product
GS – Group standard
IATF – International Automotive Task Force
ISO – International Organization for Standardization SME – Small and medium-sized enterprises
firms SVA – Shareholders Value Added

IETEKMĒTĀJU MĀRKETINGA TIRGUS RAKSTUROJUMS INSTAGRAM PLATFORMĀ
IETEKMĒTĀJU MĀRKETINGA TIRGUS RAKSTUROJUMS

INSTAGRAM PLATFORMĀ
DESCRIPTION OF INFLUENCER MARKETING MARKET

ON INSTAGRAM PLATFORM
Annemari Sperlina
Abstract
Influencers' marketing communications on social media have become part of marketing

communications and are widely used on a daily basis by brands to reach their consumers,
spread information and build credibility for their brand. The aim of the study is to analyse
the content of influencers' communication regarding the publication of brand content and
to find out the principles of mutual cooperation, which include factors such as cost,
frequency, form, advertising and return. The research task was to analyse the theoretical
approach of influencer communication, summarize the forms and content of brand
communication in the influencer’s profile.
The empirical research used structured interviews with Latvian influencers in various
categories of followers and represented topics. The study found that 82% of influencers
believe that they can influence the views of their followers.
Keywords: influencers, opinion leader, social media communication, Instagram
Ievads
Ietekmētāju mārketinga komunikācija sociālajos medijos kļuvusi par daļu no mārketinga

komunikācijas un tiek plaši izmantota ikdienā no zīmolu puses, lai sasniegtu savus patērētājus,
izplatītu informāciju un radītu uzticamību savam zīmolam. Ietekmētāju komunikācijā dominē
Instagram platforma, kur skaitliski pieejami visvairāk ietekmētāju Latvijā. Precīzi dati par
ietekmētāju skaitu dažādās kategorijās nav pieejami lokālā mērogā no Instagram platformas puses,
bet saskaņā ar Golin Riga veikto ikgadējo pētījumu 2021. gadā ietekmētāju skaits Latvijā pieaudzis
līdz 2000, taču tikai 30 no tiem atzīti par ietekmīgākajiem un veiksmīgākajiem. Ņemot vērā, ka abu
pušu sadarbība ir relatīvi nesena parādība sociālajos medijos, tad kļuvis aktuāls jautājums par
ietekmētāju darbības principiem, komunikācijas saturu un stilu, kā arī sadarbības zīmolu izvēli, lai
palīdzētu uzņēmumiem labāk saprast ietekmētājus un tos efektīvāk izmantot savā komunikācijā.
Pētījuma mērķis: izanalizēt ietekmētāju komunikācijas saturu attiecībā uz zīmolu satura publiskošanu
un noskaidrot savstarpējās sadarbības principus, kas ietver tādus faktorus kā izmaksas, biežumu,
formu, reklāmas un atdevi.
Pētījuma jautājums: kāda komunikācija dominē ietekmētāju saturā, ko tie veido zīmolu uzdevumā?
Pētījuma periods: no 2020. gada 1. novembra līdz 2021. gada 1. novembrim.

Pētījuma uzdevumi:
1) analizēt teorētiskās nostādnes par ietekmētāju komunikāciju sadarbībā ar zīmoliem;
2) noskaidrot ietekmētāju izmaksas, sadarbības biežumu, juridisko formu;
3) apkopot sadarbības un komunikācijas formas un saturu ietekmētāju komunikācijā
sociālajos medijos;
4) balstoties uz pētījumā iegūtajiem datiem, izvērtēt un piedāvāt veiksmīgas ietekmētāju un
zīmolu sadarbības pamatnostādnes.
Empīriskā pētījuma veikšanai tika izmantotas strukturētas intervijas ar Latvijas ietekmētājiem
dažādās sekotāju kategorijās un pārstāvētās tēmās, lai aptvertu pietiekami plašu lauku un varētu
izdarīt secinājumus par veiksmīgas un efektīvas sadarbības aspektiem komunikācijas veidošanā,
ietverot zīmolu saturu.
Teorētiskā daļa
Sociālo mediju platformu pieaugošā popularitāte ir pamudinājusi uzņēmumus izmantot šīs

platformas mārketinga nolūkos, kuri arī gadu no gada meklē jaunus veidus, kā būt redzamiem un
piesaistīt vairāk patērētāju uzmanības. Viena no mārketinga komunikācijas formām, kas
aktualizējusies sociālo mediju platformās, ir ietekmētāju mārketings – mārketinga forma, kurā
ietekmētāji sadarbojas ar uzņēmumiem, lai reklamētu zīmolus un produktus saviem sekotājiem.
Ietekmētāji ir sociālo mediju lietotāji, kuri ir saņēmuši ievērojamu uzmanību no citiem lietotājiem
un ieguvuši pietiekami lielu sekotāju skaitu. Sekotāji ir tie, kas seko citam lietotājam un labprātīgi
saņem informāciju no personām un zīmoliem, kam tie seko. Sekotāji izrāda dedzīgu interesi par
ietekmētāju un bieži izmanto ietekmētāju kā informācijas avotu. No otras puses, ietekmētāji var
veidot savas auditorijas attieksmi un uzskatus, izmantojot savas ziņas (Samira et al., 2021).
Ietekmētāji pārvalda savu profilu kā savu zīmolu ar personīgā satura veidošanu, lai palielinātu
sekotāju skaitu. Tā kā sekotāji mēdz novērtēt ietekmētāju padomu, jo viņi ir pieredzējuši noteiktos
tematos, ietekmētājiem svarīgi saglabāt savu uzticamību, lai stiprinātu viņu attiecības ar saviem
sekotājiem. Pieaugošā, bet joprojām ierobežotā literatūra par ietekmētāju mārketingu, kas ir
pieejama, koncentrējas uz vairākām pētniecības jomām – daļa autoru ir mēģinājuši identificēt
iemeslus, kāpēc daži indivīdi tiek uzskatīti par ietekmētājiem sociālajos medijos (piemēram,
Casal´o, et al., 2020; De Veirman, et al., 2017), citi – analizē uz ietekmētājiem balstītu reklāmas
darbību efektivitāti (piemēram, Arora et al., 2019). Tomēr lielākā daļa pētījumu, kas ir analizējuši
realizētās komunikācijas ietekmi, ir koncentrējušies uz lietotāju uztveri un atbildes reakciju
reklamētajiem produktiem un zīmoliem (piemēram, Mettenheim & Wiedmann, 2021; Reinikainens
et al., 2020).
Ietekmētāji pārstāv jaunu viedokļu līderu kategoriju kaut kur starp slavenībām un draugiem, kas ir
parādījies līdz ar sociālo mediju iespēju pieaugumu. Ietekmētāji varētu būt raksturoti kā paštaisītas
“mikroslavenības”. Slavenības jau sen ir izmantotas mārketinga kampaņās, kuru mērķis ir pārnest
slavenības tēlu vai vērtību apstiprinātiem zīmoliem; sociālo mediju ietekmētāji pārstāv to kā
unikāla un salīdzinoši jaunāka šīs mārketinga taktikas versija. To konceptuālais pamats, slavenības
un ietekmētāji pēc būtības atšķiras: tā kā slavenības ir pazīstamas ar savu nesabiedriskumu mediju
aktivitātēs (piemēram, sports, mūzika), ietekmētāji “dzimst” sociālajos tīklos ar plašsaziņas
līdzekļiem, kur tie attīsta galveno darbību, ar kuru viņi ir pazīstami (Tafesse et al., 2021). Tāpēc

ietekmētāju reputācija izriet tikai no viņu satura ziņām un viņu aktivitātes sociālajos medijos
parasti sadarbībā ar viņu sekotājiem. Viņi bieži koncentrējas uz segmentētāku auditoriju, ar kuru
viņiem ir līdzīgas intereses, un ir kā sava veida virtuāls draugs. Jo ietekmētāji šķiet tuvāki savām
konkrētajām mērķauditorijām, viņi mēdz arī izskatīties uzticamāki vai ticamāki nekā tradicionālais
slavenības. Viņi nāk, lai kalpotu kā viedokļu līderi vai eksperti – sekotāji attiecīgajās jomās, tāpēc
sekotāji mēdz meklēt vai paļauties uz viņu viedokli informēt savus pirkuma lēmumus, atklājot
atbilstību un potenciālu sociālo mediju ietekmētāju ietekmi (Casaló et al., 2020).
Ietekmētāji veido un uztur tiešas attiecības ar vairākiem lietotājiem ar mērķi informēt, izklaidēt un
potenciāli ietekmēt viņu domas, attieksmi un uzvedību. Būtisks ietekmētāju jautājums ir viņu
paustā uzticamība. Pateicoties savām zināšanām un savu sekotāju interesēm, ietekmētāji tiek
uztverti kā uzticamāki nekā slavenības, kā rezultātā viņiem ir lielāka ietekme uz saviem sekotājiem
(Belanche et al., 2021).
No attiecību viedokļa ietekmētāju mērķis ir attīstīt dziļāk psiholoģiskas saites ar saviem sekotājiem,
lai izveidotu ilgtermiņa attiecības (Tafesse et al., 2021). Ietekmētāji cīnās, lai piesaistītu un noturētu
sekotājus jo tas ir veids, kā veidot veiksmīgu kopienu, kas ir to ietekmes pamatā. Tomēr, līdzīgi kā
attiecībām starp uzņēmumiem un klientiem, šīs ilgtermiņa attiecības savukārt veidojas no dažādiem
saskares punktiem, kas notiek starp ietekmētāju un viņa/viņas sekotājiem. Tas ir svarīgi, ņemot vērā,
ka sekotāji, nepārtraukti pieņemot lēmumus par ietekmētāju, vienkārši uz klikšķiem balsta uzvedību.
Tāpēc katra publikācija ir svarīga, jo kopumā tas ļauj attīstīt kopienu, kurā ir interesants un atbilstošs
saturs par konkrētām tēmām (Belanche et al., 2021). Konta sekotāju kvalitāte ir svarīga ietekmētāja
vērtības rādītājs, jo var izrādīties, ka no sekotāju lielā skaita daļa ir boti, viltus profili vai neaktīvi konti,
tādējādi mārketingam šīs ir bezjēdzīgas masas vienības bez atdeves.
Ir divu veidu reklāmas ziņojumi: stāstu stāstīšana un informatīvie, kas abi ir plaši pētīti (piemēram,
Kawpong, et al., 2007). Stāstu reklāmas (sauktas arī par stāstījumu) nodod auditorijai komerciālus
ziņojumus, izmantojot stāstu ar nepieciešamajiem elementiem: kas, kad, kur, kāpēc, kā. Tādējādi
stāstu stāstīšana var labi darboties ar parasociālo attiecību intimitātes aspektu un izmantot tā
ietekmi uz sekotāju pirkumu nodomu. Informatīvās reklāmas (vai, no otras puses, reklāmas, kas
nav stāstījuma raksturs, nenodod vēstījumu stāstu, bet tā vietā iekļaujot informācijas, faktu un
skaidrojumu sarakstu par produktu/zīmolu (Eunjin et al., 2017). Pētījumi parādīja, ka informatīvās
reklāmas nodrošina lielāku pirkumu skaitu nekā stāstu reklāmas, savukārt citi norādīja, ka stāstu
reklāmām ir lielāka ietekme par auditorijas iepirkšanās paradumiem. Nekonsekventie atklājumi
liecina, ka efektīvas reklāmas ziņas veids var būt atkarīgs no komunikācijas konteksta vai
atbilstības veida specifiskajām īpašībām (Bevelander et al., 2018). Abu veidu ieraksti, t.i., stāstu un
informatīvie, ir parasti izmantoti Instagram ietekmētāju komunikācijā. Daži ietekmētāji izmanto
galvenokārt stāstu vēstījumus, lai reklamētu produktus, savukārt citi publicē informatīvus
ziņojumus. Informatīvas ziņas koncentrējas uz faktiem un produktu funkcijām, piedāvājot
utilitārāku saturu, tādējādi tie var uzlabot viedokļu līdera ietekmi uz sekotāju nodomu (Hollebeek
& Macky, 2019).
Pētījumos par lietotāju motivāciju izmantot sociālos medijus un sekot citiem bieži atsaucas uz
lietojumu un gandarījuma teoriju, kas nosaka to, ka auditorija izvēlas lietot konkrētu mediju, lai
sasniegtu savas vajadzības un vēlmes, kas sniedz gandarījumu (Katz et al., 1973). Lietotāji iesaistās
sociālo mediju aktivitātēs un seko citiem galvenokārt tāpēc, lai izpētītu, ko citi lietotāji dara savā
ikdienas dzīvē (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016), baudas iegūšanai un sociālās identifikācijas uzlabošanai.

Saistošs jautājums no ietekmētāja perspektīvas ir tas, kas padara parastu sociālo mediju lietotāju
veiksmīgu auditorijas piesaistē un kļūst par ietekmētāju ar ievērojamu auditoriju. Lai gan sociālie
mediji padara masu auditoriju potenciāli pieejamu ikvienam, ne visiem izdodas piesaistīt
ievērojamu uzmanību. Pētījumi, kas pēta šo procesu, ir saistīti ar ietekmētāju kā kultūras daļu un
personības zīmolu (Samira et al, 2021).
Nav vienotas metodoloģijas ietekmētāju ietekmes noteikšanai, autori to apskata un definē no
dažādiem aspektiem – ietekmes centrā izvirza ietekmētāja autentiskumu un atpazīstamību, ko grūti
izmērīt un noteikt, savukārt citi koncentrējas uz viegli izmērāmiem lielumiem, kā sekotāji,
sasniedzamība, publicēšanas biežums, pieauguma tempi un citi kvantitatīvi redzamie rādītāji. Šiem
rādītājiem nav noteiktas robežvērtības, kas nosaka, vai ietekmētājs ietekmē vai ne (Perret, 2021).
Pārliecināšanas stadijā ietekmētāju mērķis ir mainīt sekotājos attieksmi, viedokli vai uzvedību,
izmantojot savus ierakstus, t.i., ietekmētāju mārketingu. Tas ietver auditorijas pārvietošanu cauri
AIDA (uzmanības, intereses, vēlmes un rīcības) procesam. Esošajos pētījumos ir izmantoti aptaujas
un eksperimenti, lai izpētītu ietekmējošos faktorus ietekmētāju mārketingā. Noteicošie rādītāji ir
sekotāju uzvedības nodomi, piemēram, nodoms mijiedarboties, ieteikt un, pats galvenais, pirkt,
pamatojoties uz ietekmētāju ieteikumu (Escalas & Bettman, 2017). Šos faktorus lielā mērā var
klasificēt kā ietekmētāju atribūtus, piemēram, ietekmētāja sociālā un fiziskā pievilcība un uztvertā
popularitāte, sekotāja īpašības, piemēram, tiešsaistes mijiedarbības tieksme, empātija, vientulība,
pašcieņa, pārliecināšanas spējas un pieķeršanās, un konta atribūti, piemēram, oriģinalitāte,
unikalitāte, kvalitāte un kvantitāte (Casaló et al., 2018).
Situācijas analīze
Ietekmētāju mārketings galvenokārt tiek relizēts tieši Instagram platformā, kam seko tādas
platformas kā YouTube un Tik Tok. Instagram ir viena no populārākajām sociālo mediju vietnēm,
kas ļauj lietotājiem nekavējoties kopīgot videoklipus un fotoattēlus, pievienojot tiem efektus un tos
rediģējot. Nav precīzu datu no Instagram platformas, cik tieši lietotāju platformā ir ietekmētāji, bet
tiek lēsts, ka platformā darbojas ap 500 000 ietekmētāju, kas veido 39% no visiem profiliem
platformā ar lielāku sekotāju skaitu kā 15 000, un 81% no tiem sekotāju bāze veido no 15 000–
100 000 sekotājiem. Turklāt Instagram ir populāra sociālo mediju platforma, kam bieži dod
priekšroku Y un Z paaudzes, un gandrīz 80% Instagram lietotāju ir no Y un Z paaudzes (Yılmazdoğan
et al., 2021).
Gada sākumā tika aktualizēts Golin Riga influenceru reģistrs, un secināts, ka Latvijā kopējais
infuenceru skaits pieaug ļoti lēni, izteiktu jaunpienācēju īsti nav. Pašlaik vietējā tirgū ir aptuveni
500 influenceru, kuru personības, sekotāju bāze un saturs var ieinteresēt zīmolus sadarboties
(Ekonomika.lv). Līdz ar to 93% mārketinga speciālistu šobrīd savās kampaņās izmanto ietekmētājus
un 66% no viņiem plāno palielināt budžetu ietekmētāju mārketingam nākamajā gadā. Tā rezultātā
ietekmētāju sektors ir sasniedzis gandrīz 10 miljardu ASV dolāru gada ieņēmumus (Belanche at al.,
2021).
“Golin Rīga” sadarbībā ar “Norstat” pērnā gada beigās veica pētījumu, lai noskaidrotu, cik liela
patiesībā ir influenceru ietekme Latvijā. Šis pētījums atklāj, ka Latvijā vecuma grupā no 16 līdz 65
gadiem ar šo komunikācijas kanālu ir iespēja sasniegt teju pusmiljonu cilvēku. Savukārt vecuma
grupā no 16 līdz 29 gadiem vairāk nekā 62% seko kādam influencera kontam Instagram. Tajā pašā

laikā 38% aptaujāto neizmanto Youtube, Instagram, nelasa blogus vai nezina, kas ir influenceri. Tie
visbiežāk ir cilvēki vecumā no 40 līdz 65 gadiem. Aptuveni 17% iedzīvotāju kaut reizi ir kaut ko
iegādājušies, iedvesmojoties no influencera vēstījuma, – lielākoties tās ir bijušas jaunāko tehnoloģiju
ierīces, dekoratīvā kosmētika un matu kopšanas līdzekļi. Daļai ir bijis kārdinājums to darīt. Tajā pašā
laika 40% atzina, ka pēc iedvesmotāja ieteikuma nekad neko nav pirkuši (Ekonomika.lv).
Nesen veiktā “Experticity” pētījumā noskaidrots, ka 82%, visticamāk, veiks kādu darbību, balstoties
uz mikro ietekmētāja rekomendāciju. Mikro ietekmētāji nodrošina par 22% lielāku konversiju
skaitu nekā citi ietekmētāji. Mikro ietekmētājiem ar 1000 līdz 4000 sekotājiem ir 4,5% iesaistes
rādītājs (engagement rate). Ietekmētāji ar vairāk nekā 100 000 sekotājiem nodrošina tikai 1,7%
iesaisti. Ietekmētājiem līdz 1000 iesaiste veido 9,7%. Mega ietekmētāji ar vairāk nekā 5 miljoniem
sekotāju veido 1% no visiem ietekmētājiem pasaulē (Warren, 2020). Lielāka uzmanība ir jāpievērš
iesaistei, nevis sekotāju skaitam. 23% mārktinga speciālistu pievērš uzmanību satura kvalitātei,
21,2% sasniegtajai auditorijai un 14,2% sekotāju skaitam, bet tikai 12,4% domā par ietekmētāja
izmaksām (Simovic, 2022).
Saskaņā ar Keller Fay Group pētījumu mikro ietekmētājiem ir par 10% lielākas zināšanas par
produktu nekā sabiedrībai kopumā. Mikro ietekmētājus dēvē par nišas influenceriem, jo tiem ir liela
ietekme konkrētā grupā un, iespējams, viņi nav zināmi plašākai sabiedrības daļai, bet viņu sekotāji
uzticas ietekmētāja viedoklim un uzskata viņus par ekspertu. 55,4% ietekmētāju izmanto tieši
Instagram stāstus maksas sadarbības un kampaņu realizācijā, kam seko stāstu izcelšana (Story
highlights) – 26%, Instagram aptaujas (polls) un pavelc uz augšu (Swipe-up) – (15.3%) (Sargent, 2018).
Ietekmētāju mārketings saskaras arī ar problēmām, attīstoties patērētāju uztverei par šo
mārketinga veidu, patērētāji arvien vairāk iepazīst un ir skeptiski, saskaroties ar neautentiskām
ietekmes mārketinga kampaņām. Taču neautentiskums nav vienīgais izaicinājums zīmoliem –
viņiem ir arī jāidentificē neētiski ietekmētāji, kuri pērk sekotājus. Līdz ar to atrast atbilstošus
ietekmētājus ir sarežģīts process, kas prasa laiku, jāizveido kampaņas, kas auditorijai šķiet
dabiskas, nevis rada aizdomas par slēptu reklāmu, lai sekotāji noticētu reklamētajam vēstījumam
un pieņemtu, un būtu pozitīvas atbildes reakcijas (Belanche, et al., 2021).
Pētījuma rezultāti
Empīriskajā pētījumā uzrunāti 123 Latvijā zināmi ietekmētāji ar dažādu sekotāju skaitu, lai
nodrošinātu vispārīgu aptveri un varētu izdarīt secinājumus, vai sekotāju skaitam ir nozīme
ietekmētāju komunikācijas biežumā, stilā un reklāmu izvietošanā. Pētījumam atsaucās 42
ietekmētāji, no kuriem 38,8% izmanto Instagram platformu ikdienā un 16,5% Tik Tok platformu,
citus sociālos tīklus izmantojot retāk. To pavadītais laiks Instagram platformā ir ļoti dažāds – sākot
no 30 min. dienā līdz pat sešām stundām.
Visbiežāk ietekmētāji komunicē savā profilā par sekojošām tēmām: Mode un dzīvesstils;
Skaistumkopšana un veselība; Aktīvs dzīvesveids; Ēdiens; Bērni; Aktuālais mūzikā un kultūrā;
Dzīvnieki; Ceļošana; Iedvesma un motivācija. Tiek komunicēts arī par citām tēmām, bet šīs dominēja
ietekmētāju atbildēs. Pamatā ietekmētāju komunikācija norit latviešu un angļu valodā (skat. 1. attēlu).

1. attēls. Komunikācijas valoda ietekmētāja profilā
41,5% ietekmētāju ir 1–2 sadarbības mēnesī, savukārt 34,1% – 3–7 sadarbības mēnesī – attiecīgi
36,6% maksas sadarbību saturs veido līdz 5% no viņu kopēja satura jeb ierakstu īpatsvara
Instagram plaformā, bet trīs ietekmētājiem pat 50% no visa publicētā satura. Ietekmētāji norāda,
ka ne visiem visus gada mēnešus ir sadarbība – dažiem tās ir regulāras (ar lielāku sekotāju skaitu),
citiem neregulārākas (ar mazāku sekotāju skaitu). Viena ieraksta sagatavošanai lielākā daļa
ietekmētāju velta vairāk nekā 1 stundu, bieži pat vairāk nekā divas stundas, un atsevišķi norādīja,
ka pat 6 stundas, ja atsevišķi jāveic fotosesija vai jādodas uz kādu speciālu lokāciju (skat. 2. attēlu).
2. attēls. Laiks, ko aizņem viena ieraksta sagatavošana
Pētījumā secināts, ka lielākā daļa sekotāju labprātāk iesaistās ierakstos, spiežot Like, nevis
komentējot ierakstus, 95,2% ietekmētāju ierakstos ir mazāk nekā 100 komentāru, bet tajā pašā
laikā 75% Like skaits ir no 100 līdz 1000 pie viena ieraksta, kas norāda uz pasīvāku savas attieksmes
izrādīšanu ietekmētāju ierakstos, ko var saistīt ar nepieciešamību ieguldīt mazāk laika un piepūles
nekā tas būtu komentāra gadījumā no sekotāja puses. Iesaistes skaits nav tieši atkarīgs no
ietekmētāju sekotāju skaita, jo bieži vien lielāka iesaiste pat norādīta no ietekmētājiem ar sekotāju
skaitu līdz 5000, nekā tiem, kuru sekotāju skaits pārsniedz 10 000, bet sasniegtās auditorijas apjoms
gan ir saistīts ar sekotāju skaitu bez reklāmām un ierakstiem, kas nav veidoti kā sadarbības ieraksti, –
to sasniegtā auditorija var ļoti atšķirties. Vidēji tā svārstās no 2000 cilvēkiem līdz 6000–7000 cilvēkiem,
bet lielākajiem ietekmētājiem tā vienam ierakstam ir pat virs 20 000 cilvēkiem. Ietekmētāji
nekoncentrējas uz konkursu rīkošanu savu sekotāju piesaistei un auditorijas palielināšanai, atstājot to
satura ziņā – konkursus 31% izvieto reizi pusgadā un vairāk nekā 30% pat retāk.
Sadarbības ieraksti ar zīmoliem tiem vienlīdz bieži izvietoti ietekmētāju ziņu joslā un stāstos –
44,9% visbiežāk liek sadarbības ierakstus ziņu joslā un tikpat arī stāstos. Reklāmas izvietošana
saviem publicētajiem ierakstiem ļauj sasniegt lielāku auditoriju, taču lielākā daļa neizmanto šīs
maksas iespējas, jo tas netiekot prasīts no sadarbības partneru puses, vai arī nav zināšanu reklāmu
izvietošanā. Tie ietekmētāji, kas reklāmas sadarbības ierakstiem izmanto, norāda, ka tā ļauj sasniegt
vismaz uz pusi lielāku auditoriju un izpildīt zīmolam vēlamos mērķus, lai turpinātu sadarbību

nākotnē. Savu sekotāju skaita palielināšanai reklāmas izmanto vēl retāk, jo tas neesot pašmērķis.
Attiecīgi zīmolam ir jāizvērtē, kāds ir to mērķis – sasniegt pēc iespējas plašāku auditoriju vai lielāku
tās iesaisti. Dažādās kampaņās būs atšķirīgi mērķi. Ja nepieciešams sasniegt plašāku auditoriju –
jāizvēlas ietekmētāji ar lielāku sekotāju skaitu, kas to spēs nodoršināt.
Pēdējos gados aktualizēta tēma par ietekmētāju saturā nepieciešamo norādi uz reklāmu un
apmaksātu saturu, joprojām pilnībā netiek izmantotas un izvietotas arī slēptas reklāmas – 16,7%
neizmanto tēmturus, kas norāda uz apmaksātu saturu. Tādā veidā tiek pārkāpts likums un
maldināti patērētāji – nepieciešama stingrāka ietekmētāju kontrole no sekotāju un valsts institūciju
puses, lai šo procesu sakārtotu. Liela daļa problēmas slēpjas ietekmētāju nezināšanā par konkrēto
jautājumu, jo tas nav viņu pamatdarbs un viņi tam nepievērš tik daudz uzmanības, kā ietekmētāji
ar lielu sekotāju skaitu, kam tā ir profesija un pamatdarbs, kas nodrošina ienākumus. Līdz ar to
likumsakarīgi, ka biežākā ietekmētāja juridiskā forma ir vienkārši saņemt autoratlīdzību vai būt
pašnodarbinātai personai, tikai 19% aptaujāto ir izveidojuši savus uzņēmumus. Ietekmētāju
izmaksas par vienu ierakstu ir nelielas, – 40% par vienu ierakstu pēc nodokļu nomaksas vēlas
saņemt līdz 100 EUR, tikai 12% vairāk nekā 300 EUR. Attiecīgi cenu līmenis pret sasniegto
auditoriju ir adekvāts. Jo lielāks sekotāju skaits un iespēja sasniegt auditoriju, jo lielākas izmaksas.
3. attēls. Atalgojums par vienu ierakstu
90% dalībnieki, kas piedalījušies pētījumā, atzīst, ka cenšas ik dienu atbildēt uz visiem
komentāriem un vēstulēm, ko saņem, jo vēlas veidot atgriezenisko saiti, un tas prasa daudz laika.
82% pētījuma dalībnieku uzskata, ka spēj ietekmēt savu sekotāju viedokļus, lai gan vairums
neanalizē pirkumu skaitu, kodu izmantošanu vai šāda tipa saturu, bet 85% atzīst, ka viņiem ļoti
bieži pienāk jautājumi par to, kur konkrētais produkts iegādāts un vai ir kādi atlaižu kodi, kas
norāda uz to, ka cilvēki vēlas saņemt informāciju un atlaides no ietekmētājiem un neizjūt pretestību
pret šāda tipa saturu. 71,3% ietekmētāju labprāt izvieto atlaižu kodus savā saturā. Cilvēki seko
ietekmētājiem, jo vēlas iedvesmoties un uzzināt par jauniem produktiem.
Lai pārliecinātu savus sekotājus, ietekmētāji norāda, ka izmanto gan tekstuālās, gan vizuālās
iespējas – izplatītākie veidi no viņu puses ir: dalīšanās ar savu lietošanas pieredzi, arī negatīvo, lai
radītu objektivitātes sajūtu, informācijā iekļauj faktus un produkta īpašības, tikai to produktu
reklamēšana, ko ikdienā lieto, ar dabiska un patiesa satura radīšanu, kas neatgādina reklāmu.

1. Ietekmētāji ir sociālo mediju lietotāji, kuri ir saņēmuši ievērojamu uzmanību no citiem

lietotājiem un ieguvuši pietiekami lielu sekotāju skaitu. Pašlaik vietējā tirgū ir aptuveni 500
ietekmētāju Instagram. Latvijā vecuma grupā no 16 līdz 65 gadiem ar šo komunikācijas kanālu
ir iespēja sasniegt teju pusmiljonu cilvēku. Savukārt vecuma grupā no 16 līdz 29 gadiem vairāk
nekā 62% seko kādam ietekmētāju kontam Instagram.
2. Pētījumā secināts, ka 41,5% ietekmētāju ir 1–2 sadarbības mēnesī, savukārt 34,1% – 3–7
sadarbības mēnesī – attiecīgi 36,6% maksas sadarbību saturs veido līdz 5% no viņu kopēja
satura. Sadarbības ieraksti ar zīmoliem tiem vienlīdz bieži izvietoti ietekmētāju ziņu joslā un
stāstos, – 44,9% visbiežāk liek sadarbības ierakstus ziņu joslā un tikpat arī stāstos. Līdz ar to
zīmoli var veidot arī biežākas sadarbības, ja tas nepārsātina izvēlētā ietekmētāja saturu un
nerada reklāmas kanāla sajūtu sekotājiem.
3. Iesaistes apjoms ierakstos nav tieši atkarīgs no ietekmētāju sekotāju skaita, bet sasniegtā
auditorija gan – jo lielāks sekotāju skaits, jo lielāka iespējamā sasniegtā auditorija bez papildu
reklāmas no ietekmētāju puses, līdz ar to zīmoliem ir jāizvēlas kampaņas mērķis – iesaiste vai
sasniegtā auditorija, lai noteiktu vēlamos ietekmētājus un to sekotāju skaitu. Ja produkts ir
sarežģītāks un prasa lielāku iesaisti no sekotāju puses, mazo un vidējo ietekmētāju kombinēšana
būs labākā stratēģija.
4. Reklāmas izvietošana saviem publicētajiem ierakstiem ļauj sasniegt lielāku auditoriju, taču
lielākā daļa neizmanto šīs maksas iespējas, kas ļautu sasniegt daudz lielāku auditoriju un arī
iesaisti, attiecīgi no zīmolu puses ir jāsāk prasīt izvietot arī reklāmas (apmaksātus ierakstus), lai
izpildītu mērķus, īpaši Instagram algoritmam pastāvīgi mainoties. Reklāmas no ietekmētāju
puses ļaus sasniegt labākus pārdošanas rādītājus un arī finansiālo atdevi kopumā no sadarbības
ar ietekmētājiem.
5. Pēdējos gados aktualizēta tēma par ietekmētāju saturā nepieciešamo norādi uz reklāmu un
apmaksātu saturu, joprojām pilnībā netiek izmantotas un netiek izvietotas arī slēptas reklāmas
– 16,7% neizmanto tēmturus, kas norāda uz apmaksātu saturu. biežākā ietekmētāja juridiskā
forma ir vienkārši saņemt autoratlīdzību vai būt pašnodarbinātai personai, tikai 19% aptaujāto
ir izveidojuši savus uzņēmumus. Nepieciešama informējoša sadarbība ar ietekmētājiem un
reklāmas aģentūrām no valsts institūciju puses, lai nodrošinātu ietekmētāju izglītošanu par
likumiem, kas attiecas uz viņiem kā reklāmu publicētājiem, kā arī juridisko formu sakārtošanu.
6. Ietekmētāju izmaksas par vienu ierakstu ir nelielas, – 40% par vienu ierakstu pēc nodokļu
nomaksas vēlas saņemt līdz 100 EUR, tikai 12% vairāk nekā 300 EUR. Attiecīgi cenu līmenis
pret sasniegto auditoriju ir adekvāts. Jo lielāks sekotāju skaits un iespēja sasniegt auditoriju, jo
lielākas izmaksas.
7. 82% pētījuma dalībnieku uzskata, ka spēj ietekmēt savu sekotāju viedokļus, lai gan vairums
neanalizē pirkumu skaitu, kodu izmantošanu vai šāda tipa saturu, bet 85% atzīst, ka viņiem ļoti
bieži pienāk jautājumi par to, kur konkrētais produkts iegādāts un vai ir kādi atlaižu kodi.
Autore rekomendē ietekmētājus izmantot savās kampaņās kā daļu no komunikācijas gan
auditorijas sasniegšanai, gan pārdošanas veicināšanai.

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BEZBĒRNOTĪBAS TERMINOLOĢIJA IEKĻAUJOŠAS DARBA VIDES VEICINĀŠANAI AUGSTĀKĀS IZGLĪTĪBAS IESTĀDĒS
BEZBĒRNOTĪBAS TERMINOLOĢIJA IEKĻAUJOŠAS DARBA VIDES

VEICINĀŠANAI AUGSTĀKĀS IZGLĪTĪBAS IESTĀDĒS
TERMINOLOGY OF CHILDLESSNESS FOR PROMOTING AN INCLUSIVE

WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Vita Stiģe-Škuškovnika
Abstract
The problem of an inclusive workplace environment has become a trend over the world in
many organizations. Employers speak about different inclusion issues but still there are
some that are ignored. Childlessness is one of them, it’s unrecognized at the workplace which
creates unhealthy attitudes, unfriendly atmosphere and even discrimination. This is mostly
because of lack of understanding of childlessness from society, leaders and co-workers.
The purpose of this paper is to compile and create terminology of childlessness in Latvian
language for promoting an inclusive workplace environment in higher education institutions.
First steps in this completely new topic have been made by the author of this paper in an
integrative literature review about emotional intelligence as an attribute of effective
leadership with the main conclusion to review terminology of childlessness not only in
English but especially in Latvian. This is another integrative literature review that
generates a new conceptual framework of terminology in Latvian language providing a
comprehensive understanding of a particular subject.
The importance of the results lies in the fact that there is a lack of terminology in Latvian
language. Findings show that only one main concept “childlessness” is officially accepted by
formal institutions of Latvia. This paper is the first attempt towards the improvement of the
situation in management science and is concerned with such related concepts as “childless
not by choice”, “childfree” and others. The findings could be significant not only for the
development of higher education institutions but also for business organizations in general.
Keywords: childlessness, terminology, inclusive workplace environment, higher education institutions
Atslēgas vārdi: bezbērnotība, terminoloģija, iekļaujoša darba vide, augstākās izglītības iestādes
Ievads
Iekļaujošas darba vides veicināšana daudzās organizācijās ir kļuvusi par tendenci visā pasaulē. Kā
norāda Grisoms (Grissom, 2018), dažādība un iekļaušana darbavietā ir ļoti plašs temats, kas aptver
daudzas tēmas (piemēram, iekļaujoša kultūra, vadība, diskriminācija, neapzināti aizspriedumi) un
grupas (piemēram, sievietes, vīriešus, vecumu, rases, cilvēkus ar invaliditāti, LGBT pārstāvjus). Šis
saraksts ir papildināms un atvērts.

Darba devēji runā par dažādības un iekļaušanas jautājumiem, taču joprojām daži no tiem tiek ignorēti.
Pētījumi pierāda, ka bezbērnotība (childlessness) ir viena no ignorētām un dziļi personiskām tēmām,
ko sabiedrībā neatzīst un noklusē. Arī darba vidē tas rada neveselīgu attieksmi, veicina stigmas un
diskrimināciju. Galvenokārt tāpēc, ka sabiedrībā vadītājiem un kolēģiem trūkst izpratnes par to, ar ko
saskaras un ko pārdzīvo sievietes un vīrieši, kuriem neizdodas kļūt par vecākiem dažādu apstākļu dēļ.
Saskaņā ar Ekonomiskās sadarbības un attīstības organizācijas (OECD, 2018) datiem pēdējos gados
strauji pieaug to sieviešu skaits, kurām 40–45 gadu vecumā nav bērnu. Citi pētījumi rāda, ka vidēji
katra piektā sieviete sasniedz 45 gadu vecumu bez bērniem. No tām tikai 10% pēc pašu izvēles
(childfree), 10% neauglības dēļ un 80% dažādu citu apstākļu dēļ (childless by circumstance). Par
vīriešiem šādu datu trūkst.
Bezbērnu (childless) problēma Latvijas sabiedrībā ir salīdzinoši jauna tēma, kas saskaras ar dažādiem
šķēršļiem un kurai nav izveidota teorētiska bāze tās pētīšanai, trūkst terminoloģijas latviešu valodā,
lai veicinātu tās integrēšanu arī uzņēmumu vadības dienaskārtībā. Piemēram, augstākās izglītības
iestādēs nodarbināti ir gan administratīvā, gan akadēmiskā personāla darbinieki, kuri pārstāv
dažādas sabiedrības grupas un kuru vajadzības ir būtiskas iekļaujošai darba videi.
Kā atzīst Mards (Mård, 2020), atšķirības vecāku statusa ziņā darbavietā bieži tiek paslēptas aiz
organizācijas formalitātes, taču tas joprojām stipri ietekmē darba vides klimatu. Kolēģu ziņas par
grūtniecību, tikšanās ar kolēģu jaundzimušajiem bērniem vai saziņa ar vecākiem, kuri lepojas vai ir
noraizējušies par saviem bērniem, bieži vien raksturo ikdienu darbā. Tiem, kuriem nav bērnu pret savu
gribu (childless not by choice), tas var radīt trauksmi un pat sajūtu par neatbilstību kādam profesionālam
virzienam vai darbam, izraisot iekšējus eksistenciālus jautājumus un emocionālu spriedzi.
Atsaucoties uz autores veiktā pētījuma iepriekšējiem rezultātiem (Stiģe-Škuškovnika, 2022),
bezbērnotība ir viens no aktuāliem jautājumiem, kam pievērst uzmanību jebkurā darba vietā, arī
augstākās izglītības iestādēs, un kas no vadītājiem prasa augstu emocionālās inteliģences līmeni.
Organizācijām nepieciešams uzlabot iekšējās politikas dokumentus un pilnveidot darbinieku
lojalitātes un apmācību programmas ar semināriem par dažādības un iekļaušanas jautājumiem,
izglītojot arī par bezbērnotības problemātiku.
Kā atzīst Hannums (Hannum u.c., 2015), pēdējā desmitgadē arī augstākajā izglītībā novērojamas
fundamentālas pārmaiņas dažādības un iekļaušanas ziņā, radot pieprasījumu pēc dažāda tipa
vadītājiem dažādos līmeņos. Autoru grupas veiktā pētījuma dati liecina, ka, piemēram, sievietes ir
nepietiekami pārstāvētas augstākās izglītības iestāžu augstākā līmeņa vadībā dažādu iemeslu dēļ,
tajā pašā laikā statistika par sievietēm, kuras darbojas kā vadītājas, liecina par ļoti augstu
bezbērnotības procentu (43%) viņu vidū. Autoresprāt, arī šis ir iemesls, lai rakstā analizētā tēma
būtu aktuāla augstākās izglītības nozarē.
Tādējādi, atsaucoties uz autores izdarītajiem secinājumiem iepriekšējā pētījuma posmā (Stiģe-
Škuškovnika, 2022), ir nepieciešams apkopot bezbērnotības terminoloģiju un noformulēt tai
atbilstošus jēdzienus latviešu valodā, lai veicinātu šī temata aktualitāti sociālajās zinātnēs Latvijā
un ne tikai, un noteiktu turpmākajā pētījumā izmantojamos jēdzienus. Līdzšinējā izpēte liecina, ka
Latvijas formālās institūcijas oficiāli akceptējušas ir tikai vienu jēdzienu bezbērnotība (childlessness).
Autores veiktais pētījums būs nozīmīgs ne tikai augstākās izglītības iestāžu attīstībai, bet arī biznesa
organizācijām kopumā, jo līdz šim sociālajās zinātnēs Latvijā bezbērnotības tematika nav pētīta, taču
var pavērt plašas iespējas iekļaujošākas sabiedrības un darba vides veidošanā. Tāpēc šajā rakstā tiks

apskatīti dažādi starptautiskajā bezbērnotības terminoloģijā izmantoti jēdzieni (piemēram, involuntary

un voluntary childless, childfree un childless, childless by choice un childless not by choice u.c.), piedāvājot
to skaidrojumus un formulējumus latviešu valodā.
Šī raksta mērķis ir apkopot un izveidot bezbērnotības terminoloģiju latviešu valodā iekļaujošas
darba vides veicināšanai augstākās izglītības iestādēs.
1. Bezbērnotības konteksts un problemātika
Pirms pievērsties terminoloģijai un tās skaidrojumiem, autore piedāvā ieskatīties bezbērnotības

problemātikas vispārīgā raksturojumā, uzsverot, ka autores pētījuma intereses kopumā nav
saistītas ar iedziļināšanos medicīniska rakstura pētījumos, skaidrojumos vai apstākļos, bet gan
izprast sociālos un emocionālos aspektus bezbērnotības kontekstā, kas ir būtiski iekļaujošas
domāšanas veicināšanā. Apzinoties arī šādu dažādības aspektu, augstākās izglītības iestāžu
vadītājiem tiek paplašināts priekšstats par saviem esošajiem un potenciālajiem darbiniekiem,
veidojot iekļaujošu darba vidi un korporatīvo kultūru.
Bezbērnotība tās vienkāršotajā nozīmē ir bērnu neesamība, un tikai salīdzinoši nesen šī tēma ir
kļuvusi par pētījumu priekšmetu sociālajās zinātnēs. Iepriekš akcents tika likts uz tādiem tematiem
kā ģimenes veidošana un attiecības, dzimstības rādītāji, reproduktīvais vecums un ģimenes
stāvoklis (Hadley, 2021a). Līdz ar to neprecētas sievietes un vīrieši, kā arī tie, kuriem nav bērnu
dažādu apstākļu dēļ, nav tikuši iekļauti pētījumos.
Pēdējos gados arvien vairāk tiek runāts par globālu demogrāfisko tendenci, kas saistīta ar dzīves
ilguma palielināšanos un dzimstības līmeņa samazināšanos. Piemēram, 2017. gadā Amerikas
Savienoto Valstu (turpmāk – ASV) pētījumu centrs ziņoja, ka ASV katra piektā amerikāniete noslēdz
reproduktīvo vecumu bez bērna piedzimšanas, salīdzinot ar vienu no desmit sievietēm 1970. gadā.
Līdzīgas tendences tika konstatētas Austrālijā, Kanādā, Ķīnā, Eiropā, Dienvidāfrikā un Jaunzēlandē
(Hadley, 2021a).
Pēdējās desmitgadēs bezbērnotības līmenis ir strauji pieaudzis arī lielākajā daļā Eiropas valstu.
Vāciski runājošās valstis ir šīs dinamikas priekšgalā, jo vairāk nekā 20% sieviešu, kas dzīvo Vācijā,
Šveicē un Austrijā un kurām tagad tuvojas reproduktīvā perioda beigas, paliek bez bērniem. Taču
arī citās Eiropas valstīs, piemēram, Apvienotajā Karalistē un Somijā ir augsts bezbērnotības līmenis.
Austrumeiropā un Dienvideiropā vēl pirms desmit gadiem šie rādītāji nebija augsti, taču tagad tie
pastāvīgi pieaug, liecina Eiropas demogrāfijas pētījumi (Kreyenfeld un Konietzka, 2016).
Savukārt analītiskais ziņojums “Latvijas ģimenes paaudzēs” (2019) rāda, ka ir novērojamas izteiktas
pārmaiņas dzimstības dinamikā, jo pēdējā pusgadsimta laikā Latvijā ir palielinājies bezbērnu ģimeņu
skaits un samazinājies ģimeņu skaits ar vismaz trim bērniem. Piemēram, aptuveni vienai desmitajai
daļai no 1940.–1949. gadā dzimušo sieviešu un vīriešu nebija bērnu, kamēr 1980.–1989. gadā
dzimušo paaudzei nav bērnu vienai piektdaļai sieviešu un divām piektdaļām vīriešu. Jaunākā paaudze
vēl joprojām ir reproduktīvajā vecumā, un teorētiski bērnu skaits viņiem var pieaugt.
Analizējot faktorus, kas ietekmē bezbērnotību, pētījumā, kas veikts pēc Eirobarometra pārskata
analīzes, norādīts, ka, no vienas puses, tas ir atbilstoša partnera trūkums, savukārt no cita aspekta –
sabiedrībā pastāvošās sociālās normas un vērtības ietekmē personiskās izvēles un nodomus
(Āboliņa, 2016). Taču, autoresprāt, šeit netiek minēti citi būtiski iemesli – gan medicīniski, gan

sadzīviski, kādēļ cilvēkiem nav bērnu, un kuru noklusēšana vai neņemšana vērā uztur minētās
sociālās normas, gaidas un veicina stigmas.
Pētījumā “Demogrāfija un ģimenes stāvoklis Latvijā”, uz ko atsaucas Elīna Kursīte (2014), minēts, ka
sievietei, lai viņa justos pilnvērtīga, ir vajadzīgi bērni, kam kopumā piekrituši 74% sieviešu un 68%
vīriešu. Tas norāda, cik potenciāli liela sabiedrības daļa sievieti uzskata par nepilnvērtīgu, ja tā
nedzemdē un neaudzina bērnus. Attieksme attiecībā pret sievietēm ļoti saslēdzas ar idejām par ģimeni,
māju, bērniem un laulību, kā rezultātā jēdziena “sieviete” definīcija ir tapusi no jēdziena “māte”
koncepta. Pēc autores domām, tieši šādi aspekti veicina sabiedrības stigmas un traucē iekļaujošas
sabiedrības attīstībai.
Piemēram, viena no piespiedu bezbērnotības tēmas aktualizēšanas aizsācējām Džodija Deja (Jody
Day) savā grāmatā (Day, 2020) uzskaita vismaz 50 iemeslus, kādēļ sievietēm un vīriešiem nav savu
bioloģisko bērnu. Šis aspekts norāda uz to, ka šie cilvēki ir vēlējušies kļūt par vecākiem, bet dažādu
iemeslu dēļ tas nav iespējams. Tie, kuriem bērni nav iespējami kādu apstākļu dēļ, bieži saskaras ar
zaudējumu un sērām, depresiju, trauksmi, emocionālo traumu, pašvērtības zudumu (Quilliam,
2016). Lielākoties šīs nav kolēģiem vai sabiedrībai redzamas indikācijas, taču tas nenozīmē, ka
bezbērnotības problemātika augstākās izglītības iestādēs vai uzņēmumos nav klātesoša un aktuāla.
Lai vērstu uzmanību šīs tēmas aktualitātei augstākās izglītības iestādēs, jāmin arī pētījumi, kas
norāda, ka jaunie zinātnieki biežāk ir bez bērniem, nekā citi augsti izglītoti darbinieki citās nozarēs.
Tieši zinātnisko darbinieku kopienās starp sievietēm ir novērojama ģimenes atlikšana uz vēlāku
laiku, kas ir jau pēc 35 gadu vecuma sasniegšanas vai pat ievērojami vēlāk (Gewinner, 2020). Tāpat
ir izpētīts, ka sievietēm, kuras darbojas akadēmiskajā vidē, ir mazāka iespēja kļūt par mātēm, nekā
citām augsti izglītotām, profesionālām sievietēm (Reuter, 2018).
Par bezbērnotību visbiežāk runā sieviešu kontekstā, jo vēsturiskā attieksme par to, ka auglība un
ģimenes veidošana attiecas tikai uz sievietēm un vīrieši nav ieinteresēti reproduktīvajos rezultātos,
ir novedusi pie pierādītu datu trūkuma attiecībā uz vīriešu nodomiem un statistikas šajos
jautājumos. Taču pēdējos gados arvien plašāk tiek pētīta arī vīriešu puse. Tā, piemēram, pētījumi
atklāj (Hadley, 2020a), ka, salīdzinot ar bezbērnu sievietēm līdzīgos apstākļos (šķīrušās, atraitnes,
neprecējušās), bezbērnu vīrieši piedzīvo augstāku vientulības līmeni. Tāpat kā atraitņiem un šķirtiem
bezbērnu vīriešiem depresijas līmenis ir krietni augstāks nekā sievietēm līdzīgos apstākļos.
Visbiežāk bezbērnotība tiek attēlota divās kategorijās: pēc izvēles vai piespiedu kārtā. Tomēr
pētnieki uzsver, ka ir nepieciešams tās abas stingri nošķirt, norādot uz sievietēm un vīriešiem, kuri
vēlējās bērnus, bet nevarēja, un tiem, kuri negrib bērnus (McCutcheon, 2017). Pirmajā gadījumā tas
ir pret pašu gribu jeb piespiedu kārtā (childless), otrajā – pēc pašu izvēles jeb brīvprātīgi (childfree),
kas piešķir citu emocionālo fonu un attiecīgi arī attieksmi un sajūtas pret dažādiem iekļaušanas
aspektiem un ikdienu kopumā, uzskata autore. Daži autori iesaka iedalīt arī trešo kategoriju tiem,
kuri lēmumu par bērniem vēl nav pieņēmuši.
Kā pierāda dažādi statistikas dati, pašlaik desmit līdz 20% sieviešu nav savu bioloģisko bērnu.
Bezbērnotība nav tikai bioloģisku iemeslu rezultāts. Ceļš uz to sievietēm ir ļoti dažāds un piespiedu
bezbērnotība (neauglība, zema auglība, sterilitāte) izskaidro tikai daļu no tā. Bezbērnotība pēc
pašas izvēles var būt konkurējoša ar dzīves mērķu sasniegšanu un lēmumu izdarīšanu. Savukārt,
piespiedu bezbērnotība var izraisīt pašcieņas trūkumu, izolētību, nepietiekamības un mazvērtības
sajūtu, atsvešināšanos no partnera, depresiju. Katrai divdesmitajai sievietei reproduktīvajā vecumā,

kurai nav bērnu un kura nav stāvoklī, ir smaga depresija, un trauksmes rādītāji svārstās no 14 līdz
29% (Kuipers u.c., 2021).
Tajā pašā laikā bezbērnotība daļai bezbērnu sieviešu un vīriešu rada pozitīvas sajūtas (vairāk tomēr
tas novērojams, ja bērnu nav pēc pašu izvēles), kas ir saistītas ar personīgajiem sasniegumiem
izglītības un karjeras izaugsmē, brīvību dzīves fundamentālajos aspektos (piemēram, ēšana,
gulēšana), fizisko veselību, laiku brīvā laika aktivitātēm (piemēram, ceļošanai, izklaidei), radošām
un intelektuālām nodarbēm, finansiāli ieguvumi, sociālās un ekonomiskās neatkarības un autonomijas
novērtēšana, savas identitātes saglabāšana, enerģija, brīvprātīgais darbs, sapņu piepildīšana un
dzimumu līdztiesības pieredze (Kuipers u.c., 2021).
Jāatzīst, ka bezbērnotība kopumā ir ļoti stigmatizēts, sabiedrībā noklusēts temats, kas padara vēl jo
sarežģītāku tā iekļaušanu augstākās izglītības iestādēs, lai veicinātu iekļaujošāku darba vidi. Raksta
autore atzīst, ka gan piespiedu bezbērnotība, gan brīvprātīgā bezbērnotība ir kategorizējamas kā
stigmas, kas, no vienas puses, saistītas ar indivīda raksturu un personīgām izvēlēm, un, no otras,
dziļi iesakņotiem vēsturiskiem stereotipiem par vīriešu un īpaši sieviešu lomu sabiedrībā.
Beikere savā pētījumā (Baker, 2010) atklāj, ka ienākumu atšķirība starp sievietēm ar bērniem un
bezbērnu sievietēm pieaug līdz ar vecumu, izglītību, darba pieredzi un bērnu skaitu. Līdz 30 gadu
vecumam sievietes bez bērniem nopelnīja vidēji 12% vairāk nekā mātes, bet alga pieauga līdz 20%
mātēm ar trīs bērniem. Citi pētījumi (Cukrowska-Torzewska & Matysiak, 2020) atklāj, ka atkarībā
no valsts algas lielums var atšķirties no 1–13% vienā vai otrā virzienā, jo arī mātes nereti cieš no
diskriminācijas bērnu kopšanas un profesionālās darbības pārtraukumu dēļ.
Kā atzīst Robins Hedlijs (Hadley, 2019a), bezbērnotība ir sarežģīts temats, kas bieži tiek novirzīts
uz vispārpieņemtu uzskatu, ka, ja nebija bioloģisku iemeslu, tad bezbērnotība lielā mērā ir paša
izvēle. Tajā pašā laikā pētījumi par neauglības ietekmi ir pierādījuši, ka vecāku statusa neesamība
ir būtisks traucēklis sociālai un pašidentitātei un ka divu vienādu dzīves ceļu nav, jo katrs atrodas
atšķirīgā laika nogrieznī un apstākļos, kuri mainās atkarībā no personīgajiem iemesliem.
2. Metodoloģija
Tā kā bezbērnotības terminoloģija padziļināti Latvijā iepriekš nav pētīta, autore izmanto integrēto
literatūras analīzes metodi (integrative literature review), kas ir viena no piemērotākajām
metodēm, lai fokusētos uz jaunu virzienu izpēti.
Ar integrēto literatūras analīzes metodi tiek attīstītas zināšanas un izveidots teorētiskais ietvars.
Tas nozīmē, ka rezultātos ir vēlams radīt jaunu koncepciju vai teoriju. Integrētās literatūras analīzes
metodes izmantošanas mērķis ir sniegt esošo zināšanu pārskatu, kritiski izvērtēt un paplašināt
konkrētās tēmas teorētisko pamatu, to attīstot vai pilnveidojot (Snyder, 2019).
Izmantojot integrēto literatūras analīzes metodi, autore apskatīs starptautiskajā vidē izmantotos
jēdzienus un izstrādās teorētisko ietvaru bezbērnotības terminoloģijai latviešu valodā. Tādējādi
šajā rakstā izvirzītie pētījuma jautājumi ir:
• Kādu bezbērnu terminoloģiju latviešu valodā ieteicams izmantot iekļaujošas darba vides
veicināšanai?
• Kādi ir būtiskākie priekšlikumi augstākās izglītības iestāžu kontekstā?

Literatūras avotu meklēšanu autore sāka, izmantojot latviešu valodā zināmus atslēgas vārdus
“bezbērnotība” un “bezbērnu”, kā arī angļu valodā starptautiski izmantotos jēdzienus childlessness,
childless, involuntary childless, voluntary childless, childfree, childless by choice, childless not by choice,
childless by circumstance, childlessness and higher education institutions, childlessness in education.
Katra raksta provizoriskā atbilstība tika noteikta pēc nosaukuma un norādītajiem atslēgas vārdiem.
Ja tā šķita analizēšanas vērta, autore saglabāja pilnu raksta atsauci, tostarp autoru, nosaukumu,
gadu, kopsavilkumu turpmākai izvērtēšanai.
Literatūras avotu atlasei tika izmantotas tādas datubāzes kā Sage Journals, EbscoHost, Scopus,
Science Direct, Elsevier, Emerald Publishing, nosakot publicēšanas periodu pēdējiem desmit gadiem
(2012–2022). Autore iekļāva publikācijas tikai latviešu un angļu valodā.
3. Rezultāti
Bezbērnotības terminoloģija Latvijā ir neattīstīts virziens, jo raksta tapšanas brīdī formāli

apstiprināts ir tikai viens jēdziens “bezbērnotība”, kas angliski zināms kā childlessness. Kā autorei
apstiprināja Valsts valodas centra pārstāvis, šis jēdziens iekļauts Latvijas Universitātes
“Demogrāfisko terminu skaidrojošā vārdnīcā” (2001), skaidrojot to kā situāciju, kad sievietei,
vīrietim vai pārim nav neviena bērna. Meklējot šo jēdzienu Latvijas Nacionālajā terminoloģijas
portālā, tas netiek atrasts, tāpat kā tam saistošais jēdziens “bezbērnu”, angliski – childless, jeb tāds,
kuram nav bērnu. Tas liecina, ka Latvijas Zinātņu akadēmijas Terminoloģijas komisijā šādi jēdzieni
nav apstiprināti, ko autorei minēja arī Valsts valodas centra pārstāvis.
Autoresprāt, tas parāda šīs tēmas aktualitāti un jautājumu, kas jārisina, lai varētu spert nākamo soli
iekļaujošas darba vides veicināšanā. Tāpēc šajā rakstā apkopotā un latviskotā terminoloģija tiks
piedāvāta iepriekš minētajai terminoloģijas komisijai izskatīšanai un apstiprināšanai.
Pēc dažādu zinātniskās literatūras avotu izpētes un apkopošanas 1. tabulā darba autore atspoguļojusi
biežāk izmantoto bezbērnotības jēdzienu skaidrojumu kopsavilkumu, piedāvājot terminoloģiju
latviešu valodā.
1. tabula
Bezbērnotības terminoloģija latviešu valodā
Jēdziens
Angļu Latviešu Skaidrojuma kopsavilkums Autori
valodā valodā
Situācija, kad sievietei, vīrietim vai pārim nav neviena bērna. (Iekļauts Demogrāfisko
terminu skaidrojošajā vārdnīcā (2001), tāpēc atsevišķi netiek apskatīts.)
Emocionālais fons: neitrāls
Childlessness Bezbērnotība Rekomendācija:
Būtu vēlams precizēt “nav neviena bērna” uz “nav bioloģiskā vai adoptētā bērna”, jo
turpmāk apskatīto jēdzienu skaidrojumos bezbērnotība ir attiecināma tieši uz bioloģisko
vai adoptēto bērnu, nevis, piemēram, partnera bērnu no citām attiecībām.
Kanazawa, 2014; Nelson u.c., 2014;
Panggabean, 2014; Donath, 2015;
Sieviete, vīrietis vai pāris, kurai (kuram) nav
Hadley, 2019a; Hadley u.c., 2019; Brini,
Childless (1) Bezbērnu bioloģiskā vai adoptētā bērna.
2020; CukrowskaTorzewska un
Matysiak, 2020; Day, 2020; Erato u.c.,
2021; Hansen, 2021; Stegen u.c., 2021

Jēdziens
Angļu Latviešu Skaidrojuma kopsavilkums Autori
valodā valodā
Sieviete, vīrietis vai pāris, kura (kurš) vēlētos Malik un Coulson, 2013; Miettinen un
vai būtu vēlējušies bioloģisko bērnu, bet tas Szalma, 2014; Nelson u.c., 2014;
Childless (2) Panggabean, 2014; Donath, 2015;
nav iespējams vai nav piepildījies neauglības
Piespiedu Petersen u.c., 2015; Kreyenfeld un
vai jebkādu citu apstākļu dēļ.
bezbērnotība Konietzka, 2017; McCutcheon, 2017;
Emocionālais fons:
Reuter, 2018; Bodin u.c., 2019; Greil u.c.,
Negatīva pieskaņa, jo vārda childless galotne
Childless not Sinonīmi: 2019; Hadley u.c., 2019; Hadley, 2018a,
-less ir ar nozīmi, ka kaut kā trūkst, par ko ir
by choice Neizvēlēta 2018b, 2019a, 2019b, 2020a, 2020b,
žēl.
bezbērnotība; 2021b; Brini, 2020; Chaloupková un
Šādas personas, kurām piespiedu kārtā nav Hašková, 2020; Day, 2020; Gewinner,
Negribēta
bērnu, raksturo bēdas, skumjas, zaudējums, 2020; Iram u.c., 2020; Shreffler u.c.,
bezbērnotība
Involuntary sēras, nožēla, ciešanas, vilšanās, depresija, 2020; Stenström, 2020; Andeh, 2021;
childless vientulība, izolētība, pašcieņas trūkums, Erato u.c., 2021; Hansen, 2021; Kuipers
nevērtības sajūta, vainas apziņa, kauns. u.c., 2021; Mård, 2021
Apstākļu
spiesta
bezbērnotība Miettinen un Szalma, 2014; Āboliņa,
Childless by 2016; Reuter, 2018; Hadley u.c., 2019;
Skatīt Piespiedu bezbērnotība
circumstance Brini, 2020; Day, 2020; Hadley, 2018a,
Sinonīms:
2018b, 2019a, 2020a, 2021b
Piespiedu
bezbērnotība
Sieviete, vīrietis vai pāris, kura (kurš)
Childfree apzināti ir izvēlējusies (izvēlējies) neradīt Kanazawa, 2014; Kursīte, 2014;
Brīvprātīgā bērnus, jo nav vēlēšanās vai nejūt aicinājumu Miettinen un Szalma, 2014; Panggabean,
bezbērnotība kļūt par vecāku. 2014; Donath, 2015; Hannum u.c., 2015;
Childless by Emocionālais fons: Kreyenfeld un Konietzka, 2017;
choice Sinonīmi: Pozitīva pieskaņa, jo izvēle izdarīta brīvprātīgi. McCutcheon, 2017; Reuter, 2018; Hadley
Izvēlēta Šādu izvēli lielākoties raksturo vēlme pēc u.c., 2019; Hadley, 2018a, 2018b, 2020a,
bezbērnotība; brīvības un neatkarības, bērns kā šķērslis 2021b; Brini, 2020; Chaloupková un
Gribēta personības vai karjeras attīstībai, bērns kā Hašková, 2020; Day, 2020; Iram u.c.,
Voluntary bezbērnotība konkurējošs aspekts dzīves mērķu 2020; Hansen, 2021; Kuipers u.c., 2021;
childless sasniegšanai un lēmumu pieņemšanai, kā arī Stegen u.c., 2021
aicinājuma trūkums kļūšanai par vecāku.
Sieviete, vīrietis vai pāris, kura (kurš) vēl nav
Temporarily nonākusi (nonācis) līdz brīdim, kad ir vēlme
childless izdarīt izvēli vai nepieciešamība pieņemt
Pagaidu lēmumu, vai kļūt par vecāku. Miettinen un Szalma, 2014; Āboliņa,
bezbērnotība 2016; Kreyenfeld un Konietzka, 2017
Undecided Tas ir pārejošs stāvoklis, ko raksturo īslaicīga
bērnu radīšanas atlikšana dažādu iemeslu dēļ.
Lai veicinātu terminoloģijas iekļaušanos latviešu valodas lietojumā, rakstiskajā un mutiskajā

komunikācijā autore piedāvā izmantot tikai pamatjēdzienus, kas norādīti 1. tabulā – “bezbērnotība”,
“bezbērnu”, “piespiedu bezbērnotība”, “apstākļu spiesta bezbērnotība”, “brīvprātīgā bezbērnotība”,
“pagaidu bezbērnotība”, sinonīmus saglabājot kā vienādas vai tuvas nozīmes vārdus skaidrošanai,
pētīšanai, izglītošanai un valodas bagātināšanai. Tāpat, veicot integrēto literatūras analīzi, autore
secina, ka bezbērnotības jautājuma terminoloģija ir skatāma plašākā kontekstā, jo tā ļoti cieši
saistīta ar psihoemocionālo fonu un mentālo veselību, kas būtu ņemams vērā.
Papildus jāpiebilst, ka vairāku pētījumu autori (Kanazawa, 2014; Bodin et al., 2019; Brini, 2020;
Chaloupková & Hašková, 2020; Stegen et al., 2021) norāda uz to, ka, piemēram, brīvprātīgā bezbērnotība
biežāk raksturīga augsti izglītotām, inteliģentām un strādājošām sievietēm nekā vīriešiem un ka tā biežāk
novērojama valstīs ar augsti attīstītu labklājības līmeni (piemēram, Zviedrija, Norvēģija). Citi pētījumi
(Chaloupková & Hašková, 2020), kuros analizēti dažādi bezbērnotības aspekti terminoloģijas kontekstā,

atklāj, ka lielākajā daļā Eiropas valstu bezbērnotība biežāk sastopama vīriešiem ar zemu izglītības līmeni,
jo viņiem ir ierobežoti ekonomiskie resursi, viņi biežāk dzīvo bez partnera nekā vīrieši ar augstāku
izglītību.
Savukārt Bodinas autoru grupa (Bodin et al., 2019) norāda, ka Zviedrijā cilvēki vecumā no 36 līdz
40 gadiem visticamāk paliek bez bērniem auglības problēmu dēļ vai nav atraduši īsto partneri, nevis
nedrošas finansiālās situācijas dēļ. Līdz ar to bezbērnotības iemesli ir saistīti arī ar dzimumu,
vecumu un ģimenes stāvokli. Šādos gadījumos nav skaidrs, vai te jārunā par brīvprātīgu vai
piespiedu bezbērnotību.
Pēc autores domām, bezbērnotības terminoloģija ir būtiska teorētiskā bāze, kas palīdz identificēt
dažādas sabiedrības grupas, to vajadzības un uzvedību arī darbā. Autores piedāvātie jēdzieni un to
skaidrojumi ir pamats diskusijām un bezbērnotības jautājuma aktualizēšanai gan augstākās
izglītības iestāžu, gan uzņēmumu vadības un darbinieku dienaskārtībā, tādējādi veicinot iekļaujošas
darba vides veidošanos un dažādības integrēšanu korporatīvajā kultūrā.
Pēdējos gados arvien vairāk tiek atzīts, ka uzņēmumi vairs nevar atļauties ignorēt dažādību un ka
tā ir atslēga uz panākumiem. Arī autores rakstā veiktās integrētās literatūras analīzes rezultāti
norāda, ka dažādības noteikšana pati par sevi negarantē uzņēmumu veiksmi, to nosaka iekļaujošas
darba vides veidošana.
Lai arī dažādības un iekļaušanas tēmas ir aktualizējušās arī augstākās izglītības iestādēs, autores
veiktais pētījums liecina, ka bezbērnotība kā viens no dažādības aspektiem joprojām tiek noklusēts
un ignorēts gan sabiedrībā kopumā, gan darba vidē. Bezbērnotība ir kategorizējama kā stigma, kas
cieši saistīta ar vēsturiskiem priekštatiem par vīriešu un īpaši sieviešu lomu sabiedrībā.
Vairāki autori savos pētījumos (Panggabean, 2014; Hadley, 2018b; Iram et al., 2020) uzsver, ka
bezbērnu sievietes un vīrieši ir slēpuši un joprojām slēpj bezbērnotības statusu un iemeslus, lai
izvairītos no aizspriedumiem un pasargātu sevi no diskriminācijas. Stigmatizācija, īpaši pret
sievietēm, arvien ir ļoti spēcīga, kas skaidrojams ar ciešo saikni starp mātes lomu un sabiedrības
gaidām attiecībā uz sievieti. Bezbērnotība, kas ir personisks apstāklis, ir kļuvis par atvērtu un
publisku jautājumu ģimenēs, draugu lokā un darba vidē, apdraudot bezbērnu cilvēku attiecības un
laulību, kā arī sociālo un psiholoģisko noturību un labbūtību.
Rakstā apskatītie pētījumi (Āboliņa, 2016; Kreyenfeld & Konietzka, 2016; Latvijas ģimenes
paaudzēs, 2019; Hadley, 2021a) iezīmē tendenci, ka pēdējās desmitgadēs bezbērnotības līmenis ir
strauji pieaudzis ne tikai ASV, Austrālijā, Kanādā, Ķīnā un Apvienotajā Karalistē, bet arī lielākajā
daļā Eiropas valstu. Gandrīz katra piektā sieviete sasniedz reproduktīvā vecuma noslēgumu bez
bērniem, par vīriešiem precīzas statistikas trūkst, taču dažviet minēts, ka tie ir divi no pieciem
vīriešiem.
Attiecībā uz augstākās izglītības iestādēm minēts (Baker, 2010; Reuter, 2018; Gewinner, 2020), ka
jaunie zinātnieki un augsti izglītoti darbinieki, kas darbojas akadēmiskajā vidē, biežāk nekļūst par
vecākiem, salīdzinot ar citu nozaru profesionāļiem vai zemāk izglītotiem cilvēkiem.

Piedāvājot bezbērnotības terminoloģijas tabulu latviešu valodā, raksta autore atbild uz vienu no
izvirzītajiem pētījuma jautājumiem: Kādu bezbērnu terminoloģiju latviešu valodā ieteicams
izmantot iekļaujošas darba vides veicināšanai?
Izstrādātajā bezbērnotības terminoloģijas tabulā autore ir apkopojusi populārākos starptautiskajā
terminoloģijā izmantotos jēdzienus, piedāvājot tiem pamatjēdzienus un sinonīmus, kā arī skaidrojumus
lietošanai latviešu valodā. Rakstiskajam un mutiskajam lietojumam ieteiktie pamatjēdzieni ir
noteikti “bezbērnotība”, “bezbērnu”, “piespiedu bezbērnotība”, “apstākļu spiesta bezbērnotība”,
“brīvprātīgā bezbērnotība”, “pagaidu bezbērnotība”, veicinot to iekļaušanu valodas lietojumā
sabiedrībā kopumā un darba vidē.
Būtiski uzsvērt, ka autores piedāvātā bezbērnotības terminoloģija iekļauj pamatjēdzienus ar dažādu
emocionālu fonu, ko ir būtiski ņemt vērā augstākās izglītības iestāžu vadītājiem, izglītojot
darbiniekus, atbalstot viņus dažādās dzīves situācijās un integrējot šos jautājumus iekšējās politikas
dokumentos, apmācību vai lojalitātes programmās. Iekļaujošas darba vides veicināšanai būtiski
respektēt cilvēku izvēles un lēmumus, kas ietekmē arī darbinieku labbūtību un produktivitāti darbā,
uzskata raksta autore.
Ņemot vērā rakstā apskatītā bezbērnotības jautājuma aktualitāti gan sabiedrībā kopumā, gan
augstākās izglītības iestādēs un uzņēmumos, autores apkopoto un latviskoto terminoloģiju
ieteicams piedāvāt izskatīšanai un apstiprināšanai Latvijas Zinātņu akadēmijas Terminoloģijas
komisijā, tādējādi veicinot soli pretī iekļaujošas darba vides un sabiedrības veidošanai, kas balstīts
pētījumos un kam ir teorētiskā bāze.
Piedāvājot autores izstrādāto bezbērnotības terminoloģiju (1. tabula), autore norāda arī uz
rekomendāciju precizēt šobrīd vienīgā formāli apstiprinātā jēdziena “bezbērnotība” esošo
skaidrojumu, veidojot vienotu pieeju ar bezbērnotību saistīto jēdzienu skaidrojumiem.
No rakstā veiktās integrētās literatūras analīzes izkristalizējas arī vairāki priekšlikumi, kas sniedz
atbildes uz otru izvirzīto pētījuma jautājumu: Kādi ir būtiskākie priekšlikumi augstākās
izglītības iestāžu kontekstā?
Pirmkārt, augstākās izglītības iestādēs nepieciešams veikt bezbērnotības problemātikas skaidrošanas
darbu, izglītojot gan vadītājus, gan darbiniekus izpratnes, iekļaujošas domāšanas un diskusijas
veicināšanai.
Otrkārt, ieteicams veikt augstākās izglītības iestāžu darbinieku aptauju, lai noskaidrotu viņu
informētību un viedokli par bezbērnotības aspektiem, kā arī personīgo statusu vai pieredzi attiecībā
uz šo tēmu, rezultātā apkopojot galvenās tendences un problemātiku augstākās izglītības iestāžu
kontekstā.
Treškārt, pilnveidot iekšējās politikas dokumentus un darbinieku lojalitātes programmas iekļaujošākas
darba vides veicināšanai, kā arī papildināt iekšējās apmācību programmas ar semināriem par dažādības
un iekļaušanas jautājumiem, pievēršot uzmanību arī bezbērnotības problemātikai.
Tā kā bezbērnotības tematika Latvijā ir jauns un nepētīts temats, autoresprāt, rakstā atspoguļotais
pētījums un izstrādātā terminoloģija ir nozīmīga ne tikai augstākās izglītības iestāžu attīstībai, bet
arī biznesa organizācijām kopumā, kas paver plašas iespējas iekļaujošas darba vides un sabiedrības
veicināšanai Latvijā.

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MĀKSLĪGĀ INTELEKTA IZMANTOŠANAS JURIDISKĀS PROBLĒMAS INTEREŠU KONFLIKTA NOVĒRŠANĀ
MĀKSLĪGĀ INTELEKTA IZMANTOŠANAS JURIDISKĀS PROBLĒMAS

INTEREŠU KONFLIKTA NOVĒRŠANĀ
LEGAL PROBLEMS OF THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

IN THE PREVENTION OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
Jaroslavs Streļčenoks
Abstract
In the article, the author set goals to gain an international understanding of the risks and
threats posed by artificial intelligence, as well as to develop proposals for Latvia's national
regulation. To achieve this goal, tasks have been set to study Latvia's experience in the
regulation of conflicts of interest and the competence of institutions, and to analyse
international law on the use of artificial intelligence. The article provided proposals for
minimizing risks and threats in the control of the activities of public officials, preventing
them from being in a situation of conflict of interest.
Keywords: artificial intelligence, corruption, conflict of interest, public administration, human rights
Atslēgas vārdi: mākslīgais intelekts, korupcija, interešu konflikts, valsts pārvalde, cilvēktiesības
Ievads
Mākslīgais intelekts arvien vairāk un vairāk tiek pielietots dažādās dzīves jomās. Valsts pārvalde
nav izņēmums mākslīgā intelekta ieviešanai un izmantošanai. Uzskatīts, ka mākslīgais intelekts
valsts pārvaldē var pozitīvi ietekmēt valsts un pašvaldības centienus padarīt valsts pārvaldes
procesus par daudz efektīvākiem, ekonomiski izdevīgākiem, kā arī atklātiem un caurspīdīgiem, t.sk.
minimizējot korupcijas riskus un neļaujot valsts amatpersonām izmantot gan savu ieņemamo
amatu, gan statusu un varu, kā arī iegūt sev, saviem radiniekiem un saviem darījuma partneriem
personiskus un/vai mantiskus labumus, līdz ar to nepieļaujot kā tādu interešu konflikta situācijas
rašanos.
Tomēr, vai viss ir tik labi ar mākslīgā intelekta pielietošanu? Vai tomēr nepastāv kādi riski un draudi
mākslīgā intelekta tehnoloģijas ieviešanā valsts pārvaldē? Vai mākslīgā intelekta loma un liktās
cerības gadījumā nav pārspīlētās? Savukārt cilvēcei savlaicīgi jau tagad vajadzētu vērst pastiprinātu
uzmanību uz tām potenciālām problēmām, ko var radīt mākslīgais intelekts, lai izvairītos no riskiem
un draudiem nākotnē.
Likumdevējam vajadzētu jau savlaicīgi vērst uzmanību dažāda veida problēmām, t.sk. izvērtēt
mākslīgā intelekta tehnoloģijas izmantošanas juridiskās problēmas, apzināt tās, izanalizēt un
izvērtēt, lai savlaicīgi varētu sniegt tiesiskus risinājumus šo risku un draudu minimizēšanai. Jo aiz
cēluiem mērķiem (t.sk. korupcijas un interešu konflikta novēršanas) mākslīgā intelekta ieviešana
var būtiski apdraudēt cilvēku pamattiesības.

Hipotēze
Autors rakstā plāno apzināt, izanalizēt, izvērtēt juridiskās dabas problēmas mākslīgā intelekta
ieviešanai un rast atbildes uz jautājumu, kādi saistībā ar mākslīgā intelekta darbību parādās riski
un draudi valsts pārvaldei un cilvēku pamattiesībām. Autors plāno izpētīt galvenos ar mākslīgā
intelekta darbību saistītus riskus un draudu, t.sk. saistībā ar personu datu aizsardzību.
Mērķis un uzdevumi
Mērķis ir starptautiskās izpratnes iegūšana, izzināšana un izanalizēšana par mākslīgā intelekta
radītiem riskiem un draudiem, kā arī priekšlikumu izstrāde Latvijas nacionālajam regulējumam.
Raksta priekšmets ir starptautisko organizāciju, Eiropas Savienības starptautisko tiesību un dažādu
pasaules ekspertu viedokļu izpēte, kurās ir definēti ar mākslīgo intelektu radīti riski un draudi,
novēršot valsts amatpersonu rīcību interešu konflikta situācijā.
Autors izvirza šādus uzdevumus mērķa sasniegšanai:
1) izpētīt Latvijas nacionālo pieredzi par interešu konflikta tiesisko regulējumu;
2) izanalizēt Latvijas institucionālo pieredzi un institūciju kompetenci attiecībā uz interešu
konflikta situācijas nepieļaušanu, balstoties uz minēto institūciju praksi un pilnvarām;
3) izanalizēt starptautisko tiesisko regulējumu par mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanu;
4) apkopot riskus un draudus mākslīgā intelektā izmantošanā un sniegt priekšlikumus risku
un draudu minimizēšanai valsts amatpersonu darbības kontrolē, nepieļaujot viņu atrašanos
interešu konflikta situācijā.
Rakstā tiek pētīts periods par pēdējiem trim gadiem, izmantojot vispārzinātniskās, kā arī speciālās
juridiskās izziņas metodes: analīzes un sintēzes metodes, zinātniskās indukcijas metodi, dedukcijas
metodi un salīdzinošo metodi.
Autors uzskata, ka izvēlētā pētījuma tēma ļaus labāk izprast mākslīgā intelekta tehnoloģiju būtību
un nodrošinās nākotnē to drošu ieviešanu valsts pārvaldē.
1. Interešu konflikta tiesiskais regulējums
Apvienoto Nāciju Organizācija interešu konflikta regulēšanu pieprasīja no dalībvalstīm ar

pievienošanos Pretkorupcijas konvencijai, nosakot, ka katrai dalībvalstij, ievērojot tās nacionālo
normatīvo aktu pamatprincipus, jācenšas pieņemt, uzturēt un stiprināt tādas sistēmas, kas
veicina atklātību un novērš interešu konfliktus (Apvienoto Nāciju Organizācijas Pretkorupcijas
konvencija, 2003).
Pirmais interešu konflikta regulējums Latvijā parādījās ievērojamu laiku, pirms Latvija pievienojās
Apvienoto Nāciju Organizācijas Pretkorupcijas konvencijai. Tas notika ar Korupcijas novēršanas
likuma pieņemšanu, kurā par interešu konfliktu noteica tādu situāciju, kad valsts
amatpersonai ir jārealizē savas pilnvaras jautājumā, kurā līdztekus tās kā valsts amatpersonas
interesēm vienlaikus pastāv arī šīs amatpersonas vai tās radinieku materiālās vai citas
personiskās intereses (Korupcijas novēršanas likums, 1995).
Iestājoties Eiropas Savienībā, Latvija būtiski grozīja vairākus normatīvus aktus, t.sk. Korupcijas
novēršanas likuma vietā tika pieņemts likums Par interešu konflikta novēršanu valsts amatpersonu
darbībā (turpmāk – Interešu konflikta novēršanas likums), kurā 1. panta 5. punktā tika sniegts

interešu konflikta termina skaidrojums, proti, interešu konflikts ir situācija, kurā valsts
amatpersonai, pildot valsts amatpersonas amata pienākumus, jāpieņem lēmums vai
jāpiedalās lēmuma pieņemšanā, vai jāveic citas ar valsts amatpersonas amatu saistītas
darbības, kas ietekmē vai var ietekmēt šīs valsts amatpersonas, tās radinieku vai darījumu
partneru personiskās vai mantiskās intereses.
Protams, tikai ar vienu terminu nebūs pietiekami, lai valsts amatpersonas atturētu no nonākšanas
interešu konflikta situācijās. Nepieciešams atbilstoši nacionālo normatīvo aktu pamatprincipiem
veidot tādu pasākumu un sistēmu ieviešanu (likums Par Apvienoto Nāciju Organizācijas
Pretkorupcijas konvenciju, 2005), kas atturētu valsts amatpersonas no nonākšanas interešu
konflikta situācijā. Tādējādi Interešu konflikta novēršanas likumā, izpildot Pretkorupcijas
konvencijas prasības, valsts amatpersonām ir paredzēti ar amata pienākumu pildīšanu saistītie
ierobežojumi un aizliegumi, t.sk. administratīvo aktu izdošanas, uzraudzības, kontroles, izziņas vai
sodīšanas funkciju veikšanas un līgumu slēgšanas ierobežojumi.
Šis ierobežojums noteikts Interešu konflikta novēršanas likuma 11. panta pirmajā daļā, nosakot, ka
valsts amatpersonai ir aizliegts, pildot valsts amatpersonas pienākumus, sagatavot vai izdot
administratīvos aktus, veikt uzraudzības, kontroles, izziņas vai sodīšanas funkcijas, slēgt
līgumus vai veikt citas darbības, kurās šī valsts amatpersona, tās radinieki vai darījumu
partneri ir personiski vai mantiski ieinteresēti.
Ievērojot to, ka Interešu konflikta novēršanas likuma mērķis ir nodrošināt, lai valsts amatpersonas
savas darbības pildītu sabiedrības interesēs, novēršot jebkuras valsts amatpersonas, tās
radinieku vai darījumu partneru personiskās vai mantiskās ieinteresētības ietekmi uz
valsts amatpersonas darbību, kā arī veicināt valsts amatpersonu darbības atklātumu un
atbildību sabiedrības priekšā, kā arī sabiedrības uzticēšanos valsts amatpersonu darbībai
(Interešu konflikta novēršanas likums, 2002), tādējādi valsts amatpersona atradīsies interešu
konflikta situācijā tikai gadījumā, kad tā realizēs savas valsts amatpersonas amata pienākumus
(pilnvaras) jautājumos, kas skar vai varētu skart šīs valsts amatpersonas, viņa radinieku vai
darījumu partneru personiskās vai mantiskās intereses.
Aizliegtas ir ne tikai tās darbības, kas ir definētas likumā kā interešu konflikts, bet arī jebkuras
citas darbības, kas attiecas uz valsts amatpersonu pienākumu pildīšanu, ar nosacījumu, ka šīs
darbības vai darbību rezultātā Interešu konflikta novēršanas likumā noteiktām personām (t.i., pašai
valsts amatpersonai, tās radiniekiem vai darījumu partneriem) rodas kāds labums.
2. Institucionālā piekritība un kompetence pārkāpumu izskatīšanā

un faktu pārbaudē
Interešu konflikta situācijas novēršanai Latvijā ir paredzēta vesela ierobežojumu un aizliegumu

sistēma, t.sk. deklarācijas iesniegšanas prasības valsts amatpersonām. Kontrole par valsts
amatpersonu nenonākšanu interešu konflikta situācijā pārsvarā ir uzticēta Korupcijas novēršanas
un apkarošanas birojam. Atsevišķas kontroles funkcijas uz ļoti ierobežotu valsts amatpersonu loku
ir piešķirtas Satversmes aizsardzības birojam, Valsts ieņēmumu dienestam un Ministru
prezidentam. Tādējādi autors darbā koncentrē savu uzmanību uz Korupcijas novēršanas un
apkarošanas biroja kompetenci kontrolēt Interešu konflikta novēršanas likuma izpildi, kā arī
citos normatīvajos aktos valsts amatpersonām noteikto papildu ierobežojumu ievērošanu,

kā arī noteiktajā apjomā pārbaudot valsts amatpersonu deklarācijas (Korupcijas novēršanas

un apkarošanas biroja likums, 2002).
Tādējādi Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas birojs nākotnē varētu koncentrēt iespējas
izmantot mākslīgo intelektu interešu konflikta situācijas novēršanai, līdz ar to arī saskarties
nākotnē ar iespējamām juridiskajām problēmām mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanā, realizējot savas
funkcijas ar mākslīgā intelekta sistēmas palīdzību.
Spēkā esoši normatīvie akti Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas biroju pilnvaro, piemēram,
pārbaudot deklarācijas, pieprasīt un saņemt informāciju un dokumentus no attiecīgās valsts
amatpersonas, publiskas personas institūcijām, komersantiem, sabiedriskajām vai politiskajām
organizācijām un to apvienībām, reliģiskajām organizācijām vai citām institūcijām, kā arī no tām
personām, kuras norādītas vai saskaņā ar šā likuma noteikumiem bija jānorāda attiecīgajā
deklarācijā (Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas biroja likums, 2002).
Gadījumā, jā pārbaudes gaitā atklājas fakti, kas varētu liecināt par valsts amatpersonas iespējamo
pārkāpumu, t.i., atrašanos interešu konflikta situācijā vai noteikto ierobežojumu un aizliegumu
neievērošanā, Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas birojam ir pienākums veikt attiecīgo faktu vai
informācijas pārbaudi. Pārbaudes ietvaros, ja nepieciešams, Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas
birojam ir tiesības pieprasīt un saņemt rakstveida paskaidrojumus un dokumentus no jebkuras
personas, kā arī, iesaistot Valsts ieņēmumu dienestu, pārbaudīt amatpersonas mantas, tai skaitā
finanšu līdzekļu, gūšanas tiesiskumu (Interešu konflikta novēršanas likums, 2002).
Pārkāpumu konstatēšanas gadījumā Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas birojs veic administratīvā
pārkāpuma procesu un soda valsts amatpersonas par noteikto ierobežojumu un aizliegumu
pārkāpšanu, par valsts amatpersonas funkciju veikšanu interešu konflikta situācijā, kā arī noteikto
pienākumu nepildīšanu attiecībā uz interešu konflikta novēršanu (Interešu konflikta novēršanas
likums, 2002).
Minēto pienākumu pildīšanai Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas birojam korupcijas novēršanā
atļauts apkopot un analizēt informāciju par veiktajām pārbaudēm, valsts amatpersonu iesniegtajām
deklarācijām, konstatētajiem pārkāpumiem to iesniegšanā un par likumā noteikto ierobežojumu
neievērošanu, analizēt valsts iestāžu praksi korupcijas novēršanā un atklātos korupcijas gadījumus,
iesniegt attiecīgajai ministrijai un Valsts kancelejai priekšlikumus konstatēto trūkumu novēršanai,
kā arī atļauts izvērtēt citu institūciju veikto pārbaužu saturu un rezultātus (Korupcijas novēršanas
un apkarošanas biroja likums, 2002).
Savukārt korupcijas apkarošanā Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas birojs ir tiesīgs realizēt
sodošo funkcijas, t.i., likumā noteiktajos gadījumos saukt valsts amatpersonas pie administratīvās
atbildības un piemērot sodus par administratīviem pārkāpumiem korupcijas novēršanas jomā
(Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas biroja likums, 2002).
Lai realizētu minētās funkcijas un kompetenci, Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas biroja darbinieki
ir apveltīti ar tiesībām, t.sk. veikt administratīvā pārkāpuma procesu par administratīvajiem
pārkāpumiem, pieprasīt un saņemt no valsts pārvaldes un pašvaldību iestādēm, uzņēmumiem
(uzņēmējsabiedrībām), organizācijām, amatpersonām un citām personām informāciju, dokumentus un
citus materiālus neatkarīgi no to slepenības režīma, saņemt informāciju no kredītiestādēm, brīvi
iepazīties ar reģistrētās datu bāzēs esošo visu veidu informāciju neatkarīgi no tās piederības, iegūt,

saņemt, reģistrēt, apstrādāt, apkopot, analizēt un glabāt informāciju (Korupcijas novēršanas un

apkarošanas biroja likums, 2002).
Visas minētās tiesības Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas biroja amatpersonām ir jāpilda
apzinīgi, jādarbojas sabiedrības interesēs, kā arī jāatbild par savu rīcību normatīvajos aktos
noteiktajā kārtībā. Gadījumā, ja Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas biroja amatpersonas
nepildīs savus amata pienākumus atbilstoši normatīvajos aktos noteiktajai kārtībai, tad viņus sauc
pie disciplināratbildības, kas neatbrīvo no iespējamās civiltiesiskās, administratīvās un kriminālās
atbildības (Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas biroja likums, 2002).
Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas biroja darbinieku pilnvaru apjoms ir ļoti ievērojams.
Informācijas aprite minētajā iestādē arī ir ievērojama un prasa ļoti lielus laika un cilvēkresursus tās
apstrādei, lai kontrolētu valstī 54 460 (Finanšu ministrijas paziņojums, 2022) esošās valsts
amatpersonas. Pie tam KNAB štats ir tikai 161 darbinieks (Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas
biroja gada pārskats par 2021, 2022), no kurām kontroli par valsts amatpersonu darbību varētu
nodrošināt aptuveni tikai 25 darbinieki. Mākslīgais intelekts šajā situācijā varētu minēto kontroli
par valsts amatpersonu darbību nodrošināt daudz plašāk, daudz efektīvāk un daudz racionālāk.
3. Mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanas juridiskās problēmas
Neskatoties uz to, ka mākslīgais intelekts jau pastāv mūsu dzīvē, tomēr valsts pārvaldē (t.sk.
Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas birojā) mākslīgā intelekta esamība vēl nav tik plaši izplatīta,
lai tai būtu noteicošā loma lēmumu pieņemšanā un institūciju kontroles un uzraudzības funkciju
realizēšanā. Taču tad, kad valsts pārvaldē mākslīgais intelekts tiks plaši pielietots, tas var būtiski
ietekmēt amatpersonu lēmumus, kā arī dos nepareizu priekštatu iedzīvotājiem par procesiem
valsts pārvaldē. Tādējādi jau pašlaik pastāv nepieciešamība, ja ne mākslīgā intelekta tiesiskā
regulējumā, tad vismaz izpratnē par juridiskām problēmām, ar kurām var saskarties valsts pārvalde
(autora gadījumā – Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas birojs), ieviešot mākslīgo intelektu
informācijas analizēšanas un lēmumu pieņemšanas procesos.
Šobrīd pasaulē nav vienotas pieejas mākslīgā intelekta tehnoloģiju tiesiskai regulēšanai. Tas ir saistīts
ar vairākām problēmām, kurām nav viennozīmīga risinājuma. Starp tiem ir līdzsvars starp personas
datu aizsardzības prasībām un nepieciešamību tos izmantot mākslīgā intelekta apmācībai, kā arī
mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanas tiesiskā regulējuma priekšmeta un robežu noteikšanas.
Turklāt mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanā veidojas problēmu virkne:
1) atbildība par kaitējuma nodarīšanu;
2) mākslīgā intelekta rezultātu tiesiskais režīms;
3) ticamības novērtējums lēmumu pieņemšanā
4) un dažos gadījumos neiespējamība pilnībā izskaidrot pieņemto lēmumu (mākslīgā intelekta
lēmumu pieņemšanas procesa caurskatāmības problēma).
4. Mākslīgā intelekta izmantošana valsts pārvaldē
Valsts arvien vairāk pārvēršas par digitālu platformu efektīvas kontroles īstenošanai un sabiedrisko
pakalpojumu sniegšanai, taču “digitālās valsts” veidošanas uzdevums tiek virzīts uz administratīvo
procedūru standartizāciju un automatizāciju. Tam nepieciešams izstrādāt un ieviest revolucionāras,

uz mākslīgā intelekta balstītas tehnoloģijas ne tikai uzkrāto datu apjomu apstrādei un analīzei, bet
arī lēmumu pieņemšanas sistēmas attīstībai. Mākslīgā intelekta tehnoloģijas var būtiski uzlabot
likuma izpildes kvalitāti izpildvarā. Mākslīgais intelekts var ievērojami paātrināt un vienkāršot šīm
struktūrām piešķirtās pilnvaras, tostarp ar tiesībaizsardzību saistīto pilnvaru īstenošanu. Bez tam
mākslīgais intelekts spēj optimizēt daudzas administratīvās procedūras, paātrinot jautājumu
risināšanu, izslēdzot no procesa cilvēcisko faktoru, tādējādi palielinot darba rezultātu efektivitāti.
Parādās principiāli jaunas tehnoloģiju izmantošanas iespējas, izmantojot mākslīgo intelektu valsts
institūciju pilnvaru īstenošanai gan drošības jautājumos, gan korupcijas apkarošanā un interešu
konfliktu novēršanā.
Tomēr mākslīgā intelekta izmantošana valsts pārvaldē prasa atrast optimālu kompromisu starp
mākslīgā intelekta spēju piekļūt informācijai, ko izmanto tiesībaizsardzības iestādes, un iedzīvotāju
tiesībām uz šīs informācijas konfidencialitāti. ANO Ģenerālās asamblejas 2013. gada 18. decembra
Rezolūcijā Nr. 68/167 “Tiesības uz privātumu digitālajā laikmetā” tiek norādīts, ka straujais
tehnoloģiju attīstības temps palielina valdību spēju pārtvert un vākt informāciju, kas var ierobežot
vai pārkāpt cilvēktiesības (īpaši tiesības uz privāto dzīvi). Nepieciešamība aizsargāt sabiedrisko
drošību var attaisnot dažas jūtīgās informācijas vākšanu un aizsardzību, taču valstīm ir jānodrošina,
lai tās pilnībā ievērotu savas starptautiskās cilvēktiesību saistības.
5. Atbildība par mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanu
Būtiskākā mākslīgā intelekta regulēšanas problēma ir arī atbildības problēma: kurš ir atbildīgs par
robota, īpaši mākslīgā intelekta darbībām. Novērojama novēlota tiesiskā reakcija uz mainīgajām
sociālajām attiecībām, kas saistītas ar zinātnes un tehnikas sasniegumu izmantošanu noziedzīgajā
pasaulē. Perspektīvs virziens krimināltiesiskās aizsardzības jomā ir mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanas
tiesību aizsardzība. Piemēram, daži pētnieki uzskata par nepieciešamu Krimināllikumā ieviest
jaunu noziedzīgā nodarījuma sastāvu, paredzot atbildību par mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanu
noziedzīgos nolūkos (Hallevy, 2013: 177). Atbildība par šādu mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanu
jāuzņemas personai, kas to radījusi, un tiešajam izpildītājam. Viens no autoritatīvajiem
speciālistiem Izraēlā “robotu tiesību” jomā norāda, ka kriminālatbildību par mākslīgā intelekta
darbībām būtu jāattiecina uz “ražotāju, programmētāju, lietotāju un visām pārējām iesaistītajām
personām (Аверинская & Севостьянова, 2019: 95).
Mākslīgā intelekta kā instrumenta izmantošanu krimināltiesībās un kriminoloģijā var saistīt ar
noziegumu, tai skaitā korupcijas, izdarīšanas prognozēšanu (Шестак, 2019: 201): mākslīgais
intelekts spēj sniegt prognozes par to, kur, kad un kas var izdarīt noteikto korupcijas noziegumu,
kā arī novērtēt iespējamību valsts amatpersonas atrašanai interešu konflikta situācijā. Tādējādi
pieaug nepieciešamība normatīvajos aktos iekļaut normas, kas nosaka iespēju izmantot mākslīgo
intelektu kā leģitīmu procesu, lai pierādītu, ka valsts amatpersona atrodas interešu konflikta
situācijā vai neievēro noteiktos ierobežojumus vai aizliegumus. Šajā gadījumā pašmācības mākslīgā
intelekta programmu darbība var radīt arī sabiedrības apdraudējumu un kaitēt sabiedriskajām
attiecībām, nemaz nerunājot par valsts amatpersonas likteni vai reputāciju, ja mākslīgais intelekts
patstāvīgi rada rezultātu, kuru nevar pārbaudīt un pārliecināties par tās pareizību, kā arī
pārliecināties par mākslīgā intelekta izdarīto secinājumu un lēmumu pareizību. Līdz ar to
nepieciešams jau savlaicīgi veidot ar mākslīgo intelektu saistīto noziedzīgo nodarījumu subjektu

loku, piemēram, programmatūras veidotājs, ar mākslīgo intelektu aprīkotu produkciju ražotājs vai
pārdevējs, ar mākslīgo intelektu aprīkotu produktu lietotājs un citas personas.
Mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanas procesā varētu pastāvēt četras situācijas, kuras prasa krimināltiesisko
noregulējumu:
1) veidojot mākslīgā intelekta sistēmu, tika pieļauta kļūda, kas noveda pie noziedzīgā nodarījuma
izdarīšanas;
2) mākslīgā intelekta sistēmā ir veiktas manipulācijas, kā rezultātā ir bojātas vai mainītas tās
funkcijas, kā rezultātā izdarīts noziedzīgs nodarījums;
3) spējīgs pašapmācīties mākslīgais intelekts ir pieņēmis lēmumu veikt darbības/bezdarbību,
kas kvalificējama kā noziedzīgs nodarījums;
4) mākslīgo intelektu radīja noziedznieki, lai veiktu noziedzīgu nodarījumu.
Atklāts paliek jautājums, kam būtu jāatbild par mākslīgā intelekta darbībām, kas, piemēram, ir
spējīgs pašapmācīties un nolēmis veikt noteiktās darbības/bezdarbību, kuras var kvalificēt kā
noziedzīgu nodarījumu.
Personas datu aizsardzība, izmantojot mākslīgo intelektu
Valsts institūcijas, kontrolējot valsts amatpersonu darbību, veic datu analīzi, ko valsts amatpersonas
savās deklarācijās norāda un iesniedz Valsts ieņēmumu dienestam. Mākslīgā intelekta izmantošana
var nodrošināt priekšnoteikumus katras valsts amatpersonas digitālā profila izveidei. Klasificētu
datu kopumu par amatpersonu var veidot, ne tikai analizējot informāciju valsts amatpersonas
deklarācijās, bet arī izmantojot informāciju no dažādu valsts institūciju datu bāzēm, anketām, kā arī
analizējot valsts amatpersonas uzvedību. Tas dod iespēju modelēt valsts amatpersonas uzvedību
nākotnē un potenciāli samazināt risku valsts amatpersonai nākotnē nonākt interešu konflikta
situācijā. Mākslīgais intelekts ļaus arī valstij optimizēt Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas biroja
un Valsts ieņēmumu dienesta darbību, samazinot šo institūciju ievērojamas izmaksas, bet būtiski
palielinot to darbības rezultātus. Tādējādi valsts saņem papildu iespējas kontrolēt valsts
amatpersonu darbību, nepieļaujot valsts amatpersonu nonākšanu interešu konflikta situācijās, kā
arī novēršot korupcijas riskus to darbībā, prognozējot valsts amatpersonu uzvedību. Tomēr
minētās ieceres realizēšanai datu ieguves izmantošanas tiesiskais regulējums vēl nav noteikts.
Autors uzskata, ka valsts plašā kontroles un uzraudzības instrumentu izmantošana, kas balstīta uz
mākslīgo intelektu, attiecībā uz valsts amatpersonas darbībām, kas analizē viņu datus, ar kuriem
var identificēt valsts amatpersonu, salīdzinot datus ar informāciju no ārējiem avotiem – datubāzēm
internetā, sociālajiem tīkliem utt., prasa nākotnē izstrādāt normas par valsts amatpersonu personas
datu aizsardzību vai arī attiecīgu citu tiesību nozaru ietvaros izveidot personas datu aizsardzības
sistēmu saistībā ar darba attiecībām kopumā.
Mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanas iespējas šādā veidā ļaus atklāti iejaukties amatpersonu privātajā
dzīvē (Филипова, 2018: 242). Tās veido nākamo problēmu – cilvēka tiesības uz privātumu un
personas datu aizsardzību, jo “ikvienai personai ir tiesības uz savas privātās un ģimenes dzīves,
dzīvokļa un saziņas neaizskaramību”. “Ikvienai personai ir tiesības uz savu personas datu
aizsardzību. Šādi dati ir jāapstrādā godprātīgi, noteiktiem mērķiem un ar attiecīgās personas
piekrišanu vai ar citu likumīgu pamatojumu, kas paredzēts tiesību aktos. Ikvienam ir pieejas

tiesības datiem, kas par viņu savākti, un tiesības ieviest labojumus šajos datos.” (Eiropas Savienības
Pamattiesību Harta, 2012)
Taču ievērojamais datu apjoms un globālais datu apgrozījums ir svarīgākie faktori un nepieciešamais
nosacījums mākslīgā intelekta tehnoloģiju attīstībai. Šajā sakarā, lai aizsargātu personas datus un
aizsargātu personas privātumu, 2018. gada 25. maijā stājās spēkā Eiropas Vispārīgā datu
aizsardzības regula (Eiropas Parlamenta un Padomes Vispārīgā datu aizsardzības regula, 2016), kas
“noteica jaunu globālu standartu, koncentrējoties uz cilvēktiesībām, atspoguļojot Eiropas vērtības,
un ir svarīgs elements uzticības veidošanā mākslīgajam intelektam” (European Commission
Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence, 2018). Tomēr regulā norādīts, ka “Tiesības uz personas
datu aizsardzību nav absolūta prerogatīva; tās ir jāņem vērā saistībā ar to funkciju sabiedrībā un
jālīdzsvaro ar citām pamattiesībām saskaņā ar proporcionalitātes principu” (Eiropas Parlamenta
un Padomes Vispārīgā datu aizsardzības regula, 2016). Vienlaikus Eiropas Komisijas vēstījumā
“Mākslīgais intelekts Eiropai” jau ir norādīta ES institūciju nostāja, norādot uz tendenci sašaurināt
personas tiesības, pēc saviem ieskatiem iegūt un rīkoties ar informāciju par sevi, taču pagaidām kā
aicinājums: “Valsts politikai būtu arī jāveicina plašāka privāto datu pieejamība, vienlaikus
nodrošinot pilnīgu datu aizsardzības tiesību aktu ievērošanu” (European Commission “Artificial
Intelligence for Europe”, 2018). Tas nozīmē, ka saņemtie personas dati (piemēram, informācija par
elektronisko ierīču lietošanu, par maksājumu veikšanu, par personas un personu transportlīdzekļu
ģeolokācijām vai sociālo tīklu palietošanu un darbībām tajos u.c.) var nepalikt pie personas, kas tos
saņēmusi kā operators vai datu administrators, bet gan varētu tikt nodoti trešajām personām, šajā
gadījumā, piemēram, Korupcijas novēršanas un apkarošanas birojam vai Valsts ieņēmumu dienestam
ar mērķi novērst iespējamos korupcijas riskus, kā arī izvērtēt iespējamu valsts amatpersonas
atrašanos interešu konflikta situācijā.
Tādējādi “personas tiesību neievērošana uz privāto dzīvi (it īpaši uz personas informācijas
konfidencialitāti), izmantojot mākslīgo intelektu, ne vienmēr var būt saistīta ar tā operatora (vai
datu administratora) acīmredzami neatbilstošu rīcību vai ar prettiesisku mērķu sasniegšanu, šai
darbībai var būt cits iegansts, lai sasniegtu svarīgus mērķus, kas atbilst vispārējām sabiedrības
interesēm” (Морхат, 2017: 107), piemēram, korupcijas un interešu konflikta novēršana valsts
amatpersonas darbībā.
Tomēr, pēc autora domām, ir nepieciešams tiesiski nostiprināt līdzsvaru starp (valsts amatpersonas)
personas datu izmantošanu no mākslīgā intelekta puses un personas datu apstrādes noteikumu
ievērošanu. Ņemot vērā, ka mākslīgais intelekts tiek pilnveidots, apstrādājot lielu informācijas
apjomu, tajā skaitā personas datus, valstij visos iespējamos veidos būtu jāveicina šo datu konfiden-
cialitātes ievērošana, jo jebkurā gadījumā tehnoloģiju attīstībai nevajadzētu būt par pamatu
personas tiesību neievērošanai, kas saskaņā ar Satversmi ir augstākā vērtība (Satversme, 1922).
Cita starpā valstij, veidojot savus procesus, būtu jāņem vērā mākslīgā intelekta tehnoloģiju
izmantošanas radītā kaitējuma iespējamība. Šajā situācijā likumdevējam nepieciešams iestrādāt
nacionālajos normatīvajos aktos tādu regulējumu, kas noteiktu mākslīgā intelekta operatora
atbildību par viņa funkciju izpildes procesā veiktajām darbībām. Proti, Korupcijas novēršanas un
apkarošanas biroja un Valsts ieņēmumu dienesta kā mākslīgā intelekta operatora atbildība
informācijas apkopošanā, jautājumu izvērtēšanā un lēmumu pieņemšanā par valsts amatpersonas
darbības izvērtēšanu interešu konflikta situācijā gadījumā, ja mākslīgais intelekts pieļaus kļūdu
savos secinājumos. Ņemot vērā, ka mākslīgais intelekts joprojām ir savas attīstības rītausmā, tomēr

šis jautājums tiks aktualizēts arī turpmāk, pretējā gadījumā valsts amatpersonas un iedzīvotāji
nevarēs prasīt likumā noteikto tiesību atjaunošanu.
1. Nepieciešams radīt līdzsvaru starp personas datu aizsardzības prasībām un nepieciešamību tās
izmantot mākslīgā intelekta apmācībai, kā arī noteikt mākslīgā intelekta izmantošanas apjoma
regulējuma priekšmetu un robežas ar mērķi novērst korupcijas riskus un noskaidrot, vai valsts
amatpersonas atrodas interešu konflikta situācijā.
2. Nepieciešams noteikt personu iespējamās atbildības jomas par kaitējuma nodarīšanu, izmantojot
mākslīgo intelektu, pieņemot lēmumus par amatpersonu darbības kontroli un uzraudzību,
novēršot tās nonākšanu interešu konflikta situācijās.
3. Priekšlikums noteikt subjektu, kurš ir atbildīgs par mākslīgā intelekta darbībām ar pašmācības
spēju, kurš nolēmis veikt darbību/bezdarbību, kas kvalificējama kā noziedzīgs nodarījums, vai
ar minēto lēmumu ir nodarījis kaitējumu valsts amatpersonām.
4. Noteikt iespēju izmantot mākslīgā intelekta sistēmas kā leģitīmu procesu, lai pierādītu, ka valsts
amatpersona atrodas interešu konflikta situācijā vai arī neievēro valsts amatpersonām noteiktus
ierobežojumus un aizliegumus.
5. Samazināt mākslīgā intelekta “neobjektivitātes” risku, t.i., mākslīgā intelekta problemātiskās prakses
fiksēšana, mākslīgā intelekta sistēmas obligāta valsts uzraudzība, tās detalizēta dokumentēšana,
ļaujot valsts regulatoram un iedzīvotājiem saprast, kā mākslīgais intelekts darbojas, izskaidrojot
pieņemto lēmumu un veiktās darbības.
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Pieejams: https://www.knab.gov.lv/lv/media/2270/download

INTROSPEKCIJA KRĪŽU KOMUNIKĀCIJAS KONCEPCIJĀ – SOCIĀLĀ KOGNITĪVĀ TEORIJA, STRESA KOGNITĪVĀS
AKTIVĀCIJAS TEORIJA UN PLĀNOTĀS UZVEDĪBAS TEORIJA, KĀ ATSAUCES TEORIJAS NĀKOTNES PĒTĪJUMIEM
INTROSPEKCIJA KRĪŽU KOMUNIKĀCIJAS KONCEPCIJĀ – SOCIĀLĀ

KOGNITĪVĀ TEORIJA, STRESA KOGNITĪVĀS AKTIVĀCIJAS TEORIJA
UN PLĀNOTĀS UZVEDĪBAS TEORIJA, KĀ ATSAUCES TEORIJAS
NĀKOTNES PĒTĪJUMIEM
INTROSPECTION IN THE CONCEPT OF CRISIS COMMUNICATION –

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY, STRESS COGNITIVE ACTIVATION
THEORY AND BEHAVIORAL PREDICTION THEORY AS REFERENCE
THEORIES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Laila Vaivode
Abstract
In order to formulate effective risk communication and intervention strategies to respond

to the lack of preparedness for terrorism crises resulting from human-made disasters,
researchers have developed models describing the interrelationships between factors
associated with emergency preparedness decision making. Many scholars have tested the
aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and Stress
Cognitive Activation Theory (SCAT) from the psychological, sociological and
communication perspective. The present research aims to test the appliance of the Social
Psychology theories in the context of psychological aspects of accepting information and
acting upon it adequately.
The present research focuses on first- how we can improve the quality of social dialog in
the risk communication field? How we can apply this enriched dialog in security crisis
situations with society and individuals? In the conclusion, the research aims to construct
an interdisciplinary methodology that would combine multiple disciplines, such as social
psychology, sociology, communication sciences in the field of terrorism risks perception
and communication and to design a risk and crisis communication plan in terrorism cases
useful for national authorities.
Keywords: crisis communication, risk communication, psychology theories in crisis communication
Atslēgas vārdi: krīžu komunikācija, riska komunikācija, psiholoģijas teorijas krīžu komunikācijā
Ievads
Katras koncepcijas veidošanā kā viens no fundamentāliem pasākumiem ir nepieciešamība veikt

teoriju izpēti, nosakot arī zinātnisko teoriju jeb teorijas, uz kurām savukārt tiks bāzēts tālākais
pētījums, pētījuma rezultātā radusies koncepcija. Kopera (Coper, 1988) ieskatā, ir svarīgi ievērot
noteiktu sistēmu un likumsakarības veiktajā pētījumā, kas atļaus veikt iespējami pamatotu
pētījumu, izdarīt secinājumus un iegūt augstvērtīgu rezultātu. Šajā pētījumā tiek apskatīts

jautājums, kas saistās ar krīžu komunikāciju, precīzāk, krīžu komunikācijas psiholoģiskajiem

aspektiem terorisma gadījumos. Veicot pētījumu analīzi un izskatot zinātnieku viedokļus, tādējādi
bija iespējams uzsvērt trīs teorijas, kas viennozīmīgi ietekmē komunikācijas izveidi un norisi
terorisma gadījumu izraisītās krīzēs, lai nodrošinātu maksimālu vēstījuma uztveršanas precizitāti
no auditorijas puses. Tās ir – sociālā kognitīvā teorija, stresa kognitīvās aktivācijas teorija un
plānotās uzvedības teorija.
Komunikācijas nodrošināšanai ir nepieciešami gan kanāli, kas darbosies kā informācijas piegādātājs
auditorijai un katram ir savas prasības, lai sasniegtu mērķi – gan informatīvo kā informācijas nogādi
saņēmējam, gan arī, kas ir ne mazāk svarīgi, – nodrošinātu šīs informācijas uztveri no saņēmēja
puses un atbilstošo rīcību pēc informācijas uztveršanas. Pētījuma ietvaros apskatāmajos gadījumos,
kad uzsvars ir uz krīžu situācijām un specifiski situācijām, kuras ir piedzīvotas vien retajam un par
kuru iepriekšējo pieredzi, no kuras varētu pasmelties ticamu un pierādāmu faktu kopumu,
statistiku un citus pētniecības procesā svarīgus datus, ir svarīgi vērsties arī pie iepriekšējiem
zinātniskajiem atklājumiem, kuriem var būt nozīme indivīdu un sabiedrības drošības un labklājības
nodrošināšanā.
Tādējādi šī pētījuma ietvaros uzsvars būs tieši uz psiholoģijas zinātniskajām teorijām, kuras visas
ir ciešā saistībā ar komunikācijas aspektiem.
1. Sociālā kognitīvā teorija krīžu komunikācijas kontekstā
Par sociālās kognitīvās teorijas (angl: Social Cognitive Theory – SCT) vienu no pamatlicējiem un
izcilākajiem pētniekiem ir uzskatāms Alberts Bandura (Bandura, 1986, 1991, 2000, 2002). Sociālās
kognitīvās teorijas pamatā ir cilvēka uzvedība kā efektīvas mācīšanās atslēga. Cilvēki, būdami
sociālas būtnes, ir vienmēr paļāvušies uz sociālās kultūras normām kā galveno paraugu jeb
piemēru. Sociālā kognitīvā teorija sākās kā pasākumu kopums, kas attīstījās no sociālās mācīšanās
teorijas, ko izveidoja Millers un Dollards 1941. gadā. Vēlāk A. Banduras izstrādātā SCT skaidro ar
triju elementu (Bandura,1986) savstarpēju cēloņsakarību. Liela daļa šīs teorijas agrīnajā fāzē tika
balstīta uz biheiviorisma principiem, kas ietvēra uzvedības “ievades-izejas” modeli (McLeod, 2016),
uzvedību skaidro kā iekšējo zināšanu apriti, bet neietekmē uzvedību mācīšanās kontekstā. Šajā
kontekstā cilvēka uzvedību veidoja un kontrolēja automātiski un mehāniski vides stimuli.
Teorētiskais SCT ietvars savukārt ilustrē cēloņsakarību starp uzvedību, kognitīviem faktoriem un
vides notikumiem, kuriem ir savstarpēja divvirzienu ietekme vienam uz otru.
A. Bandura izveidoja SCT, definējot sociālās kognitīvās teorijas trīs aspektus, kas ir īpaši svarīgi
kultūras apguvei un organizācijas jeb reakcijas darbības uzlabošanai, attiecīgi – terorisma krīžu
komunikācijas kontekstā – vistiešākā nozīme cilvēka informācijas un situācijas uztverei, lai adaptīvi
rīkotos, samazinot apdraudējumu sev un iespējami palīdzot apkārtējiem. Šie aspekti vienlaikus ir
arī kompetences, kas veidotas prasmju un meistarības modelēšanas ceļā, stiprinot cilvēku
pārliecību par savām spējām.
A. Banduras teorija izvirzīja pieņēmumu, ka cilvēka sensorās, motorās un smadzeņu sistēmas ir
instrumenti, ko cilvēki izmanto, lai sasniegtu noteiktus uzdevumus un mērķus, kas piešķir nozīmi
un apmierinātību dzīvē (Bandura, 1991). Zinātnieks arī uzsvēra, ka cilvēka prāts ir ģenerējošs,
radošs, proaktīvs un reflektīvs, ne tikai reaģējošs. Šī izpētes joma lielā mērā ir vērsta uz prāta

iekšējās darbības mikroanalīzi, apstrādājot, attēlojot, izgūstot un izmantojot iegūto informāciju, lai
pārvaldītu dažādas uzdevumu prasības un noteiktu smadzeņu darbības veidu katrā konkrētā
situācijā. Kognitīvo procesu izpētē parasti tiek ņemtas vērā starppersonu attiecības jeb
mijiedarbība, mērķtiecīga darbība un pašrefleksija. Eksperimentālās situācijās pierādījās, ka
situāciju dalībnieki cenšas noskaidrot, ko no viņiem vēlas; viņi konstruē hipotēzes un reflektīvi
pārbauda to atbilstību, izvērtējot savas darbības rezultātus; viņi izvirza personiskus mērķus un
citādi motivē sevi veikt darbības tādā veidā, kas rosina uz rezultātu (Bandura, 2001). Kad cilvēki
nonāk grūtībās, viņi iesaistās iekšējā dialogā, kas veicina atbilstoša rezultāta sasniegšanu vai
turpretī – veicina stresa rašanos.
Otrā SCT teorijas līnija ir vērsta uz sociālo faktoru makroanalītisko darbību cilvēka attīstībā,
adaptācijā un pārmaiņās. Šajā teorētiskajā ietvarā cilvēka darbība tiek analizēta kā sociāli
savstarpēji atkarīgu, kontekstualizētu un nosacīti sakārtotu dažādu sabiedrības apakšsistēmu
dinamika un to mijiedarbība. Tomēr mehānismi, kas saista sociāli strukturālos faktorus ar pašu
darbību šajā makroanalītiskajā pieejā, lielā mērā nav izskaidroti. Lai noskaidrotu sociālstrukturālās
ietekmes darbību, ir jāņem vērā dažādi psiholoģiskie mehānismi, kas palīdzētu radīt atbilstošos
uzvedības prognozes modeļus.
Tātad, kā jau iepriekš atspoguļots, A. Bandura izvirzīja cilvēka rīcībai un tās izpētei sekojošus
raksturlielumus.
Reaktivitāte. Cilvēkam šī formulējuma kontekstā ir jābūt ne tikai plānotājam un domātājam, bet
arī motivētājam un pašregulētājam. Cilvēka uzvedības modelis un kognitīvo un vides apstākļu
ietvars, kā arī šo apstākļu mijiedarbība ir pirmais solis. Bandura uzskatīja, ka ikviena darbība rada
“pašreaģējošu” ietekmi, salīdzinot sniegumu ar personīgajiem mērķiem un standartiem. Mērķi, kas
sakņojas vērtību sistēmā un personiskās identitātes apziņā, ietver sevī izvēlētas rīcības modeļa jēgu
un veidu. Kompetenču attīstībā standarti tiek pakāpeniski paaugstināti, paplašinoties zināšanu
apjomam un kompetencēm, savukārt sociālajā un morālajā uzvedībā pašregulācijas standarti ir
stabilāki. Cilvēki laika gaitā būtiski nemaina to, ko viņi uzskata par pareizu vai nepareizu vai labu
vai sliktu. Pēc tam, kad cilvēki pieņem morāles standartu, viņu atbildība savā priekšā par darbībām,
kas pārkāpj viņu personīgos standartus, kā arī gandarījumu par ieturētajiem morāles standartiem
spēj piešķirt jēgu morālās rīcības brīvībai. Morālās rīcības brīvības īstenošanai ir divi aspekti —
kavējošs un proaktīvs. Kavējoša forma izpaužas spējā atturēties no necilvēcīgas uzvedības, savukārt
morāles proaktīvā forma izpaužas spējā uzvesties humāni. Tomēr zinātnieka uzskatā morāles
normas nefunkcionē kā fiksēti iekšējie uzvedības regulatori.
Pašrefleksijas spēja. Cilvēki ir ne tikai darbības veicēji, bet arī savas darbības pašpārbaudītāji.
Metakognitīvā spēja reflektēt par sevi un savu domu un darbību piemērotību ir vēl viena būtiska
cilvēka rīcības spējas iezīme. Tādējādi cilvēki novērtē savu motivāciju, vērtības un dzīves jēgu.
Indivīdi tieši pašrefleksijas līmenī izvēlas rīkoties par labu vienam vai otram modelim. Cilvēki vērtē
savas paredzamās domāšanas pareizību, salīdzinot savu darbību ar rezultātiem, kā arī ietekmi, ko
tā rada uz citu cilvēku rīcību. “Starp personīgās rīcības mehānismiem neviens nav svarīgāks vai
visaptverošāks, kā cilvēku pārliecība par viņu spēju kaut kādā mērā kontrolēt savu darbību un vides
notikumus” (Bandura, 1999). Efektivitātes uzskatiem ir viena no vadošajām lomām A. Banduras
sociālās kognitīvās teorijas cēloņsakarības struktūrā, jo uzskati par efektivitāti ietekmē pielāgošanos
un izmaiņas ne tikai paši par sevi, bet arī caur to ietekmi uz citiem noteicošajiem faktoriem.

Nejaušības jeb gadījuma faktors. SCT ir uzsvērts kāds specifisks faktors, lai kaut kādā mērā
kontrolētu savu pašattīstību un dzīves apstākļus, taču ir arī daudz nejaušību, kas var būtiski
ietekmēt rīcību gan katrā konkrētā situācijā, gan arī ilgtermiņā – sistēmiski. Tā nejaušs notikums
sociāli mediētos gadījumos var darboties kā noteicošais faktors cilvēka rīcības izvēlei. Šajā
kontekstā terorisma gadījumos pat iepriekš izveidots un iegūts rīcības algoritms personai var tikt
mainīts, ja kādā brīdī tiek demonstrēts piemērs, kas ir pretrunā ar cilvēka personiskajām morāles
normām un iemaņu kompleksu (bieži iedomātam), tomēr spēj noteikt viņa rīcību, kas var novest
pie negatīva situācijas iznākuma. A. Banduras izvirzītajā SCT ir uzsvērts, ka dažādu notikumu (arī
pieredzes un mācību) attīstības trajektoriju cēloņsakarību analīzēs maz tiek ņemti vērā nejaušie jeb
gadījuma faktori, taču tie ir būtiski nākotnes uzvedības realizācijā un negatīvu seku novēršanā
(Bandura, 1999).
Apkopojot augstāk izskatīto, sociāli kognitīvā teorija ir viena no sociālas psiholoģijas teorijām, kam
ir būtiska loma, veicot pētījumus par krīžu komunikācijas terorisma izraisītu incidentu situācijās.
Tās ietekmi nosaka gan tās izteiktais mācīšanās faktors, par kuru ir veikta virkne pētījumu, un plaši
pazīstamākie ir pētījumi, kas saistīti ar mācīšanos no medijiem un televīzijas filmām (Rosmawati,
et al., 2015), gan arī, kas atsevišķos gadījumos var būt vēl noteicošāks, indivīda vēlme un motivācija
iespējami paaugstināt savu sniegumu.
2. Stresa kognitīvās aktivācijas teorija
Otra no pētījuma ietvaros apskatāmajām teorijām ir stresa kognitīvās aktivācijas teorija (angl.
Cognitive Activation Theory of Stress – CATS). CATS ir būtiska ietekme indivīda uzvedības plānošanai
jeb modelēšanai krīžu situācijās. Lai gan indivīdam stress var radīt diskomfortu, kā arī citus
svarīgus aspektus smadzeņu darbībai, Stresa kognitīvās aktivācijas teorija (Ursin & Eriksen 2004)
liecina, ka atkārtota pieredze ar stimulu ļauj indivīdiem pielāgoties un regulēt savu uzvedību.
Uzbudinājuma mērķis ir piespiest indivīdu noņemt stresa “trauksmes” avotu un pašu trauksmi.
Savukārt, ja stresors netiek noņemts, indivīds spēj uzturēt kontroli un rīcībspēju, kas nepieciešama,
lai pārvarētu stresa faktorus. Līdz ar to stresa pieredze ir daļa no adaptīvas un attīstošas sistēmas,
kas ir izturējusi evolūcijas pārbaudi. CATS apgalvo, ka stresā rodas trauksme, ja ir neatbilstība starp
vēlamo un to, kas ir realitātē, tādējādi indivīdi sasaistīs trauksmes atcelšanas iespējamību ar tās
avota esamību. Formulējot to citādi, ja cilvēks kontrolē un sagaida vēlamo rezultātu, tad trauksme
netiks iedarbināta, ieskaitot apstākli, ka stresa faktori nebūs jūtami ne psiholoģiski, ne fizioloģiski.
Tomēr, ja nākotne ir neparedzama un/vai indivīdam nav nepieciešamo resursu, lai sastaptos ar
kritisko situāciju, tiek aktivizēta trauksme. Autore piekrīt zinātnieku viedoklim un uzskata, ka
teroristu radītu krīžu situācijās viens no svarīgākajiem aspektiem ir trauksmes rašanās.
Turklāt zinātnieku pētījumos ir aprakstīti gadījumi, kad indivīdiem nav nepieciešamo resursu, lai
risinātu situāciju un izkļūtu no tās (piemēram, izvairīšanās risināt situāciju, iemācīta bezpalīdzība
u.c.), tādējādi iesaistoties pasīvā atbildē, kas izraisa pozitīva iznākuma gaidas, mazinot stresa
aktivizēšanos. Līdzīgi kā iepriekšējie pētījumi liecina par novērtējuma un izziņas nozīmi stresa
pārvarēšanā, skaidri redzams, ka stresa pieredzes kognitīvais novērtējums ir būtisks CATS
elements. Piemēram, tiek apgalvots, ka iepriekšējās pieredzes novērtējumi balstās uz prāta
darbības modeļiem, kas ir vienkāršots sevis un vides attēlojums, un ka indivīdi veic novērtējumus,
izmantojot kontrolētu vai automātisku informācijas apstrādes mehānismu. Līdzīgā veidā CATS

(Ursin & Eriksen, 2004) uzskata, ka novērtējumi ietver nākotnes attīstībā ietvertās gaidas.
Stimulēšanas gaidas attiecas uz izpratni, ka konkrēts stresa izraisītājs noved pie konkrēta
notikuma, un tas nodrošina indivīdiem spēju psiholoģiski aizsargāties pret stresa faktoru vai tā
uztverē izmantot visus resursus. Notikuma rezultāta gaidas indivīdi saista reakciju uz stresa
situāciju ar šīs reakcijas iznākumu, un indivīdi attīsta paredzamās iznākuma prognozes, kas
atspoguļo pozitīvu, t.i., pārvarēšanu, kā arī var atspoguļot negatīvu, t.i., bezcerību rīcību vai arī
bezdarbību, t.i., bezpalīdzības stāvokli.
Kad cilvēks paredz, ka izvēlētā reakcija uz stresa faktoru radīs pozitīvu rezultātu, šī persona ir
spējīga labāk tikt galā ar situāciju. Pētījumos pierādīts, ka krīzes stresa situāciju pārvarēšana nav
ne stratēģija, ne uzvedība, bet gan gaidīta un pozitīva rezultāta pieņemšana neatkarīgi no darbībām
(piemēram, uz problēmu vērsta rīcība, izvairīga uzvedība), ko cilvēks ir vai nav veicis, reaģējot uz
stresa faktoru. Tā kā šī teorija ietver bezpalīdzības jēdziena izpratni, tās ir situācijas, kad indivīds
neuztver nekādu saistību starp savu rīcību un krīzes iznākumu; citiem vārdiem formulējot, cilvēks
nejūt nekādu kontroli vai ietekmi pār iznākumu. Lai gan parasti tas izraisa pastiprinātu stresa
aktivizāciju, ilgstošas bezpalīdzības stāvoklī indivīdi fizioloģiski var izjust samazinātu uzbudinājumu,
it īpaši, ja tas rada noteiktu labumu vai atbalstu no citiem. Šādās situācijās bezpalīdzība teorijas
ietvaros būtu līdzīga situācijas pārvarēšanai. Taču bezpalīdzības reakciju terorisma krīzēs var radīt
apdraudējumu personām.
CATS stresa procesa skaidrojumā, zinātnieku Ursina un Eriksena skatījumā, tiek piedāvāti četri
stresa procesa komponenti. Pirmā daļa ir stresa stimuli (t.i., stresa faktori) vai slodze. Tiek
apgalvots, ka stresa reakciju izraisa nevis stimula fiziskās īpašības, bet gan cilvēka novērtējums jeb
procesa otrais posms, pamatojoties uz iepriekšējo pieredzi un nākotnes gaidām, kas situāciju pašu
par sevi pārvērš stresa pilnā pieredzē. Protams, daži stresa faktori tiek uzskatīti par negatīviem
attiecībā uz personām, laiku un situāciju, kamēr individuālās atšķirības piemēram, iepriekšējā
izglītība, personība, situācijas kontekstuālais uzstādījums, visticamāk, ietekmēs vairuma stresa
faktoru novērtējumu. Otrais stresa procesā ir stresa pieredze, t.i., iepriekš novērtētais un izjustais
stress. Literatūrā visbiežāk minētie stresa faktori ir tie, kas izriet no pašas stresa pieredzes. Tās ir
fiziskas, fizioloģiskas, psiholoģiskas un emocionālas prasības, ko izjūt indivīds, un tas tiek uzskatītas
par zaudējumiem vai draudiem. Trešā daļa ir indivīda vispārējā reakcija jeb “trauksme” uz stresa
pieredzi. Līdzīgi kā stresa teorijas pamatlicējs Hans Selje (Meur & Mervewe, 2011) apgalvoja, ka
trauksmes reakcija notiek pirms adaptācijas. Šajā fāzē, kā apgalvo Ursins un Eriksens (2004),
indivīdam ir paaugstināts uzbudinājums, un tiek novērota īpaša reakcija, lai novērstu trauksmes
cēloni. Tāpat kā iepriekš, individuālajam un atšķirgajam ir nozīme trauksmes reakcijā (piemēram,
trauksmes stiprums un ilgums), kas indivīdam tiek izraisīts šajā posmā. Tā kā uzbudinājums
ietekmē daudzas fizioloģiskas sistēmas, šī ir visvairāk analizētā cilvēka reakcija. Atseviški zinātnieki
uzskata, ka ir pārāk vienkārši apgalvot, ka noteiktas stresa pārvarēšanas uzvedības vienmēr ir
“adaptīvas”, piemēram, uz problēmas pārvarēšanu vērstas vai “neadaptīvas”, piemēram, uz emocijām
vērstas, jo reakciju uz stresa faktoru nosaka cerības ka pārvarēšana, jeb pozitīvs iznākums iestāsies,
nevis konkrētas pārvarēšanas stratēģijas. Secīgi, indivīda iekšējais stāvoklis nav saistīts ar izvēlēto
pārvarēšanas stratēģiju, jo to lielā mērā ietekmē fizioloģija.
Procesa pēdējā sastāvdaļa ir personas pieredze par stresa reakciju. Pēc reakcijas uz stresa faktoru
indivīds saņem atgriezenisko saiti par savas reakcijas rezultātiem, un šī atgriezeniskā saite var
ietekmēt stresa sajūtu. Pamatojoties uz šo atgriezenisko saiti, indivīds var arī mainīt uztveri par

stresa faktoru un/vai iznākuma gaidām attiecībā uz turpmāko pieredzi. Ursins un Eriksens (2004)
norāda, ka atgriezenisko saiti bieži mēģināta novērtēt, izmantojot anketas, piemēram, medicīnas
sfērā. Taču viņi apgalvo, ka respondentiem būtu grūti atšķirt stresa pieredzi (procesa
2. solis) un atgriezeniskās saites reakciju, jo stresa stimulu novērtēšanai ir nepieciešama atgriezeniskā
saite. Zinātnieks un stresa pētnieks Lazarus (Meurs & Mervewe, 2011) apgalvoja, ka, detalizēti
aprakstot stresa procesu, ir jāizvērtē četri jēdzieni, tostarp: stresa izraisītājs (vai izraisītājs); stresa
izraisītāja novērtējums, nošķirot stresa reakcijas aktīvajā un pēc incidenta fāzē; procesi, kādos
cilvēks tiek galā ar šīm stresa prasībām; un sekas vai stresa reakcijas indivīdā. Zinātnieki pieturas
pie nostādnes, ka ir skaidra atšķirība starp fizioloģisko stresu un psiholoģisko stresu, un tā ir
stresam piešķirtā “personiskā nozīme”, tomēr vairumā gadījumu zinātnieki pieturas pie skatu
punkta, ka visas augstākminētās stresa procesa galvenās sastāvdaļas ir nozīmīgas, veicot pētījumus
par stresa kognitīvo aktivāciju.
CATS teorijas izpētes ieguldījums uz indivīdu reakcijām stresa izraisītāju laikā liecina, ka biežāka
un spēcīgāka reakcija uz stresa faktoriem ir primāriem stresa izraisītājiem.
Lai gan maz pētījumu ir snieguši tiešus testu rezultātus par paredzamā stresa nozīmi, pētījumā,
kurā tika pētīta kortizola stresa reakcija, zinātnieki Gaabs, Rohleders, Naters un Ehlerts (Meurs &
Mervewe, 2011) konstatēja, ka personības faktori, tādi kā kompetence un kontroles orientācija
ietekmē kortizolu (viens no stresa hormoniem) reakciju, izmantojot situācijai raksturīgu
novērtējumu jeb paredzamo stresu. Turklāt paredzamais kognitīvais novērtējums parādīja
spēcīgāku saistību ar kortizola reakciju nekā personība vai retrospektīvs kognitīvs novērtējums. Šie
rezultāti apstiprina argumentu svarīgumu, paredzot stresu uz bioloģisko stresa reakciju. Kognitīva
reakcija dažkārt liecina par atteikšanos uztvert apdraudošu informāciju. Autore uzskata, ka šim
aspektam ir jāpievērš būtiska nozīme, veidojot komunikāciju kā notikušu krīžu situāciju gadījumos,
tā arī izvērtējot risku komunikāciju. Daži pētījumi (Pieper, et al., 2007) atbalsta uzskatu, ka
uztraukumam, kas rodas, paredzot negadījumu, varētu būt ciešāka saistība ar veselību nekā stresu
veidojošam notikumam, jo pieredzē uztraukums par stresa faktoru parasti ir ilgāks nekā paša
notikuma gadījumā. Pētījumi rādīja, ka uztraukums par nākotni un stresa notikumiem ir līdzīgs
organisma pārciestajam stresā, kā arī tie izraisīja sirdsdarbības ātrumu mainīgumu. Turklāt
pētījumā, kurā tika novērtēta sirdsdarbības reakcija pēc negatīvām un pozitīvām emocijām, atklāja,
ka sirdsdarbības ātrums pēc negatīvas emocionālas pieredzes bija garāks nekā sirdsdarbības
aktivitāte pēc pozitīvas epizodes, kas liecina par primāro atšķirību starp pozitīvo un negatīvo
emocionālo reakciju ietekmi. Tika konstatēts, ka personības faktori (t.i., kompetence un kontrole)
ietekmē kortizolu reakcija, izmantojot situācijai raksturīgu novērtējumu (t.i., paredzamo stresu).
Turklāt paredzams kognitīvais novērtējums parādīja spēcīgāku saistību ar kortizola reakciju nekā
personības aspekti vai retrospektīvs kognitīvs novērtējums.
Autore uzskata, ka zinātnieku veiktie pētījumi, jo īpaši zinātnieku, kuri savus pētījumus par stresu
un cilvēka rīcību stresa situācijās ir veikuši bioloģijas, fizioloģijas vai medicīnas nozarēs, ir būtiski,
izstrādājot dažādas komunikācijas teorijas, un, izvērtējot šo pētījumu rezultātus komunikācijas
koncepciju izstrādes laikā, ir iespējams ne tikai paredzēt sabiedrības un indivīdu reakcijas uz krīžu
aspektiem, bet arī novērst situācijas iespējamu pasliktināšanos.

3. Plānotās uzvedības teorija
Trešā sociālās psiholoģijas teorija, kuras izskatīšana kalpo kā pētījuma zinātniskais ietvars, ir
plānotās uzvedības teorija (ang. Theory of Planned Behaviour – TPB). Lai prognozētu uzvedību
saskaņā ar plānotās uzvedības teoriju, faktisko uzvedību izskata kopā ar konkrētās uzvedības
nodomu. Zinātnieki uzskata, ka, lai prognozētu precīzu rezultātu, ir jāievēro vairāki nosacījumi.
Pirmkārt, nodoma un plānotās uzvedības kontroles pasākumiem ir jāatbilst vai jābūt saderīgiem ar
prognozējamo uzvedību (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977). Tas nozīmē, ka nodomi un plānotās uzvedības
uztvere ir jānovērtē saistībā ar konkrēto interesējošo uzvedību, un noteiktajam kontekstam ir jābūt
tādam pašam kā tam, kurā rīcībai jānotiek. Otrs nosacījums precīzai uzvedības prognozēšanai ir
tāds, ka nodomiem un uztvertajai uzvedības kontrolei jāpaliek stabilai intervālā starp to
novērtēšanu un uzvedības novērošanu. Papildu vai neplānotie notikumi var izraisīt izmaiņas
nodomos vai uzvedības kontroles uztverē, kā rezultātā sākotnējie šo mainīgo lielumu pasākumi
vairs neļauj precīzi prognozēt uzvedību. Trešā prasība par paredzamo uzvedību ir saistīta ar
uztvertās uzvedības kontroles precizitāti.
Krīžu vai risku komunikācijas plānošanas kontekstā plānotās uzvedības teorijai ir būtiska nozīme,
identiski, kā tas ir iepriekš minētajām teorijām. TPB nosaka trīs konceptuāli neatkarīgus uzvedības
nodomu noteicošos faktorus:
• pirmā ir attieksme pret uzvedību, un tā attiecas uz pakāpi, kādā personai ir labvēlīgs vai
nelabvēlīgs attiecīgās uzvedības novērtējums vai novērtējums;
• otrs ir sociāls faktors, ko sauc par subjektīvo normu, un tas attiecināms uz sociālo spiedienu
veikt vai neveikt uzvedību;
• trešais nodomu indikators ir uzvedības kontroles pakāpe, kas attiecas uz plānoto uzvedības
vieglumu vai grūtībām, un tiek pieņemts, ka tas atspoguļo pagātnes pieredzi, kā arī
paredzamos šķēršļus vēlamā rezultāta sasniegšanai.
Zinātnieki ir konstatējuši, ka TPB ietvaros, izņemot vienu izņēmumu, attieksme pret dažādām
uzvedībām būtiski veicināja nodomu prognozēšanas iespējamību, turpretim subjektīvo normu
rezultāti bija dažādi, bez skaidri saskatāma modeļa, kas savukārt liecina, ka attiecībā uz plānoto
uzvedību personīgie apsvērumi mēdz prevalēt pār sociālā spiediena ietekmi.
Atbilstoši savam mērķim izskaidrot cilvēka uzvedību, nevis tikai to paredzēt, plānotās uzvedības
teorija aplūko attieksmju, subjektīvo normu un plānotās uzvedības kontroles priekšmetus. Tiek
izšķirti trīs galvenie uzskatu veidi: uzvedības uzskati, kas, domājams, ietekmē attieksmi pret
uzvedību, normatīvie uzskati, kas veido subjektīvo normu pamatā esošos noteicējus, un kontroles
uzskati, kas veido uzvedības kontroles uztveres pamatu, jeb – uzvedības, normatīvo un kontroles
aspektus. Ajzens (Ajzen, 2002) apgalvo, ka visi uzskati interesējošo uzvedību saista ar kāda veida
atribūtu, vai tas būtu iznākums, normatīvas cerības vai resurss, kas nepieciešams darbības veikšanai.
Dažkārt pētnieku vidē ir izteikts viedoklis, ka vismaz noteiktos kontekstos TPB jāņem vērā ne tikai
uztvertais sociālais spiediens, bet arī personīgā morālā pienākuma vai atbildības sajūta veikt
noteiktu uzvedību vai atteikties no tās. Pagātnes uzvedības pieredzei teorijas ietvaros arī ir
nozīmīga loma, jo, to zinot, kā arī zinot citus faktorus, neatkarīgi no tā, vai tie ir indivīda iekšējie vai
ārējie, kas nosaka konkrēto uzvedību, tad uzvedību var paredzēt ar lielu precizitāti. Kamēr šis
faktoru kopums paliek nemainīgs, uzvedība arī laika gaitā paliek stabila. Nostādne, ka pagātnes

uzvedība ir labākais nākotnes uzvedības prognozētājs, piepildīsies, ja šie nosacījumi būs izpildīti.
Pieņemot, ka noteicošie faktori ir stabili, pagātnes uzvedības mērījumu var izmantot, lai pārbaudītu
jebkura modeļa, kas paredzēts turpmākās uzvedības prognozēšanai, pietiekamību (Ajzen, 2002).
Tomēr TPB ietvaros pagātnes uzvedību vislabāk var uzskatīt nevis par ieraduma mērauklu, bet gan
kā visu faktoru atspoguļojumu, kas nosaka interesējošo uzvedību. Korelācija starp pagātnes un
vēlāko uzvedību liecina par uzvedības stabilitāti.
Plānotās uzvedības teorija nodrošina noderīgu konceptuālu ietvaru cilvēku sociālās uzvedības
plānošanai. Teorija ietver dažus sociālos un uzvedības zinātņu centrālos jēdzienus, un tā definē šos
jēdzienus tādā veidā, kas ļauj paredzēt un izprast konkrētu uzvedību noteiktos kontekstos (Brooks,
2021). Parasti tiek konstatēts, ka attieksme pret uzvedību, subjektīvās normas attiecībā uz uzvedību
un uztvertā kontrole pār uzvedību var paredzēt uzvedības nodomus ar augstu precizitātes pakāpi.
Secinājumi
Visas apskatītās sociālās psiholoģijas teorijas kopumā sniedz labu priekšstatu par veicamo
pasākumu kopumu, lai prognozētu cilvēku uzvedību dažādās situācijās, tostarp arī krīžu situācijās.
Autore piekrīt viedoklim, ka arī krīžu situācijās plānotās uzvedības teorijas pamatnostādnes
simbiozē ar sociālās kognitīvās teorijas un stresa kognitīvās aktivācijas teoriju ir piemērojamas un
to pētījumu rezultāti var tikt izmantoti veiksmīga komunikācijas modeļa izveidē (Cinar, et al, 2016),
kas rezultātā ļaus veiksmīgi vadīt krīžu situācijas, taču pirmskrīžu fāzēs sniegs rīkus riska aspektu
modelēšani un novēršanai.
Modelēšana kā metode biežāk ir asociējama ar matemātisko un ekonomisko procesu veikšanu
notikumu, biznesa izaugsmes plānošanai un prognozēšanai. Psiholoģijā savukārt šo procesu asociē ar
jēdzienu profilēšana jeb profailings. Tas tiek plaši izmantots ar labiem rezultātiem, lai attīstītu
intelektuālās, sociālās un uzvedības kompetences. Sistēmas, kas izmanto uzvedības faktoru, vides un
kognitīvo faktoru mijiedarbību, atļauj prognozēt veidus, kā nodrošināt sistēmu kopumu un darbību,
kas ir saskanīga ar cilvēka sociālās kognitīvās uztveres aspektiem. Savienojot matemātisko modeli ar
pētījuma ietvaros apskatītajām sociālas psiholoģijas teorijām, ir svarīgi atpazīt novērojamās vērtības
atšķirību starp iepriekš gūto pieredzi kāda gadījuma refleksijā, vai tas būtu video, teksta vai dzirdētais
vārds un indivīda iekšējiem pārdzīvojumiem atrodoties situācijas iekšienē.
Tāpat otrs elements, kas ir jāievēro, – savas uzvedības atkārtojums parasti nerada lielus
uzlabojumus. Prasmju pilnveides pamatā ir sociālā mijiedarbība, lai pozitīvi stiprinātu pašapziņu,
vienlaikus ieviešot pakāpeniskas prasmju uzlabošanas iespējas. Visbeidzot, lai notiktu prasmju
integrācija, tās ir jāpraktizē. Līdzīgi kā mācoties jaunu valodu, prasmju līmeni lielā mērā ietekmē to
pielietojums un atkārtošana. Sociālā kognitīvā teorija to sauc par pārneses programmu.
Apkārtējie faktori, kā arī iepriekšējās uzvedības un pieredzes faktori aktīvi ietekmē plānotās
uzvedības rezultātus. Zinātnieka A.Banduras izveidotā un pētītā sociālā kognitīvā teorija uzsver
aspektu par visu iesaistīto faktoru savstarpējās mijiedarbības ietekmi uz gala rezultātu. Gan SCT,
gan plānotās uzvedības teorija analizē un uzsver sociālā konteksta un sociāla viedokļa nozīmīgumu
indivīda vai sabiedrības uzvedībā. Šie faktori savā saturā vienlaikus ir gan informatīvi, gan
ietekmējoši, gan arī var regulēt nepieciešamās rīcības (Škuškovnika, 2010). Autore piekrīt daudzu

zinātnieku paustajam viedoklim, ka masu mediju, tostarp sociālo mediju ietekmei ir nozīmīga loma
sabiedrības izglītošanā.
Pretstatā krīžu gadījumiem, kas tiek apskatīti ekonomiskā kontekstā, kura galvenais fokuss ir
ekonomiska labuma gūšana vai ienākumu samazināšanās, drošības krīzēm piemīt arī citi faktori,
kuri ir jāanalizē papildus. Kā viena no zinātniskajām metodēm – stresa kognitīvās aktivācijas teorija
ir devusi būtisku ieguldījumu ar veiktajiem pētījumiem. Cilvēka fizioloģiskās reakcijas krīžu
situācijās ir viens no mazāk paredzamajiem aspektiem, tomēr teorijas ietvaros ir aktualizēts, ka
viens no elementiem, kas ļautu veiksmīgāk paredzēt cilvēku nākotnes uzvedību un rīcību, ir
iepriekšējās pieredzes esamība. Lai gan šāda pieredze nav plaši izplatīta, tomēr modelēšanas un
prognozēšanas nolūkos ir izmantojamas saturiski pielīdzināmas darbības, kā, piemēram, mācības,
kas tiek organizētas evakuācijas veikšanai no iestādēm, tāpat arī evakuācijas nodrošināšana civilās
aizsardzības kontekstā.
Kulturālais konteksts arī tiek virspusēji apskatīts visās izskatītajās teorijās, tomēr tā ietekmes
noteikšanai ir jāveic papildu pētījumi. Autore uzskata, ka kulturālā konteksta mainība ir vienlaikus
viens no mainīgajiem aspektiem, kura ietekme var būt gan noteicošs faktors atsevišķās situācijās,
kā arī drošības krīzes situācijās tam var nebūt būtiska nozīme, ja vien darbojas informācijas
nodošanas un saņemšanas kanāli un ir nodrošināti elementi informācijas uztveršanai (valoda,
skaidrs vēstījums ar iekļautu sagaidāmo darbību algoritmu u.c.).
References
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Bandura, A. (1988). Organizational Application of Social Cognitive Theory. Australian Journal of Management
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
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moral behavior and development (Vol. 1, 45–103). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
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IMPLEMENTING REMOTE ONLINE PRACTICAL EXAMS IN THE 21ST CENTURY

XXIII Turiba University Conference

COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Riga, April 20–21, 2022

XXIII Turiba University Conference

XXIII Turiba University Conference

Turiba University, International Office

XXIII Turiba University Conference

IMPLEMENTING REMOTE ONLINE PRACTICAL EXAMS IN THE 21st CENTURY ........................................ 6

XXIII Turiba University Conference

IETEKMĒTĀJU MĀRKETINGA TIRGUS RAKSTUROJUMS INSTAGRAM PLATFORMĀ ..........................145

XXIII Turiba University Conference

IMPLEMENTING REMOTE ONLINE PRACTICAL EXAMS

XXIII Turiba University Conference

XXIII Turiba University Conference

XXIII Turiba University Conference

XXIII Turiba University Conference

XXIII Turiba University Conference

XXIII Turiba University Conference

XXIII Turiba University Conference

VALSTS EKONOMISKO RĀDĪTĀJU IETEKME UZ TAUTAS

IMPACT OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC INDICATORS ON HUMAN

XXIII Turiba University Conference

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Attīstības mērīšana ir aktuāls jautājums visā pasaulē. Ar to nodarbojas gan starptautiskās

2. IKP saistība ar tautas attīstības rādītājiem Latvijā

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1. attēls. IKP un IKP uz vienu iedzīvotāju Latvijā

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Kopējais IKP (bāzes gads 2015, tūksoši EURO)

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DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN CHINESE SMES IN THE POST-COVID-19 ERA

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Analysis of Digital Transformation Adoption in SMEs’ Environment

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Figure 1. The approach stages to obtain the list of items

Result and Discussion

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Equipment status monitoring (temperature,

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