Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-021-01147-9

ORIGINAL PAPER-EXPLORATION ENGINEERING

Evaluation of environment friendly micro‑ionized litchi leaves powder

(LLP) as a fluid loss control agent in water‑based drilling fluid
Ved Prakash1,2   · Neetu Sharma1 · Munmun Bhattacharya2 · Ashok Raina2 · Man Mohan Gusain2 · Kiran Sharma3

Received: 13 September 2020 / Accepted: 12 March 2021 / Published online: 24 March 2021
© The Author(s) 2021

Abstract
This work investigates the efficacy of a biodegradable natural product, litchi leaves powder (LLP) as a filtration loss control
agent in the water-based drilling fluid formulations. In order to evaluate the potential of litchi leaves powder (LLP), a strict
protocol of experimentations according to API (American Petroleum Institute) standard has been followed. The experimental
outcome showed that before hot rolling and after hot rolling of mud samples at 100 °C it was observed that 3–5% Concen-
tration of LLP significantly increased the rheological parameters such as PV, YP and gelation of drilling fluid as compared
to reference mud. Also, LLP reformed the filtration loss control characterization, suggesting a better biodegradable fluid
loss reducing agent. After hot rolling at 100 °C for 18 h, the water-based drilling fluid with LLP as an additive showed a
marked reduction in filtration control property as compared to reference Mud (RM). Experimental results concluded that 5%
concentration of LLP significantly reduced the filtration loss of drilling fluid by 70.6% as compared to reference mud under
the influence of 100 psi pressure. However, the conventional fluid loss additive CMC (LVG) reduced the filtration loss by
maximum 67.5% as compared to reference mud. Therefore, LLP can be used as an alternative to CMC (LVG) in water-based
drilling fluid with a maximum subsurface temperature of 100 °C.

Keywords  Environment friendly additive · Drilling fluid · Litchi leaves powder (LLP) · CMC · Filtration loss

Abbreviations lb/gal Pounds per gallon

API American Petroleum Institute AHR After Hot rolling
AV Apparent Viscosity BHR Before Hot rolling
PV Plastic Viscosity FTIR Fourier transform infrared
YP Yield Point
LLP Litchi Leaves Powder
RM Reference Mud Introduction
CMC (LVG) Carboxymethyl Cellulose (Low Viscous
Grade) A drilling fluid is designed in order to cater various func-
°C Degree Celsius tions during drilling and its high efficiency is rated high, if
psi Pounds square inch the various chemical additives and polymers are mixed to
LTLP Low Temperature-Low Pressure the base fluid to fulfil the required parameters of the drilling
lb/bbl Pounds per barrel fluid, such as density, shale stabilization, filtration loss con-
trol, alkalinity, lubricity, etc. (Gray et al. 1980; Okorie et al.
2009). As per environmental aspect, oil-based drilling fluids
* Ved Prakash
[email protected] are more toxic than water-based drilling fluids. So keeping
in view these facts and the environmental compatibility, it
1
Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era, Deemed to be has initiated an interest among users to use water-based drill-
University Dehradun, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India ing fluid as compared to the oil-based drilling fluid (Aman-
2
Department of Drilling Fluid Engineering (R&D), Institute ullah 2007). Corncob and sugar cane additives have been
of Drilling Technology (IDT), Oil and Natural Gas used as viscosifying agent. The results of this study showed
Corporation Limited (ONGC), Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
that when the concentration of sugarcane and corncob were
3
Department of Physics, Graphic Era Deemed to be University increased from 6 to 10 parts per billion (ppb), there was an
Dehradun, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

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1716 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726

advancement in PV, but YP and gel strength were reduced product, i.e. LLP is an environmental friendly, cost effective,
(Iranwan et al. 2009). 20 parts per billion (ppb) concentra- drilling fluid additive. The performance of the drilling fluid
tions of rice husks reduced the filtration loss in water-based was found to be at par excellence with litchi leaves powder
mud by 65%. But it was observed that a higher concentration (LLP) when it was compared with a conventional fluid loss
of rice husk gave unwanted effect on the plastic viscosity additive CMC (Carboxymethyl Cellulose).
(Okon et al. 2014). Banana peel provided alkalinity to the
drilling fluid system (Iheagwara et al. 2015). Similarly, the
Basis of choice of litchi leaves for the study
banana peel ash (BPA) was used as a substitute for NaOH
in water-based mud. The experimental results showed that
Biomolecules content Litchi leaves have greater con-
banana peels ash (BPA) has a tendency to increase the pH of
tent of carbohydrate, i.e. 72.547%. Beside this, it also
drilling mud and thereby mitigated the corrosion problem.
contained 31.041% crude fibre, 12.751% crude protein,
On comparing BPA with NaOH, it was observed that there
2.022% crude fat and 2.04% of total nitrogen (Shukla
was better improvement in pH ranging from 12 and 14% in
et al. 2014).
the case of banana peels (Adebowale and Raji 2015).
Cost analysis The cost of conventional fluid loss control
Other natural additives such as extracted cellulose from
additives, e.g. CMC (LVG) and Polyanionic cellulose are
corn cob (Nmegbu and Bekee 2014), extracted cashew and
4.96 USD per Kg and 6.0 USD/Kg, respectively (Okoro
mango leaves (Omotioma et al. 2014), and extracted potato
et al. 2018). However, LLP is a natural waste and easily
starch from potato tubers (Nyeche et al. 2015), etc. have
available from the natural resources in a huge quantity.
been used as filtration loss control and rheological properties
Therefore, LLP is more cost effective than CMC (LVG)
modifiers in water-based drilling fluids. Potato peels powder
and PAC (LVG).
(PPP) is an environmental friendly additive to be used as
thinner, pH reducer, and fluid loss controlling agent (Al-
Hameedi and Husam 2019). However, another study showed
the use of mandarin peels powder (MPP) as a filtration loss Materials and methods
control additive to substitute the conventional chemicals
used in water-based drilling fluid (Al-Hameedi and Alkinani Preparation of micro‑ionized litchi leaves powder
2019). In our previous study, Stem peels powder of Grewia (LLP)
optiva fibre (particle size 250 μm) has been used as cost
effective and environment friendly non-invasive fluid addi- The sample [as shown in Fig. 1a] was cleaned manually to
tive in water-based fluid to prevent the invasion of external get rid of unwanted foreign materials. Then, it was dried in
fluid into the reservoir section (Prakash et al. 2020). an oven at 70–75 °C for about ~ 4–6 h. After drying, it was
In this study, litchi leaves powder (LLP) has been inves- then again cleaned manually and chopped into small pieces
tigated as an environment friendly filtration loss control [as shown in Fig. 1b]. Finally, the sample was ground into
additive in the water-based drilling fluid. Litchi chinensis is very fine particles with the help of good quality Grinder
an evergreen tree which belongs to the spindaceae family. Machine [shown in Fig. 1d].
Litchi trees are mainly found in China, India, Thailand, Viet- Sieve analysis test was conducted to determine the par-
nam, Australia, Israel and the South-Eastern United States. ticle size of litchi leaves powder (LLP). The fine LLP was
Extensive laboratory works have been conducted where sieved through 125 µm (μm) (120 US Mesh sieve) to obtain
LLP was tested at different concentrations w.r.t. reference micro-sized fine particle [shown in Fig. 1c]. The reason for
mud. The experimental outcomes suggested that this natural using 125 µm particle size as because smaller the size of

Fig. 1  a Collected raw Litchi leaves, b Small Pieces of Litchi Leaves, c The Litchi Leaves Powder (125 μm), d Grinder

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726 1717

additive gives better filtration loss control ability of the drill- (W2 −W1)
Moisture content % (w∕w) = × 100
ing mud (Ghazali et al. 2014; Perlmutter 2005). W1

Experimental procedures where W1 = Weight of bottle with lid + Sample, W2 = Weight

of bottle with lid + Dried Sample.
pH
Mud sample preparation
5% (w/v) sample was taken in deionized/distilled water and
stirred on magnetic stirrer for 10 min, then determined the A freshwater bentonite-based drilling fluid was prepared
pH of the solution at 24 ± 2 °C by using a calibrated pH as per API (American Petroleum Institute) standards. The
meter. The result is shown in Table 1. standard procedure involves the addition of 25 gms of ben-
tonite powder and 0.7 gm of caustic soda (NaOH) in 350 ml
Moisture content of fresh water. The mixture was kept for maturation for 24 h.
Since freshwater bentonite-based drilling fluid is a colloidal
10 g of dried sample was taken in a pre-weighed bottle with system and the maximum hydration & yield of bentonite is
lid. Removed the lid and placed both the lid and bottle sepa- pH based, caustic soda, as an important ingredient added
rately in an air oven at 105 ± 2 °C temperature. Keeping for maintaining proper alkalinity, pH to be maintained at
for 5 h in air oven, when the sample was dried completely, maximum 10.5.
placed the lid on the bottle inside the oven and then cooled The drilling fluid prepared with bentonite and caustic
in desiccator before weighing. Removed and replaced the Soda (NaOH), here it was referred as Reference Mud. The
lid quickly to equalize the pressure inside the desiccator. rheological and fluid loss property of the reference mud was
Repeated the process till constant weight was obtained (Chi- measured, and the results are tabulated in Table 2.
achung et al. 2003; Ayurveda formulary of India 2000). The The mud samples were grouped into two sets, nomen-
result is shown in Table 1. clature as Set.1 & Set-2. In Set-1, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% & 5%
Calculation: of 125 μm sized litchi leaves powder (LLP) were added
to reference mud, respectively, and mixed thoroughly for
10 min in order to get a homogeneous mixture of bentonite
Table1  Properties of Litchi Leaves powder (LLP) mud with litchi leaves powder. Consequently, the rheological
S. No Properties Observation/values properties of each sample including low temperature-low
pressure (LTLP) filtration test were carried out on each set
1 Physical state Powder
of samples and the results acquired are presented in Table 2.
2 Colour Yellow-Greenish
Set-2, an another set of samples 0.6%, 0.8%, 1.0%, 1.2%
3 pH of 5% sample in Dis- 6.5
tilled water at 24 ± 2 °C
and 1.4% of CMC (LVG) was added to reference mud,
4 Moisture content at 6
respectively, and mixed by stirring the mixture for 10 min
105 ± 2 °C, per cent by to obtain a homogeneous mixture. The, the rheological
mass properties, fluid loss volume and mud cake thickness of the

Table 2  The results of adding S.N Properties Values

various concentrations of LLP
on the properties of Reference Reference 1% LLP 2% LLP 3% LLP 4% LLP 5% LLP
Mud, Before Hot Rolling (BHR) Mud (RM)

1 Mud weight (ppg) 8.6 8.6 8.55 8.5 8.4 8.35

2 pH 10.5 10.4 10.4 10.2 10.1 10.0
3 PV (cp) 7.0 10 12 14 18 20
4 YP (Ib/100ft2) 12 13 15 18 20 25
5 Gel 0 (Ib/100ft2) 8 10 12 14 16 18
6 Gel 10 (Ib/100ft2) 16 17 19 22 24 26
7 Mud temperature (°F) 75 75 75 75 75 75
8 7.5 min filtrate (cc) 13 8.0 6.2 4.7 4.3 3.4
9 30 min filtrate (cc) 27 15 12.3 9.5 8.6 6.8
10 Filter cake thickness (mm) 3 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.6 1.4
11 Mud cake temperature (°F) 77 77 77 77 77 77

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Set-2 were similarly measured and the data are presented Filtration test (low pressure, low temperature test)
in Table 3.
After evaluating the above sets of samples at low pres- API specified filter press is used to determine the filtration
sure-low temperature, the reference mud and Set-1 and Set-2 properties of the drilling fluid. A Whatman 50 filter paper
mud samples were now put in ageing cells and hot rolled at was placed in the API cell and then it was filled by the mud.
100 °C for 18 h. Hot rolling of mud samples is necessary Then, 100 psi pressure was applied to the API cell at room
because during the drilling the bottom hole temperature of temperature. Then, the volume of filtrate was measured after
well is increased with increasing the well depth. Therefore, 7.5 and 30 min (American Petroleum institute 2003).
temperature distribution under circulation and shut in condi-
tions is necessary to maintain the viscosity, fluid loss, pH
shale inhibition, etc. properties of the drilling fluid and pre- Filter cake characteristic measurements
vent the invasion of annulus fluid fluxed into formation dur-
ing loss circulation problem in oil and gas geothermal wells The qualitative measurements of the filter cake like thick-
(Fomin et al. 2003). ness, thinness, firm, rubbery, sticky, smooth, etc. were deter-
The rheological properties and low temperature-low pres- mined as per API Standard. The cake characterizations such
sure filtration test of all these hot rolled samples were then as slickness and texture were determined subjectively by
carried out and the results are presented in Tables 4 and 5, physical examination, whereas the thickness of cake was
respectively. measured quantitatively by using a scale and reported in

Table 3  The results of adding various concentration of CMC (LVG) on the properties of Reference Mud, Before Hot Rolling (BHR)
S. no Properties Values
Reference Mud 0.6% CMC 0.8% CMC 1.0% CMC 1.2% CMC 1.4%CMC
(RM)

1 Mud weight (ppg) 8.6 8.6 8.62 8.63 8.64 8.64

2 pH 10.5 10.2 10.1 10 9.9 9.8
3 PV (cp) 7.0 16 20 24 28 32
4 YP (Ib/100ft2) 12 17 39 41 43 46
5 Gel 0 (Ib/100ft2) 8 18 22 26 32 34
6 Gel 10 (Ib/100ft2) 16 26 30 38 42 48
7 Mud temperature (°F) 75 75 75 75 75 75
8 7.5 min filtrate (cc) 13 3.5 3.0 2.7 2.6 2.5
9 30 min filtrate (cc) 27 11 10.2 9.3 8.1 7.6
10 Filter cake thickness (mm) 3 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.6
11 Mud cake temperature (°F) 77 77 77 77 77 77

Table 4  The results of adding S. no Properties Values

various concentration of LLP
on the properties of Reference Reference 1% LLP 2% LLP 3% LLP 4% LLP 5% LLP
Mud, After Hot Rolling (AHR) Mud (RM)
at 100 °C for 18 h
1 Mud weight (ppg) 8.6 8.6 8.62 8.64 8.65 8.68
2 pH 10 9.8 9.7 9.6 9.4 9.2
3 PV (cp) 06 07 10 12 14 16
4 YP (Ib/100ft2) 07 08 09 14 15 18
5 Gel 0 (Ib/100ft2) 06 08 13 16 18 19
6 Gel 10 (Ib/100ft2) 12 14 18 20 22 25
7 Mud temperature (°F) 75 75 75 75 75 75
8 7.5 min filtrate (cc) 16 8.6 7.6 6.6 5.6 4.7
9 30 min filtrate (cc) 32 17 15.3 13.2 11.2 9.4
10 Filter cake thickness (mm) 3.5 3.1 2.8 2.5 2.2 1.8
11 Mud cake temperature (°F) 77 77 77 77 77 77

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726 1719

Table 5  The results of adding various concentration of CMC (LVG) on the properties of Reference Mud, After Hot Rolling (AHR) at 100 °C for
18 h
S. no Properties Values
Reference Mud 0.6% CMC 0.8% CMC 1% CMC 1.2% CMC 1.4% CMC
(RM)

1 Mud weight (ppg) 8.6 8.63 8.64 8.66 8.68 8.68

2 pH 10 9.9 9.8 9.6 9.3 9.0
3 PV (cp) 06 16 16 24 26 41
4 YP (Ib/100ft2) 07 20 28 35 38 42
5 Gel 0 (Ib/100ft2) 06 14 18 20 24 28
6 Gel 10 (Ib/100ft2) 12 24 28 32 38 42
7 Mud temperature (°F) 75 77 77 77 77 77
8 7.5 min filtrate (cc) 16 7.0 6.3 6.0 5.7 5.3
9 30 min filtrate (cc) 32 14 12.7 12.0 11.5 10.4
10 Filter cake thickness (mm) 3.5 2.9 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.1
11 Mud cake temperature (°F) 77 77 77 77 77 77

millimetres. (Okorie et al. 2019; Amanullah and Tan 2001) Results and discussions
(Fig. 2).
FTIR analysis of LLP
Permeability of the filter cake
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with 500–4000 ­cm−1
The permeability of the filter cake is calculated from the range was used to analyse the characterization of the LLP.
relationship between the measured filtrate loss volume and Figure 3 shows the FTIR spectrum of raw LLP. The band
time (shown in Eq. 1) (Elkatatny et al. 2012; Engelhardt at 3420  ­cm−1  assigned to the O–H and N–H stretching
1954). group through hydrogen bonding, indicating the presence
of the hydroxyl and amino functional groups. The absorp-
1
(1) tion band at 2925 ­cm−1 and 2853 ­cm−1 is attributed to the
( )
K = Qt × lt × 𝜇 ×
2P × F × t
Aliphatic C-H stretching vibration, showing the alkyl group
where K = The permeability of the filter cake (k), Qt = vol- (–CH2–). The peak at 1733 ­cm−1 assigned to C=O stretch-
ume of the filtrate in ­cm3 after time t, lt = Filter cake thick- ing vibration, showing the presence of a carbonyl group
ness in cm, μ = viscosity of the filtrate in centipoise, P = The (ketone or aldehyde). The band at 1624 ­cm−1 is assigned
filtration pressure in Atmosphere, F = Effective filter surface to the, N–H bending vibration, indicating the presence of
in ­cm2, t = time in seconds. amino (–NH2) group. The absorption band at 1515 ­cm−1

Fig. 2  a API LTLP filter press used for the experiment, b filter cake thickness (3.5 mm) of Base Mud after hot rolling, c filter cake thickness
(1.8 mm) of 5% LLP Mud after hot rolling

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1720 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726

Fig. 3  FTIR Spectrum of LLP

inserted electrosorption plates into the corresponding slot.

The area of the immersed plate in the drilling fluid is 92.4
­cm2 (12 cm (length) × 7.7 cm (width). When target voltage
of experiment is achieved, started the adsorption time of
sample. After the completion of experimental time, the
adsorbed solid particles of sample at electrosorption plates
were scraped into a beaker and put it in an oven for drying.
When sample was dried completely, the amount of solid
particles adsorbed during the whole experiment was cal-
culated by the difference in the initial and final weight of
the sample (Xie et al. 2018). Experimental outcomes rep-
resented in Fig. 5a illustrated that with increasing the elec-
Fig. 4  Schematic diagram of electrosorption experimental device
(Xie et al. 2018) trosorption voltage from 10 to 36 V, increase the adsorbed
mass of solid particle from 1 to 2.4 gm, respectively, on
the surface of electrosorption plates. Similarly, experi-
corresponds to N–H bend (secondary amine). The peak at mental results shown in Fig. 5b revealed that the mass
1457 ­cm−1 corresponds to C–H bending vibration while the of solid particles adsorbed is directly proportional to the
peak at 1375 ­cm−1 correspond to C=0 symmetrical stretch- adsorption time. The mass of solid particles adsorbed were
ing vibration, indicating the presence of carboxylic group. increases from 1 to 6.5 gm with increasing the adsorption
The absorption peaks from 1318 to 1058 ­cm−1 correspond to time from 3 to 30 min, respectively.
C–O stretching, C–N stretching and C–C bending vibration.
The absorption peaks from 891 to 518 ­cm−1 represent to
C–X stretching vibration (X = Cl, Br, I), showing the pres- Mud samples analysis
ence of halide group.
The data generated by experimental evaluation of this eco-
Electrosorption experiment friendly additive (litchi leaves powder) reflects the prop-
erty of fluid loss control. Apart from fluid loss reduction,
Electrosorption device is used for conducting electrosorption its effect on mud weight (MW), plastic viscosity (PV),
experiment. This device consists of three parts: a power sup- yield point (YP), gel strength and other physical as well
plier controller, electrolytic cell and a plug in electrosorption as chemical properties were also studied. An account of
plate, as shown in Fig. 4. the experimental results discussing comprehensively each
Approx. 2L quantity of drilling fluid (containing 5% property at different level of concentration of LLP was
LLP in fresh water) was put in the electrolytic cell and also carried out against the reference mud sample.

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726 1721

2.4 7
2.5 6.5

Adsorbed solid particle mass/g

Adsorbed solid particle mass/g
6 5.8
2
2.0
5 4.7
1.6
1.5 4
1.2
3
1 3
1.0

2 1.8
0.5 1
1

0.0 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 5 10 15 20 25 30
Electroadsorption voltage(V) Time/minute

(a) (b)

Fig. 5  a Effect of electrosorption voltage on the adsorbed solid particle mass. b Effect of electrosorption time on the adsorbed solid particle
mass

BHR BHR
AHR 10.6 AHR
8.70 10.5
8.65 8.68 10.4 10.4
8.65
8.64 10.4
8.62
8.6 8.6 10.2
8.60 10.2
10.1
Mud Weight (ppg)

8.55 10 10
8.55 10.0
8.5 9.8
8.50
pH 9.8 9.7
9.6
8.45
9.6
8.4
8.40
9.4
9.4
8.35
8.35 9.2
9.2
RM 1%LLP 2%LLP 3%LLP 4%LLP 5%LLP
RM 1%LLP 2%LLP 3%LLP 4%LLP 5%LLP

Fig. 6  Effect of different dosages of LLP on mud weight of drilling

fluid samples Fig. 7  Effect of LLP on pH

Effect of LLP on the specific gravity of drilling fluid Effect of LLP on the pH of drilling fluid

The experimental data represented in Tables 2 and 4 reveal All aqueous-based drilling fluid systems are colloidal in
that even after the sample was hot rolled at 100 °C, this nature and stable in alkaline environment. The befitting
green additive had no impact on specific gravity of drill- range of alkalinity encompassing various types of inhibi-
ing fluid. The specific gravity of samples invariably showed tive drilling fluids is stable in the alkaline range from pH 9 to
very negligible changes in the physical properties of mud 10.5 The alkalinity of the system also inhibits the corrosion
at any concentration ranging from 1 to of 5% with respect characteristic of drilling fluid on the drilling equipment’s.
to reference mud sample. This indicated that LLP is a light pH less than 7 represent the acidic medium and pH more
natural product with low specific gravity. As evident from than 7 represent the basic medium, whereas neutral solution
the data, Fig. 6 shows that the addition of 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% represent the pH equal to 7 (MI-Drilling fluids 2000).
and 5% concentrations of the LLP to reference mud resulted Experimental data set showed that after hot rolling of
in the increasing trend of specific gravity varying from 0.23 the drilling fluid sample for 18 h at 100 °C, It was found
to 0.58%. At low range of temperature, before hot rolling, that pH of mud has been reduced by 2–8% with varied con-
it was observed that the specific gravity of mud decreased centration of LLP from 1 to 5%, respectively (as shown in
with increasing the concentration of LLP due to foaming Fig. 7). However, pH of mud has been reduced by 1–10%
phenomenon. The foaming is a physical surface phenomena with varied concentration of CMC(LVG) from 0.6 to 1.4%,
which is removed by adding suitable defoaming agents. respectively, as compared to reference mud.

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1722 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726

PV the formulated drilling fluid has a good capability for smooth

YP
25
Gel 0
drilling operations without any complications.
Rheological Properties Gel 10
20 Yield point (YP)

15 The experimental results represented in Figs. 8 and 9 show that

after the addition of this natural product YP of drilling fluid
10 was increased as compared to YP of reference mud. Although
there was little effect on the YP with increasing concentration
5
of LLP from 1 to 2%, but as concentration increased from 3 to
RM 1%LLP 2%LLP 3%LLP 4%LLP 5%LLP 5% there was an exponential enhancement in YP by twice to
thrice as compared to reference mud. The YP of reference mud
Fig. 8  Effect of LLP on the Rheological Properties of Drilling Fluid after hot rolling was 7 cP. However, the YP of 3%, 4% and 5%
before hot rolling (BHR) LLP mud were increased to 14cP, 15cP and 18cP, respectively.
This enhancement in YP indicates that LLP increased the mag-
PV nitude of attractive forces among the particles of drilling fluid,
YP
25
Gel 0
which would be supported in the lifting of drill cuttings from
the bottom hole to the surface.
Rheological Properties

Gel 10
20

Gel strength
15

Gelation/Gel strength of any drilling fluid is a thixotropic

10 property that helps the system to hold suspended drill cutting
during the static condition. Gel strength is mainly expressed
5
in gel 0 and gel 10. The gelation measure at 10 s is called
RM 1%LLP 2%LLP 3%LLP 4%LLP 5%LLP gel 0 while the gelation measure at 10 min is called Gel 10.
Figures 8 and 9 indicate that the gel strength of drilling mud
Fig. 9  Effect of LLP on the Rheological Properties after hot rolling at was increased with increasing the concentration of the LLP
100 °C (AHR) as compared to the gel strength of reference mud. After hot
rolling of mud samples (shown in Fig. 9), the Gel 0 and
Gel 10 value of reference mud were 8 and 16, respectively.
Effect of LLP on the rheological properties of drilling However, the gel 0 value of 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% LLP-
fluids based mud were 10,12,14,16 and 18, respectively. Similarly,
the Gel 10 value of 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% LLP-based
Plastic viscosity (PV) mud were 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, respectively. The experimental
results of Gel 0 and Gel 10 are showing fragile gelation
Plastic viscosity of the drilling mud should be less as possible. not a progressive gelation. As per Ramsey (2019), Baker
PV indicates solid–solid and solid to liquid interaction. An (2006) fragile gelation is very essential for optimum drilling
enhancement of PV reduced the YP and decreased the hole operation means the difference between the Gel 0 and Gel
cleaning capacity of drilling mud (Baker 2006). The experi- 10 values should be less, because this gelation ensure that
mental data represented in Figs. 8 and 9 show that 1–2% con- no excess share stress is required to break the gel again into
centration of LLP had little effect on plastic viscosity w.r.t the fluid when drilling operation would be resumed. Hence,
reference mud. However, 3–5% concentration of LLP signifi- due to good gelation property of LLP, it will help to hold
cantly increased the PV as compared to reference sample, due the drill cuttings during the static condition. FTIR test shows
to frictional forces that may have increased due to the addition the presence of hydroxyl (–OH) group, indicating the reason
of LLP additive. Hence, to control the enhancement of PV, of moderate effect of LLP on the viscosity and gelation of
optimization is required. This optimization of LLP addition is drilling fluid.
based on section, size, depth of the formation drilled and also
on the lithology of formation. It was also observed that the Effect of litchi leaves powder (LLP) on the filtration
enhancement of PV with the various concentrations of LLP properties of drilling fluid system
was very less as compared to that of CMC (LVG) which makes
LLP a better additive than CMC because low PV indicates that The experiment is carried out at ambient room temperature
and at 100 psi pressure through the Whatman filter paper

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726 1723

that acts as a semi-permeable membrane. The samples of 35

BHR
drilling fluid were hot rolled at 100 °C for 18 h and then the AHR
30
filtration loss was measured.

Filtration Loss volume (cc)

The filtration loss of different mud samples was meas- 25

ured at two conditions: before hot rolling (BHR) and after

hot rolling (AHR). Figure 10 shows that before hot rolling, 20

the filtration loss volume of reference mud was 27 ml while 15

after hot rolling at 100 °C for 18 h the filtration loss volume
of same mud was increased to 32 ml. This observed result is 10

due to decrease of edge to edge and edge to face attractive

5
forces among the bentonite particles with temperature. Thus, RM 0.6%CMC0.8%CMC 1%CMC 1.2%CMC1.4%CMC
to control filtration loss in drilling fluid, the external fluid
loss agents such as LLP were used to introduce the cross- Fig. 11  Effect of CMC (LVG) on Filtration loss before and after hot
linking in the bentonite particles. The result as presented rolling at 100 °C
in Table 4 revealed that after hot rolling of mud samples at
100 °C for 18 h, there was a reduction of about 70.6% (i.e.
from 32 to 9.4 ml) in filtration loss volume at 5% concen- 5% LLP have reduced the filter cake thickness by 37.14%
tration of LLP mud sample. This filtration loss reduction and 48.5%, respectively (shown in Fig. 12), whereas 1.2%
indicates that LLP introduced the cross-linked among the and 1.4% CMC (LVG) reduced the filter cake thickness by
bentonite particles by strengthening the edge to edge and 34.28% and 40%, respectively, as compared to base mud
edge to face force of attraction between the particles. How- (shown in Fig. 13). Hence, it has been inferred that 5% con-
ever, a comparison result of LLP and the standard polymers centration of LLP significantly reduced the filter cake thick-
CMC (LVG) fluid loss volume are presented in Tables 4 ness, which is comparable to the optimized concentration
and 5, respectively. Figure 11 shows that after hot rolling of 1.4% of CMC (LVG).
mud samples at 100 °C, the filtration loss of 1.4% CMC was The FTIR spectrum of LLP shows various functional
reduced by 67.5% (from 32 to 10.4 ml). These results indi- group like –OH, –COOH and –NH2 group. These functional
cate that 5% LLP and bentonite particles formed an effective group have a great tendency to form inter and intramolecu-
seal as compared to CMC (LVG) during the filtration loss. lar cross-link among the particles (Ermis et al.2018). The
Therefore, the fluid loss control ability of 5% LLP is more chemical cross-linking in the drilling fluid made filters cake
favourable than 1.4% CMC. impermeable, strengthful and thin, as a results the filtra-
tion loss was reduced significantly by the addition of LLP
Effect of LLP on the filter cake of Drilling Fluid additive.

Filter cake thickness Slickness and strength of the filter cake

Experimental results showed that after hot rolling at 100 °C, From the physical examination of filter paper (shown in
LLP significantly reduced the filter cake thickness as com- Fig. 2c), it was seen that the filter cake formed by the
pared to base mud and the CMC (LVG) mud system. 4% and 5% LLP was smooth, strengthening and slippery. These

35
BHR BHR
AHR AHR
30 3.5
Filtration Loss volume (cc)

Filter Cake Thickness (mm)

25 3.0

20 2.5

15 2.0

10 1.5

5 1.0
RM 1%LLP 2%LLP 3%LLP 4%LLP 5%LLP RM 1%LLP 2%LLP 3%LLP 4%LLP 5%LLP

Fig. 10  Effect of LLP on the Filtration loss Fig. 12  Effect of LLP on the filter Cake Thickness (mm)

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1724 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726

BHR 14 AHR
AHR

Fillter cake Permeaility(×10-5 Darcy)

3.5 12

Filter Cake Thickness(mm)

10
3.0

8
2.5
6

2.0
4

1.5 2

RM 0.6%CMC0.8%CMC 1%CMC 1.2%CMC1.4%CMC

RM 0.6%CMC0.8%CMC 1%CMC 1.2%CMC1.4%CMC

Fig. 13  Effect of CMC (LVG) on the Filter Cake Thickness (mm) Fig. 15  Effect of CMC (LVG) on the Filter Cake Permeability

Table 6  Cake permeability for water-based mud formulated after hot

rolling of mud samples at 100 °C
14
Concentration Filter cake Concentration Filter cake
AHR
Filter Cake Permeabilty(×10-5 Darcy)

12
permeability permeability
(D) (D)
10
RM 12.9 × ­10–5 RM 12.9 × ­10–5
8 1% LLP 6.08 × ­10–5 0.6% CMC (LVG) 4.6 × ­10–5
6
2% LLP 4.9 × ­10–5 0.8% CMC (LVG) 3.9 × ­10–5
3%LLP 3.8 × ­10–5 1% CMC (LVG) 3.5 × ­10–5
4
4% LLP 2.8 × ­10–5 1.2% CMC (LVG) 3.05 × ­10–5
2 5% LLP 1.9 × ­10–5 1.4% CMC (LVG) 2.5 × ­10–5
RM 1%LLP 2%LLP 3%LLP 4%LLP 5%LLP

Conclusion
Fig. 14  Effect of LLP on the filter Cake Thickness permeability

The detailed experimental studies carried out on litchi

leaves powder have ultimately qualified it as one of the
characterizations of filter cake would help in the preven- best fluid loss green additive, a natural waste of litchi plant
tion of differential pipe sticking. (Litchi chinensis), easily biodegradable. The study can be
concluded by following few observations:

Mud cake permeability • LLP is a biodegradable, non-pollutant, cost effective,

multifunctional, bio-enhancer and environmentally
The filter cake is formed on the permeable medium when friendly additive.
the liquid part of the drilling fluid migrated through the • The thermal stability of the LLP as drilling fluid addi-
medium under the influences of the pressure during drill- tives has been proven to withstand a range of tempera-
ing. The experimental data represented in Fig. 14 shows ture up to 100 °C. This temperature resistant property
that after hot rolling of mud samples at 100 °C, the per- make it more effective additive in the water-based drill-
meability of the filter cake was reduced with increasing ing fluid.
the concentration of LLP. The permeability of the filter • FTIR spectrum confirmed the different functional
cake formed by 4% and 5% LLP was 2.5 × ­1 0 –5 D and group such as hydroxyl (–OH) group, carbonyl group
1.9 × ­10–5 D, respectively. While the permeability of 1.4% (aldehyde or ketone), carboxylic acid (–COOH), amine
CMC was 2.5 × ­1 0 –5 D (shown in Fig.  15) These data group and halide group in the LLP.
proved that the filter cake formed by 4–5% LLP mud have • The samples of the LLP blended drilling fluid, hot
a greater plugging tendency to prevent the flow of filtrate rolled at 100  °C, had negligible effect on the mud
from the filter cake as compared to 1.4% CMC. However, weight. There was no increase in the total solid content
due to the higher permeability of the filter cake made by and hence specific gravity of resultant drilling fluid was
reference mud, i.e. 12.9 × ­1 0 –5 D, indicates the greater almost constant. The foaming issue associated with the
filtration loss in reference mud (Table 6).

13
Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production (2021) 11:1715–1726 1725

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