Module 1

Topic-4

Provincial Administration

1. Suba or Iqta:

Very little is known about the provincial administration of Sher Shah and
whatever is known, historians have differed about it. Dr Qanungo has opined that
‘there was no administrative unit called Iqta or Suba during the reign of Sher
Shah. The largest administrative unit was the Sarkar.’

According to Dr Parmatma Saran there were Sub as where military governors

were appointed by Sher Shah. According to Dr A.L. Srivastava, ‘besides the Hindu
rulers who had accepted the suzerainty of Sher Shah and were left free to manage
their internal affairs, there were provinces called the Iqtas where military
governors or Subedars were appointed. Subedars were appointed in Lahore,
Malwa and Ajmer.’

The entire Suba was divided into Sarkars (districts), each being looked after by a
military officer called the chief Shiqdar. Above all chief Shiqdars there was
appointed a civilian officer called the Amin-i-Bangala with a small military force
to supervise the administration of the province. Thus, there was no military
governor in Bengal and there was no other officer commanding a sufficiently
large force so as to be in a position to revolt against the Sultan.

In the sensitive provinces like Lahore, Multan and Malwa, military governors
looked after the administration. On the other hand, the province of Bengal was
administered by a civilian.

Thus, there was no uniformity in the administration of provinces during the

reign of Sher Shah. But all provinces were kept under strict discipline by Sher
Shah and there occurred no revolt by any provincial governor except that in 1541
A.D. in Bengal which was quickly suppressed by the Sultan.

2. Sarkars:

Sher Shah Suri organized the local administration at the district, paragana and
village level. The highest unit of the local administration was the district or
thesirkar. According to Dr Ishwari Prasad, ‘Sher Shah had sub-divided his empire
into forty-seven parts, each comprising many paraganas. This part or unit was called
a sirkar.’

There were two chief officers in every Sarkar. The one, Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran or
chief Shiqdar was a military officer. He maintained peace in his Sarkar,
supervised the work of his subordinate Shiqdars and helped in the collection of
revenue and other taxes.

The other officer was the Munsif-i-Munsifan or the chief Munsif. He was,
primarily, a judicial officer who decided only civil cases and looked after the
working of his subordinate judicial officers in the Parganas. Certainly, both these
officers must have been getting assistance from a large number of junior officers
and other subordinates in carrying out their duties.

Sher Shah brought about some important changes in the administration of the sirkar.
First, he established a satisfactory judicial system. Second, he ordered the officials to
always look for the convenience of the people. Third, he made the Chief Shikdar and
the Chief Munsif respectively the highest but separate officials in the fields of army
and finance. This minimized the possibility of revolt. Fourth, he kept with himself the
right of appointing and dismissing the officials of the sirkar which strengthened the
control of the centre over these units.

3.Paragana

Each sirkar or district was subdivided into many paraganas. Here, Shiqdar and
Munsif were responsible for the maintenance of peace and order and the collection
of revenues respectively. Besides these, there was one treasurer and two Karkuns or
Munsims—one to keep the land records in Hindi and the other in Persian. The
treasurer orFotdar kept the cash of the paragana. The Munsif was responsible for the
collection of the revenue of the whole paragana and also its land measurement.

4.Villages

The smallest unit of the empire was the village. In every village there was aMukhiya
or Muqaddam. The chief of village collected the revenue from the farmers and sent it
to the treasurer of the paragana. Muqadam was responsible for maintaining peace
and order in the village along with collecting the revenue. He arranged for night
watchmen. If a theft was committed in his area, he had either to catch the thief or
suffer the punishment himself. According to the contemporary historian Abbas,
‘Because of these arrangements, the events of theft or ‘dacoity’ in the empire were
totally nullified and even if an old women travelled from one end of the empire to the
other tossing gold, nobody dared to interfere with her.’ If any traveller or merchant
died on the way the local people gave the information to the government officials
and till the reaching of any instruction from the government, they kept watch
themselves. This statement might be an exaggeration but it makes it clear that
during Sher Shah’s time, priority was given to the maintenance of peace and order
throughout the empire. He dealt strictly with thieves, dacoits and with those
landlords who refused either to pay the revenue or refuse to obey the government’s
instructions.

Land and revenue administration

The main sources of the income of the state were the land-revenue, unclaimed
property, trade-tax, mint, salt-tax, Khams, viz., 1/5th of the plunder taken during
the time of war, jizya and presents from subordinate rulers, governors, nobles,
traders, etc. The main items of expenditure were the expenses to maintain the
army, salaries of civilian officers and the expenditure of the royal household and
the Sultan.

The local taxes were called abwabs which were levied mostly on production and
consumption of various trade and professions and on transport.

The land-revenue, however, constituted the primary source of income of the

state. Abul Fazl wrote that ‘he introduced the system of Alauddin which he had
read in Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi and, thus, became the object of praise for coming
generations.’ But this opinion of Abul Fazl concerning Sher Shah is not correct.

Sher Shah did not introduce the revenue-system of Alauddin blindly. Rather what
he felt correct, he did. Sher Shah believed that the welfare of the state could be
achieved only by looking after the welfare of the peasants. Therefore, he paid
personal attention towards the revenue administration and introduced certain
successful measures to improve it. His revenue administration has been regarded as
one of the best during the medieval period.

Its basic features were as follows:

(a) The system which Sher Shah introduced in most of the places was Ryotwari
wherein the state kept direct relations with the peasants for the assessment and
collection of the land revenue. However, the system could not be introduced in
Multan, Malwa and Rajasthan where the Jagirdari system continued to exist.

(b) All cultivable land was divided into three categories on the basis of production,
viz., good, middle and bad.
(c) The land was measured according to a uniform system and it was ascertained
that what quality of land was possessed by each cultivator. An average of the
produce was estimated in each case and then, according to Dr Qanungo, the
peasants were asked to pay 1/4 of the average produce. But according to Dr
Parmatma Saran, Dr R.P. Tripathi and the majority of historians the cultivators
were asked to pay 1/3 of their produce to the state.

(d) The state preferred to collect revenue in the form of cash and, for that
purpose, prices of every variety of cereals were fixed in different places. Yet, the
cultivators were given the facility to pay their revenue in kind as well.

(e) The revenue on perishable articles was, however, paid by the peasants in
form of cash only.

(f) The peasants were given the facility to pay their revenue in two instalments in
a year according to crop seasons.

(g) The peasants were given pattas (title deeds) by the state specifying the
revenue which they had to pay and were asked to sign qabuliats (deeds of
agreement) signifying their acceptance to pay the required revenue.

(h) The peasants had also to pay two more taxes, named the jaribana (Surveyor’s
fee) and the mahasilana (tax-collector’s fee) to the state. These constituted 2 and
a 1/2 per cent to 5 per cent of their produce.

(i) Besides these, the peasants had to pay 2 and a 1/2 per cent of their produce in
kind to be returned to them in case of any natural calamity such as flood, famine,
etc.

(j) According to the orders of the Sultan, the peasants were treated with
generosity while fixing the revenue but once settled they were asked to pay their
revenue without any mercy on behalf of the state.

(k) Every care was taken to protect the crop from destruction during the course
of war and if damaged the peasants were compensated by the state.

The revenue administration of Sher Shah suffered from certain defects. The
peasants who possessed middle and bad quality of land had to pay more as
compared to the owners of good quality land under this system. The taxation
under which the peasants had to pay 1/3 of their produce as revenue, the
jaribana and the mahasilana and further tax for emergencies was, certainly,
heavy for the peasants.
 Judicial System

Sher Shah was known for his even-handed justice and capacity for examining
thoroughly all disputes brought before him.
Of course, all types of cases seem to have come up to the royal court. They came not
so much in appeal against the decisions of the lower courts as direct demands for
justice from the highest in the realm when the complaint had failed to get it
elsewhere. Investigation of crimes as well as adjudication of cases was a royal
function in cases that were brought upto the court.
Sher Shah laid great emphasis on the dispensation of justice. He used to say, ‘Doing
justice is the greatest religious work which should be adopted alike by the state
ofKafirs or Momins.’ He never pardoned any criminal whether he was his near
relative, big chief or any powerful person. He established law courts throughout his
empire. At the centre the Emperor himself was the highest judge and next to him was
theQazi-ul-Qazt, who was the highest official of the judicial department. Besides big
cities, provinces and their capitals Qazis dispensed justice. In the village the work of
the dispensation of justice was undertaken by the Muqaddam or Mukhiya. The civil
cases were heard by the Munsif, Amirs and Munsifi-Munsifan (Amin and Chief Aman).
In fact, during Sher Shah’s time not many changes were effected in the judicial
system but he inspired all the officials to dispense justice impartially and fearlessly
and did so himself as well.

Trade and Commerce

Measures taken by Sher Shah Suri for development of trade and commerce.

Construction of roads- the chain of roads got established by Sher Shah which
connected important parts of Country within his capital. The most important road
among the Sark –I-Azam (renamed as Grand Trunk Road by Britishers), connecting
Sonargaon in Eastern Bengal with Attock (now in Pakistan). The second road
connected Agra and chittor, the third road connected Jodhpur with Agra, the fourth
one connected Lahore and Multan and other one connected Agra to Burhanpur. This
kind of road network boosted trade and commerce activities within his empire. For
the stability of travellers shady trees were planted on both sides of these roads.
(chaurasia, 2002).

Construction of Sarais (Rest houses) - To ease the journey of the travellers about
1700 sarais were built by Sher Shah at the distance of every 2 Ko’s (about 8 kms) on
above mentioned roads. The travellers while on journey can stay in these sarais and
for them separate kitchen arrangements were made both for Muslims and for
Hindus. On the gate of every Sarai there were pots full of water which were given to
both Hindus and Muslims. The names of those travellers who stayed in these Sarias
have to be noted down in Persian as well as in Hindi language. In every Sarai two
horses with men were maintained so that the news from the distant places could
reach as fast as possible. (Sarwani Abbas Khan ., 1974) With the time most of these
sarais converted into markets where the peasants and other business related
persons gathered to sell their produce. So these sarais proved to be a good source for
the improvement of trade and commerce. Every Sarai had several watchmen under
the control of ‘Shahna’, and every Sarais has been called as ‘arteries’ of the empire.
(chandra, 2007)

Eliminated unwanted taxes- Before Sher Shah sat on the throne; the merchants had
to pay number of obnoxious taxes which Sher Shah felt quite unnecessary after he
crowned himself as Emperor. So in action he removed many of such taxes and
charged Octroi duty only at two places, when any article produced or entered into
country, and when the article was put on sale (chaurasia, 2002). So after removing
many unwanted taxes the traders and other business persons felt ease to indulge
them into trade activities which increased the economic charm within empire. (rai,
1995-96)

Good behaviour with traders- The officers and other administrative persons were
ordered by Sher Shah Suri to tackle the traders and other travellers in proper way
and ordered them not to be harsh towards them. In case the trader suffered a loss of
life or property, the village headmen was asked to present the culprit or to
compensate by their own. So in such circumstances the traders could trade freely
without any fear of loss, which led to high economic prosperity within the empire.
(chopra, 1996)

Law and order situation- It is necessary to maintain the law and order situation to
promote trade and commerce activities. So in this regard Sher Shah was very strict.
Hard steps were taken by him to punish the burglars and criminals. He was also
strict towards official persons who use to despoil the traders. (Majumdar, 1994).
Abbas Khan pointed out, that if old women might place a basket full of Gold on her
head and go on journey; no thief or robber would come near her for fear of
punishment which Sher Shah imposed within his empire.

New weights and measures- To avoid any kind of fraud regarding the weights and
measures, Sher Shah introduced new weights and measures which were more
dependable and reliable. This step also proved to be very helpful in promoting trade
and commerce activities. (chaurasia, 2002).

Currency

The coins and currency reforms of Sher Shah Suri (Sher Khan) are one of his most
outstanding achievements. Sher Shah Suri found on his accession that the currency
system had practically broken down. There was debasement of the current coins and
the absence of a fixed ratio between the coins and various metals. There was another
difficulty, namely, that coins of all previous reigns, in fact of all ages, were allowed to
circulate as legal tender.
Sher Shah Suri took steps to issue a large number of new silver coins which,
subsequently, became known as dam. Both the silver rupee and copper dam had
their halves, quarters, eighths and sixteenths. Next, he abolished all old and mixed
metal currency coins. He fixed a rate between the copper and silver coins. His silver
rupee coins weighed 180 grains, of which 175 grains were pure silver. This rupee
minus its inscription lasted throughout the Mughal period and was retained by the
English East India Company up to 1835.
Sher Shah's name and title and place of mint were invariably inscribed on the coins
in Arabic characters. Some of his coins bore his name in Devanagari script and some
had the names of first four Khalifas in addition. Gold coins of pure metal of various
weights, such as 166.4 grains, 167 grains and 168.5 grains, were executed. The ratio
of exchange between the dam and the rupee was 64 to 1. The ratios between the
various gold coins and the silver ones were fixed on a permanent basis.
These coins and currency reforms of Sher Shah Suri proved very useful and did away
with a great deal of inconvenience which was experienced by the general public and
particularly by the trading community. These reforms have elicited high praise from
modern numismatists.

Public Welfare
Sher Shah Suri carried out many works for the welfare and convenience of his
subjects. He built many sarais or roadside inns for the travelers and traders at an
interval of every two kos. Here the travelers could spend the night and keep their
belongings. These sarais were also used as dak chowkis.

In order to facilitate better communication and trade, he constructed many roads.

The most important among them was the Grand Trunk Road or Sarak-i-Azom. This
road ran from Sonargaon in Bengal (now near Dacca in Bangladesh) to Peshawar in
the west. A second road ran from Agra to Burhanpur, a third from Agra to Jodhpur
and Chittor, and a fourth from Lahore to Multan.
Trees were planted on both sides of the roads and arrangements were made for the
provision of food and water for the travelers.

For the purpose of learning, he established many madrasas and gave rich donations.
For the poor and the needy, he opened many kitchens where food was served free.
Indeed, in this respect, he was more like a guardian to his subjects than any other
Muslim king before Akbar the great.

Spy System
Sher Shah had spread a net of trusted and expert spies who kept on giving him
information about the activities of the whole empire. Therefore, nobody dared to
revolt against the emperor or shirk his duty. The daily report of the prices of
commodities in the market used to reach the emperor. Messengers and spies were
appointed in all the major cities and they had the orders to send any urgent message
to the emperor at once.

Topic-5
The Mughals

Introduction

Much before the final showdown at the battle of Panipat (1526), ~abur had invaded
India four times. These skirmishes were trials of strenkth of Mughal arms and Lodi
forces. The first to fall was Bhira (1519-1520), the gateway of Hindustan, followed by
Sialkot (1520) and Lahore (1524). Firlally, Ibrahim Lodi and Babur's forces met at
the historic battlefie1d:of Panipat..The battle lasted for just few hours in favour of
Babur. The battle shows Babur's skill in the art of warfare. His soldiers were less in
number but the organisation was superior. 1brahim7s'forces though many times
greater in number (approximately 1,00,000 soldiers and 1000-500 elephants as
compared to Babur's 12,000 horseman) faired badly. Babur successfully applied the
Rumi (Ottoman) method of warfare (for details see chart given on next page). As the
Afghans advanced to attack the right flank; Babur ordered his reserve forces under
Abdul Aziz to move. TheeAfghans, greater in number, were unable to move forward
nor backward. They were attacked from both sides. This created total' confusion
among the Afghan forces, Babur took full advantage of the situation and his right and
left wings soon attacked the Afghan forces from the rear side. This was followed with
the opening up of fireshots. This completely paralysed the ~fghan army. Afghan
casualties reported by Babur were approximately 20,000 including the
S~lta~brahim Lodi. In the battle it was not Babur's artillery but his 'superb tactics'
and the 'mounted archers' played the decisive role, a fact which Babur himself
acknowledged. The battle of Panipat, though, formally established the Mughal rule in
India, it was first among the series of battles in the years to come. For example, to
secure this triumph, it was equally important to overcome Rana Sanga of Mewar and
the chieftains in and around Delhi and Agra. Another important opponent in the
eastern India was the Afghans. To add to this, problems were mounting within his
own nobility.

Features of Mughal State

Emperor as the representative of God:
Mughal emperors considered themselves as God’s representatives on earth. They
claimed to be the “Shadow of God”, or “Visible God.” or “Waqil to God” or “Khatifa
of her country.”

2. Centralized power:
The emperor was the head of administration and the state. He was the law-maker
as well as dispenser of justice, the commander-in-chief and the fountain-head of
all honours. He was the source of all authority.

3. Benevolent despot:
The Mughal emperor accepted two primary duties for themselves—’Jahan Bani’
protection of the state, and ‘Jahangiri’ (extension of the empire). They attempted
to create those conditions which were conducive to economic and cultural
progress of their subjects. They devoted lot of time to look after the affairs of the
state.

Rule of Aristocracy:
Dr. Tara Chand describes the rule of the Mughal emperors as ‘the rule of
aristocracy’. This implies that the nobles exercised enormous influence on the
administration of the state.

5. Foreign-cum Indian system of administration:

Dr. J.N. Sarkar has observed, “The Mughal administration presented a
combination of Indian and extra-Indian elements, or more correctly, it was the
Perso-Arabic system in Indian setting.” A compromise was affected with the older
native system already in vogue and familiar to the people governed. The Mughals
carried out certain modifications in it in the light of foreign experiences.

6. Secular versus theocratic state:

The Mughal administration was not entirely based on Islamic tenets. At least
important emperors like Akbar did not work under the influence of the ‘Ulemas’.
Even Aurangzeb, though a fanatic Sunni never allowed the Ulemas to dictate him
in administrative matters.

7. Administration-military in origin:
The Mughal administration was a military based government from beginning to
the last.

8. Revenue administration:
Several Mughal rulers imposed taxes in accordance with Islamic laws.

9. The administration as manufacturer:

The administration/State used to maintain several ‘Karkhanas’ or factories of its
own.

10. Council of Ministers:

It was not necessary for the Mughal emperor to consult his ministers on all
occasions. According to J.N. Sarkar, “The Mughal emperor had no regular Council
of Ministers. The ‘Wazir’ (Prime Minister) and the Diwan (Finance Minister) were
the highest persons below the emperor, but the other officers were in no sense,
his colleagues. They were admittedly inferior to him and deserved rather to be
called secretaries than ministers. Nearly all their work was liable to revision by
the ‘Wazir’ and Royal orders were often transmitted to them through him.”

Central Administration

The Mughal Emperors being despots concentrated the entire powers in

their own hands. The emperor was not only the head of the state but also
the law-maker, the head of justice, the chief executive and the chief
commander of the imperial forces. Akbar also assumed some religious
powers when he got the authority of deciding religious issues of the
Muslims. Thus, the power of the Ulemas was eliminated in the reign of
Akbar. Being head of justice and a representative of God on earth, Akbar
started the system of Jharokha Darshan and Tuladaan. Though these
were Hindu customs but being a secular and liberal ruler he adopted
these practices. The Mughal rulers believed that the first and foremost
duty of the emperor was to look after the welfare of the people and the
empire. No doubt, they had some ministers to help them in the
administration but the emperor was not bound to act according to their
advice. The Mughal emperors used to work for hours together in the
royal court. They felt like Akbar the Great that, “Divine worship in
monarchs consists in their justice and good administration.” Even
sensuous Jahangir and fanatic Aurangzeb were conscious of their duties
towards their people. They did not drink in public though Jahangir was
an exception to this evil. His laxities were made good by active and
strenuous Noorjahan.

It was not possible for any Mughal emperor to keep a close watch on the
administrative structure alone, so they had some ministers to help them
in administration. Each one of them was in charge of a particular
department. Besides four well-organized ministries, there were
ministers, courtiers and bureaucrats who helped in the smooth
functioning of administration. The ministers were appointed by the
emperor and they continued to work in their office so long as he wished.
As no ministries were in existence at that time, so each one of them was
personally responsible to his respective department. In fact, the position
of ministers was like that of a dignified secretary who did not have their
own standing but they had to act according to unlimited powers of their
master, failing which, they knew, their existence would be in danger.

Wazir or Vakil (The Prime Minister) :- During Mughal period

the post of Prime Minister was the most dignified one and he was often
styled as Vakil-i-Mutlaq or Wazir-i-Azam. He was the most powerful of
the ministers and had the right of appointment and dismissal of other
ministers. He was not only in charge of finance and Revenue
departments but also acted as chief adviser and most confidant of the
emperor. Bairam Khan, who was earlier the regent of Akbar, was the
most powerful among the Prime Ministers of the Mughal period. He
looked after the work of various departments, and supervised a few of
them. He also discharged the duties on behalf of the emperor, in case of
his illness or absence from the capital. Sometimes, the Prime Minister
was also sent as commander or in-charge of the expeditions. He acted as
mediator between the emperor and the officers. Thus, he had great
influence over the administrative structure of the empire but Akbar,
after the death of his regent and Prime Minister Bairam Khan,
minimized the power of the prime Minister. Two assistants were
provided to him for the proper functioning of the administration – (i)
Diwan-i-Khaba, an officer who looked after the imperial land, and (ii)
Diwan-i-Tankhwa who looked after the salaries and Jagirs of the
employees.
Imperial Diwan :- During the Mughal Rule post of the imperial
Diwan was considered very significant. Often the Wazir had to act as
Diwan but actually it was post of finance Minister who looked after the
income and expenditure of the state. Diwan also looked after the work of
fixation and realization of the revenue. He used to keep all revenue
papers in his custody and he issued the orders for payments. He had
complete control over the royal treasury. There were several provincial
Diwans who assisted him in discharging his duties efficiently. He
established strict control and supervision over the Provincial Diwans
and acted as a link between the emperor and the Prime Minister in case
of any financial lapses. Sometimes, he issued warrants of appointment,
transfer and promotion, and made diplomatic correspondence.
Gradually, the post of Imperial Diwan grew significant and eclipsed the
Wazir.

Mir Bakhshi or Pay Master :- He was the minister in charge of the

military department. He looked after the organization of army but he
was not the supreme commander of the empire. His chief duty was the
recruitment of soldiers, maintenance of service records of government
officers, branding of horses and maintenance of descriptive roles (Huliya
registers) and he looked after the training and payment of salaries of
royal officers and officials. He also used to arrange means of
communication and transport for armies or expeditions. He had the
power to employ spies in the interest of the empire and provided
facilities to the emperor at the time of his tours.

Sadr-us-Sadur (Chief Sadr) :- Sadr-us-Sadur or Sadr-i-Jahan was

the fourth prominent minister of the central administration who was the
in-charge of religious department and looked after the welfare of the
Millat. He was religious adviser of the emperor and looked after the
work of charity and religious education. He was, in fact, the guardian of
the Islamic law. He also made sure that the principles of Islam were
being followed by the Muslims in toto. He also used to collect religious
taxes, jaziya and Jakat from Hindus and Muslims respectively. The
distribution of grants to the orphans and widows was also his
responsibility. Although the department of justice was separated and
Qazi-ul-Quzat looked after it, yet sometimes they were combined and
both the powers were given to Sadrs but they were kept separate.

Sadrs were appointed by Akbar in the provinces so that they could

function effectively and Chief Sadr looked after and supervised their
work. Owing to the support of Ulemas and staunch Sunnis sometimes the
Chief Sadr surpassed the authority of emperor. It annoyed Akbar to a
great extent and he curtailed the powers of the Chief Sadr after much
turmoil. He dismissed the corrupt religious officers who were found
guilt of taking bribes and exploiting the poor people.

Besides the above mentioned four significant post there were some
other important officers who looked after the work of central
government and helped in the smooth functioning of the government.

Khan-i-Saman :- This important officer was the head of the imperial

household. According to Manucci, “He had charge of the whole
expenditure of the royal household in reference to both great and small
things. All the personal staff of the emperor was under his control and he
also supervised the emperor’s daily expenditure. He also looked after
the wants of the women of the royal family and arranged royal feasts.
Generally this post was given to the most confident person of the
emperor.

Qazi-ul-Quzat :- Although the emperor was the head of justice, yet the
post of head of the justice department was given to the Qazi who was
assisted by Qazis in different provinces. Muftis were employed for the
interpretation of Islamic law but judgement in case of any dispute was
given by qazis. The qazis often misused their powers and took bribes.

Muhtasib :- He was an officer who looked after the moral

development of the people. His duty was to see that Muslims led their
lives according to principles of Islam and did not violate the canons laid
down by the Prophet. In case, any one acted against the principles of
Islam, it was the duty of Muhtasib to get him punished. This officer
generally walked in the town along with police or army men in order to
destroy the centers of liquor and gambling. During Aurangzeb’s regime,
the responsibility for breaking the temples was also given to him. He
also used to control markets and checked the weights and measures.

Other Ministers :- Besides the above mentioned significant ministers

there were some other ministers and officials who looked after the
central administration. Daroga-i-Dak Chauki was the Head of the spy
department. Daroga-i-Topkhana or Mir-i-Atish was in charge of royal
artillery. Mir-i-Bahr used to supervise the state boats and sea-flleets
whereas Mir-i-Dahr, was in charge of the forests, Mir in charge of
correspondence and Daroga-i-Taksal, in charge of the mint were
important central officers. Waqianavises and Khufianavises used to
make the king acquainted with the important officers of the empire from
time to time.

Thus, the central administration of the Mughals was well organized and
in spite of the supremacy of the emperor, the idea of welfare of the
people was always kept in mind before performing any act.

Provincial Administration
As the Mughal empire was quite vast, it was divided into several
provinces. Akbar divided his empire into fifteen provinces for the sake
of convenience which went on increasing during the reign of his
successors. The number of provinces reached twenty-one during the
regime of Aurangzeb. The provincial administration of the Mughals was
just like the central administration. Sir J. N. Sarkar observes, “The
administrative agency in the provinces of the Mughal Empire was an
exact miniature of that of the central government.”

The governor of the province was officially known as Nizam but he was
popularly called Subedar or Sipahsalar who held his court at the capital
of the province. Desides the Nizam, the subedar, the Diwan, the Bakhshi,
the Sadr, the Qazi, the Kotwal and the Waqianavis were the significant
officers in the province. Efficient bureaucracy also assisted these
provincial officers in the smooth running of administration. Akbar was a
diplomatic ruler, and in order to establish his control over provincial
officers he acted very wisely and established a balance of power
between Subedars and Diwans. Hence, neither of the two could dare
revolt against the emperor.

Subedar :- The Subedar was in charge of provincial administration and

had powers like those of king in the central administration. He was given
high mansab and big jagirs for the maintenance of his Prize position in
the province. His chief function was to maintain law and order in his
province, to assist the collection of revenue and to execute the imperial
farmans sent to him. Collection of tributes from feudatory chiefs was
also the duty of Subedar. He also looked after the construction of roads,
schools, hospitals, sarais, bridges and performed duties for the welfare
of the people. Appointment, promotion and dismissal of the provincial
employees were also his responsibility. The Subedar’s court was the
highest court of appeal in criminal cases within the province but he was
not empowered to award death punishments without the approval of the
emperor. His powers were controlled to some extent by the financial
powers of t he provincial Diwan.

Provincial Diwan :- He was the second significant officer of the

provinces whose posting was made by the imperial Diwan with the
consultation of the emperor. Both the Subedar and the Diwan kept
Zealous and strict watch over each other. The Diwan was not
subordinate to the Subedar. The Diwan often enjoyed better rank and
high mansab in comparison to Subedar. His chief function was the
collection of revenue and other taxes which he could do with the help of
Subedar as he had no military power. To enhance agriculture and to look
after the income and expenditure of the empire was also his duty. He
settled civil cases and sent the information regarding the financial
condition of the province to the central government every month.
Normally both these officers worked in perfect harmony as the powers
of the two were complementary to each other.
Bakhshi :- He was appointed by the Mir Bakhshi in consultation with
the central government. He was a subordinate of the Subedar who
assisted him in the maintenance of peace and the discharge of all his
executive duties. He held all the military powers such as recruitment and
training of soldiers and disbursement of their salaries. Construction and
repair of the fort was also one of his significant duties. Sometimes he
acted as a Wakiyanavis and in this capacity he used to send confidential
reports of the province to Mir Bakhshi.

Kotwal :- The Kotwal was the most important of the local officers. He
not only maintained law and order in the city but also looked after the
cleanliness and public works. As he had to deal with the rebels and
dacoits, he used to maintain a big contingent. Safety of roads and
inspection of weights and measures was also his responsibility. He also
kept a close eye on the activities of antisocial elements. Thus, Kotwal
was the most significant local officer during the Mughal period.

Wakiyanavis (News Reporter) :- This was a significant post. His

chief duty was to send regular reports to the governor regarding the
position of the province at his earliest convenience. In case he failed to
discharge his duties properly, he was penalized. Often discords emerged
between the Subedar and the Wakiyanavis; however, the post of
Wakiyanavis was quite important because, in case of maladministration,
it was his duty to inform the imperial government for taking action
against the irresponsible Subedar. Even his presence in the province set
everything right and government officers dared not neglect their duties.

Sadr :- In the beginning there was one post of Chief Sadr at the centre
but with the passage of time and extension of empire, Akbar created the
posts of provincial Sadrs. His chief aim in the creation of these posts was
to put a check on the rising power of the imperial Diwan. Generally, the
post of Sadr and Qazi was given to one person at provincial level and he
had to work under the subordinationof Chief Sadr and Chief Qazi. As
Sadr he looked after the activities of the Muslims and asked them to
follow the canons of Islam. He was also in charge of religious education
and distributed royal charities, but as Qazi he dispensed justice to the
provincial public. His recommendations for awards and grants to the
scholars and learned men at the provincial level were forwarded to chief
Sadr who finally awarded the grants.

Besides the above significant officers there were some other important
officers who looked after the provincial administration and helped the
governor in the smooth running of the provincial government. The post
of Kotwal in the province and his duties as municipal commissioner
helped a lot in the smooth functioning of the administration. Daroga-i-
Dak-Chauki and Mir Bahr also worked in some of the provinces and
discharged their duties efficiently.

Local Administration

As the bulk of empire was enormous, so Akbar, following the lines of

Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler, divided the provinces into a number of
districts, also known as Sarkars for the smooth running of the
administration. The following significant officers worked in these
Sarkars which numbered 105 during the regime of Akbar.

Faujdar :- In each district the Faujdar was an executive and military

officer whose chief duty was to maintain law and order in the district. He
used to keep close contact with the provincial Subedar and worked
according to his directions. Besides the establishment of peace, he had
the responsibility to get the orders of government enforced, to organize
the police and to help the revenue collectors in the discharge of their
duties effectively. He was appointed by the emperor but he worked
under the subordination of the provincial Subedar.

Besides the Faujdar, Amal-guzar (finance officer), Bitikehi (Amin),

Khazandar (treasurer), Kotwal and Qazi were important officers who
took active part in the administration of the Sarkars.

The Sarkars were further divided into Parganas and the following
significant officers were in charge of their administration.
In each Pargana, one Shiqdar (military officer and executive officer),
Amil (finance officer), Fotadar (treasurer), Qanungo (head of the village
Patwaris) and Karkuns (Clerks) worked for the smooth running of the
administration of Parganas.

The Kotwal looked after the administration of the city. He had many
privileges. He kept a close eye over the market, inspected the weights
and measures, maintained an account of roads and housed and looked
after the movement of the aliens who entered the city. He also got the
orders of the centre executed. He was held responsible in case of any
theft committed in his area and his failure of arrest the culprit.

The Mughal rulers did not pay attention to village administration. The
village panchayats were held responsible for looking after their security,
education and sanitation. These panchayats were also held responsible
for dispensing justice in their villages. Generally there was no
interference of centre or provincial administration in the administration
of villages but in case of emergency, the village panchayats were asked
to discharge their duties fully well.
 Judicial Administration

As the Muslim state was theocratic, the sultans of Delhi established

Islamic institutions and laws in India. They did not treat Hindus as first-
rate citizen and forced them to pay Jaziya like Zammies or protected
people. The Quran (the religious scripture), the Hadis (the traditions)
and Ijma (consensus of opinion) were the basis of their law and justice. It
proved useful to Muslims only. Hindus were treated improperly.
Although Hindus lived in a Muslim state yet they followed their own
personal law but in case of any dispute between the Hindus and the
Muslims, the latter were granted favour. Hence Justice during the Delhi
Sultanate was not dispensed equally to all people. But when the Mughals
ascended the throne, they tried to dispense justice to all equally. Akbar
was the first Mughal emperor who tried to establish a secular state in
India. He established political supremacy over the Ulemas.

The emperor was the highest authority in law and justice. Nobody could
challenge his authority but he alone could not administer justice
smoothly, so some officers were appointed to look after this work.t he
power and position of chief Qazi was next to the emperor and he used to
dispense justice in the capital. Qazis worked in various provinces, cities
and also in parganas. Cases pertaining to properly and religion were
decided by the provincial Qazis, Muftis; the interpreters of Islamic law,
often helped them in their work of justice. Diwan, Amalguzar, Amil etc.
dealt with revenue disputes but Subedars, Faujdars and Kotwals looked
after criminal cases and settled them. Some Hindu Pandits and Purohits
were also employed by Akbar so that the cases of Hindus be settled
according to their own laws. The village Panchayats was authorized to
settle disputes pertaining to their own village. But in matter of criminal
cases Islamic law was imposed on all subjects without distinction of
caste and creed. Dr. Ishwari Prasad mentions, “There were no
professional lawyers, trained in law and conversant with social usage
and regulations of the state and since the parties had to plead their case
I person, we may presume that justice was not always done to the simple
villager who was helpless against a rapacious official or an influential
opponent.”

All the Mughal emperors except Akbar settled their disputes according
to Islamic law. Akbar was the first Mughal who also paid attention
towards Hindu law and tradition before arriving at a final decision, but
after his death the system of secular justice came to an end and the later
Mughals began to work according to their own choice.

Kinds of Crime :- According to the Quran the crimes were divided

into three categories : (i) Crimes against God, (ii) State crimes, (iii)
Personal Crimes.

The crimes against God were unpardonable before law and the culprit
was sure to be punished for such crimes but in case of the remaining two
crimes mercy could be shown.

According to the Quran four types of punishment were prevalent : (i)

Hadd, (ii) Nazir, (iii) Kisas, and (iv) Tahshir. Hadd was awarded for
crimes against god which were unpardonable. The punishment which
was given to the criminal for mending his ways was called Nazir. For
such crimes sometimes the criminal was required to pay fine. He was
dragged on the threshold of the court of justice, condemned by the
people and also imprisoned, exiled, and thrashed by whip. Murder and
severe injury came into the category of Kisas. Sometime in case of
compromise the culprits saved their lives by paying heavy fines. But no
compromise was arrived at in some cases. The Qazi seeing the gravity of
the case was authorized to award capital punishment to the culprit. The
theory of ‘tooth for tooth’ and ‘eye for eye’ was also in vague during the
Mughal period.

The Mughal penal code was quite severe. Mutilation of limbs and
physical torture was awarded by the qazis with the consent of the
emperor only. As there was no specific punishment for treason,
misappropriation of imperial wealth and non-payment of revenue, so
the emperor was at liberty to use his own discretion in such crimes.
Generally the criminals were imprisoned for trivial offences.

Almost all the emperors of Mughal period paid attention to the

maintenance of law and imparted equal justice to all. Emperor Jahangir
was popularly known for his golden chain. Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
also heard the appeals of the exploited on Wednesdays. Akbar paid
special attention to the appointment of impartial judges. Akbar even
permitted his people to file a suit against him. Aurangzeb introduced a
lot of reforms in the field of law and justice and got a judicial book
Fatwa-i-Jahandari prepared so that the judges could perform their duty
properly well.

However the Mughal administration of Justice was not free from

shortcomings. Its following demerits throw light upon its improper
implementation.

1. The non-Muslims had to face several problems in the sphere of Justice

as the religious laws and civil laws were not separate.

2. The Qazis of the contemporary period were not persons of character.

They did not accept the ideals of justice. Almost all of them were greedy
and accepted gifts and bribes unhesitatingly. Some of them were even
not well-versed in laws and traditions, so they used to do whatever they
liked. Some of them worked only two or three days in a week and had
the courts at their residences. All this adversely affected justice.

3. There was acute shortage of judicial books in the country and the
judicial authorities could not be well acquainted with the rules.

4. Mutual relations among the different courts were not smooth and
their working and scope was not well arranged.
5. There was no proper system of evidence. It often led to arbitrary
decisions.
6.Punishments were very stern.

7. The Ulemas had majority in the department of justice and their

narrow outlook often affected the judgments.

8. There was no proper arrangement for detecting crimes.

9. Police and spies also had various defects. They often delivered wrong
information to imperial court and sometimes became party with
antisocial elements.

10. The employees of judicial department were paid scanty salaries,

hence they resorted to bribe and corruption.

11. The condition of prison s was unsatisfactory and the culprits had to
suffer a lot during imprisonment.

Akbar and Aurangzeb tried their best to overcome these difficulties but
they could not succeed in their mission. However, it has been regarded
as fairly successful, the credit of which goes to Akbar, the most
renowned ruler of the Mughal period. It provided peace, prosperity and
security to the subjects and the later rulers imitated it to a great extent.

Military Administration

The army was the hub of Mughal administration. The medieval age was
an epoch of extensive empires. It was the heartfelt desire of the rulers of
medieval period they should extend their empire as much as possible by
capturing the territories of the neighboring weak rulers. For this
purpose they needed a powerful and vast army. Moreover, the north-
west frontier of India was unsafe and foreign intruders invaded India
from there from time to time, hence it was also essential for the Mughals
to maintain a large army for the safety of the country. The rebellious
tribes in the country, such as Afghans, Rajputs, Uzbegs, Jats and
Marathas also created problems for the emperors, hence the need of a
powerful army was realized for crushing the revolts of these tribes
therefore, all the Mughal emperors from Babur to Aurangzeb paid their
utmost attention to the maintenance of a strong and powerful army.

Mansabdari System :- The Mughal army was based on the

Mansabdari system. Although the signs of Mansabdar system were
visible during the Sultanate period but Akbar gave it a scientific
structure. Normally Mansab means rank and honour, so the post of
Mansab can be said to be of a government officers who was paid salary
or Jagir according to his Mansab by the imperial treasury.

Method of Recruitment :- The emperor was in-charge of all

recruitment of imperial officers. He was at liberty to award any Mansab
to anybody with whom he was pleased. Promotion, degradation and
dismissal were also in the hands of the emperor. Akbar was an expert in
the selection of right persons and he often appointed efficient persons
direct to high Mansabs. Abul Fazl writes, “His Majesty sees through some
men at the first glance and confers upon them high ranks.” The devotion
and faithfulness of a Mansabdar contributed a lot to his promotion to the
high ranks.

Salary Structure :- Normally cash salaries were given to the

Mansabdars and they were paid very highly. In case, any Jagir was
awarded to some high rank officer it was not given to him permanently
and changes were introduced from time to time. The Mansabdar led a
luxurious life because even after meeting the expenditure, they saved a
lot of money from the amount they received from the imperial treasury.
A Mansabdar was paid a monthly salary of rupees 100, 82.5, and 75 to
the first, second and third category, respectively.
Different Categories of Soldiers :- Besides the Mansabdars and
their soldiers there were some more categories of soldiers who served
the Mughal empire earnestly.

Ahandi Soldiers :- They were the personal soldiers of the emperor.

Diwan and Bakhshi looked after their appointment, training and
discipline on behalf of the emperor. They were nicely paid from the
imperial treasury. The ordinary horseman was given as salary only
rupees twelve to fifteen per month but an Ahadi was paid up to rupees
five hundred per month.

Dakhili Soldiers :- They were also recruited on behalf of the emperor

but kept in the charge of Mansabdars and formed a part of Mughal army.

Mughal emperors had a powerful permanent army. According to

Blockmann, the army of Akbar consisted of 25,000 soldiers but it seems
to be a hypothesis and the truth must be very far from it. The following
were the significant units of the Mughal army which worked effectively
and won laurels for the Mughal emperors by extending their territory.

Cavalry :- During the Mughal period, the cavalry was divided into two
parts : (i) Bargir, and (ii) Siledar.

The Bargirs were the soldiers who received their arms and dresses from
the state and the siledars were those who possessed their own weapons
and horses. The horses used by the cavalry belonged to Turki, Tazi, Arbi,
Farsi, Muzanna, Yabu and Jongla breeds. As the cavalry was the best part
of the army, considerable attention was paid to it.

Infantry :- All the Mughal emperors paid attention towards the proper
upkeep of the infantry. The foot soldiers were mainly divided into two
categories, i.e. Bandukchi (riflemen) and Shamshirbaz (swordsmen).
Besides rifle and sword, the soldiers were expert in handling bows and
arrows and javelins etc. apart from the soldiers all workers who were
attached with the army, such as slaves sand water-carrier, were also
included in the infantry.

Elephants :- The Mughal rulers also maintained a number of war

elephants. During the reign of Akbar, they numbered about one
thousand but their number was about fifty thousand in the entire
Mughal empire. Elephants were used for multifarious purposes. Besides
fighting, these elephants were engaged as goods carriers also.

Artillery :- Artillery was equally a significant part of the Mughal army

Babur was the first Mughal ruler who made use of gunpowder. His
successors strengthened artillery later on. Mir-i-Atish was the officer in
charge of this branch. During the reign of Akbar the artillery was
improved a lot. Besides small guns he also got the big guns prepared.
The small guns could be carried on elephants or camels and used very
effectively on the battlefield as their direction could be changed easily
and immediately but the big guns were either wheeled or carried on big
wooden platforms. Dr. R.P Tripathi has aptly praised the artillery of
Akbar, “Excepting the Turkish artillery, Akbar’s was second to none in
Asia, for in Akbar’s time it had reached the high point of efficiency.”
About 12,000 mounted musketeers and a great number of
matchlockmen were included in his artillery which made it all the more
effective during the war.

Navy :- The Mughals did not pay attention to the development of naval
force before Akbar established his control over Gujarat. In the meantime
the Portuguese established their supremacy over the Indian seas and
they did not see eye to eye with those who devoted themselves to the
progress of navy. Akbar and his successors had strong land forces. The y
maintained only some small fleets of boats which in no way could be said
to be a powerful navy. The officer in charge of these boats was known as
Mir Bahr. His chief function was to prepare ferries and bridges for the
passage of the troops and local inhabitants. No doubt Akbar and his
officers were capable of maintaining powerful navy on the European
style but they did not suspect any danger from the sea-route, hence they
 remained negligent towards the formation of a powerful navy. The task
of the safety of the western coast was handed over to the sides of Janjira
by the Mughals only because they did not maintain an efficient navy.

During the reign of Akbar there was a department of Dag Mahali whose
chief function was to maintain a Huliya register for each soldier. He also
performed the duty of branding the horses and elephants. Besides the
mark of Mansabdar, the animal also had a special mark of the emperor.
It was properly done to avoid cheating by the Mansabdars. The emperor
used to inspect the army of each Mansabdar annually or once after three
years.

Revenue Administartion

Land revenue was the major source of the income.

• Akbar had instituted a system of Dahsala/Bandobast Arazi/the Zabti system. Under

which, the average produce of different crops and the average prices from the last
ten years were calculated. One-third of the average was the share of the state that
was mentioned in cash.
• Land revenue was fixed considering both, continuity and productivity of cultivation.
Polaj (land continually cultivated), parauti (fallow lands for an year) paid full prices
when under cultivation.
• After assessing land revenue in kind, value was converted into cash using price list
or dastur-ul-amal, prepared at regional level for various food crops.
• The empire was divided into numerous regions-dastur, at pargana level, that had
similar productivity. The government provided the dastur-ul-amal at tehsil level and
it explained the style of land revenue payment.
• Each cultivator got a title for land holding or patta and qubuliyat (deed of agreement
by which he pays state revenue).
• Various other assessment system were followed under Akbar’s reign
• The most common was called batai or ghallabakshi (crop-sharing) subdivided into
three parts (i) bhaoli -reaped and stacked crops divided in the presence of the
parties. (ii) khet batai –dividing fields after sowing.(iii)lang batai- division of grain
heaps.
• Kankut—In Kankut –measuring the land by Jrib or through pacing and estimating
standing crops by inspection.
• Nasaq—a rough calculation of payable amount by the peasant, keeping in minds his
past experience.

Mansabdari System
• The Mughal nobility or mansabdars looked after the administration of the state the
central authority of which lay with the Emperor, like the power of conferring,
increasing, decreasing the mansab. Frequent transfers of jagirs were made to
maintain insecurities among the Mansabdars.
• Mansab was the grant to enjoy a jagir given to every official. Jagir was the revenue
assignment as a substitute of a cash salary (not land) for services delivered.
• The mansabdar could collect revenue from his jagir through the Zamindars
collecting dues from cultivators.
• No hereditary claim could be made and on the death of a Mansab his personal
property taken by the State, of which the balance owed to state was deducted and
balance was returned to his heirs.
• Mansabs could be called to give duties in both military and civil spheres in any part
of the empire. They played a considerable role in the economic, social and cultural
life around them.
• The system promoted exploitation of people in the lower stature and created
selfishness, corruption.

Jagirdari System

• Under the reign of Akbar land was divided into two categories - Khalisa and Jagir.
Land revenue of Khalisa was directly for the royal treasury and Jagirs were allocated
to the Jagirdars according to their rank. Mansabdars receiving cash payment were
known as Naqdi.
• The jagirs were the assignment of revenue given to the Mansabdars and the
assignees were Jagirdars. This was similar to the Iqtas and the Iqtadars under Delhi
Sultans.
• There were four types of Jagirs – Jagir Tankha (given in lieu of pay), Mashrut Jagirs
(given on certain conditions), Inam Jagir (independent of any obligation) and Watan
Jagir (assigned in the homelands).
• The Revenue Department maintained a record Jama-Dami that indicated the
assessed income (jama) of various areas, indicated in dams, calculated as 40 dams to
a rupee.
• The Jagirs were transferable and no Jagirdar was given a same Jagir for a long time.
This system was to check the ability of Jagirdars to maintain a area and control the
exploitation or tyranny of Jagirdars.
 Module 2

Topic 1

Kakatiyas

The Kakatiyas, a known indigenous Andhra power, presided over the destiny of
Andhradesa from the 10th century AD to the first quarter of the 14th century AD.

Even today the memory of the Kakatiya rule is green in the minds and hearts of the
Andhrajati as the Kakatiyas shaped and moulded the identity of the Andhras by
establishing a unified political and cultural hegemony over the entire Telugu-
speaking region.

Like the rest of the political power structures, there is no unanimity among
historians regarding the origin and caste of the Kakatiyas.

The literary text Prataparudrayasobhushana of Vidyanatha records that this family

of rulers was called Kakatiyas as they were known to have worshipped the goddess
Kakati.

The Kakatiyas are also known as worshippers of Svayambhudeva, i.e., Siva. The
Bayyaram tank epigraph now definitely proves that Venna was the earliest member
of the family and he ruled from a town called Kakati and as such his descendants are
styled as Kakatiyas.

The epigraphs of the Kakatiyas refer to them as the lords of Kakatipura. On the basis
of these literary and epigraphical evidences, it can be suggested that Kakati was a
Pura or town and the family name Kakatiya might have been based on the original
connection of the family with that town. The epigraphs further state that the
Kakatiyas were originally of some Ratta or Rashtrakuta family and hence
Chaturdhakulajas or Sudras. The Kakatiyas claim that they belonged to the Durjaya
family whose very remote ancestor Karikalachola founded Kakatipura.

The first known historical personage among the Kakatiyas was Gundaya
Rashtrakuta. Gundaya is known from the Mangallu record of Danarnava. Gundaya,
the commander of Rashtrakuta Krishna II died in the battlefield fighting with the
Eastern Chalukyas. The Rastrakuta Krishna II rewarded Ereya, the son of Gundaya
with the governorship of the Korivi region for the loyal service rendered by Gundaya
and his family.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

During the 9th and 10th century, they were the subordinates of the Rashtrakutas.
After the overthrow of the Rashtrakuta power by the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani,
the Kakatiyas became their feudatories or Mahamandalesvaras under the Chalukyas
of Kalyani.

Kakatiya rulers Beta I, Prola I, Beta II and Prola II served the Western Chalukya
rulers; Somesvara I, Vikramadity VI, Somesvara III and Jagadekamalla II. After the
fall of the Western Chalukyan power during the reign of Tailapa III, the Kakatiya
ruler Rudradeva declared independence in AD 1158. Thus the role of the Kakatiyas
as sovereign power starts from Rudradeva. Rudradeva, who ruled form AD 1158 to
1195, was the son and successor of Prola II. He was the founder of the Kakatiya
lineage as he declared independence and started independent rule.

The Hanumakonda epigraph dated AD 1162 gives graphic details of his conquests
over his neighbours and how he extended his sway over coastal Andhra by subduing
the Velanaticholas. We learn from Jalhana’s Suktimuktavali and Hemadri’s
Vratakhanda, that Rudradeva faced defeat in the conflict with the Yadavas of
Devagiri. He is credited with laying foundation stone for a new fort near Warangal,
which became the capital of the Kakatiyas. As Rudradeva had no children, he was
succeeded to the throne by his brother Mahadeva, who ruled from AD 1195 to AD
1198-99.

Mahadeva was defeated by the Yadava Jaitugi and he lost his life in the battle and his
son Ganapatideva was captured as prisoner by the Yadavas. Political instability and
disorder gripped the Kakatiyas because of the captivity of Ganapati Deva and the
death of Mahadeva. At that juncture, Recharla Rudra, the loyal commander-in-chief
of the Kakatiyas saved the kingdom. Ultimately, Ganapatideva was released by the
Yadavas from prison and was sent to the Kakatiya kingdom. It is argued that political
pressures experienced by the Yadavas from other quarters were responsible for this
release of Ganapatideva.

ADVERTISEMENTS:
Ganapatideva ruled from AD 1199 to 1262. Though he faced defeat and failure
initially, in the end his reign forms a brilliant epoch in the history of the Kakatiya
rule. Ganapatideva expanded the Kakatiya territorial state by capturing coastal
Andhra by defeating the Velanati chief, Prithviswera and later he led an expedition
to Nellore and placed Manumasiddhi on the throne of Nellore. But Ganapatideva’s
efforts to bring Kalinga under his sway were not successful.

Ganapatideva in his attempt to safeguard Manumasiddhi against the attack of

Jatavarma Sundara Pandya was unsuccessful and Jatavarma Sundarapandya, after
defeating Manumasiddhi and Ganapathideva, performed Virabhishekha at Nellore
and Kanchi. Ganapatideva successfully united the entire Telugu-speaking people
under his sway and shifted his capital from Hanumankonda to Warangal.

As Ganapatideva had no male issue, his daughter Rudramadevi ruled from AD 1262
to 1289. Ganapatideva had two daughters; Rudrama and Ganapamba. He selected his
eldest daughter Rudrama to succeed him and made her his co-regent from AD 1260
to 1262 to enable her to gain experience in the art of rulership. The accession of
Rudrama to the Kakatiya throne was a remarkable and memorable event of
medieval South India as she was the first woman ruler of Andhra region.

Rudramadevi proved to be a woman of substance and rose to the occasion and put
the state in order, subduing all those who opposed her internally. She successfully
repulsed the Yadava attack and drove the Yadavas up to Devagiri as is known from
the Bidar epigraph. We come to know from the Chandupatla epigraph that Rudrama
and her general Mallikaijuna died in the battlefield while opposing Kayasta
Ambadeva, who defeated her. Rudrama was followed by daughter Mummadamba’s
son, Prataparudradeva, who ruled from AD 1289 to AD 1323.

Prataparudra defeated Kayashta Ambadeva and his allies and the Yadavas who
supported Ambadeva. By these victories, once again the prestige and glory of the
Kakatiyas was revived. It was during his reign that the Delhi Sultans, first Allauddin
Khilji and later Muhammad bin Tughlak turned their attention towards South India
and began to invade the Kakatiya territories. Finally, the Kakatiya power came to an
end in AD 1323, with the failure and defeat of Prataparudra by Muhammad bin
Tuglak’s armies. The Kakatiya rule came to an end with the defeat and death of
Prataparudra.
Polity:

The Kakatiya polity was based on monarchical system. The Kakatiya ruler was the
pivot of the entire administrative structure, yet he was not an absolute autocrat.
Generally, in the process of succession, they followed the law of primogeniture and
as already referred; a woman coming to the throne was a remarkable exception.

The power appears to be decentralized between the ruler and the subordinates who
owed allegiance to the ruler. P.V. Prabrahma Sastry rightly observes, “The peculiar
type of political relationship between the Kakatiya rulers and their subordinates
during the reign of nearly two centuries makes us believe that they tried to
introduce a new type of polity other than imperialism. The subordinates were
allowed to have their freedom in all respects except military matters. The only
concern for the king was to check their overgrowth in power”.

This made some scholars characterize Kakatiya polity as a feudal polity of

personalized rule by a warrior elite and a socio-economic formation marked by
oppression of the peasantry, economic stagnation and de-urbanization. But a critical
examination proves that this image was inappropriate in the case of Kakatiya
Andhradesa.

Another alternative model of segmentary state suggested by Burton Stein does not
appear to be applicable to the Kakatiya state. Cynthia Talbot maintains, “Stein
himself excluded internal Andhra from the South Indian macro region characterized
by the segmentary state and ritual sovereignty, calling Telengana, a shatter region
on the borders of South India proper”.

Cynthia Talbot, after a thorough discussion of the suitability of the models – feudal,
segmentary and integrative, declares the Kakatiya state as best understood as a
fluctuating political network composed in large part of a multitude of personalities
between lords and underlings. Some of the fibres in the fabric of Kakatiya polity
united the rulers directly to their primary subordinates, others led from these
subordinates to different tiers of associates in a densely ramified pattern.

Connections extended horizontally, integrating localities spread over a wide

territory, as well as vertically reaching down into villages and towns”. Cynthia Talbot
is of the view that the Kakatiya polity is closely approximating to Weber’s
patrimonial model of the State, i.e., personalized authority of a ruler through a class
of dependent officials. R. Champakalakshmi is of the view that Cynthia Talbot has no
specific model to offer for Andhra polity.

Talbot views the Kakatiya polity as a regional variant of a pan-Indian complex, a

dynamic and an expansionist world. There is also a view that Kakatiya polity is an
integrative polity. The Kakatiya rulers were assisted by a council of ministers and a
host of officers at the centre as well as the provincial and local level. They took care
to see that the territorial segments were properly divided and ruled effectively by
loyal officials. Mandala, Nadu, Sthala, Seema and Bhumi were the names of the
territorial divisions.

The Kakatiya state was a military-state ready to face the threat of internal and
external enemies. The military organization of the Kakatiyas was based on
Nayamkara system. In this system the ruler assigned fiefs to the Nayaks in lieu of
their salaries and the Nayaks were to maintain some army for the ruler’s use.

The number of soldiers, horses, and elephants that are to be maintained by the
Nayak were fixed by the king as per the fiefs enjoyed by the Nayak. Apart from the
army that was supplied by the Nayaks, the Kakatiyas also maintained a standing
army under the control of the commanders, who were directly responsible to the
ruler.

In the military organization, forts played crucial role and the epigraphs refer to
Giridurgas, like Anumakonda, Raichur, Gandikota and the Vanadurgas, like Kandur
and Narayanavanam, the Jaladurgas, like Divi and Kolanu and the Sthaladurgas, like
Warangal and Dharanikota. Nitisara of Prataparudra refers to the above mentioned
four types of Durgas.

The military organization enabled the Kakatiyas to be aggressive and rapidly expand
as an Andhra power from the core region or nuclear zone of Telangana to the coastal
districts and hence to Rayalaseema or South-West Andhra and to penetrate to the
Tamil region also. Talbot gives importance to the strategy adopted by the Kakatiyas
in patronizing warrior chiefs, and promoting martial ethos and assumption of
martial epithets by the rulers. The relationships between Nayaks and rulers are
marked by layers of lord-subordinate relationships loosely bound through personal
loyalties of allegiance and service.
Society:
Relying on the evidence furnished by the Dharmasastric literature, traditional
historians perceive the society as based on the Varnasramadharma model and
divided into fourfold Varnas; Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. We also notice
the emergence of sub-castes and Brahmins being divided on the basis of sub-regions
as Velanatis, Veginatis and Mulakanatis, besides Srotriyas and Niyogis. Interestingly,
the community of Brahmins besides being scholars and teachers also acted as
Dandanayakas or commanders and Amatyas or ministers.

Rulership was not the monopoly of the Kshatriyas alone and the prominence of the
Kshatriya community as rulers appears to have diminished to a large extent. Anyone
could become a ruler, provided he had the necessary qualities and abilities. One of
the prominent features of medieval Andhra was the emergence of Sudras as the new
political elite and the other social groups accepted the superiority of the Sudras as
rulers. Further, it is believed that kings made it their duty to uphold the Brahmanical
Dharma and took measures to see that each caste followed the duties assigned to it.

There is a strong belief that in medieval Andhra, the Brahmans occupied superior
place in social order and the social order itself depended on their dictates. Cynthia
Talbot rejects the image of a static village and a caste based organization during this
period as Varna and Jati are less visible in the Kakatiya lithic records and hence she
argues that the idealized paradigm of Varna and Jati are not relevant. Identities on
the basis of local, familial and occupational associations are highlighted and very
interestingly neither the ruling family nor the warrior elite claimed the superior
Varna status, to prove their high ancestry.

Instead, clan and lineage were taken as the greater signifiers of social status with
considerable divergence of status within the larger clan-Varna affiliation. Such claim
was made by the Brahmins in the epigraphs by referring to their Gotras or Sakhas
and Vama status only in situations of contention about power and resources.
Kakatiya lithic records hail the Sudras as the bravest of the four Varnas and also the
best. Cynthia Talbot is of the view that the individual eminence, military service and
administrative ranking were the main basis for identities, and claim to social
importance. Mobility in turn indicates social typologies.
Considerable social fluidity among all non-Brahmins and the existence of
occupational groups like merchants makes it too complex a situation for applying
any standard model for Kakatiya Andhra society. Temple epigraphs testify to the
practice of Saani being added to the women of the royal family and those attached to
the temple. Women made donations referring themselves as somebody’s wife or
daughter. That women had right to Stridhana and other forms of property is evident
as women comprise 11 per cent of all individual donors.

Epigraphs also record donation of livestock, temple buildings and metal items used
in ritual worship, along with irrigational facilities and cash. Interestingly, most of the
temple women or Gudisanis were daughters of respectable men like Nayakas and
Settis and temple women were not barred from marriage.

Cynthia Talbot is of the view that the condition of women in Kakatiya age was by no
means deplorable as was presumed by traditionalist observers basing their
conclusions on legal and epic literature. It can be concluded that multiplicity of social
foci existed in Kakatiya phase, wherein both kingship ties and territorial proximity
created linkages among people based on factors like military service, a common
sectarian membership or similar occupation.

Social rigidity was less noticeable due to dynamism and fluidity witnessed in social
relations. For example, the literary test Palanativirulakatha refers to the war and the
friends Balachandra from diverse backgrounds: a Brahmin, a blacksmith, a
goldsmith, a washer man, a potter, and a barber and all of them call themselves
‘brothers’ and dine together before going to battle. Merchants and artisan
association appear to be the largest category of collective donors known from the
epigraphs of the Kakatiyas. Social relationships appear to be based on common
interest and occupations rather than Vama and Jati as social identities were not
expressed in terms of Varna or Jati.

Economy:
Kakatiya epigraphs bear testimony to the economic development witnessed by
Andhradesa due to the cumulative effect of the steps taken by rulers and feudatories
and officials from AD 1158 to 1324. Both agriculture and trade and commerce,
particularly long distance trade acted as a catalyst in carrying the Kakatiya state and
making it economically sound.
Cynthia Talbot writes “During the Kakatiya era, inland Andhra economy underwent
considerable growth due to the extension of agriculture into uncultivated territories,
the boosting of agricultural productivity through the construction of irrigational
facilities and an overall rise in trade and commerce in which the temple as an
institution was ultimately intertwined”.

Though the core area of the Kakatiyas was ecologically in dry zone with scanty
rainfall, with soil not very fertile, the Kakatiyas paid much attention to agriculture,
the main occupation of majority of its population. They employed tank irrigation as a
necessary technique to provide water for cultivation.

In order to encourage more people to undertake the digging of tanks, wells and
canals, tank construction was made one of the Saptasantanas which confers merit.
Kakatiya epigraphs refer to more than 38 tanks of considerable size which provided
water through artificial channels to thousands of acres. Of all the tanks, the Ramappa
and the Pakala lakes are of large size and require special mention. Ramappa Lake
adjoins the well-known Ramappa temple at Palampet in Mulug taluk of Warangal
district. Gopal Reddy and P.V.P. Sastry state that this lake had a colossal bund only
one side that extends over 200 feet and rises up to 56 feet.

The lake has a ring of hills on three sides. Kakati Ganapati Deva’s Senapati, Recharla
Rudra constructed this lake in AD 1213. Pakala Lake in Narasampet taluk
ofWarangal district is larger than Ramappa Lake, with a dam composed of laterite
pebbles and earth that is one mile long from which 40 artificial channels have been
extended. This lake was also constructed in the time of Ganapati Deva by a
subordinate, Jagadala Mummadi, the son of a minister or Mantri.

The multitude of historical traces confirms that a boom in the building of tanks
occurred in inland Andhra while the Kakatiyas were ruling. The tank foundation
inscriptions are distributed throughout Telengana, the southern coastal districts,
and in Cuddapah of Rayalaseema. They are more concentrated in the districts of
Khammam and Warangal. Along with tank construction, we also notice the
construction of temples with a tank in the interior as well as addition of a tank to the
existing temples.

Cynthia Talbot observes the frequency of new temples is notably higher in the
Telangana than in coastal Andhra. The temple construction also led to the growth of
new settlements of people who brought uncultivated virgin land into cultivation. By
these processes of tank construction and temple construction, the Kakatiyas
achieved the twin objective of improving productivity by bringing new areas under
cultivation and also the formation of Andhra as a regional society, noted by Talbot.

Cultivable land was classified as wet and dry land. Wet land is further divided as
paddy growing land and garden land. Dry lands are those where crops like millet,
sesame, indigo, mustard, castor, etc., were grown which needed less water. Forests
and pastures were kept exclusively for grazing cattle. Land was surveyed and
measured, where the ruler collected one-fourth to one-half of the produce as
revenue. The revenue was collected either in cash or in kind. The Kakatiyas levied
different taxes like tax on grazing, property tax, income tax, profession tax, marriage
tax, tax on herds of sheep and tax on salt. Heavy taxation by the state appears to be
the feature of Kakatiya polity.

In the Kakatiya Andhra, trade was carried on by well-organized Srenis or guilds.

Both the merchants and artisans had their own guilds. Epigraphs refer to guild of
weavers, agriculturists, oil pressers, mat makers, smiths, potters and jewelers. The
guilds obtained a license to conduct business in a particular town or fair. Fairs or
weekly markets were held regularly at specified places. The merchandise was
transported by means of carts, oxen, horses, etc., and to a great extent by boats and
barges through the rivers Govadari and Krishna.

Kakatiyas recognized the importance of long distance trade. One indication that they
wanted to encourage maritime trade, comes from the famous Mompalli epigraph
which runs as follows: “This inscribed guarantee has been granted by his majesty the
king Ganapati Deva which assures and welcomes the traders from other areas going
back and forth through selected area to all countries and towns. In the past, kings
forcibly seized all the cargo such as gold, elephants, horses, jewels, etc., when sea-
going vessels journeying from one region to another were caught in storms, wrecked
and cast on shore. But we for the sake of our reputation and religious merit and out
of pity for those who have incurred the grave risk of a sea voyage thinking that
wealth is more valuable than life give up all but the customary tariff” Motupalli must
have been the chief port of the Kakatiyas and this port was visited by the Venitian
traveller, Marco Polo.
The Motupalli epigraph specifies the rates assessed on a variety of items, including
scents such as sandal, camphor, rose-water, ivory, pearls, corals, a range of metals
like copper, zinc and lead, silk, pepper, and areca nuts. This above list gives an idea
of exports and imports from Motupalli port to other Indian regions along the coast as
well to foreign territories.

One Warangal epigraph issued by merchant groups, who traded in the main markets
of Warangal, refers to the same commodities mentioned above. Another epigraph
notes that a number of agricultural products offered for sale in Warangal market
included rice, wheat, and other grains and assorted vegetables, coconuts, mangoes,
tamarind and other fruits, sesame seeds, green lentils, mustard, honey, ghee, oil,
turmeric and ginger.

We have epigraphic reference to the activities of Pekkandru, a guild which was

carrying on long distance trade. Besides, Motupalli, Krishnapattanam, Chinaganajam,
Nellore, and Divi also played a very crucial role in fostering sea-borne trade. Thus,
flourishing agriculture and surplus produce and long distance trade carried on by
guilds like Pekkandru was the base for the sound economic position of Kakatiya
Andhra.

Hoysalas

The Hoysala Empire (Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸ ಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾ ಜ್ಯ ) (pronunciation: [hojsəɭə

saːmraːdʒjə] (help·info) in Kannada) stood as a prominent South Indian empire that
ruled most of the modern day state of Karnataka between the tenth and the
fourteenth centuries. The capital of the empire initially resided at Belur, later
moving to Halebidu.

The Hoysala rulers originally lived as hill peoples of Malnad Karnataka, an elevated
region in the Western Ghats range. In the twelfth century, taking advantage of the
internecine warfare between the then ruling Western Chalukyas and Kalachuri
kingdoms, they annexed areas of present day Karnataka and the fertile areas north
of the Kaveri River delta in present day Tamil Nadu. By the thirteenth century, they
governed most of present-day Karnataka, parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of
western Andhra Pradesh in Deccan India.
The Hoysala era emerged as an important period in the development of art,
architecture, and religion in South India. The empire is remembered today primarily
for its temple architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples exist across
Karnataka, including the well known Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the
Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The
Hoysala rulers also patronized the fine arts. That patronage encouraged literature to
flourish in Kannada and Sanskrit.

History

The exact origins of the Hoysalas are unknown but they're believed to have come
from hill country somewhere in Karnataka, which is today a modern Indian state
located on the nation's west coast with the Arabian Sea. Karnataka was a region rich
in resources with a subtropical climate, rivers, valleys, and plateaus and attractive to
many peoples.
The Hoysala Dynasty, founded by Nripa Kama II, was a vassal state of the Chalukyas
in southern Karnataka. Eventually, the Hoysala Dynasty became strong enough
militarily that they were able to cut their ties to the Chalukyas and establish their
own empire. The first capital of the Hoysala Empire was Belur.
The Hoysala Empire had around 11 known kings. Many of these kings were either
practicing Jains or Hindus that had Jain advisors. Jainism is an ancient Indian
religion whose guiding principle is nonviolence and whose world perspective is that
all living things have an eternal soul and that the goal in life is to achieve
enlightenment and liberation of the soul from reincarnation. Here's a list of the
Hoysala Dynasty kings that ruled the Hoysala Empire.

Administration

The Hoysala administrative machinery had many similarities with that of the
Western Chalukya and Western Ganga Dynasties in matters of cabinet and command,
local governing bodies and division of territory into provinces and
districts.[1] Several of the major feudatories of the Hoysalas were Gavundas of the
peasant extraction.[2] Some historians state that in the highly centralised Hoysala
empire the king sought the advice of five major ministers (Pancha Pradhanas) while
others claim a higher number.[3] As the empire grew in the 13th century, the number
of ministers also grew with each having limited authority. Inscriptions mention
many names with responsibilities tied to such areas as foreign affairs
(Sandhivigrahi), treasurer (Mahabhandari or Hiranyabhandari), personal secretary
(Paramavishvasi), chief master of robes (Mahapasayita), justice (Dharmadhikari),
central register (Kaditha), and head of the State Secretariat (Srikaranadhikari). Some
ministers also oversaw clusters of departments (Sarvadhikari). Army commanders
were called Dandanayaka (or Senadhipati).

The kingdom was divided into provinces (Nadu and Vishayas).[4] Further division of
land was into Kampanas and Deshas. Under the caretaker commander were minister
(Mahapradhana), treasurer (Bhandari), clerk (Senabove) and junior officers
(Heggades). Feudatory families such as Alupas, Santharas, Chengalvas, Kongalvas,
Sindas were allowed to continue to govern their respective territories. The
Hoysalas minted gold coins with Kannada and Devanagari legends. King
Vishnuvardhana's coins had the legends "victor at Nolambavadi"
(Nolambavadigonda), "victor at Talakad" (Talakadugonda), "victor of the hills"
(Malaparolgonda).[5] Their gold coin was called Honnu or Gadyana and weighed
62 grains of gold. Pana or Hana was 1/10 of the Honnu. Haga was ¼th of
the Pana. Visa was ¼th of Haga. There were coins called Bele and Kani as well. Some
of these terms Hana, Bele are still used in Kannada language and mean "money" and
"cost" respectively.

The Garudas were the elite bodyguards of kings and queens. They were known
as lenkas (heroes) or jolavalis (indebted to the king for food) and velavalis (those
who stood by the king at all times). They served the king the way the mythical
eagle Garuda served Lord Vishnu and committed suicide upon the demise of their
master.[6] Hero stones (virgal) erected in memory of such heroes are called Garuda
pillars. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu depicts heroes
brandishing knives and others cutting their own heads. Kuvara Lakshma, a minister
and bodyguard of king Veera Ballala II took his own life and that of his wife and other
bodyguards upon the death of his master. The details of his loyalty are etched on this
inscription (Shasana).

Society

Hoysala society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political and cultural
developments of those times. During that period, the society became increasingly
sophisticated. The status of women varied. Some royal women became involved in
administrative matters as shown in contemporary records describing Queen
Umadevi's administration of Halebidu in the absence of Veera Ballala II during his
long military campaigns in northern territories. She also fought and defeated some
antagonistic feudal rebels.[49] Records describe the participation of women in the
fine arts, such as Queen Shantala Devi's skill in dance and music, and the twelfth
century Vachana poet and Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi's famed devotion to
the bhakti movement.[50] Temple dancers(Devadasi), well educated and
accomplished in the arts, commonly danced in the temples. Those qualifications gave
them more freedom than other urban and rural women restricted to daily mundane
tasks.[51] Hoysala practiced a voluntary form of sati pervasively, while
considering prostitution socially acceptable.[52] As in most of India, the institute of
the Indian caste system prevailed in Hoysala society.

Trade on the west coast brought many foreigners to India including Arabs, Jews,
Persians, Chinese and people from the Malay Peninsula.[53] Migration of people
within Southern India as a result of the expansion of the empire produced an influx
of new cultures and skills.[54] In South India, towns called Pattana or Pattanam and
the marketplace, Nagara or Nagaram, the marketplace served as the nuclei of a city.
Some towns such as Shravanabelagola developed from a religious settlement in the
seventh century to an important trading center by the twelfth century with the
arrival of rich traders, while towns like Belur attained the atmosphere of a regal city
when King Vishnuvardhana built the Chennakesava Temple there. Large temples
supported by royal patronage served religious, social, and judiciary purposes,
elevating the king to the level of "God on earth."

Temple building served a commercial as well as a religious function, open to all

Hindu sects. Shaiva merchants of Halebidu financed the construction of the
Hoysaleswara temple to compete with the Chennakesava temple built at Belur,
elevating Halebidu to an important city as well. Hoysala temples, although secular
encouraged pilgrims of all Hindu sects, the Kesava temple at Somanathapura being
an exception with strictly Vaishnava sculptural depictions.[55] Temples built by rich
landlords in rural areas fulfilled fiscal, political, cultural and religious needs of the
agrarian communities. Irrespective of patronage, large temples served as
establishments that provided employment to hundreds of people of various guilds
and professions sustaining local communities as Hindu temples began to take on the
shape of wealthy Buddhist monasteries.[56]

Economy

The Hoysala administration supported itself through revenues from an agrarian

economy.[23] The kings gave grants of land as rewards for service to beneficiaries
who then became landlords to tenants producing agricultural goods and forest
products. Two types of landlords (gavunda) existed; gavunda of people (praja
gavunda) lower in status than the wealthy lord of gavundas (prabhu
gavunda).[24] The highlands (malnad regions) with its temperate climate proved
suitable for raising cattle and the planting of orchards and spices. Paddy and corn
served as staple crops in the tropical plains (Bailnad). The Hoysalas collected taxes
on irrigation systems including tanks, reservoirs with sluices, canals and wells built
and maintained at the expense of local villagers. The state created irrigation tanks
such as Vishnusagara, Shantisagara, Ballalarayasagara at their expense.[25]

Importing horses for use as general transportation and in army cavalries of Indian
kingdoms became a flourishing business on the western seaboard.[26]
Hoysalas harvested the forests for rich woods such as teak, exporting through ports
located in the area of present day Kerela. Sung dynasty records from China mention
the presence of Indian merchants in ports of South China, indicating active trade
with overseas kingdoms.[27] South India exported textiles, spices, medicinal plants,
precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels, gold, ivory, rhino horn,
ebony, aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood, camphor and condiments to China, Dhofar,
Aden, and Siraf (the entryport
to Egypt, Arabia and Persia).[28] Architects (Vishwakarmas), sculptors, quarry
workers, goldsmiths and other skilled craftsmen whose trade directly or indirectly
related to temple construction also became prosperous due to the vigorous temple
building activities.[29][30]

The village assembly assumed responsibity for collecting government land taxes.
The government included land revenue, called Siddhaya, in the original
assessment (Kula) plus various cesses.[31] Professions, marriages, goods in transit on
chariots or carriages, and domesticated animals all had taxes levied on them. Village
records note taxes on commodities (gold, precious stones, perfumes, sandalwood,
ropes, yarn, housing, hearths, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses) as well as
produce (black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts,
sugar).[32] The village assembly could levy a tax for a specific purpose such as
construction of a water tank.

Yadavas

Yadavas - Background

• The earliest historical ruler of the Seuna/Yadava dynasty can be traced back to the
mid-9th century but little is known about their early history, their 12th-century
court poet Hemadri records the names of the family's early rulers.
• The territory of the early Yadava rulers was in present-day Maharashtra, and
several scholars have claimed that the dynasty had a "Maratha" origin.
• During this time, the Marathi language emerged as the dominant language in the
dynasty's inscriptions. Prior to this, the primary languages of their inscriptions were
Kannada and Sanskrit.
• Hemadri's traditional genealogy of the Yadavas traces their descent from Visnu, the
Creator and Yadu were his later descendants.
• The dynasty's first historically attested ruler is Dridhaprahara (860-880 AD), who
is credited with founding the city of Chandradityapura (modern Chandor). He was
a feudatory of Chalukyas.
• Bhillama ( 1175-1191 CE) was the first sovereign ruler of the Yadava dynasty in the
Deccan region.
• Bhillama forced Ballala to retreat around 1187, conquered the former Chalukya
capital Kalyani, and declared himself a sovereign ruler.
 • He then founded the city of Devagiri, which became the new Yadava capital.

Rulers of Yadavas

Bhillama (1173 - 1191 AD)

• Bhillama ( 1175-1191 CE) was the first sovereign ruler of India's Yadava (Seuna)
dynasty in the Deccan region.
• Bhillama’s father was Karna and grandfather was the Yadava ruler Mallugi.
• Around 1175 CE, he seized the Yadava throne, deposing his uncle's descendants and
a usurper.
• He ruled as a nominal vassal of the Chalukyas of Kalyani for the next decade,
raiding Gujarat's Chalukya and Paramara territories.
• After the Chalukya power fell, he declared sovereignty around 1187 CE and fought
with the Hoysala king Ballala II for control of the former Chalukya territory in
present-day Karnataka.
• He defeated Ballala in a battle at Soratur around 1189 CE, but Ballala defeated him
two years later.
• In 1190, he took over the Chalukya capital of Kalyani and established Devagiri (now
Daulatabad) as the Yadava dynasty's capital.
• Bhillama was referred to as "Chakravartin Yadava" in the Mutugi inscription from
1189-90 CE (1111 Shaka) records.
• He patronised the scholar Bhaskara, who was Nagarjuna's teacher.

Singhana II (1200-1246 AD)

• Singhana II (1200-1246 AD) was the most powerful ruler of the Yadavas.
• Singhana II was born in Sinnar in 1186.
• His mother was Bhagirathibai and his father was Jaitugidev.
• He was crowned as his father's heir in 1200, and later he was crowned again in
1210 to commemorate his conquest of the Hoysala territories.
• During his reign, the Yadava empire reached its pinnacle. Neither the Hoysalas, nor
the Kakatiyas, nor the Paramaras and Calukyas dared to challenge his Deccan
dominance.
• Singhana attacked and defeated each of these powers.
• Sarangadeva, the author of Sangita Ratnakar, worked as an accountant in Singhana
II's court.
• Sangeet Ratnakara is widely regarded as one of the most important works on
Hindustani and Classical music.
• Two famous astrologers, Cangadeva (established an astrological college)
and Anantadeva (wrote commentaries on Brahmagupta's Brahmasphutasiddhanta
and Varahamihira's Brhajjataka), flourished in Sinhana’s court.
• Singhana II was succeeded by his grandson Krishna.
Raja Ramchandrahbl (1291-1309 AD)

• Ramachandra was the Yadava ruler Krishna's son.

• Ramachandra was presumably quite young at the time of Krishna's death in 1260
CE, therefore his uncle (Krishna's brother) Mahadeva ascended the throne.
• After conducting a coup in the capital Devagiri, he usurped the throne from his
cousin Ammana and became the next monarch around 1270 CE.
• Ramachandra appears to have engaged in battles with his north-western
neighbours, the Vaghelas of Gurjara, during the northern war against
the Paramaras.
• He enlarged his empire by fighting the Paramaras, Hoysalas, Vaghelas and
Kakatiyas, all of whom were Hindus.
• He faced a Muslim invasion from the Delhi Sultanate in 1296 AD, and made peace by
promising to pay an annual tribute to Alauddin Khalji.
• In 1308 AD, Alauddin Khalji dispatched a force to Ramachandra, led by his
general Malik Kafur. Kafur's army overpowered Ramchandra’s army and
imprisoned him in Delhi.
• Ramachandra was a famous Shiva (maha-maheshvara) devotee who anointed eight
Shiva images "with the milk of his glory."

Administration of Yadavas

• The form of government was a hereditary monarchy. As the head of the

government, the monarch held the most significant position.
• Traditionally, the king's eldest son would ascend to the throne. With the support of
their ministers and feudatories, the Yadavas governed.
• There was a time when the Yadavas were themselves subject to other powers'
feudatories.
• Yadavas had a strong bureaucracy in place to support the administration. Aside
from that, there were spiritual constraints that kept the kings from becoming
tyrannical.
• King used to consult his ministers prior to issuing any land charter.
• Although the monarch is the most important member of the political body, ancient
political thinkers saw the Ministry or a council of advisers as a significant organ of
the state.
• The Yadavas appear to have a smaller ministry, with 5 or 7 members at times.
• In ministry, Mahapradhana was a powerful minister who was usually in charge of a
province or even a district.
• He was also referred to as the Mahapasyita, the king's great favourite, which
denotes that the king bestowed this title on someone deserving of the king's favour.
• He was entrusted with various administrative departments as a result of the king's
faith in him.
• Under the Yadava king, a number of Mahapradhanas were appointed at periods.
• The next famous administrators were Sainyadhipati and Dandanayakas.
• Though these two titles actually refer to an army officer, they are usually referred to
as civil administrators in inscriptions.
• Another individual mentioned frequently in the inscriptions was Rajaguru. He was
most likely the royal preceptor, counselling the monarch on religious matters.
• He was present at all religious and social occasions at the palace, including the
king's coronation. He commanded the king's admiration and devotion due to his
excellent academic and spiritual achievements.
• Another was the Amatya; the minister of revenue. The first mention of an Amatya
can be found in a Yadava record, which named Sri Vasudeva.
• The Amatya appears to have also served as an administrative official.
• Sayyapala was another court dignitary, appears to have had the king's trust and
was occasionally deputised for him when he was absent from the court.
• Raghav, the king's Sayyapala, is mentioned in a Ramtek inscription by
Ramachandra.
• Lakshmipati was the minister in charge of the treasury (Master of whole treasury).
This charge was occasionally held by the prime minister himself.
• The Yadava records occasionally mention a Sakala Karanadhipa, which was a Chief
Secretary's equivalent.
• The word kama has come to denote "administrative office" in most cases. As a result,
the Sakala Karanadhipa is in charge of all administrative departments.
• Mudraprabhu, the officer in charge of seals, Kusumarachanadhyaksha, the
superintendent of floral arrangements, the commander of hill forts, and the royal
hunter, are among the other royal officers of the court.
 Topic 3

Vijaynagar Empire

Its Foundation:
The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336 AD by Harihar I and his brother Bukka
Raya I in Deccan in the wake of the rebellions against Tughluq rule. The empire is
named after its capital city of Vijayanagar. The ruins of this city which surround
modern World Heritage site Hampi can be found in modern Karnataka, India.
Although the empire continued to exist till 1646 AD, it lost its importance in 1565 AD
after a key military defeat (The battle of Talikota) by the Deccan Sultanates.

The empire extended over the southern part of India which included the territories
of Trichinopally, Mysore, Kanara, Chingalpet and Kanchivaram . It was on the south
bank of Tungabhadra River.

The empire was always at war with Bahamani kingdom and other Muslim rulers of
northern Deccan, collectively referred as Deccan sultanates.
There were four dynasties which ruled over Vijayanagar- Sangama Dynasty, Saluva
Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Aravidu Dynasty.

Sangama Dynasty
It was the first dynasty to rule over the Vijaynagar empire. The founders of the
empire, Harihar I and Bukka belonged to this dynasty. It ruled from 1334 AD to 1485
AD.

Saluva Dynasty
This dynasty succeeded Sangama dynasty as the second dynasty of the empire. It
ruled from 1485 to 1505 AD. They ruled over almost the whole South India.

Tuluva Dynasty
This was the third dynasty which ruled Vijayanagar Empire. It ruled from Tuluva
dynasty. The most famous king of Vijayanagar empire, Krishna Deva Raya belonged
to this dynasty. It ruled from 1491 AD to 1570 AD.

Aravidu Dynasty
It was the fourth and last Hindu dynasty to rule Vijayanagar kingdom in South India.

Central Polity and administration

The Vijayanagara rulers built a vast territorial state apparatus by conquests and
expansion, consolidation and integration of the different regions comprising
different languages and cultures by an effective administrative system.
Monarchical form of government was no doubt the order of the day. They followed a
policy of benevolent and kind despotism and the king was never an autocrat.

Krishnadevaraya, in his Amuktarmlyada, describes vividly the 'do's and don'ts' of a

ruler, who is interested in the welfare of his subjects.

In a nutshell, the philosophy of a ruler should be that “with great care and
according to power of the King should attend to the work of protecting (the good)
and punishing (the wicked) without neglecting anything that you can see or hear”.

The king is to be the source of all power. His authority is supreme in all matters
pertaining to the interests of the state. The king should follow the injunctions of the
Dharmasastras.

The king should take the assistance of skilled personnel in matters of
administration. The king should utilize the wealth of the state for the economic uplift
of the people inhabiting the kingdom.

The king should not impose too many taxes and make the people miserable but
should levy moderate taxes.

He should employ force through a strong and efficient military and maintain peace
and order in the state, driving away the external and the internal enemies of the
state.

The king should be dependent on Brahmanical order as the strength and security
of the kingdom depended on the successful maintenance of Brahmanical Dharma.

The king was assisted by a Mantrimandali or council of ministers. There was no
clear-cut demarcation between civil and military assignments.

The ministers were appointed from the Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya
communities. Rarely was the post of the minister hereditary.

The Prime Minster occupied a very important position in the council of ministers.
We have references to the officers like the Chief Treasurer, custodian of jewels and
the Prefect of police.

A dark feature to be noted is the rampant corruption prevailing in the

administrative set-up at the higher levels in particular. For administrative
convenience, the kingdom was divided into Rajyas or Mandalams or provinces below
which were Nadu (district), Sthala (sub-district) and Grama or village.

During this period, it is believed that the Chola tradition of village selfgovernment
was considerably weakened.
 Provincial Administration

This is an important feature of the Vijayanagara provincial organization. The term

Nayankara is an abbreviation of Atmranayankara composed of three words; Amara,
Nayaka and Kara.

Amara literally stands for a command of a thousand foot soldiers. Nayaka stands
for the military-chief who held land for the king. Kara probably means an office.

The term Amaranayankara may be taken to refer to a military chief who was
granted land, yielding fixed revenue for the sovereign.

This system of Nayankara is not a new phenomenon. It existed during the Kakatiya
period under the same name and was called Iqta during the Delhi Sultanate period
and Munsabdari system of the Mughals.

The Nayaka and the provincial governor's role appear to be different and neither of
them enjoyed the same level of autonomy.

The Nayakas had to maintain two agents, one military and the other civil
representing his interests at the capital city.

Nayaka appears to be military vassal who has to render military and financial
assistance to the king. The office of Nayaka was not transferable from one person to
another person.

The Sanskrit term nayaka is a very ancient one denoting a person of prominence
and leadership, especially military leadership. Great and small warriors, nayakas,
are presented as the key political figures in the VN state.

The nayaka was a holder of the amaram tenure, which was a land assignment.
These were rights over the land and not simply revenue collection.

Therefore, the nayaka was also responsible for cultivation, clearing of forests etc.
Amaram tenures were given for military service to the nayakas or amaranayakas.
They had to provide a military contingent and send a fixed tribute to the king, which
could be in the form of a gift or a share in the revenue.

The state did not interfere in the internal functioning of the nayaka and they were
not subject to transfers, as long as they continued to pay their tribute.
 Military Administration

The Vijayanagara Military backed the Vijayanagara Empire, particularly during the
empire's long-running rivalry with the Bahmani Sultanate. The Vijayanagara rulers had
a strong navy in addition to a large standing army. This contributed to the Viayanagara
empire becoming the most centralized polity to emerge in South India. However, a large
portion of the imperial income was dedicated to military purposes, putting a strain on the
economy.

Army and Military Organization - Features

• It was necessary to maintain a large army in order to wage continuous warfare.
Artillery was important, and well-bred horses were kept in good condition.
• The Vijayanagar rulers imported high-quality horses from Arabia and other Gulf
countries across the Arabian Sea.
• The port of Malabar was the epicentre of this and other luxury commodity trade.
The Vijayanagar rulers were always trying to gain control of the Malabar port.
• The Vijayanagar state, like the Bahamanis, was familiar with the use of firearms and
hired Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of
warfare.
• Deva Raya II, one of the rayas, enlisted Muslims in his armed forces, assigned them
jagirs, and built a mosque for their use in the city.
• Such new warfare techniques revolutionised the warfare. To counter firearms, fort
walls were thickened, and special types of doors with fortified walls in front were
built.
• Special types of large holes were made in the fort walls to rest the guns. Special
types of parapets were built on the forts to house the canons.
• There were various types of firearms used. Some firearms were small, such as rifles
and pistols.
• Some items, such as canons, were too heavy to be carried into battle on a bullock
cart or an elephant.

Army and Military Organization - Composition

• The Vijayanagara army was primarily made up of infantry, cavalry, and war
elephants who were armed with bows and arrows, swords, and lances as their
primary weapons.
• According to Ferishta, the foot soldiers wore oil on their bodies but no armour or
helmets, whereas Portuguese travellers such as Pace and Barros described
protective clothing made of animal skin and shields.
• Although the Vijayanagran kings had little interest in guns, the infantry did have a
matchlock regiment.
• They also built a navy on the west coast, led by the governor of Hanover Timmoju
during Krishna Deva Raya, and which, according to Heeras Rayala, assisted the
Portuguese in their occupation of Goa.
 • The Vijayanagara rulers were able to repeatedly invade Sri Lanka thanks to their
powerful navy.

Strength of Army
Strength of Army
• The Vijayanagara army's numerical strength is debatable.
• During the reign of Krishna Deva Raya, Niccol de' Conti estimated a figure of
245,000 troops, whereas Fernao Nuniz stated it was closer to 200,000, including
170,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, and 550 war elephants.
• The force, Rayawacha retorted, had 500,000 foot men, 60,000 cavalry, and 1,200
war elephants.
• Deva Raya II is said to have enlisted 2000 Muslim cavalrymen to teach the technique
of archery to his Hindu soldiers and officers in order to oppose the superior
Bahmani cavalry.

Administration
Administration of Army in Vijayanagara Kingdom
• The amaranayaka system was a key feature of the Vijayanagar administration. The
Vijayanagar army commander was known as the nayaka in this system. Each nayaka
was assigned an administrative area.
• The nayaka was in charge of expanding agricultural activities in his area. He
collected taxes in his area and used the money to maintain his army, horses,
elephants, and weapons of war that he had to supply to the raya of Vijayanagar
rulers.
• Nayaka was also the commander of the forts. Some of the revenue was also used to
maintain temples and irrigation systems.
• The amara-nayakas paid annual tribute to the king and personally appeared in the
royal court with gifts to express their devotion.
• Several of these nayakas became independent and established separate states in the
seventeenth century. The feudal Nayankaras used to keep their own troops,
elephants, and soldiers.
• They were a powerful section that challenged Vijayanagar authority, weakened its
internal structures, and contributed to Vijayanagar defeat at Talikota.

Conclusion
Conclusion
Military was regarded as the bedrock of empires and large kingdoms, and no empire could
extend or maintain its stability and boundaries without proportionate advancement of the
armed forces. The challenges that faced the Vijayanagara Empire at the time, as well as the
empire's size, created a one-of-a-kind situation that required a vast and powerful army and
military system to sustain its stability and maintain its borders.
 Judicial Administration

The sources of Hindu law are the Vedas, the Smritis or Dharmasastras,
commentaries and digests, and customs. A large number of commentaries were
written by scholars and statesmen under the patronage of the rulers. These law
books were standard works of reference in the various courts.

Some of the most important of them were Mitakshara by Vijnaneswara, Chaturvarga

Chintamani by Hemadri, Dharmasutra of Apastamba by Haradalla, Aparaka-
Yajnavalkya-Dharmasastra-Nibandha by Apararka, Smriti Chandrika by Devanna
Bhatta, besides Madhavacharya’s commentary on Parasarasmriti and Prataprudra’s
Saraswati Vilasa.

The work of these eminent jurists formed the basis of the law administered in the
Vijayanagar kingdom.

Contemporary sources do not throw much light on the judicial organizations in

Vijayanagar. The king was no doubt the highest court of appeal. But he could not
afford to hear all the cases. There was an officer called dandanayaka who heard
important cases.

But pradhani was overall in charge of administration of justice and may be called the
chief justice. He would, however, bring important cases to the notice of king who
sometimes received the complaints from his people direct.

There were courts in the provinces which were presided over by king’s agents or
governors. Besides, these regular official courts, there were popular courts which
could decide cases in their jurisdiction. Among them we may mention the village
caste courts, presided over by caste elders, courts presided over by temple trustees,
and courts of the guilds presided over by their leading men.

Civil cases were usually decided by these courts but appeal could be made to the
royal courts of justice. Even criminal cases could be tried by these courts. At some
places even some local residents were allowed to try criminal cases. But in all such
cases, the appeal could be made to the king.

Punishments were very severe and even for a minor offence of theft, the hands or the
feet of the culprit were chopped off. Nobles who became traitors were impaled alive
on a stock thrust through the belly. Even for minor offences, the head of the guilty
persons were cut off in the market place.

Some criminals were thrown before the elephants who tore them of pieces. The
punishments were thus very harsh as it was considered necessary to eradicate evil
and serve as a deterrent to others. Krishnadevaraya was, however, considerate. He
observed: “In the matter of people sentenced to death, give them the chance to
appeal thrice (for mercy).

But in the case of those people whose escape might bring on a calamity to yourself,
immediate execution is advisable”. Whenever there was any necessity for human
sacrifice, and condemned criminals were executed.

These severe punishments had the desired effect and the traveller Durate Barbosa
observes: “Great equity and justice is observed to all not only by the rulers but by the
people one to another.” Brahmans had been given the immunity from capital
punishment. In certain cases, punishment by ordeal was resorted to.

In complicated cases where it was found difficult to decide the case due to the
paucity of evidence, divine help was sought. “If a person who underwent the ordeal
came out successfully, he was considered to have won the case.”

Answer in short:
The legal treatise of the Vijayanagar Empire was formulated by Saint Vidhyaranya.
Based on it, the Judicial system of the Vijayanagar Empire functioned well not only in
the Imperial and provincial level especially in Tamil Country. It outlines the
punishments needed to be given to every type of crimes committed by law breakers.
It lays down the governing principles to administer justice all throughout the
Empire. The Empire was also administered on the basis of Hindu dharmasastras.
Vedas were the main sources of the prevailing law. Dharmasastras were based on the
Vedas but they were mere codifications of the customary laws of the land. It is
believed that the Hindu law was not made by man but the legacy of the God and that
man could not either alter or remove them. The state, which was the repository of all
sovereign power, had only to enforce the laws to prevent crimes at major or minor
level. Punishments were strictly adhered to prevent the recurrence of crimes. The
crimes against the State was dealt with deadly punishment. Appeals are allowed to
minor crime doers. The main aim of the punishment was to establish law and order.
Provincial level and local level judicial courts functioned well in the Tamil Country
under Vijayanagar Rule.

Single Answer for whole topic:

Administrative System during Vijaynagar Period

Administrative System during Vijaynagar Period

• The Vijaynagar empire was founded on well established traditions

and principles.

King:

• He was a typical oriental despot with ultimate authority in civil,

military and judicial matters, albeit he was a benevolent despot ruling
according to Varnashrama. Administrative System during
Vijaynagar Period

Central Administration:

• The Vijaynagar rulers were aided and advised in the discharge of their
royal functions by a council of ministers, who were nominees of the
crown and held office at the pleasure of the king.
• The functions of the court were purely advisory in nature.Nuniz and
Abdur Razzak attest to the existence of Secretariat.
Provincial Administration:

• The empire was divided into various provinces called mandals which
were miniature replicas of the central administration.
• The mandals were headed by Nayaks who exercised all civil, military
and judicial powers in their jurisdiction.
• There were about 200 Nayaks also called Mandalsvares. They were
paid salary in the form of land assignments and allowed to maintain
an army and expected to help the central authority in times of war.
• The mandalas were further subdivided into nadus (district) and
nadus were in turn divided into various villages. Administrative
System during Vijaynagar Period

Local Administration:

• At the local level, village was the unit of administration. Self-

government as existed during the time of Cholas weakened and
professional classes known asAyagars (there were 12 of them ) took
control of the village, the most prominent among them were Reddy
(the chief farmer), Karnam (the clerk) and Jalari (the chief watchman
of village).

Revenue Administration:

• The chief source of state income was land revenue which varied from
1/3 rd to 1/2 and was collected in both cash and kind.
• According to Abudr Razzaq, even courtesans were taxed and the total
tax of 12,000 panas used to pay the salaries of the policemen.
Kaikkolas, a class of weavers were exempt from taxation.

Judicial Administration:
 • King was fountainhead of justice based on brahmanical traditions.He
presided over the Sabha, the highest court of appeal.
• There was a regular hierarchy of courts. The state officials at time
settled disputes with help of local bodies.

Military Administration:

• It was feudal in character. Abdur Razzak says that the city of

Vijaynagar had seven fortified walls. King was the supreme
commander of the armed forces. Administrative System during
Vijaynagar Period
• The military department was under the control of Dandnayaka or
commander in chief. Infantry was recruited from various classes and
religions including muslims.
• Cavalry was the most important wing and horses were imported from
Hormuz through the Portuguese. Artillery was in the hands of foreign
soldiers.
• Elephants and camels also played their part. The central army was
paid in cash.

Topic 4

The Western Chalukyas

Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Western Chalukya Empire rose to
power. They ruled the majority of the western Deccan region of South India. This
Kannadiga line is also known as the Kalyani Chalukya after its magnificent capital at
Kalyani. During the reign of Vikramaditya VI, in the late 11th and early 12th
centuries, the Western Chalukyas were successful against the Cholas, reaching a
peak of dominance over most of the Deccan, between the Narmada River in the north
and the Kaveri River in the south.

Western Chalukyas - Background

• The Western Chalukya Empire is also known as the Kalyani Chalukya Empire.
• After Dantidurga destroyed the Chalukyas of Badami, they resurrected two
centuries later, around 972-73AD.
 • This was known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani and is said to have the same
ancestry as the previous mighty Chalukyas (though this is disputed).
• Tailapa-II, who was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta, established this dynasty.
• For 200 years, they were at odds with the Cholas as well as the eastern
Chalukyas of Vengi.
• The two empires of Southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the Chola
dynasty of Tanjore, fought many bloody battles for control of the fertile Vengi
region.
• The other major Deccan ruling families, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of
Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty, and the Southern Kalachuris of Kalyani, were
subordinates to the Western Chalukyas during this period.
• They gained independence only when the Chalukyas' power waned in the
latter half of the 12th century.
• In the 12th century, the Hoysala Empire finally destroyed them.
• This empire made significant contributions to modern Kannada and
Sanskrit literature.

Important Rulers of Western Chalukyas

Tailapa II

• Tailapa-II was the founder of Western Chalukyas, he was one of the Rastrakutas'
feudatories.
• Tailapa reigned for 24 years and was able to reclaim his race's ancient territory, with the
exception of the Gujarat region.
• He supported Ranna, a Kannada poet who was among the first to write in the Kannada
language.
• Ranna, Adikavi Pampa, and Sri Ponna are regarded as Kannada literature's "three
gems."
• Tailapa II spent the majority of his time-fighting Munja, the Paramara king of Dhara.
• Munja was eventually captured and most likely killed in captivity. This occurred in 995
AD.
• Tailapa died two years later, and his throne was passed down to his son Satyasraya.

Satyasraya

• Satyasraya's reign lasted from 997 to 1008 AD.

• To begin with, he followed his father's aggressive policy and was at odds with
the Eastern Chalukyas and Cholas.
• His 11-year reign was disrupted by a war with the great Chola Rajaraja-I, who overran
the Chalukya country and looted and killed a large number of men, women, and children.

Someshwara I

• Someshwara I, also known as Ahavamalla or Trilokamalla, ruled from 1042 to 1068

AD.
• Someshwara I established Kalyani as its capital.
 • He was attacked by Rajadhiraja I of Chola dynasty, who overran the Chalukyan capital
and demolished the forts and erected pillars as a memento of the victories, but a
Chalukyan counterattack forced them out.
• The Chalukya army raided the Chola capital Kanchipuram under Someshwara-I, but was
repelled back.
• Rajadhiraja Chola was finally killed in the battle of Koppam. His younger brother,
however, took command and drove the Chalukyas back.
• Brother of Someshwara was killed in this attack. Someshwara I's reign is remembered
for numerous wars.

Vikramaditya VI

• Vikramaditya VI ascended to the throne in 1076 AD, ushering in the Chalukya-Vikram

era.
• Vikramaditya VI was one of the Western Chalukyan Empire's most capable rulers.
• He is the hero of a historical poem (Vikramankadevacharita) by Bilhana, a Kashmir
poet, and reigned in tolerable peace for about a half-century.
• Vikramaditya VI captured Kanchi in his career and engaged in serious battles with
Vishnu, the Hoysala King of Dorsamudra.
• During the reign of Vikramaditya VI, a celebrated jurist from the 12th century named
Vijnevara lived in the capital Kalyani.
• Vijnevara wrote a treatise on inheritance that is considered to be one of the most
influential legal treatises in Hindu law outside of Bengal.

Administration
Administration of Western Chalukyas
• The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary but If the king did not have a male heir
then the kingship passed to the king's brother.
• The administration was highly decentralised, and feudatory clans such as the Alupas,
Hoysalas, Kakatiya, Seuna, southern Kalachuri, and others were permitted to rule their
autonomous provinces while paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor.
• Titles such as Mahapradhana (Chief Minister), Sandhivigrahika,
and Dharmadhikari (chief justice) were taken up.
• The kingdom was divided into provinces such as Banavasi-12000, Nolambavadi-32000,
and Gangavadi-96000, with each name indicating the number of villages under its
control.
• The large provinces were known as Mandalas, under which there were Nadu, and Nadu
was further subdivided into Kampanas (groups of villages) and finally a Bada (village).
• Women from the royal family were also in charge of Nadus and Kampanas.

Religion
Religion of Western Chalukyas
• Western Chalukyas were the followers of Virashaivism.
• Virashaivism, also known as Lingayatism, is a Hindu sect based on Shaivism.
• The rise of Virashaivism in Chalukya territory coincided with a general decline in interest
in Jainism, though Chalukyas remained religiously tolerant.
 • With the spread of Adi Shankara's Advaita philosophy in the 8th century, the decline of
Buddhism in South India began.
• During the Western Chalukya rule, the only places of Buddhist worship that remained
were Dambal and Balligavi.
• There is no mention of religious conflict in the period's writings and inscriptions, implying
that the religious transition was smooth.

Literature
Literature During Western Chalukyas
• The Western Chalukya period saw a lot of literary activity in Kannada and Sanskrit.
• This is a golden age of Kannada literature. Jain scholars wrote about the lives of
Tirthankaras, and Virashaiva poets expressed their devotion to God in short poems
called Vachanas.
• Almost 300 contemporary Vachanakaras (Vachana poets), including thirty women
poets, have been documented during this time.
• Early works by Brahmin writers focused on the epics Ramayana, Mahabharata,
Bhagavata, Puranas, and Vedas.
• Ranna, grammarian Nagavarma II, minister Durgasimha, and the Virashaiva
saint and social reformer Basavanna were among the most notable Kannada scholars.
• Ranna, who was patronised by King Tailapa II and Satyashraya, is one of Kannada
literature's "three gems."

Conclusion
Conclusion
Western Chalukya empire ruled over the majority of the western Deccan region of South
India. It was founded by Tailapa-II, a Rastrakutas feudatory. During the reign of
Vikramaditya VI, Western Chalukyas were at their peak and controlled most of the
Deccan region. They were the followers of Virashaivism and this period is considered as
the golden age of Kannada literature. The 12th century marked the end of this dynasty
when the Hoysala empire destroyed them.