Supercharger

In an internal combustion engine, a supercharger

compresses the intake gas, forcing more air into the engine
in order to produce more power for a given displacement.

The current categorisation is that a supercharger is a form

of forced induction that is mechanically powered (usually
by a belt from the engine's crankshaft), as opposed to a
turbocharger, which is powered by the kinetic energy of the
exhaust gasses.[1] However, up until the mid-20th century,
a turbocharger was called a "turbosupercharger" and was
considered a type of supercharger.[2]

The first supercharged engine was built in 1878,[3] with

usage in aircraft engines beginning in the 1910s and usage A supercharger (item 6) on a piston engine
in car engines beginning in the 1920s. In piston engines
used by aircraft, supercharging was often used to
compensate for the lower air density at high altitudes.
Supercharging is less commonly used in the 21st century, as
manufacturers have shifted to turbochargers to reduce fuel
consumption and/or increase power outputs.

Design
Engine displacement is the measure
Types of the cylinder volume swept by all of
the pistons of a piston engine, excluding
There are two main families of superchargers defined Roots-type supercharger
the combustion chambers. (right) on
It a 2006
is
according to the method of gas transfer: positive GM Ecotec LSJ four-cylinder
commonly used as an expression of an engine
displacement and dynamic superchargers. Positive engine's size, and by extension as a loose
displacement superchargers deliver an almost constant indicator of the power an engine might
level of boost pressure increase at all engine speeds (RPM), while dynamic
be capable superchargers
of producing and the amountcause the
boost pressure to rise exponentially with RPM (above a certain RPM threshold). [4] Another family of
of fuel it should be expected to consume.
supercharger, albeit rarely used, is the pressure wave supercharger.
For this reason displacement is one of
the measures often used in advertising,
Roots blowers (a positive displacement design) tend to be asonly
well40–50% efficient
as regulating, at high
motor boost levels,
vehicles.
compared with 70-85% for dynamic superchargers. Lysholm-style blowers (a rotary-screw design)
can be nearly as efficient as dynamic superchargers over a narrow range of load/speed/boost, for
which the system must be specifically designed.

Positive displacement

Positive displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution of the compressor
(except for leakage, which typically has a reduced effect at higher engine speeds). The most common
type of positive-displacement superchargers is the Roots-type supercharger. Other types include the
rotary-screw, sliding vane and scroll-type superchargers.
The rating system for positive-displacement superchargers is
usually based on their capacity per revolution. In the case of the
Roots blower, the GMC rating pattern is typical. The GMC rating
is based on how many two-stroke cylinders - and the size of those
cylinders - that it is designed to scavenge, with GMC's model
range including 2–71, 3–71, 4–71 and 6–71 blowers. The 6–71
blower, for example, is designed to scavenge six cylinders of
71  cu  in (1.2  L) each, resulting in an engine with a total
displacement of 426 cu in (7.0 L)). However, because 6–71 is the
engine's designation rather than that of the blower, the actual
displacement of the blower is less; for example, a 6–71 blower
pumps 339  cu  in (5.6  L) per revolution. Other supercharger
manufacturers have produced blowers rated up to 16–71. Internals of a rotary-screw (Lysholm)
supercharger

Dynamic

Dynamic compressors rely on accelerating the air to high speed and then exchanging that velocity for
pressure by diffusing or slowing it down.

Major types of a dynamic compressor are:

Centrifugal[5]
Multi-stage axial-flow

Drive system

Common methods of driving a supercharger include:

Belt (V-belt, synchronous belt, flat belt)

Direct drive
Gear drive
Chain drive
Variable speed ratio, variable ratio centrifugal
Electric superchargers use an electric motor rather than a mechanical power source.

Effects of fuel octane rating

Fuels with a higher octane rating are better able to resist auto ignition and detonation. As a result,
the amount of boost supplied by the superchargers could be increased, resulting in an increase in
engine output. The development of 100-octane aviation fuel, pioneered in the USA in the 1930s,
enabled the use of higher boost pressures to be used on high-performance aviation engines and was
used to vastly increase the power output for several speed record airplanes.

Military use of high-octane fuels began in early 1940 when 100-octane fuel was delivered to the
British Royal Air Force fighting in World War II.[6] The German Luftwaffe also had supplies of a
similar fuel.[7][8] Increasing the octane rating became a major focus of aero engine development for
the remainder of the war, with later fuels having up to a nominal 150-octane rating. Using such fuels,
aero engines like the Rolls-Royce Merlin 66 and Daimler-Benz DB 605 DC produced power outputs
of up to 2,000 hp (1,500 kW).[9][10][11][12]

Heating of intake air

One disadvantage of forced induction (i.e. supercharging or turbocharging) is that compressing the
intake air increases its temperature. For an internal combustion engine, the temperature of the
intake air becomes a limiting factor in engine performance. Extreme temperatures can cause pre-
ignition or knocking, which reduces performance and can cause engine damage. The risk of pre-
ignition/knocking increases with higher ambient air temperatures and higher boost levels.

Supercharging versus turbocharging

Turbocharged engines use energy from the exhaust gas that would normally be wasted, compared
with a supercharged which mechanically draws power from the engine. Therefore turbocharged
engines usually produce more power and better fuel economy than supercharged engines. However,
turbochargers can cause turbo lag (especially at lower RPM), where the exhaust gas flow is initially
insufficient to spin the turbocharger and achieve the desired boost level, thus leading to a delay in
the throttle response. For this reason, supercharged engines are common in applications where
throttle response is a key concern, such as drag racing and tractor pulling competitions.

A disadvantage of supercharging is that the engine must withstand the net power output of the
engine plus the power to drive the supercharger.

Turbocharged engines are more prone to heat soak of the intake air (since turbocharging can place
the hot exhaust components near the intake air system), although this can be overcome through the
use of an intercooler.

Comparison for aircraft engines

The majority of aircraft engines used during World War II used mechanically driven superchargers
because they had some significant manufacturing advantages over turbochargers. However, the
benefit to the operational range was given a much higher priority to American aircraft because of a
less predictable requirement on the operational range and having to travel far from their home
bases. Consequently, turbochargers were mainly employed in American aircraft engines such as the
Allison V-1710 and the Pratt & Whitney R-2800, which were comparably heavier when
turbocharged, and required additional ducting of expensive high-temperature metal alloys in the gas
turbine and a pre-turbine section of the exhaust system. The size of the ducting alone was a serious
design consideration. For example, both the F4U Corsair and the P-47 Thunderbolt used the same
radial engine, but the large barrel-shaped fuselage of the turbocharged P-47 was needed because of
the amount of ducting to and from the turbocharger in the rear of the aircraft. The F4U used a two-
stage inter-cooled supercharger with a more compact layout. Nonetheless, turbochargers were useful
in high-altitude bombers and some fighter aircraft due to the increased high altitude performance
and range.

Turbocharged piston engines are also subject to many of the same operating restrictions as those of
gas turbine engines. Turbocharged engines also require frequent inspections of their turbochargers
and exhaust systems to search for possible damage caused by the extreme heat and pressure of the
turbochargers. Such damage was a prominent problem in the early models of the American Boeing
B-29 Superfortress high-altitude bombers used in the Pacific Theater of Operations during 1944–45.
Turbocharged piston engines continued to be used in a large number of postwar airplanes, such as
the B-50 Superfortress, the KC-97 Stratofreighter, the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, the Lockheed
Constellation, and the C-124 Globemaster II.

Twincharging

In the 1985 and 1986 World Rally Championships, Lancia ran the Delta S4, which incorporated both
a belt-driven supercharger and exhaust-driven turbocharger. The design used a complex series of
bypass valves in the induction and exhaust systems as well as an electromagnetic clutch so that, at
low engine speeds, a boost was derived from the supercharger. In the middle of the rev range, a boost
was derived from both systems, while at the highest revs the system disconnected the drive from the
supercharger and isolated the associated ducting.[13] This was done in an attempt to exploit the
advantages of each of the charging systems while removing the disadvantages. In turn, this approach
brought greater complexity and affected the car's reliability in WRC events, as well as increasing the
weight of engine ancillaries in the finished design.

Twincharged engines have occasionally been used in production cars, such as the 2005-2007
Volkswagen 1.4 litre and the 2017-present Volvo B4204T43/B4204T48 2.0 litre four-cylinder
engines.

History
In 1849, G. Jones of Birmingham, England began manufacturing a lobe pump compressor to provide
ventilation for coal mines.[14] In 1860, the Roots Blower Company (founded by brothers Philander
and Francis Marion Roots) in the United States patented the design for an air mover for use in blast
furnaces and other industrial applications. This air mover and Birmingham's ventilation compressor
both used designs similar to that of the later Roots-type superchargers.

In March of 1878, German engineer Heinrich Krigar obtained the first patent for a screw-type
compressor.[15] The design was a two-lobe rotor assembly with identically-shaped rotors, however
the design did not reach production.

Also in 1878, Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk designed the first supercharger which was used with an
engine.[16] This supercharger was used with a two-stroke gas engine.[17] Gottlieb Daimler received a
German patent for supercharging an internal combustion engine in 1885.[18] Louis Renault patented
a centrifugal supercharger in France in 1902.[19][20]

Usage in cars

The world's first series-produced cars[21] with superchargers

were the 1.6 litre Mercedes 6/25  hp and 2.6 litre Mercedes
10/40  hp, both of which began production in 1923.[22][23][24]
They were marketed as Kompressor models, a term which was
used for various models until 2012.

Supercharged racing cars from around this time included the

1923 Fiat 805-405, the 1923 Miller 122[25] the 1924 Alfa Romeo
1929 Blower Bentley with the
P2, the 1924 Grand Prix season car from Sunbeam,[26] the 1925
supercharger ("blower") located in
Delage,[27] and the 1926 Bugatti Type 35C.
front of the radiator
Amongst the most famous supercharged cars is the Bentley 4½
Litre ("Blower Bentley"), which was introduced in 1929.
In 1935, the development of screw-type superchargers reached a milestone when Swedish engineer
Alf Lysholm patented a design for a rotary-screw compressor with five female and four male
rotors.[15]

In the 21st century, supercharged production car engines have become less common, as
manufacturers have shifted to turbocharging to achieve higher fuel economy and power outputs. For
example, Mercedes-Benz's engines of the early 2000s (such as the C230K straight-four, C32 AMG
V6, and CL55 AMG V8 engines) were replaced around 2010 by turbocharged engines in models such
as the C250 and CL S65 AMG models. However, there are exceptions, such as the Audi 3.0 TFSI
supercharged V6 (introduced in 2009) and the Jaguar AJ-V8 supercharged V8 (upgraded to the Gen
III version in 2009).

Usage in aircraft

In the 1930s, two-speed drives were developed for superchargers

for aero engines providing more flexible aircraft operation. The
arrangement also entailed more complexity of manufacturing
and maintenance. The gears connected the supercharger to the
engine using a system of hydraulic clutches, which were initially
manually engaged or disengaged by the pilot with a control in the
cockpit. At low altitudes, the low-speed gear would be used, to
prevent excessive boost levels. At higher altitudes, the
supercharger could be switched to a higher gear to compensate Centrifugal supercharger for a
for the reduced intake air density. In the Battle of Britain the Bristol Centaurus radial engine
Spitfire and Hurricane planes powered by the Rolls-Royce Merlin
engine were equipped largely with single-stage and single-speed
superchargers.[28][29]

In 1942, two-speed two-stage supercharging with aftercooling was applied to the Rolls Royce Merlin
61 aero engine. The improved performance allowed the aircraft they powered to maintain a crucial
advantage over the German aircraft they opposed throughout World War II, despite the German
engines being significantly larger in displacement.[30][29] Two-stage superchargers were also always
two-speed. After the air was compressed in the low-pressure stage, the air flowed through a heat
exchanger ("intercooler") where it was cooled before being compressed again by the high-pressure
stage and then possibly also aftercooled in another heat exchanger.

Usage in aircraft engines

Altitude effects

Due to the reduced air density at higher altitudes, supercharging and turbocharging have often been
used in aircraft engines. For example, the air density at 30,000 ft (9,100 m) is 1⁄3 of that at sea level,
resulting in 1⁄3 as much fuel being able to be burnt in a naturally aspirated engine, therefore the
power output would be greatly reduced.[31] A supercharger/turbocharger can be thought of either as
artificially increasing the density of the air by compressing it or as forcing more air than normal into
the cylinder every time the piston moves down on the intake stroke.[31]

Since a supercharger is usually designed to produce a given amount of boost at high altitudes (where
the air density is lower), the supercharger is often oversized for low altitude. To prevent excessive
boost levels, it is important to monitor the intake manifold pressure at low altitude. As the aircraft
climbs and the air density drops, the throttle can be progressively opened to obtain the maximum
safe power level for a given altitude. The altitude at which the throttle reaches full open and the
engine is still producing full rated power is known as the critical altitude. Above the critical altitude,
engine power output will reduce as the supercharger can no longer fully compensate for the
decreasing air density.

Another issue encountered at low altitudes (such as at ground level) is that the intake air is warmer
than at high altitude. Warmer air reduces the threshold at which engine knocking can occur,
especially in supercharged or turbocharged engines. Methods to cool the intake air at ground level
include intercoolers/aftercoolers, anti-detonant injection, two-speed superchargers and two-stage
superchargers.

Intake freezing

In supercharged engines which use a carburetor, a partially-open throttle reduces the air pressure
within the carburettor. In cold conditions, this low pressure air can cause ice to form at the throttle
plate. Significant quantities of ice can cause engine failure, even with the engine operating at full
rated power.

See also
Boost gauge
Forced induction
Intercooler
Naturally aspirated engine

References
1. Automotive handbook (https://books.google.com/books?id=_t1oPwAACAAJ) (6th ed.). Stuttgart:
Robert Bosch. 2004. p. 528. ISBN 0-8376-1243-8. Retrieved 2022-06-06.
2. "The Turbosupercharger and the Airplane Power Plant" (http://rwebs.net/avhistory/opsman/getur
bo/geturbo.htm). Rwebs.net. 1943-12-30. Retrieved 2010-08-03.
3. Ian McNeil, ed. (1990). Encyclopedia of the History of Technology (https://archive.org/details/enc
yclopaediaofh00mcne/page/315). London: Routledge. p. 315. ISBN 0-203-19211-7.
4. "Twin-screw vs. Centrifugal Supercharging" (http://kennebell.net/KBWebsite/Common/pdfs/accel
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8. Griehl 1999, p. 8.
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10. Berger & Street, 1994. p. 199.
11. Mermet 1999, pp. 14–17.
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p://www.dwperformance.com/kommerce_productdata.aspx?class=133&_rnd=1732138229).
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Great Britain: Institution of Mechanical Engineers. 1974-01-01. p. 110 – via Google Books.
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whipplesuperchargers.com. Retrieved 2015-10-23.
16. Ian McNeil, ed. (1990). Encyclopedia of the History of Technology (https://archive.org/details/enc
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00mcne/page/315)–321. ISBN 0-203-19211-7. "rateau engine."
17. "Forgotten Hero: The man who invented the two-stroke engine" (https://web.archive.org/web/200
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18. "Gottlieb Daimler" (http://www.superchargerkits.org/people/gottlieb-daimler/).
19. "12 supercharged cars that made forced induction a feature" (https://www.hagerty.co.uk/articles/li
sts/12-supercharged-cars-that-made-forced-induction-a-feature/). www.hagerty.co.uk. 2022-03-
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supercharge-that). www.atechtraining.com. 2020-01-08. Retrieved 2022-05-08.
21. Georgano, G.N. (1982). The new encyclopedia of motorcars 1885 to the present (https://archive.
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ort-1921---1925.xhtml?oid=5951). mercedes-benz-publicarchive.com. Retrieved 2022-05-08.
23. "1923 Mercedes 6/25/40 hq" (http://www.mercedes-benz-classic.com/content/classic/retailer/clas
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classic.com/content. Retrieved 2009-01-21.
24. "Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach and the "Grandfather Clock" " (http://benzinsider.com/2008/0
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28. White, Graham (1995). Allied Aircraft Piston Engines of World War II: History and Development
of Frontline Aircraft Piston Engines Produced by Great Britain and the United States During
World War II (https://books.google.com/books?id=AEzGQgAACAAJ). Society of Automotive
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1940" (http://www.enginehistory.org/members/articles/ACEnginePerfAnalysisR-R.pdf) (PDF).
Aircraft Engine Historical Society. US. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
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31. Smallwood 1995, p.133.

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