Journal Of Curriculum Studies, 2017

VOL. 49, NO. 3, 291–312

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2015.1088065

Exercising a bounded autonomy: novice and experienced

teachers’ adaptations to curriculum materials in an age of
accountability
Mary A. Burkhauser and Nonie K. Lesaux
Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This study explores teachers’ first enactments of a set of theory- Curriculum adaptation;
based curriculum materials designed to support academic language accountability policy;
instruction. Specifically, this multiple case study looks at how six beginning teachers; language
middle school English teachers in three US schools adapted the arts; educational environment
materials; each case includes a pair of teachers, one novice and
one more experienced. All schools were located in the same district
where a school performance measurement system was being used
to publicly rank schools’ academic performance and growth. Multiple
measures were used to look for evidence of adaptations and why
teachers made adaptations. We found that all teachers adapted the
curriculum, most often in response to either perceived student needs
or district reform pressures. In two cases, patterns of adaptation
differed by teacher experience; experienced teachers appeared
better able to adapt curriculum materials to meet instructional goals.
This pattern did not hold up at the third school, where teachers faced
greater reform pressures. Taken together, these findings suggest that
researchers should pay more attention to the role of school and
district policy on teachers’ enactments of theory-based reforms. We
conclude with guidance to researchers, instructional leaders and
others interested in the potential of theory-based curricula as a lever
for improving classroom instruction.

While the field of educational research has produced an enormous amount of basic knowl-
edge relevant for improving teaching and, ultimately, student outcomes, the field has
been less successful at producing deep and lasting instructional change at scale – that is, at
supporting the effective utilization of this knowledge in schools and classrooms over time
(Coburn, 2003; Elmore, 2004; Lewis, 2015). For example, despite evidence of its importance in
improving reading comprehension outcomes, academic language instruction has been doc-
umented to be relatively rare in US classrooms (Scott, Jamieson-Noel, & Asselin, 2003; Watts,
1995). Curriculum materials are one logical strategy for carrying promising instructional
practices into classrooms (Ball & Cohen, 1996). Of particular interest are curricula that are
grounded in research-based principles of effective instruction, that is, that are ‘theory-based’
(McLaughlin & Mitra, 2001). At the same time, however, researchers acknowledge that even

CONTACT  Mary A. Burkhauser  [email protected] 

© 2015 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
292    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

high-quality materials are not a panacea (Davis & Krajcik, 2005), as previous scholarship
suggests that a teacher’s ability to use curriculum materials effectively is ‘bounded’ by both
teacher (e.g. Remillard, 2005) and setting-level characteristics (e.g. Coburn, 2004).
While much has been published on how teacher-level characteristics can influence the
implementation of curriculum materials, studies of teachers’ enactments of theory-based
curricula tend to pay less attention to the role of setting, especially settings beyond the
immediate classroom context. Seminal earlier work examined the relationship between
instructional policy and practice, which was often mediated through textbooks (e.g. Cohen
& Ball, 1990). The institutional context, however, has changed significantly over the last two
decades. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 launched the US education sector into an
unprecedented ‘Age of Accountability’, with states holding teachers and schools account-
able for student performance through policy tools such as learning standards, high-stakes
standardized tests and teacher evaluation systems. Furthermore, this legislation pushed for
greater utilization of theory-based curriculum materials as a means of improving student per-
formance. Thus, the role that setting plays in teachers’ enactments of theory-based curricula
– and the interaction between teacher and setting-level characteristics – is only becoming
more relevant as accountability policies strengthen ties between the intuitional policy envi-
ronment and the classroom. This phenomenon, however, is not unique to the US context
and, in response to these global trends, the Journal of Curriculum Studies recently called for
more scholarship on the implications of accountability policy: ‘… we should address … the
room to move that is available for all involved from students, teachers and parents at the
local level to the national and international policy shapers’ (Hopmann, 2013, p. 2).
This study begins to address this call by exploring whether and how six middle school
English teachers across three schools in one district found ‘room to move’ while enacting a
theory-based curriculum for the first time. This is an important context in which to study,
as secondary English instruction is a domain that may be especially in need of curricular
supports, many teachers in these roles having been trained to teach literature rather
than to provide reading instruction. Furthermore, to date, there has been little research
directly comparing novice and experienced teachers’ curriculum use. While novices –
those with fewer than four years of experience – may be most eager for and most open
to curriculum materials (Kauffman, Johnson, & Kardos, 2002), experienced teachers may
find themselves glad of curricular supports in the face of new standards. In this qualitative
study, we employ a multiple-case embedded design (Yin, 2009) to examine both novice
and more experienced teachers’ enactments. The curriculum is grounded in principles
of effective vocabulary instruction and was designed to support academic language
instruction. The state in which the district is located was using a school performance
measurement system to publically rank schools’ academic performance and growth, as
well as to assign rewards and sanctions. Thus, we were presented with a particularly good
opportunity to study teachers’ first-time enactments of a theory-based curriculum within
a context of mounting accountability pressures. Each case includes a pair of teachers
at the same school, one novice and one more experienced. Specifically, we pose the
following questions:
(1) How and why do novice teachers adapt an academic language curriculum?
(2) How and why do more experienced teachers adapt an academic language curriculum?
(3) How do teachers’ curriculum adaptations differ across school settings?
 Journal Of Curriculum Studies   293

Studying teachers’ curriculum enactments

Remillard’s (2005) unifying framework for studying teachers’ curriculum use positions the
teacher as active designer of the curriculum. She argues that teachers are active media-
tors of the curriculum with the ability to enact the materials in ways that afford students
­opportunities to learn, or not, as some teachers will use the curriculum more skilfully than
others. Teachers ‘enact’ curriculum materials as they read, evaluate and adapt them; for
example, teachers adapt materials by adding or omitting lesson activities, increasing or
decreasing teacher control over an activity, or changing the amount of time spent on an
activity (Drake & Sherin, 2006). At the same time, teachers are bounded in their ability to
effectively use curriculum materials – by their own resources and the settings in which they
work. In the next two sections, we review studies that investigate teachers’ enactment of
curriculum materials and the ways in which enactment was influenced by characteristics of
the teacher and the setting.

How teacher characteristics can influence curriculum enactment

It is well-established that key teacher characteristics moderate curriculum enactment,
including knowledge (Hill & Charalambous, 2012; Sherin & Drake, 2009); beliefs, goals and
experiences (Collopy, 2003; Davis, Beyer, Forbes, & Stevens, 2011); perceptions of the curric-
ulum (Lloyd, 1999; Remillard & Bryans, 2004); prior curriculum enactments (Choppin, 2009);
identity (Drake & Sherin, 2006); and design capacity (Beyer & Davis, 2012b; Brown, Pitvorec,
Ditto, & Kelso, 2009). Most relevant to this study is research that examines the role that
teacher experience plays in the teacher–curriculum relationship. Findings on this question
are limited and somewhat mixed.
Research suggests that novices appreciate the support that curriculum materials can
provide; however, they may be reluctant to adapt materials in substantive ways, even when
students’ needs warrant it. For example, in a study of how three secondary English teachers
enacted a variety of curriculum materials in their first three years of teaching, Grossman and
Thompson (2008) found that all of the teachers eagerly sought out materials and tended to
follow the materials closely the first time they used them, making few adaptations. In sub-
sequent uses, teachers made adaptations, although they tended to ‘tinker with the details
of the curriculum materials, while remaining faithful to the original imprint and direction’
(p. 2020). According to the authors, teachers remained uncritical of the materials and missed
opportunities to improve them. As part of the same study, Valencia, Place, Martin, and
Grossman (2006) followed four elementary teachers across their first three years of teach-
ing. Two of the teachers were using mandated reading curricula; when they adapted the
materials, they tended to adapt procedures (‘the how’), such as time allocation, rather than
concepts (‘the what’). Additionally, adaptations tended to be ‘isolated or compartmentalized’,
rather than integrated into larger instructional goals.
While these studies only considered novice teachers, other studies have included both
novice and experienced teachers. For example, Remillard and Bryans (2004) studied how
eight elementary teachers, three novice and five experienced (between 12 and 30 years),
enacted a mathematics curriculum. In examining teachers’ patterns of curriculum use, they
found that all of the novice teachers and only one of the experienced teachers exhibited
a ‘piloting’ pattern, as opposed to an ‘intermittent and narrow’ or ‘adopting and adapting’
294    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

pattern. In other words, the novice teachers followed the curriculum more closely and were
more open to the lessons that the new curriculum could teach them. Most of the experienced
teachers, on the other hand, resisted using and learning from the new materials; they tended
to adopt or adapt the materials without fully engaging with them. In doing so, the authors
suggest that these teachers may have missed opportunities that the novice teachers were
able to capitalize on.
Not all studies of teachers’ curriculum use, however, have found differences by level of
teacher experience. For example, Sherin and Drake (2009) observed how ten elementary
teachers read, evaluated and adapted a mathematics curriculum. While the experienced
teachers tended to either add, omit or substitute lesson components, the two novice teachers
studied did not share the same pattern. While both teachers studied the materials closely
beforehand, one novice tended to adapt materials during instruction in response to students’
needs by creating and replacing activities, while the other novice did not adapt the materials.

How settings can influence curriculum enactment

Teachers are also bounded by the settings in which instruction is embedded (Kennedy, 2010),
which in turn influence their curriculum use. For example, within classrooms, teachers’ deci-
sions about how to enact a curriculum may be influenced by students’ instructional (Allen,
Matthews, & Parsons, 2013; Remillard, 2000) or behavioural needs (Eisenmann & Even, 2009).
At the school-level, teachers may be influenced by scheduling pressures (Keiser & Lambdin,
1996) or by the availability of professional supports (Valencia et al., 2006; Van Zoest & Bohl,
2002). Specifically, Valencia et al. (2006) found that two of the novices in their study were
bounded in their ability to skilfully adapt their curriculum materials by the lack of resources
at their schools. In contrast, the two novices with greater pedagogical content knowledge
and better access to resources ‘learned the most and were able to adapt instruction’ (p. 114).
Broader district and state-level policy environments can also influence teachers’ instruc-
tional decision-making (Johnson, Thompson, Smagorinsky, & Fry, 2003). However, while
district policies may focus a teacher’s attention on certain tools, for example, a textbook
or a set of learning standards, policy alone may not provide teachers with enough support
to use these tools effectively (Spillane, 2004). In the 1990s, several published case studies
examined teachers’ interpretations and enactments of a mathematics reform. Specifically,
they examined the relationship between the instructional policy, which was often com-
municated to teachers through textbooks, and teachers’ practices. Looking across these
studies, Cohen and Ball (1990) suggested that teachers’ interpretations and enactments – of
both instructional policy and textbooks – vary with respect to their pre-existing knowledge,
beliefs and experiences. They also concluded that while textbooks can serve as a tool for
communicating and supporting policy implementation, the guidance provided by these
types of material supports is relatively weak. Importantly, the curriculum materials used
by teachers in these earlier studies were not typically theory-based; that is, they were not
always grounded in research-based principles of effective instruction. Indeed, the practices
promoted by the textbooks sometimes worked against the innovative instructional policies
being implemented by reformers (Cohen, 1990).
More recently, Grossman and Thompson (2004) studied three first-year teachers in two
districts that were ‘actively attempting to promote changes aimed at the classroom’ (p. 281).
Although all of the teachers were tuned into district priorities, they reported not knowing
 Journal Of Curriculum Studies   295

how best to respond to them. For example, while district standards directed one novice to
‘engage students in authentic reading and writing activities’, they failed to tell her how. It
may be, however, that more experienced teachers are better able to respond to their policy
environment; Pardo (2006) followed three teachers across one year, asking the question:
What influences beginning teachers as they translate and implement a particular aspect
of their writing curriculum into practice? She found that teachers’ writing instruction was
influenced by the settings in which they taught, including the ‘various policies and man-
dates that create curricular and assessment expectations’ (p. 390). One fourth-year teacher
felt that her writing instruction was constrained by the dictates of a federal grant her school
held for improving early reading instruction. A second-year teacher’s instruction was heavily
influenced by the state assessment. Interestingly, while the fourth-year teacher was able to
‘finesse’ her teaching context to ‘balance the requirements of policy and education reform
with the needs of [her] own students’, the second-year teacher was not (p. 390). Rather, this
teacher ‘acquiesced to the policy expectations of the test and to the wishes of her reading
teacher as she strove to prepare her students to perform well on the state assessment’
(p. 388).
Collectively, these studies suggest that setting-level factors play a role both in the types
of curriculum materials that teachers use and in how they enact them. Instructional policies
may direct teachers’ attention to certain aspects of their practice or to certain instructional
tools; however, policy in and of itself is not enough to push teachers to make deep and
lasting changes. Earlier studies looking at the relationship between instructional policy
and practice found that policies were often communicated to teachers through textbooks,
which teachers then interpreted in light of their existing beliefs and practices, diluting the
effects of the reform. More recent studies highlight the importance of other policy tools,
including state assessments. None of these studies, however, consider teachers’ use of the-
ory-based curriculum materials or the relationships between these materials, teacher-level
characteristics and accountability policy. This study expands the literature on teachers’ cur-
riculum enactments in two ways: first, by explicitly examining differences between novice
and more experienced teachers – findings on this question are at present limited and some-
what mixed – and second, by looking closely at teachers use of a theory-based curriculum
within a context of mounting accountability pressures and a press for literacy reform in the
secondary-school context.

Study context: curriculum materials and participating teachers and schools

This study comes out of a larger evaluation of the effects of an academic language curric-
ulum [Academic Language Instruction for all Students (ALIAS)], on sixth graders’ literacy
skills (Lesaux, Kieffer, Kelley, & Harris, 2014). This larger study presented us with a unique
opportunity to study teachers’ enactments of a theory-based curriculum in a state where
accountability policies were just starting to take hold. Teacher participation in ALIAS was
mandated by the district as part of their press for raising adolescents’ literacy rates.

The ALIAS curriculum

ALIAS was designed using three research-based principles of effective vocabulary instruction:
(1) the goal of vocabulary instruction should be deep understanding of a small number of
296    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

words, (2) instructional time should be spent on ‘general-purpose academic words’ (e.g. affect,
establish), and (3) instruction should include a mix of direct teaching of words and teaching
of word-learning strategies (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2013; Stahl & Nagy, 2006). ALIAS’s
nine units take place over twenty consecutive weeks. Each day, teachers spend 45 minutes
working with students on a set of target words that appear in an informational text. Prior to
the start of the school year, teachers in this study participated in a full-day training and were
given the ALIAS teacher’s guide. For each unit, the teacher’s guide included a short frame-
work outlining the core components of each lesson and corresponding model lesson plans
with sample scripts. For example, core components from Unit 1, Lesson 1 include ‘teacher
previews article’, ‘teacher reads aloud and discusses article’, ‘teacher introduces vocabulary
words’; the corresponding lesson plan includes example language that a teacher might use
as she previews the article, reads aloud and discusses the article, etc.
A nine-day cycle comprises each ALIAS unit, over the course of which the teacher releases
responsibility for the target words to the students. On Days 1, 2, 5 and 6, the teacher provides
more direct instruction. On Days 3, 4, 7 and 8, the teacher begins with a mini-lesson in which
she models what students are then asked to do independently or in pairs. During students’
independent work, the materials direct the teacher to monitor the room and assist strug-
gling students. More specifically: On Day 1, the teacher reads an informational text aloud,
introduces the target words and leads the class in a discussion of the article. On Day 2, having
reviewed dictionary definitions as a class, students work in pairs to create personal definitions
for the target words. On Day 3, the teacher models how to answer text-based questions using
the target words; students work in pairs to complete the remaining questions. On Days 4
and 7, students participate in activities that engage them with target words in contexts out-
side of the article. On Days 5 and 6, the teacher works with students on morphology; these
are more teacher-centred lessons. On Day 8, the teacher reads a second article and reviews
a writing prompt. Using a graphic organizer, students plan for writing. On Day 9, students
use the organizer to write a paragraph in response to a prompt.
ALIAS is a scaffolded curriculum; that is, it includes a variety of supports to help students
successfully complete activities (Tomlinson et al., 2003). For example, texts are read aloud
by the teacher and the teacher models activities before asking students to complete them
independently. ALIAS was not designed, however, to support teachers in providing differ-
entiated instruction. Teachers differentiate instruction when they give students different
scaffolds or different activities to help them meet the same objectives (Tomlinson et al., 2003).
In the ALIAS curriculum, all students are expected to participate in the same set of activities.

Participating teachers
Of the twenty six teachers randomly assigned to implement the curriculum in the larger
study, six were chosen for this investigation. As a consequence of the draw associated with
random assignment, three of the treatment teachers were in their second year of teaching
and were also at the same school as a more experienced treatment teacher. We decided to
take advantage of this to learn more about curriculum adaptations across teacher experi-
ence and school context. All six teachers1 taught sixth-grade English, and all but one had
primary certification in this subject area. None had worked with the curriculum previously.
Although we did not purposely select second-year teachers, research suggests that they
are still eager for support but perhaps better able than first-year teachers to make use of
 Journal Of Curriculum Studies   297

Table 1. Demographic profiles of sample teachers and number of videotaped lessons.

Hemingway Middle
Longfellow Middle School Miller Middle School School
Nate Elizabeth Nancy Emily Natasha Enid
Years teaching, 2 10 2 9 2 5
counting this
school year
Years teaching at 2 5 2 7 2 1
current school,
counting this
school year
Years teaching 2 10 1 9 1 5
current subject,
counting this
school year
Highest degree BS/BA MS/MA BS/BA BS/BA BS/BA MS/MA
held
Teaching certifica- Preliminary Full Preliminary Full Full Full
tion held credential credential credential credential credential credential
English language Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
arts is primary area
of certification
Number of video- 4 2 3 3 3 2
taped lessons
Number of meet- 6 6 6 5 3 4
ings with Curricu-
lum Specialist

the tools at their disposal (Boyd, Grossman, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2009; Grossman
et al., 2000). Experienced teachers were in their fifth, ninth and tenth years of teaching.
See Table 1 for additional demographic information.

Schools
ALIAS was implemented in a large, urban district in the south-west United States. The three
participating schools differed with respect to income, as measured by the percentage of
students who qualified for free or reduced-priced lunch (FRPL).2 The sample included one
low-poverty school (Longfellow), one moderate-poverty school (Miller), and one high-pov-
erty school (Hemingway). Going into the study year, Hemingway had a lower score than the
other two schools on the state’s school performance measurement system and had failed
to meet its target growth in the year prior to the study year. Hemingway also had an influx
of second-year teachers at the beginning of the study year; and teachers at Hemingway, on
average, had fewer years of experience than at the other schools.

Data sources
To strengthen internal validity through data triangulation, we used multiple measures to
look for evidence of adaptations and why teachers made adaptations.
298    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

Teacher interviews
Each teacher participated in a 45 minutes interview at the end of the study year. Teachers
were asked about their professional background, the similarities and differences between
ALIAS and their standard practice, and their experiences with ALIAS. Interviews were
recorded and transcribed.

Observation notes
Teachers were observed teaching five ALIAS lessons. Observations occurred every two or
three weeks and were scheduled so as to capture a range of lessons across the lesson cycle
and units. Three trained observers used a structured observation protocol to rate the lessons.
We used video examples to establish reliability during training; 20% of observations were
then double-coded to estimate reliability. Rater 1 observed fourteen lesson; Rater 2 observed
eighteen lessons; and Rater 3 observed two lessons. All teachers were observed by at least
two different raters. In some cases, two raters observed the same lesson. Teachers were rated
both on the presence or absence of critical ALIAS lesson components (Cohen’s κ = .99) and on
the teaching quality (Cohen’s κ = .80). Critical lesson components – that is, ‘the most essential
and indispensable components’ of ALIAS (Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, & Wallace, 2005
p. 24) – varied by lesson. For example, critical lesson components for Day 2 included ‘teacher
introduces context clues’; ‘students brainstorm word meanings’; ‘teacher and students create
and record informal definitions’. While teachers were not required to read the script word-
for-word, they were asked to teach all of the critical components for each lesson. Observers
described adaptations that teachers made during lesson enactment. Teaching quality was
measured by rating teachers ‘low’, ‘medium’ or ‘high’ on fifteen ‘Hallmarks of Good Academic
Vocabulary Instruction’, which included general good teaching practices (e.g. effectively leads
classroom discussions, manages students to maximize time on task) and vocabulary-specific
good practices (e.g. affirms correct definitions and usages, reviews previously taught words).

Videotaped lessons
A random sample of lessons was selected to be videotaped. Each teacher was videotaped
enacting an ALIAS lesson between two and four times. Lessons ranged in length from 30
minutes to an hour.

Specialists’ meeting notes

Curriculum Specialists (Specialists) were tasked with guiding teachers through the ups and
downs of trying a new curriculum for the first time. Specialists were not tasked with support-
ing teachers’ adaptations to ALIAS; part of their role was to encourage and support fidelity to
the curriculum, while also troubleshooting with teachers in light of classroom and student
characteristics. Teachers in this study met with their Specialist between three and six times
for about 30 minutes over the course of the study year. Specialists took notes following
each meeting, summarizing what was discussed and often noting adaptations that teachers
made or suggested. These notes also provided insight into why teachers made or suggested
adaptations. Additionally, Specialists sometimes noted relevant setting-level information.
 Journal Of Curriculum Studies   299

Data analyses
In addressing the first two research questions – How and why do novice teachers and their
more experienced peers adapt an academic language curriculum? – we primarily relied on
the analytic technique of explanation building, the goal of which is to posit a ‘set of causal
links’ about how or why a phenomenon happened. We began by separately analysing the
data associated with each teacher, proceeding through three steps. Through this iterative
process, we were able to make propositions related to the research questions, compare them
against the emerging data and revise propositions as needed. The first author carried out all
coding. To increase the validity of her codes, she engaged in the process of ‘peer debriefing’, as
described by Creswell and Miller (2000), wherein a colleague ‘provides support, plays devil’s
advocate, challenges the researchers’ assumptions, pushes the researchers to the next step
methodologically and asks hard questions about methods and interpretations’ (p. 129). She
also took steps to improve the stability and accuracy of her codes, two types of reliability
(Krippendorff, 2012). Specifically, in the process of developing a detailed codebook, the
first author reviewed the data on multiple occasions. Once the codebook was finalized, she
reviewed all of the data with fresh eyes, revising codes as necessary to better align with the
established codebook.
First, meeting notes and interviews were coded. Initial codes reflected what the literature
suggests matters with respect to the participatory relationship between teachers and cur-
riculum materials, including characteristics of the teacher (e.g. professional identity, stance
towards curriculum) and setting-level characteristics (e.g. student characteristics, principal
leadership). These codes reflected preliminary propositions about how and why teachers
might adapt curriculum materials, for example, that experienced teachers may be more likely
than novices to reject a new curriculum or to adapt materials to fit with existing practice
(Remillard & Bryans, 2004). By including the code stance towards curriculum, we were able to
systematically examine the relationship between teachers’ stances towards ALIAS and the
adaptations they made. During this first round of coding, adaptations discussed by teachers
and Specialists were coded. Initial codes were drawn from the literature (e.g. adding or omit-
ting activities, increasing amount of time for lesson activity); additionally, new codes emerged
(e.g. extending activities). The first author wrote detailed memos to record her thinking.
In the next step, the observation notes were reviewed – each set of notes was compared
with the written description of the lesson outlined in the ALIAS teacher’s guide and, when
available, the enacted lesson as captured by video. All adaptations defined as ‘modifica-
tions that substantially altered either the content of the lesson or the role of the teacher
and students in the lesson’ (Drake & Sherin, 2006, p. 163) were coded. Additionally, notes
were made about what was happening in the classroom at the time of the adaptation, for
example what students were doing or saying. A checklist outlining the characteristics of
effective vocabulary instruction as laid out in the programme was used as a lens through
which to watch the videos and provided some data on the quality of instruction. Here, again,
detailed memos were written.
In the final step, the first author looked across the two sets of memos, triangulated the
data (Yin, 2009) and conducted a second round of coding (Strauss & Corbin, 2008). Two
triangulation techniques were employed: triangulation by data source (e.g. across persons,
times, places) and triangulation by data method (e.g. across observation and interview notes)
(Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2013, p. 267). For example, the first author looked for evidence
300    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

of adaptations and teachers’ rationales for making adaptations across time – findings were
deemed more representative of a teacher’s relationship with the curriculum if there were
multiple instances of the teacher making a certain kind of adaptation across the year, rather
than just one example. Additionally, the first author looked for evidence across multiple
methods, including observation notes, interview notes and Specialists’ notes – findings were
deemed more valid if, for example, instances of what teachers described in their interviews
were also captured on video or noted by an observer or by their Specialist.
The following strategies were used to look for themes related to the research questions:
repetitions, similarities and differences, and linguistic connections (Ryan & Bernard, 2003).
New codes emerged around why teachers adapted ALIAS (e.g. to scaffold, to meet district
standards), as well as for whom teachers made adaptations (e.g. higher- or lower-achieving
students). Additionally, when possible, coding also captured the effect of the adaptation
on the intellectual rigour of the lesson activity, that is the extent to which the adaptations
either increased or decreased the cognitive demand placed on students. After looking at
each teacher separately, the data were examined for each teacher-pair, treating each pair as
its own study. Commonalities in teachers’ patterns of adaptation, as well as ways in which
patterns differed between the novice and the more experienced peer, were noted.
To address the third research question – How did teachers’ curriculum adaptations dif-
fer across school settings? – a cross-case synthesis (Yin, 2009) was conducted, comparing
the results of the three individual case studies to see whether the same patterns between
novice and experienced teachers held up across settings. Codes relating to setting-level
characteristics were of particular interest, as research suggests that such characteristics can
influence how teachers engage with curriculum materials. Relevant codes included teacher
collaboration, principal leadership and support, school policy, district policy. See Appendix A
for the full list of codes.

Findings
All teachers adapted the ALIAS curriculum. In general, teachers tended to add or extend
existing activities, rather than omit activities or parts of activities. Discussed in more detail
below, a careful examination of their adaptations suggests two cross-cutting themes:
(1) teachers most often adapted ALIAS in response to perceived student needs and district
reform pressures, which teachers felt more or less directly, depending on their school; and
(2) experienced teachers seemed better able than novices to use the curriculum to meet
instructional goals.

RQ 1: How and why did novice teachers adapt an academic language

curriculum?
Background: Nate, Nancy and Natasha
All three novices appreciated ALIAS, which they noted was more different from than similar
to their standard practice. In some ways, though, their stances towards ALIAS differed. Nate
said that he liked adding a ‘creative bent’ to the lesson frameworks. Nancy, on the other hand,
talked about how her reading changed over the course of the year. At the beginning of the
 Journal Of Curriculum Studies   301

year, the teacher’s guide was her ‘Bible’. As Nancy became more comfortable, she was able to
‘go off’ the scripts. Natasha similarly followed the curriculum most closely in the beginning.

Responding to perceived needs of students

Nancy and Natasha tended to adapt ‘the how’ of particular lesson activities, and they most
often did so in an effort to make activities more accessible to their lower-achieving students.
Across the study year, Nancy shared concerns with her Specialist about her English Language
Learners (ELLs). She mentioned several adaptations in her interview and in meetings with
her Specialist whose purpose appeared to be providing additional scaffolding for all stu-
dents, with the hope of really supporting ELLs and students on Individualized Education
Programs. In one lesson, for example, Nancy allowed students to work in pairs rather than
independently when answering text-based response questions. In another lesson, Nancy
utilized a class brainstorm to prepare students for writing. Before beginning the independent
writing activity, Nancy had students share out their plans for incorporating the target words
and using evidence from the article. She recorded their ideas on chart paper that all students
could refer to during writing. On multiple occasions, Natasha increased the amount of time
she spent modelling ALIAS activities before sending students into their independent work.
But effective scaffolding can be challenging. For one, the teacher may end up doing too
much of the work for students, rather than ‘coach[ing] for success with a task slightly more
complex than the child can manage alone’ (Tomlinson et al., 2003, p. 126). Recall that on
Day 2 of the ALIAS cycle, students work independently or in pairs to create personal defi-
nitions for the target words. During one Day 2 lesson, Nancy instead led the whole class
through this activity. But far from giving students the answers, she called on a number of
students to share their thinking; thus, the class worked together to co-construct definitions,
with many students actively participating. Natasha’s scaffolding, on the other hand, some-
times took much of the cognitive demand away from students. During one Day 2 lesson in
the beginning of the year, Natasha allowed her students to copy dictionary definitions, rather
than supporting them to create their own definitions. In another lesson at the end of the
year, the Specialist noted that Natasha had to ‘walk most of [her students] through [writing
captions]’, an activity which the curriculum encourages students to do in pairs. Similarly, Nate
was observed teaching two Day 2 lessons, one at the beginning of the year and one much
later. On both occasions, Nate took over and led the class through the activity. The observer
noted after the second lesson that there had been ‘very little opportunity for student input’.
In addition to adapting ‘the how’ of lesson activities, Nate sometimes adapted ‘the what’,
for example, by changing a lesson objective or adding a new lesson component. In his
interview, Nate talked about his desire to make the ALIAS lessons more ‘interesting’ for stu-
dents, which may have been behind these adaptations. During one lesson, the curriculum
asks students to pretend to be celebrities and to interview one another, planning ahead to
incorporate the target words into the interviews. The purpose of this lesson is to give students
an opportunity to actively work with the target words in a new context. The teacher’s guide
instructs the teacher ‘to point out how the definitions are correctly applied, and fix incor-
rect uses’. During Nate’s enactment of this lesson, however, as students started to plan their
interviews, much of their talk was focused on deciding whom to be, rather than on the target
words, and Nate did not redirect students. During the presentations, rather than focusing on
students’ use of the target words, Nate emphasized the importance of characterization and
302    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

accents. He told students: ‘To get full credit, you have to try and be the character’. Not until
the fourth pair had presented, did Nate ask, ‘Did you use the target word in your response?’
To which the students replied: ‘Did we have to?’ Here too, we see that Nate’s adaptation
compromised the cognitive rigour of the lesson.

Responding to district standards

Teachers in this study were being held accountable to the district standards through a series
of mandated, district-developed assessments. All of the novices identified having to meet
the demands of both ALIAS and the district standards as a challenge; although each novice
responded to this challenge differently. Nate tended to keep ALIAS separate from the rest
of his curriculum, some weeks holding off teaching ALIAS to focus on the district standards
and other weeks holding off teaching the district standards to focus on ALIAS. At one point,
his Specialist wrote: ‘[Nate] decided to teach them separately. He seemed to want to get
ALIAS out of the way to concentrate on prep [for the district assessments]. He did not seem
to connect the two’. At Hemingway, as will be discussed in more detail below, Natasha’s prin-
cipal reacted to district pressures for her, preventing Natasha from spending as much time
on ALIAS as she would have liked by enforcing a strict schedule. Nancy was the only novice
teacher who was observed trying to integrate ALIAS with other aspects of her curriculum,
specifically, by adapting ALIAS to better meet the district’s writing standards.
Nancy felt that many of her students could and should be doing more writing than what
was asked of them by ALIAS. Thus, Nancy adapted ALIAS to create additional writing opportu-
nities for students. By the end of Unit 7, Nancy was pushing her students to write more than
a paragraph. She wanted them to write ‘essays’. In one lesson, Nancy explained to students
how they could turn ALIAS paragraphs into essays:
Now we don’t even call them paragraphs anymore. We call them essays because we’re going
a little deeper. It’s not just a paragraph for us anymore. You have to have at least how many
sentences that explain your proof? Two, sometimes three. So it ends up becoming more like an
essay because we have different paragraphs. We do one for intro, one for closing. We have little
mini ones for our reasons why.

It was unclear, however, what additional scaffolds, if any, Nancy provided students to support
them in doing this additional writing work. In a subsequent writing lesson, Nancy also did
not provide additional scaffolds. This was surprising, given Nancy’s use of scaffolding at other
points during the year. Essentially, as described by Nancy, the defining feature of an essay
is length; essays have multiple paragraphs. In this lesson, however, students worked with
the same support as before to plan their writing – an ALIAS graphic organizer, designed to
support students in writing a paragraph – but were asked to write more.

RQ 2: How and why did more experienced teachers adapt an academic

language curriculum?
Background: Elizabeth, Emily and Enid
Unlike the novices, Elizabeth and Emily came to ALIAS with some experience teaching vocab-
ulary, though they still named many ways in which ALIAS differed from their standard prac-
tice. While neither teacher resisted the curriculum materials outright, their stances towards
 Journal Of Curriculum Studies   303

ALIAS were more complex. Emily was not excited when she first heard about ALIAS: ‘My initial
thought was, oh great, groan, groan. Here comes something else’. But the training won her
over; she recognized the good instruction in ALIAS and appreciated the high-quality mate-
rial supports. Elizabeth approached ALIAS as ‘an experiment’. She hoped that ALIAS, with its
well-specified routines, would be an improvement over her other curricula.
Enid also appreciated ALIAS, yet she differed from the other experienced teachers in
that she did not report any prior experiences teaching vocabulary. At the beginning of the
year, Enid reported sticking closely to the curriculum but she took this to an extreme, often
reading the optional scripts word-for-word. Even in her exit interview, the way Enid spoke
about ALIAS suggests that her way of using ALIAS persisted through the year: ‘… I didn’t really
need help. I knew how to follow the stuff by myself. I’m pretty good at following directions’.

Responding to perceived needs of students

Elizabeth and Emily made adaptations to ALIAS in an attempt to make the activities more
accessible to their students. To some extent, these experienced teachers employed some of
the same scaffolding strategies as the novices. On several occasions, for example, Elizabeth
dedicated additional instructional time to explicit modelling in order to ensure that students
were set up to complete activities successfully. Unlike the novices, however, Elizabeth and
Emily were not observed making adaptations that compromised the cognitive rigour of the
lessons. For example, whereas both Nancy and Emily identified differentiation as a challenge,
only Emily adapted the curriculum to allow for differentiated instruction. Emily was observed
teaching the same Day 2 lesson described above. Rather than work as a class to create per-
sonal definitions, however, Emily set her students up to do this work independently and
then intentionally pulled a small group of lower-achieving students to work with her more
closely. This strategy – creating small ‘teaching-learning groups’ – is one of the markers of
effective differentiation identified by Tomlinson et al. (2003), and Emily was observed using
it on multiple occasions across the year.
Emily’s knowledge of differentiation strategies was also apparent when she discussed
her ideas for extending the writing activities. For example, she would have liked the graphic
organizer to be differentiated so as to support a wider range of student abilities. Beyond
this, Emily had suggestions for how ALIAS could be adapted in future enactments in order
to help all students meet grade-level writing standards, for example the addition of supple-
mentary texts. Emily discussed how such texts could support learners at all levels, providing
‘lower kids’ with more ‘knowledge to pull from when they come to the table’ and allowing
‘high kids’ to learn about both sides of an issue before making a well-supported argument.

Responding to district standards

The previous example also illustrates how Emily, like Nancy, saw opportunities to adapt
ALIAS writing activities to move students towards the district’s writing standards. Emily told
her Specialist: ‘I know we’re after just using the writing in a paragraph, but I set the expec-
tation higher for many students … especially to prepare for the seventh-grade writing test’.
Elizabeth too found ways to extend ALIAS activities, adapting ‘the what’ of ALIAS to create
additional writing opportunities for students. While all three teachers – one novice and two
more experienced – expressed the same concern and saw the same extension opportunities,
304    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

the more experienced teachers, and especially Elizabeth, were better able to use the materials
to meet this instructional goal.
While Elizabeth loved that ALIAS had students writing every day, she did not feel that
students did enough extended writing. In several instances, Elizabeth took additional time
to work with students on extending their ALIAS writing. For example, at the end of Unit 1,
the ALIAS assignment is to write a paragraph, but Elizabeth spent three days working with
students to do an expository essay. Her Specialist wrote: ‘Because [Elizabeth] feels she does
not have the time to prepare students for [the district] tests on expository writing … she
extended the paragraph for Day 9 to an expository essay, complete with thesis, introduc-
tory statement, and citations from the article’. Later, Elizabeth turned a short ALIAS writing
prompt into a research essay. She gave her students several days to work on this extended
assignment. Elizabeth described her adaptation decisions in this way: ‘… by the end of sixth
grade … they need to be writing compositions at this point in time. They need to be writing
essays. And we need to be getting beyond just basic one-to-two paragraphs’. While these
adaptations extended the amount of time students spent on ALIAS-related activities, the time
was used to move students towards district standards. Thus, Elizabeth worked to integrate
the ALIAS materials and the district curriculum to prepare students for the district exam.
Emily and Elizabeth also responded to district standards by trying to integrate the two
sets of materials, for example, using the ALIAS curriculum as another opportunity to instruct
students around how to read an informational text. Elizabeth reported:
On the expository [district exam], I felt like they were ready, they were prepared. We were using
the same language. I made sure that when we were reading, I used the language that I knew
would show up on the [district exam]. They knew how to look at the text features. They knew
what to do.
As noted, each ALIAS unit begins with a read-aloud of an informational text. Elizabeth, Emily,
Natasha and Nancy were all observed teaching a Day 1 lesson. Both Elizabeth and Emily,
while previewing the article with their classes, took extra time to walk through the text fea-
tures with their students, which seemed to be a part of their regular routine when reading
this type of text.
Elizabeth: What is the first thing that we do when we start to read an article? Skim the
article. But what do we skim? Let’s go in order … the text features … and what text features
do we start with? Title, subtitles … let’s start right here …
Emily: There are some things that I want to do because we know it’s just good reading before
we read. One, we’re going to preview. Look at title. Look at pictures. I’m going to read the
sub-headings first … Just like we do in social studies. Just like we do in our other persuasive
articles we’ve been reading …
Natasha, on the other hand, breezed through a few text features in passing: ‘What’s the
sub-title? Let’s find out what happened. Look at the picture on the side. What’s happening?
What is the caption? You guys are going to be so ready for your test’, while Nancy was not
observed discussing text features at all during this lesson.
In general, Enid made very few adaptations to the ALIAS materials, perhaps due to her
lack of experience with vocabulary instruction or to her general stance towards the materi-
als as ‘directions’ to be followed. There was one lesson, however, where Enid was observed
integrating an extra step into the ALIAS four-step process to answering text-based ques-
tions. Enid reminded students about the four steps but then referred to a ‘fifth step’, saying:
‘Sentences should include wording from the question’. This is a popular test-taking strategy.
 Journal Of Curriculum Studies   305

RQ 3: How do teachers’ curriculum adaptations differ across school settings?

At Longfellow, where Nate and Elizabeth taught, and Miller, where Nancy and Emily taught,
teachers’ patterns of curriculum use were similar – both novice and more experienced
teachers adapted ALIAS and tended to do so for the same overarching reasons (i.e. to meet
students’ needs, to meet district standards). Furthermore, in both cases, the experienced
teacher seemed better able to use the ALIAS materials to meet her instructional goals without
diminishing the rigour of the activities. As described above, Emily and Elizabeth were more
successful at adapting ALIAS to scaffold and differentiate instruction as well as extending and
integrating ALIAS activities so as to better meet district standards. While we did find a few
instances of negative evidence – for example, we describe above where Emily successfully
scaffolded an activity – this pattern generally held up across the data corpus. This pattern
did not hold, however, at Hemingway, where Natasha and Enid faced the same two school-
level challenges. First, both teachers were working with students who were performing
far below grade-level. Second, both teachers were under pressure from their principal to
simultaneously incorporate multiple initiatives into their day in an effort to improve students’
standardized test scores. With respect to adaptations made, Natasha and Enid looked more
similar to one another than the other teacher pairs.

Hemingway Middle School: a divergent case

Beyond readily observable differences in income and student achievement levels, Hemingway
differed from Longfellow and Miller in other ways. At both Longfellow and Miller, teachers
reported that their principal was supportive of ALIAS but only minimally involved in day-
to-day decisions about classroom instruction. Thus, when Elizabeth, for example, wanted
to extend the ALIAS lessons to meet district standards, she was able to do so. The principal
at Hemingway, on the one hand, seemed not to know much about the details of ALIAS (e.g.
Natasha reported that because the principal had never observed ALIAS, she could not know
‘how much went into the program’) but on the other hand, was more prescriptive about
teachers’ instruction. Natasha reported that the principal was ‘trying to keep everyone uni-
form, so we have to meet certain standards’. Halfway through the year, the principal asked
Natasha and Enid to follow a strict schedule, with ALIAS slotted for 7:20–8:05am. In her
interview, Natasha brought up the challenges associated with handling multiple initiatives
at once.
We’ve added and implemented a lot of new programs this year alone … So it was figuring four
components in and getting the results we needed to improve our [standardized test] scores.
So it was challenging to fit all of it in.
These school-level characteristics seemed to affect Natasha and Enid’s participation with
ALIAS in at least two ways, as compared to the other teachers studied. First, Natasha and
Enid made many fewer adaptations to ALIAS overall than did the other teachers. Second,
both teachers slowed down their pacing significantly, spending many more days on each
unit than suggested by the curriculum developers. This likely resulted from a desire to give
students more time to complete the activities, particularly in light of their low literacy levels,
combined with a lack of flexibility to extend ALIAS beyond its allotted 45 minutes per day, as
teachers at Longfellow and Miller were able to do. Both Natasha and Enid talked about the
challenges of pacing in their exit interviews and this topic often came up during meetings
306    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

with their Specialist. In the beginning of the year, Natasha found herself spending up to
three days on the text-based response questions (a one-day activity). The Specialist had to
push Natasha and Enid to keep up with the suggested pacing schedule.

Discussion
Within the context of a middle school literacy reform, the participating teachers studied
were required by their district to implement a theory-based, academic language curriculum
with which they had no prior experience (i.e. ALIAS). Specifically, we examined how novice
and experienced teachers across three schools enacted this curriculum in the face of rising
accountability pressures. Our results show that all of the teachers were tuned into the reform
efforts being undertaken by their district and that this awareness influenced their enactments
of the curriculum – although the teachers did not necessarily see the connection between
the two. All six teachers expressed concerns about their ability to enact the curriculum while
at the same time meeting the demands placed on them by the district standards and the
associated exams to which their students would be held accountable. Thus, in addition to
reading the curriculum through the lens of their students’ needs and abilities, which has
often been observed in the literature, teachers read the curriculum through a lens imposed
on them by the district. Indeed, some of the more substantial changes that teachers made
to the curriculum – instances where teachers adapted ‘the what’ (i.e. concepts) rather than
‘the how’ (i.e. procedures) – were made with the goal of better meeting the district stand-
ards. This finding extends previous work on the relationship between instructional policy
and practice. While earlier work focused mainly on how teachers’ interpretations of policy
influenced their existing practice (and vice versa), this study adds a theory-based curriculum
into the mix – examining the interactions between school and district-level policies, teachers’
existing practice and a set of curriculum materials grounded in research-based principles of
effective instruction. The latter is an important addition, given that high-quality materials
are a prevailing strategy for improving teachers’ existing practice at scale.
Our results also suggest that some teachers had more ‘room to move’ when it came to
adapting the curriculum to meet their instructional goals, an apparent function of both
teacher experience and school context. With respect to teacher experience, in two of the
three cases, the experienced teacher appeared better able to adapt the materials to meet
students’ needs as well as district standards (i.e. Elizabeth and Emily). Their novice counter-
parts, while not unwilling to make adaptations, either did not take notice of opportunities
to integrate and extend the curriculum materials (i.e. Nate) or seemed unsure of how to
do this effectively (i.e. Nancy). Thus, even though some novices may see the potential for
extension and integration across standards and materials, they may not have the capacity
to realize their curricular vision. These types of adaptations may be easier for experienced
teachers, who may have a clearer sense of where they need to get their students, as well
as a better handle on the practical tools needed to do so. Of course, it is important to note
that prior research (Henningsen & Stein, 1997) has found that even experienced teachers
do sometimes make adaptations that compromise the cognitive demands of the activities.
That we did not observe this in our sample may be due to the fact that, for the most part,
teachers added or extended activities, rather than omitting or substituting activities. The
teachers in our sample may have been reluctant to leave off parts of the curriculum due to
their lack of familiarity with academic language instruction.
 Journal Of Curriculum Studies   307

But not all teachers in the sample had the same opportunities to adapt the curriculum.
Specifically, this pattern did not hold at the third school, where students were academically
further behind and teachers faced even greater reform pressures. Teachers at the high-
est-poverty school experienced the greatest administrator oversight and also had the least
room to move. Due to the strict schedule imposed on them by their principal, these teachers
had less autonomy over their instruction and over how the academic language curriculum fit
into that instruction. In addition to being required to work with the curriculum, there were
other very specific demands upon their time and both teachers struggled to fit it all in. With
so many moving pieces, in addition to classrooms with students who were almost all reading
below grade-level, it may have been harder for these teachers to develop a vision for how
they could start to fit all of the pieces together, let alone act on that vision. The teachers at
the highest-poverty school were bounded by the pressures put on them by their school,
which in turn was responding to district demands.

Conclusion
This study contributes to the field’s understanding of how and why teachers adapt
theory-based curriculum materials in the face of mounting accountability pressures. This
study suggests that many teachers are likely reading and evaluating curriculum materials
through a lens imposed on them by the broader policy environments in which they are
embedded (e.g. district or state standards). Furthermore, this study suggests that experi-
enced teachers may be better able than their novice counterparts to notice and to capitalize
on opportunities to use curriculum materials to meet these outside demands, for example,
through the extension of curriculum activities or the integration of materials and activities
from different sources. These types of adaptations may be more challenging for teachers and
less likely to occur, however, at schools where teachers are overwhelmed with competing
demands on their time and where many students are reading below grade-level.
These findings have important implications for researchers who are hopeful that
high-quality curriculum materials can help carry promising instructional practices into
classrooms. Promising curricula tend to come and go in schools, and this churn is particu-
larly common among researcher-developed programmes, given that these programmes
tend to be ‘inconsistent with the stable features of instruction in the school systems’, such
as textbooks and standardized tests (Meyer & Rowan, 2012, p. 78). Knowing that teachers
are likely to be reading, evaluating and adapting materials through these broader lenses,
researchers would do well to anticipate ways in which a curriculum might be adapted to
be more consistent with the local context, perhaps through consultation with more expe-
rienced teachers in a particular school or district setting. In this way, researchers might be
able to better support teachers in making more successful or ‘productive’ adaptations, that is
adaptations that are in line with the reform’s ‘theoretical base’ or, at least, not antithetical to
it (McLaughlin & Mitra, 2001). While this has not been the traditional role of the researcher,
in light of the challenges that researchers have faced in bridging the research-to-practice
divide, some are suggesting that researchers could do more to ‘partner with schools and
districts to adapt and test which supports are most needed’ (Gutiérrez & Penuel, 2014). Of
course, this is not to suggest that all researchers ought to take on this new work.
These findings also have important implications for school leaders and others whose role
it is to develop teachers professionally. These individuals should anticipate that teachers will
308    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

have questions and concerns about how any given curriculum will help them to address their
local standards. Knowing this, school leaders should put supports in place (e.g. coaching,
professional learning communities) to answer teachers’ questions and to support them in
making productive adaptations, rather than adaptations that could undermine the curric-
ulum’s rigour. Our findings suggest that, in some cases, novice teachers may be able to find
this support from the more experienced teachers at their schools. Curriculum developers and
teacher preparation programmes could also do more to support what researchers are calling
a teacher’s ‘pedagogical design capacity’ – that is her ability to ‘critique and adapt curriculum
materials to achieve productive instructional ends’ (Beyer & Davis, 2012a). In their high-level
guidance to developers of educative curriculum materials, Davis and Krajcik (2005) suggest
that such materials should include supports to help teachers make ‘good decisions about
changes’ (p. 6). Additionally, teacher preparation programmes could enhance preservice
teachers’ pedagogical design capacity; indeed, researchers are currently studying different
approaches for doing just that (Beyer & Davis, 2012a).

Limitations and future research

While this study was able to capture how and why a small sample of teachers made adap-
tations to a theory-based curriculum, there are necessarily limitations and directions for
further research. Specifically, we did not empirically study the effect of particular types of
adaptations on student outcomes, nor did we follow-up with teachers after the implemen-
tation year. Thus, it is unknown whether experienced teachers were more likely to sustain
the curriculum (or components thereof ), providing them with additional opportunities to
learn from the materials. It is also unknown whether students benefited in any tangible way
from the adaptations that teachers made. Future research should continue to ask questions
about what teachers learned from enacting the curriculum materials and how that learning
influenced their future practice, the extent to which those changes persist over time and
changing conditions, and the impact of particular adaptations on students.

Notes
1. 
Names are pseudonyms. Novice teachers’ names begin with ‘N’. Experienced teachers’ names
begin with ‘E’.
2. 
Schools were classified based on the criteria set by the National Center for Education Statistics
(Aud et al., 2010), where high-poverty schools have 75–100% students receiving FRPL;
moderate-poverty schools have 45–74% FRPL; and low-poverty school have less than 45% FRPL.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Carol Barry, Teresa Walter, Jennifer Cheatham, Andrea Anushko,
Taralynn Kantor, Amy Griffiths and Phoebe Sloane for their instrumental roles in carrying out the
overall study. The authors thank Heather Hill, Susan Moore Johnson and members of the Language
Diversity and Literacy Development Research Group for their thoughtful comments on earlier drafts
of this manuscript. We are also grateful to the participating students and teachers.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
 Journal Of Curriculum Studies   309

Funding
This research was supported by a grant from the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department
of Education [grant number R305A080631] and a William T. Grant Foundation Scholars Award, both
awarded to Nonie K. Lesaux.

Notes on contributors
Mary A. Burkhauser is an advanced doctoral student at the Harvard Graduate School of Education.
Her research interests include English language arts instruction, teachers’ curriculum enactments,
teachers’ data use and teacher learning.
Nonie K. Lesaux is Juliana W. and William Foss Thompson professor of Education and Society at the
Harvard Graduate School of Education. He leads a research program that focuses on increasing oppor-
tunities-to-learn for students from diverse linguistic, cultural, and economic backgrounds in today’s
classrooms. Her research on reading and vocabulary development, and instructional strategies to
prevent reading difficulties has implications for practitioners, researchers, and policy-makers.

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Appendix A. Data codes

Teacher characteristics
Stance toward ALIAS curriculum
Stance toward ALIAS Specialist
Professional identity
Preexisting beliefs and practice
 How ALIAS is similar to teacher’s beliefs and practices
 How ALIAS is different from teacher’s beliefs and practices

Setting characteristics
Student characteristics
Teacher collaboration
  Teacher collaboration generally
  Teacher collaboration around ALIAS
Principal leadership and support
  Principal leadership and support generally
  Principal leadership and support for ALIAS
  Suggestions for additional principal leadership and support
School policy
District policy
312    M. A. Burkhauser and N. K. Lesaux

Adaptations
Nature of adaptation
Content changes
Adding a new activity
Extending an existing activity
Omitting an activity or parts of an activity
Changes made to time spent on activity or pacing of curriculum
Changes made to participant structure
Increasing or decreasing teacher control over an activity
Why adaptation made
To differentiate
To scaffold
To meet parents’ expectations
To better align instruction with teacher’s expectations for students
To address pacing challenges
To address student interest
To better align instruction with school/district expectations
For whom adaptation made
All students
Subset of students
Lower-achieving students
Higher-achieving students
Effect of adaptation on cognitive rigor
Increased cognitive demand placed on students
Decreased the cognitive demand placed on students
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