1.

3 Measures of Location: The Sample Mean and Median 11

This example suggests the need for what follows in Sections 1.3 and 1.4, namely,
descriptive statistics that indicate measures of center of location in a set of data,
and those that measure variability.

1.3 Measures of Location: The Sample Mean and Median

Measures of location are designed to provide the analyst with some quantitative
values of where the center, or some other location, of data is located. In Example
1.2, it appears as if the center of the nitrogen sample clearly exceeds that of the
no-nitrogen sample. One obvious and very useful measure is the sample mean.
The mean is simply a numerical average.

Definition 1.1: Suppose that the observations in a sample are x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . The sample mean,
denoted by x̄, is

n
xi x1 + x 2 + · · · + x n
x̄ = = .
i=1
n n

There are other measures of central tendency that are discussed in detail in
future chapters. One important measure is the sample median. The purpose of
the sample median is to reflect the central tendency of the sample in such a way
that it is uninfluenced by extreme values or outliers.

Definition 1.2: Given that the observations in a sample are x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , arranged in increasing
order of magnitude, the sample median is

x(n+1)/2 , if n is odd,
x̃ = 1
2 (xn/2 + xn/2+1 ), if n is even.

As an example, suppose the data set is the following: 1.7, 2.2, 3.9, 3.11, and
14.7. The sample mean and median are, respectively,

x̄ = 5.12, x̃ = 3.9.

Clearly, the mean is influenced considerably by the presence of the extreme obser-
vation, 14.7, whereas the median places emphasis on the true “center” of the data
set. In the case of the two-sample data set of Example 1.2, the two measures of
central tendency for the individual samples are

x̄ (no nitrogen) = 0.399 gram,

0.38 + 0.42
x̃ (no nitrogen) = = 0.400 gram,
2
x̄ (nitrogen) = 0.565 gram,
0.49 + 0.52
x̃ (nitrogen) = = 0.505 gram.
2
Clearly there is a difference in concept between the mean and median. It may
be of interest to the reader with an engineering background that the sample mean
12 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis

is the centroid of the data in a sample. In a sense, it is the point at which a

fulcrum can be placed to balance a system of “weights” which are the locations of
the individual data. This is shown in Figure 1.4 with regard to the with-nitrogen
sample.

x  0.565

0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90

Figure 1.4: Sample mean as a centroid of the with-nitrogen stem weight.

In future chapters, the basis for the computation of x̄ is that of an estimate

of the population mean. As we indicated earlier, the purpose of statistical infer-
ence is to draw conclusions about population characteristics or parameters and
estimation is a very important feature of statistical inference.
The median and mean can be quite different from each other. Note, however,
that in the case of the stem weight data the sample mean value for no-nitrogen is
quite similar to the median value.

Other Measures of Locations

There are several other methods of quantifying the center of location of the data
in the sample. We will not deal with them at this point. For the most part,
alternatives to the sample mean are designed to produce values that represent
compromises between the mean and the median. Rarely do we make use of these
other measures. However, it is instructive to discuss one class of estimators, namely
the class of trimmed means. A trimmed mean is computed by “trimming away”
a certain percent of both the largest and the smallest set of values. For example,
the 10% trimmed mean is found by eliminating the largest 10% and smallest 10%
and computing the average of the remaining values. For example, in the case of
the stem weight data, we would eliminate the largest and smallest since the sample
size is 10 for each sample. So for the without-nitrogen group the 10% trimmed
mean is given by
0.32 + 0.37 + 0.47 + 0.43 + 0.36 + 0.42 + 0.38 + 0.43
x̄tr(10) = = 0.39750,
8
and for the 10% trimmed mean for the with-nitrogen group we have
0.43 + 0.47 + 0.49 + 0.52 + 0.75 + 0.79 + 0.62 + 0.46
x̄tr(10) = = 0.56625.
8
Note that in this case, as expected, the trimmed means are close to both the mean
and the median for the individual samples. The trimmed mean is, of course, more
insensitive to outliers than the sample mean but not as insensitive as the median.
On the other hand, the trimmed mean approach makes use of more information
than the sample median. Note that the sample median is, indeed, a special case of
the trimmed mean in which all of the sample data are eliminated apart from the
middle one or two observations.
 / /

Exercises 13

Exercises

1.1 The following measurements were recorded for polymer? Explain.

the drying time, in hours, of a certain brand of latex (c) Calculate the sample mean tensile strength of the
paint. two samples.
3.4 2.5 4.8 2.9 3.6 (d) Calculate the median for both. Discuss the simi-
2.8 3.3 5.6 3.7 2.8 larity or lack of similarity between the mean and
4.4 4.0 5.2 3.0 4.8 median of each group.
Assume that the measurements are a simple random
sample.
1.4 In a study conducted by the Department of Me-
(a) What is the sample size for the above sample? chanical Engineering at Virginia Tech, the steel rods
(b) Calculate the sample mean for these data. supplied by two different companies were compared.
(c) Calculate the sample median. Ten sample springs were made out of the steel rods
supplied by each company, and a measure of flexibility
(d) Plot the data by way of a dot plot. was recorded for each. The data are as follows:
(e) Compute the 20% trimmed mean for the above Company A: 9.3 8.8 6.8 8.7 8.5
data set. 6.7 8.0 6.5 9.2 7.0
(f) Is the sample mean for these data more or less de- Company B: 11.0 9.8 9.9 10.2 10.1
scriptive as a center of location than the trimmed 9.7 11.0 11.1 10.2 9.6
mean? (a) Calculate the sample mean and median for the data
for the two companies.
1.2 According to the journal Chemical Engineering,
(b) Plot the data for the two companies on the same
an important property of a fiber is its water ab-
line and give your impression regarding any appar-
sorbency. A random sample of 20 pieces of cotton fiber
ent differences between the two companies.
was taken and the absorbency on each piece was mea-
sured. The following are the absorbency values:
1.5 Twenty adult males between the ages of 30 and
18.71 21.41 20.72 21.81 19.29 22.43 20.17
40 participated in a study to evaluate the effect of a
23.71 19.44 20.50 18.92 20.33 23.00 22.85
specific health regimen involving diet and exercise on
19.25 21.77 22.11 19.77 18.04 21.12
the blood cholesterol. Ten were randomly selected to
(a) Calculate the sample mean and median for the be a control group, and ten others were assigned to
above sample values. take part in the regimen as the treatment group for a
(b) Compute the 10% trimmed mean. period of 6 months. The following data show the re-
(c) Do a dot plot of the absorbency data. duction in cholesterol experienced for the time period
for the 20 subjects:
(d) Using only the values of the mean, median, and
trimmed mean, do you have evidence of outliers in Control group: 7 3 −4 14 2
the data? 5 22 −7 9 5
Treatment group: −6 5 9 4 4
1.3 A certain polymer is used for evacuation systems 12 37 5 3 3
for aircraft. It is important that the polymer be re- (a) Do a dot plot of the data for both groups on the
sistant to the aging process. Twenty specimens of the same graph.
polymer were used in an experiment. Ten were as- (b) Compute the mean, median, and 10% trimmed
signed randomly to be exposed to an accelerated batch mean for both groups.
aging process that involved exposure to high tempera-
(c) Explain why the difference in means suggests one
tures for 10 days. Measurements of tensile strength of
conclusion about the effect of the regimen, while
the specimens were made, and the following data were
the difference in medians or trimmed means sug-
recorded on tensile strength in psi:
gests a different conclusion.
No aging: 227 222 218 217 225
218 216 229 228 221
1.6 The tensile strength of silicone rubber is thought
Aging: 219 214 215 211 209
to be a function of curing temperature. A study was
218 203 204 201 205
carried out in which samples of 12 specimens of the rub-
(a) Do a dot plot of the data. ber were prepared using curing temperatures of 20◦ C
(b) From your plot, does it appear as if the aging pro- and 45◦ C. The data below show the tensile strength
cess has had an effect on the tensile strength of this values in megapascals.
14 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis

20◦ C: 2.07 2.14 2.22 2.03 2.21 2.03 (b) Compute sample mean tensile strength for both
2.05 2.18 2.09 2.14 2.11 2.02 samples.
45◦ C: 2.52 2.15 2.49 2.03 2.37 2.05
1.99 2.42 2.08 2.42 2.29 2.01 (c) Does it appear as if curing temperature has an
influence on tensile strength, based on the plot?
Comment further.
(a) Show a dot plot of the data with both low and high
(d) Does anything else appear to be influenced by an
temperature tensile strength values.
increase in curing temperature? Explain.

1.4 Measures of Variability

Sample variability plays an important role in data analysis. Process and product
variability is a fact of life in engineering and scientific systems: The control or
reduction of process variability is often a source of major difficulty. More and
more process engineers and managers are learning that product quality and, as
a result, profits derived from manufactured products are very much a function
of process variability. As a result, much of Chapters 9 through 15 deals with
data analysis and modeling procedures in which sample variability plays a major
role. Even in small data analysis problems, the success of a particular statistical
method may depend on the magnitude of the variability among the observations in
the sample. Measures of location in a sample do not provide a proper summary of
the nature of a data set. For instance, in Example 1.2 we cannot conclude that the
use of nitrogen enhances growth without taking sample variability into account.
While the details of the analysis of this type of data set are deferred to Chap-
ter 9, it should be clear from Figure 1.1 that variability among the no-nitrogen
observations and variability among the nitrogen observations are certainly of some
consequence. In fact, it appears that the variability within the nitrogen sample
is larger than that of the no-nitrogen sample. Perhaps there is something about
the inclusion of nitrogen that not only increases the stem height (x̄ of 0.565 gram
compared to an x̄ of 0.399 gram for the no-nitrogen sample) but also increases the
variability in stem height (i.e., renders the stem height more inconsistent).
As another example, contrast the two data sets below. Each contains two
samples and the difference in the means is roughly the same for the two samples, but
data set B seems to provide a much sharper contrast between the two populations
from which the samples were taken. If the purpose of such an experiment is to
detect differences between the two populations, the task is accomplished in the case
of data set B. However, in data set A the large variability within the two samples
creates difficulty. In fact, it is not clear that there is a distinction between the two
populations.

Data set A: X X X X X X 0 X X 0 0 X X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
xX x0
Data set B: X X X X X X X X X X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
xX x0
1.4 Measures of Variability 15

Sample Range and Sample Standard Deviation

Just as there are many measures of central tendency or location, there are many
measures of spread or variability. Perhaps the simplest one is the sample range
Xmax − Xmin . The range can be very useful and is discussed at length in Chapter
17 on statistical quality control. The sample measure of spread that is used most
often is the sample standard deviation. We again let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn denote
sample values.

Definition 1.3: The sample variance, denoted by s2 , is given by


n
(xi − x̄)2
s2 = .
i=1
n−1

The sample standard deviation, denoted by s, is the positive square root of

s2 , that is,
√
s = s2 .

It should be clear to the reader that the sample standard deviation is, in fact,
a measure of variability. Large variability in a data set produces relatively large
values of (x − x̄)2 and thus a large sample variance. The quantity n − 1 is often
called the degrees of freedom associated with the variance estimate. In this
simple example, the degrees of freedom depict the number of independent pieces
of information available for computing variability. For example, suppose that we
wish to compute the sample variance and standard deviation of the data set (5,
17, 6, 4). The sample average is x̄ = 8. The computation of the variance involves

(5 − 8)2 + (17 − 8)2 + (6 − 8)2 + (4 − 8)2 = (−3)2 + 92 + (−2)2 + (−4)2 .


n
The quantities inside parentheses sum to zero. In general, (xi − x̄) = 0 (see
i=1
Exercise 1.16 on page 31). Then the computation of a sample variance does not
involve n independent squared deviations from the mean x̄. In fact, since the
last value of x − x̄ is determined by the initial n − 1 of them, we say that these
are n − 1 “pieces of information” that produce s2 . Thus, there are n − 1 degrees
of freedom rather than n degrees of freedom for computing a sample variance.

Example 1.4: In an example discussed extensively in Chapter 10, an engineer is interested in

testing the “bias” in a pH meter. Data are collected on the meter by measuring
the pH of a neutral substance (pH = 7.0). A sample of size 10 is taken, with results
given by

7.07 7.00 7.10 6.97 7.00 7.03 7.01 7.01 6.98 7.08.

The sample mean x̄ is given by

7.07 + 7.00 + 7.10 + · · · + 7.08
x̄ = = 7.0250.
10
16 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis

The sample variance s2 is given by

1
s2 = [(7.07 − 7.025)2 + (7.00 − 7.025)2 + (7.10 − 7.025)2
9
+ · · · + (7.08 − 7.025)2 ] = 0.001939.

As a result, the sample standard deviation is given by

√
s = 0.001939 = 0.044.

So the sample standard deviation is 0.0440 with n − 1 = 9 degrees of freedom.

Units for Standard Deviation and Variance

It should be apparent from Definition 1.3 that the variance is a measure of the
average squared deviation from the mean x̄. We use the term average squared
deviation even though the definition makes use of a division by degrees of freedom
n − 1 rather than n. Of course, if n is large, the difference in the denominator
is inconsequential. As a result, the sample variance possesses units that are the
square of the units in the observed data whereas the sample standard deviation
is found in linear units. As an example, consider the data of Example 1.2. The
stem weights are measured in grams. As a result, the sample standard deviations
are in grams and the variances are measured in grams2 . In fact, the individual
standard deviations are 0.0728 gram for the no-nitrogen case and 0.1867 gram for
the nitrogen group. Note that the standard deviation does indicate considerably
larger variability in the nitrogen sample. This condition was displayed in Figure
1.1.

Which Variability Measure Is More Important?

As we indicated earlier, the sample range has applications in the area of statistical
quality control. It may appear to the reader that the use of both the sample
variance and the sample standard deviation is redundant. Both measures reflect the
same concept in measuring variability, but the sample standard deviation measures
variability in linear units whereas the sample variance is measured in squared
units. Both play huge roles in the use of statistical methods. Much of what is
accomplished in the context of statistical inference involves drawing conclusions
about characteristics of populations. Among these characteristics are constants
which are called population parameters. Two important parameters are the
population mean and the population variance. The sample variance plays an
explicit role in the statistical methods used to draw inferences about the population
variance. The sample standard deviation has an important role along with the
sample mean in inferences that are made about the population mean. In general,
the variance is considered more in inferential theory, while the standard deviation
is used more in applications.
1.5 Discrete and Continuous Data 17

Exercises

1.7 Consider the drying time data for Exercise 1.1 1.10 For the data of Exercise 1.4 on page 13, com-
on page 13. Compute the sample variance and sample pute both the mean and the variance in “flexibility”
standard deviation. for both company A and company B. Does there ap-
pear to be a difference in flexibility between company
1.8 Compute the sample variance and standard devi- A and company B?
ation for the water absorbency data of Exercise 1.2 on
page 13. 1.11 Consider the data in Exercise 1.5 on page 13.
Compute the sample variance and the sample standard
1.9 Exercise 1.3 on page 13 showed tensile strength deviation for both control and treatment groups.
data for two samples, one in which specimens were ex-
posed to an aging process and one in which there was 1.12 For Exercise 1.6 on page 13, compute the sample
no aging of the specimens. standard deviation in tensile strength for the samples
(a) Calculate the sample variance as well as standard separately for the two temperatures. Does it appear as
deviation in tensile strength for both samples. if an increase in temperature influences the variability
(b) Does there appear to be any evidence that aging in tensile strength? Explain.
affects the variability in tensile strength? (See also
the plot for Exercise 1.3 on page 13.)

1.5 Discrete and Continuous Data

Statistical inference through the analysis of observational studies or designed ex-
periments is used in many scientific areas. The data gathered may be discrete
or continuous, depending on the area of application. For example, a chemical
engineer may be interested in conducting an experiment that will lead to condi-
tions where yield is maximized. Here, of course, the yield may be in percent or
grams/pound, measured on a continuum. On the other hand, a toxicologist con-
ducting a combination drug experiment may encounter data that are binary in
nature (i.e., the patient either responds or does not).
Great distinctions are made between discrete and continuous data in the prob-
ability theory that allow us to draw statistical inferences. Often applications of
statistical inference are found when the data are count data. For example, an en-
gineer may be interested in studying the number of radioactive particles passing
through a counter in, say, 1 millisecond. Personnel responsible for the efficiency
of a port facility may be interested in the properties of the number of oil tankers
arriving each day at a certain port city. In Chapter 5, several distinct scenarios,
leading to different ways of handling data, are discussed for situations with count
data.
Special attention even at this early stage of the textbook should be paid to some
details associated with binary data. Applications requiring statistical analysis of
binary data are voluminous. Often the measure that is used in the analysis is
the sample proportion. Obviously the binary situation involves two categories.
If there are n units involved in the data and x is defined as the number that
fall into category 1, then n − x fall into category 2. Thus, x/n is the sample
proportion in category 1, and 1 − x/n is the sample proportion in category 2. In
the biomedical application, 50 patients may represent the sample units, and if 20
out of 50 experienced an improvement in a stomach ailment (common to all 50)
after all were given the drug, then 20 50 = 0.4 is the sample proportion for which