Exercises Print

Automatic Control Basic Course
Exercises 2022
Department of Automatic Control

Compendium
ISSN 0280–5316
Department of Automatic Control

Lund University
Box 118
SE-221 00 LUND
Sweden
© 2022 by Lund University. All rights reserved

Printed in Sweden.
Lund 2022
Contents
Part I. Exercises 5
1. Model Building and Linearization 7
2. Dynamical Systems 10
3. Frequency Analysis 16
4. Feedback Systems 20
5. State Feedback and Kalman Filtering 28
6. Design methods 32
7. Controller Structures 40
8. Design Examples 45
9. Interactive Comparison Between Model Descriptions 54
Part II. Solutions to Exercises 57

1. Model Building and Linearization 59
2. Dynamical Systems 64
3. Frequency Analysis 74
4. Feedback Systems 82
5. State Feedback and Kalman Filtering 91
6. Design methods 97
7. Controller Structures 113
8. Design Examples 119
9. Interactive Comparison Between Model Descriptions 123
3
Part I
Exercises
Exercises 1
Model Building and Linearization
1.1 Many everyday situations may be described and analyzed using concepts from
automatic control. Analyze the scenarios below and try to give a description that
captures the relevant properties of the system:
• What should be controlled?

• What control signals are used?
• What measurement signals are available?
• Is the system affected by any disturbances?
• Is feedback or feedforward used for control?
• Draw a block diagram that describes the system. The block diagram should
show how the measurement signals, control signals, and the disturbances are
connected to the human (which here is the controller), and to the process.
a. You take a shower and try to get desired temperature and flow of the water.
b. You drive a car.
c. You boil potatoes on the stove.
1.2 A car drives on a flat road and we assume that friction and air resistance are
negligible. We want to study how the car is affected by the gas pedal position u.
We assume that u varies between 0 and 1, and that the acceleration of the car is
proportional to the gas pedal position, a = ku.
u y
Car
a. Write down the differential equation that describes the relation between the gas
pedal position u and the velocity v of the car.
b. Let instead the position p of the car be the output signal, y = p. Introduce the
states x1 = v and x2 = p, and write the system on state-space form.
c. Assume that the car is affected by air resistance that gives a counter force that is
proportional to the square of the velocity of the car. With the gas pedal position as
control signal and the velocity of the car as measurement signal, the system may
now be written as
ẋ = −mx2 + ku
y=x
The system is no longer linear (why?). Let k = 1 and m = 0.001. Find the
stationary velocity y0 that corresponds to the gas pedal being 10% down, u0 = 0.1.
d. Linearize the system around the stationary point in c.
7
Exercises 1. Model Building and Linearization
y( t)
1.3 In the right figure, a mass m is attached
to a wall with a spring and a damper. k
The spring has a spring constant k and f ( t)
m
the damper has a damping constant c.
It is assumed that k > c2 /4m. An ex-
c
ternal force f is acting on the mass. We
denote the translation of the mass from
its equilibrium position by y. Further, we let f ( t) be the input signal and y( t) be
the output signal. The force equation gives
m ÿ = − ky − c ẏ + f
Introduce the states x1 = y and x2 = ẏ and write down the state space represen-
tation of the system.
i R
1.4 In the RLC circuit to the right, the in-
put and output voltages are given by
vin ( t) and vout ( t), respectively. By means vin C vout
of Kirchhoff’s voltage law we see that L
di
vin − Ri − vout − L =0
dt
For the capacitor, we additionally have
C v̇out = i
Introduce the states x1 = vout and x2 = v̇out and give the state space representation
of the system.
1.5 A cylindrical water tank with cross section

A has an inflow q in and an outflow q ut . The
outlet area is a. Under the assumption that q in
the outlet area is small in comparison to
the cross
√ section of the tank, Torricelli’s law
vout = 2 h is valid and gives the outflow
rate.
a. What would be a suitable state variable for h
this system? Determine a differential equa-
tion, which tells how the state variable de-
q out
pends on the inflow q in .
b. Asume that measurement signal y is given by level h. Give a state-space repre-

sentation of the system.
c. Let the inflow be constant, q in = q0in . Determine the corresponding constant tank
level h0 and outflow q0ut . Linearize the system around this stationary point.
1.6 Give the state space representation of the system

...
y + 3 ÿ + 2 ẏ + y = u
where u( t) and y( t) are the input and output, respectively. Choose states x1 = y,
x2 = ẏ and x3 = ÿ.
1.7 A process with output y( t) and input u( t) is described by the differential equation
√
ÿ + y + y ẏ = u2
a. Introduce states x1 = y, x2 = ẏ and give the state space representation of the

system.
8
Exercises 1. Model Building and Linearization
b. Find all stationary points ( x01 , x02 , u0 ) of the system.
c. Linearize the system around the stationary point corresponding to u0 = 1.
1.8 Linearize the system

√
ẋ1 = x21 x2 + 2 sin u ( = f1 ( x1 , x2 , u))
√
ẋ2 = x1 x22 +
2 cos u ( = f2 ( x1 , x2 , u))
x2
y = arctan + 2u2 ( = ( x1 , x2 , u))
x1
around the stationary point u0 = π /4.
1.9 A simple model of a satellite, orbiting the earth, is given by the differential equation
β
r̈( t) = r( t)ω 2 − + u( t)
r2 ( t)
where r is the satellite’s distance to the earth and ω is its angular acceleration,
see Figure 1.1. The satellite has an engine, which can exert a radial force u.
u( t)
r( t)
Figure 1.1 Satellite orbiting the earth.
a. Introduce the state vector  

r( t)
x( t) = 

 
ṙ( t)

and write down the nonlinear state space equations for the system.
b. Linearize the state space equations around the stationary point

! " ! "
r, ṙ, u = r0 , 0, 0
Consider r as the output and give the state space representation of the linear
system. Express r0 in β and ω.
9
Exercises 2
Dynamical Systems
2.1 A dynamical system may be described in various ways – with a transfer function,
with a differential equation, and with a system of differential equations on state-
space form. In this problem we transfer between the different representations
for four examples of dynamical systems, from biology, mechanics, electronics, and
economics.
a. A model for bacterial growth in a bioreactor is given by

   
 10 1  0
ẋ =  x+
  u
−1 −1 1

 
y = 1 0  x
where u is the inflow of glucose to the reactor, and y is the bio mass. Determine
the transfer function from u to y, and a differential equation that determines the
relation between the input and output signals of the system.
b. A simple model of a telescope is given by
d2 y dy
J 2
+D =u
dt dt
where yis the angle of the telescope to the earth surface, and u is the torque from
the motor that controls the telescope. Determine the transfer function from u to y
and write the system on state-space form.
c. An electronic low pass filter is used at recordings to attenuate high frequency

noise. The input u is the original noisy signal, and the output y is the recorded
signal. The filter is given on state-space form as
dx 1 1
=− x+ u
dt k k
y=x
Determine the transfer function from u to y.
d. The transfer function for a model that describes economical growth is given by
γ
G(s) =
s3 + αs2 + β s
where the input u is the difference between savings and investments in the econ-
omy, and the output y is GDP. Write the system on state-space form.
2.2 Determine the transfer functions and give differential equations, describing the
relation between input and output for the following systems, respectively.
a.
   
−2 0  5
ẋ =  x+ u

   
0 −3 2
 
y = −1 1 x + 2u
10
Exercises 2. Dynamical Systems
b.
   
 −7 2 3
ẋ =  x+
  u
−15 4 8

 
y =  −2 1 x
c.
   
−1 0  3
ẋ =  x+ u

   
0 −4 2
 
y = 1 0 x + 5u
d.
   
1 4  −1
ẋ =  x+
   u
−2 −3 1

 
y = 1 2 x + 3u
2.3 Determine the impulse and step responses of the systems in assignment 2.2.
2.4 Derive the formula G(s) = C (s I − A)−1 B + D for a general system
ẋ = Ax + Bu
y = C x + Du
2.5 Consider the system
1
G(s) =
s2 + 4s + 3
a. Calculate the poles and zeros of the system. Is the system stable?
b. What is the static gain of the system?
c. Calculate the initial value and final value of the step response of the system.
d. Calculate the initial value and final value of the impulse response of the system.
e. Calculate the initial derivative of the step response of the system.

0.25
G(s) =
s2 + 0.6s + 0.25
a. Calculate the poles and zeros of the system.
b. What is the static gain of the system?
c. Calculate and sketch the step response of the system.
2.7 Determine the transfer function and poles of the oscillating mass in assignment 1.3.
Explain how the poles move if one changes k and c, respectively. Can the poles
end up in the right half plane?
2.8 Determine the transfer function of
a. the RLC circuit in assignment 1.4,
b. the linearized tank in assignment 1.5.
11
2.9 Consider the linear time invariant system

   
dx 0 −1 1
= x+
  u
dt 1 0 0

 
y = 1 −1 x
a. Is the system asymptotically stable?
b. Is the system stable?
2.10 Does the transfer function

s+4
G(s) =
s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 7
have any poles in the right half plane?
2.11 Determine which five of the following transfer functions correspond to the step
responses A–E below.
0.1 4
G1 (s) = G2 (s) =
s + 0.1 s2 + 2s + 4
0.5 −0.5
G3 (s) = 2 G4 (s) = 2
s − 0.1s + 2 s + 0.1s + 2
1 4
G5 (s) = G6 (s) = 2
s+1 s + 0.8s + 4
2
G7 (s) = 2
s +s+3
y( t) y( t)
A B
1 1
0 0
0 1 5 10 t 0 1 5 10 t
y( t) y( t)
C D
1 1
0 0
0 1 5 10 t 0 1 5 10 t
y( t)
E
1
0
0 1 5 10 t
12
2.12 Pair each of the four pole-zero plots with the corresponding step responses A–G.
1. 2.
1 1
−3 −2 −1 1 −3 −2 −1 1
−1 −1
3. 4.
1 1
−3 −2 −1 1 −3 −2 −1 1
−1 −1
y( t) y( t) B
A 1
1
t
1 5 10
0
0 1 5 10 t
y( t) y( t)
C D
1 1
0 0
0 1 5 10 t 0 1 5 10 t
y( t) y( t)
E F
1
1
0 1 5 10
0 1 5 10 t
y( t)
G
1
t
1 5 10
2.13 Glycemic index (GI) is a measure of how fast carbohydrates in food are processed
by the body. To obtain the glycemic index, the system below is studied, where G(s)
is different for different types of carbohydrates.
13
Food intake Glucose level

G(s)
a. The figure below shows the impulse response from food intake to glucose level for
two types of food: whole grain pasta with low GI (solid line) and lemonade with
high GI (dashed line). Which of the following transfer functions may be used to
model the uptake of whole grain pasta and lemonade, respectively?
1 1
G1 (s) = G2 (s) =
s+1 s/3 + 1
1 1
G3 (s) = G4 (s) =
(s + 1)2 (s/3 + 1)2
1 1
G5 (s) = G6 (s) =
s(s + 1) s(s/3 + 1)
Blood Glucose
Wholemeal Pasta
1.0
Lemonade
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t [h]
b. Why is it more relevant to look at the impulse response rather than the step
response for this application?
2.14 Determine the transfer function from U to Y for the systems below.
a.
U P Y
G1
G2
b.
H1
P Y
G1 G2
U
H2
c.
14
P
G3
U P
G1 G2
Y
d.
U P P Y
G1 G2
− H2
− H1
2.15 The block diagram in Figure 2.1 describes temperature control in a room. The
measurement signal y is the temperature in the room. The control signal u is
the power of the radiators. The reference value r is the desired temperature. A
controller G R (s) controls the power of the radiators based on the difference of the
desired and measured temperature, e. The temperature of the room is also affected
by the outdoor temperature, which may be seen as a disturbance, d.
D(s)
R(s) P E (s) U (s) P Y (s)

G R (s) G P (s )
−1
Figure 2.1
a. Determine the transfer function from R(s) to Y (s).
b. Determine the transfer function from D(s) to Y (s).
c. Determine the transfer function from R(s) to E (s).
d. Determine the transfer function from D(s) to U (s).
2.16 Consider the transfer function

s2 + 6s + 7
G(s) =
s2 + 5s + 6
Write the system on
a. diagonal form,
b. controllable canonical form,
c. observable canonical form.
15
Exercises 3
Frequency Analysis
3.1 Assume that the system

0.01(1 + 10s)
G(s) =
(1 + s)(1 + 0.1s)
is subject to the input u( t) = sin 3t, −∞ < t < ∞
a. Determine the output y( t).
b. The Bode plot of the system is shown below. Determine the output y( t) by using
the Bode plot instead.
10−1
Magnitude
10−2
10−3
45
0
Phase
−45
−90
10−3 10−2 10−1 100 101 102 103
Frequency
3.2 We analyze the two systems in Figure 3.1; the sea water in Öresund and the water
in a small garden pool. The input signal to the systems is the air temperature and
the output is the water temperature.
a. Figure 3.2 shows two Bode diagrams. Which diagram corresponds to which system?
b. We assume that the air temperature has sinusoidal variations with a period time
T = 1 year. The greatest temperature in the summer is 19○ C and the lowest
temperature in the winter is −5○ C. What is the difference between the greatest
and lowest sea water temperature over the year? Use the Bode diagram.
c. During a summer day we assume that the air temperature has sinusoidal varia-
tions with a period time T = 1 day. The greatest temperature of the day (at 13.00)
is 27○ C, and the lowest temperature (at 01.00) is 14○ C. At what time during the
day is the water in the garden pool the warmest?
16
Exercises 3. Frequency Analysis
Air Water
temperature temperature
G1 (s)
Air Water
temperature temperature
G2 (s)
Figure 3.1
100
10−1
pG(iω p
10−2
10−3
10−4
0
arg(G(iω ))
−45
−90
10−5 10−4 10−3 10−2 10−1 100 101
ω[rad/h]
Figure 3.2 Bode diagram in problem 3.2.
3.3 Assume that the oscillating mass in assignment 1.3 has m = 0.1 kg, c =
0.05 Ns/cm and k = 0.1 N/cm. The transfer function is then given by
10
G(s) =
s2 + 0.5s + 1
a. Let the mass be subject to the force f = sin ω t, −∞ < t < ∞. Calculate the output
for ω = 0.2, 1 and 30 rad/s.
b. Instead, use the Bode plot of the system in Figure 3.3 to determine the output for
ω = 0.2, 1 and 30 rad/s.
3.4 Draw the Bode plots corresponding to the following transfer functions
17
101
100
Magnitude
10−1
10−2
10−3
−45
Phase
−90
−135
−180
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
Frequency
Figure 3.3 The Bode plot of the oscillating mass in assignment 3.3.
a. 3
G(s) =
1 + s/10
b. 10
G(s) =
(1 + 10s)(1 + s)
c. e −s
G(s) =
1+s
d. 1+s
G(s) =
s(1 + s/10)
e. 2(1 + 5s)
G(s) =
s(1 + 0.2s + 0.25s2 )
3.5 Exploit the results from the previous assignment in order to draw the Nyquist
curves of
a. 3
G(s) =
1 + s/10
b. 10
G(s) =
(1 + 10s)(1 + s)
c. e −s
G(s) =
1+s
3.6 The Bode plot below was obtained by means of frequency response experiments,
in order to analyze the dynamics of a stable system. What is the transfer function
of the system?
18
100
10−1
Gain
10−2
10−3
10−4
0
Phase
−45
−90
10−2 10−1 100 101 102 103 104

Frequency
3.7 Measurements resulting in the Bode plot below have been conducted in order to
analyze the dynamics of an unknown system. Use the Bode plot to determine the
transfer function of the system.
100
Magnitude
10−1
10−2
90
0
Phase
−90
−180
−270
10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101 2 5 102 2 5 103
Frequency
19
Exercises 4
Feedback Systems
4.1 Assume that the air temperature y inside an oven is described by the differential
equation
ẏ( t) + 0.01y( t) = 0.01u( t)
where u is the temperature of the heating element.
a. Let u be the input and y the output and determine the transfer function G P (s) of
the oven.
b. The oven is to be controlled by a P controller, G R (s) = K, according to the block

diagram below. Write down the transfer function of the closed loop system.
r P e u y
GR GP
−1
c. Choose K such that the closed loop system obtains the characteristic polynomial
s + 0.1
4.2 The below figure shows a block diagram of a hydraulic servo system in an auto-
mated lathe.
r P e u P y
GR GP
−1
The measurement signal y( t) represents the position of the tool head. The reference
tool position is r( t), and the shear force is denoted f ( t). G R is the transfer function
of the position sensor and signal amplifier, while G P represents the dynamics of
the tool mount and hydraulic piston
1
G P (s) =
ms2 + ds
where m is the mass of the piston and tool mount, and d is the viscous damping
of the tool mount. In the assignment it is assumed that r( t) = 0.
a. How large does the deviation e( t) = r( t)− y( t) between the reference- and measured
tool head position become in stationarity if the shear force f ( t) is a unit step? The
controller is assumed to have a constant gain G R (s) = K.
20
Exercises 4. Feedback Systems
b. How is this error changed if the amplifier is replaced by a PI controller with

transfer function G R (s) = K 1 + K 2 /s?
4.3 A process is controlled by a P controller according to the figure below. It is assumed

that r = 0.
r P u P y
GR GP
−1
a. Measurements of the process output indicate a disturbance n. Calculate the trans-

fer functions from n to y and n to u.
b. Let G P (s) = s+1 1 and assume that the disturbance consists of a sinusoid n( t) =
A sin ω t. What will u and y become, after the decay of transients?
c. Assume that K = 1 and A = 1 in the previous sub-assignment. Calculate the

amplitude of oscillation in u and y for the cases ω = 0.1 and 10 rad/s, respectively.
4.4 The below figure shows a block diagram of a gyro stabilized platform. It is con-
trolled by an motor which exerts a momentum on the platform. The angular
position of the platform is sensed by a gyroscope, which outputs a signal pro-
portional to the platform’s deviation from the reference value. The measurement
signal is amplified by an amplifier with transfer function G R .
θ ref P P 1 θ
G R (s ) K
Js2
−1
It is desired that step changes in the reference θ ref or the disturbance momentum
M on the platform do not result in persisting angular errors. Give the form of
the transfer function G R , which guarantees that the above criteria hold. Hint:
Postulate G R (s) = Q(s)/ P (s)
4.5 When heating a thermal bath, one can assume that the temperature increases
linearly with 1○ C/s. The temperature is measured by means of a thermocouple
with transfer function
1
G(s) =
1 + sT
with time constant T = 10 s.
After some initial oscillations, a stationary state, in the sense that the temperature
measurement increases with constant rate, is reached. At a time instant, the
temperature measurement reads 102.6○ C. Calculate the actual temperature of the
bath.
21
4.6 Consider the system G0 (s) with the following asymptotic gain curve. Assume that
the system lacks delays and right half plane zeros.
log pG0 p
slope −2
pG0 p = 1
slope −1
ω=1 ω=5 log ω
Further assume that the system is subject to negative feedback and that the closed
loop system is stable. Which of the following setpoints can be tracked by the closed
loop system, without a stationary error?
Assume r( t) = 0 for t < 0, and that the constants a, b and c ,= 0.
a. r( t) = a
b. r( t) = bt
c. r( t) = ct2
d. r( t) = a + bt
e. r( t) = sin( t)
1
4.7 In a simple control circuit, the process and controller are given by G P (s) =
(s + 1)3
and G R (s) = 6.5, respectively.
a. Determine the sensitivity function S (s).

The gain plot of the sensitivity function is given below.
101
Magnitude
100
10−1
10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101
Frequency[rad/s]
b. How much are low-frequency load disturbances damped by the control circuit in
closed loop, as compared to open loop?
c. At which angular frequency does the control circuit exhibit the largest sensitivity
towards disturbances and by how much are disturbances amplified at most?
22
4.8 The below figure shows the gain curves of the sensitivity function S and comple-
mentary sensitivity function T for a normal control circuit.
100
10−1
Gain
10−2
10−3
100
Gain
10−1
10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101

Frequency[rad/s]
a. Determine which curve corresponds to the sensitivity function and complementary

sensitivity function, respectively.
b. Give the frequency range where disturbances are amplified by the feedback loop,
and the frequency range where they are damped by the feedback loop. What is the
maximum gain of disturbance amplification?
c. Give the frequency ranges where the output exhibits good tracking of the reference
signal.
d. What is the minimal distance between the Nyquist curve of the open loop system
and the point −1 in the complex plane? What does this say about the gain margin?
4.9 In a simple control loop, the open loop transfer function is given by
K
Go (s) = G R (s)G P (s) =
s(s + 2)
Draw the root locus of the characteristic equation of the closed loop system, with
respect to the gain parameter K.
4.10 A simple control loop has the open loop transfer function
K (s + 10)(s + 11)
Go (s) = G R (s)G P (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
a. minor tick outside major Which values of K yield a stable closed loop system?
b. Sketch the characteristics of the root locus.
4.11 The figure below shows the block diagram of a printer.
a. Which values of the gain K yield an asymptotically stable system?
23
b. The goal is to track a reference which increases linearly with rate 0.1 V/s, and
guarantee a stationary error of less than 5 mV. Can this be achieved by adequate
tuning of the gain K?
r P K 1 y
s+2 s(s + 1)
−1
4.12 Consider the Nyquist curves in Figure 4.1. Assume that the corresponding systems
are controlled by the P controller
u = K (r − y)
In all cases the open loop systems lack poles in the right half plane. Which values
of K yield a stable closed loop system?
a) Im b) Im
Re Re
−2 −1 1 −2 −1 1
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
c) Im d) Im
Re Re
−2 −1 1 −2 −1 1
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
Figure 4.1 Nyquist curves in assignment 4.12.
4.13 The transfer function of a process is given by

1
Gp (s) =
(s + 1)3
The loop is closed through proportional feedback
u = K (r − y)
Use the Nyquist criterion to find the critical value of the gain K (i.e. the value for
which the system transits from stability to instability).
4.14 The Nyquist curve of a system is given in Figure 4.2. The system is stable, i.e.
lacks poles in the right half plane.
Assume that the system is subject to proportional feedback
u = K (r − y)
Which values of the gain K result in a stable closed loop system?
24
Re
Im
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−0.5
−1
Figure 4.2 Nyquist curve of the system in assignment 4.14.
4.15 In order to obtain constant product quality in a cement kiln, it is crucial that the
burn zone temperature is held constant. This is achieved by measuring the burn
zone temperature and controlling the fuel flow with a proportional controller. A
block diagram of the system is shown below.
burn zone temp.
reference temp. fuel flow
P
GR GP
−1
Find the maximal value of the controller gain K, such that the closed loop system
remains stable? The transfer function from fuel flow to burn zone temperature is
given by
e−9s
G P (s) =
(1 + 20s)2
4.16 In a distillation column, the transfer function from supplied energy to liquid phase
concentration of a volatile component is
e−sL
G P (s) =
1 + 10s
where time is measured in minutes. The process is controlled by a PI controller
with transfer function 3 4
1
G R (s) = 10 1 +
2s
What is the maximal permitted transportation delay L, yielding at least a 10○
phase margin?
4.17 A process with transfer function G P (s) is subject to feedback according to Fig-
ure 4.3.
All poles of G P (s) lie in the left half plane and the Nyquist curve of G P is shown in
Figure 4.4. It is assumed that G P (iω ) does not cross the real axis at other points
than shown in the figure.
Which of the below alternatives are true? Motivate!
a. The gain margin Am < 2 for K = 1.
b. The phase margin φ m < 45○ for K = 1.
c. The phase margin decreases with decreasing gain K.
25
r P y
K G P (s)
−1
Figure 4.3 The closed loop system in assignment 4.17.
Im
Re
−1.5 −1 −0.5
−0.5
−1
Figure 4.4 Nyquist curve of the process G P (s) in assignment 4.17.
d. For K = 2 the closed loop system becomes unstable.
4.18 The Bode plot of the open loop transfer function, Go = G R G P , is shown in Fig-
ure 4.5. Assume that the system is subject to negative feedback.
a. How much can the the gain of the controller or process be increased without
making the closed loop system unstable?
b. How much additional negative phase shift can be introduced at the cross-over
frequency without making the closed loop system unstable?
4.19 A Bode plot of the open loop transfer function of the controlled lower tank in
the double tank process is shown in Figure 4.6. What is the delay margin of the
system?
26
Gain
0.1
−90
−135
Phase
−180
−225
0.1 0.2 0.5 1
Frequency
Figure 4.5 Bode plot of the open loop system in Figure 4.18.
Figure 4.6 Bode plot of the open loop transfer function of the controlled lower tank in the
double tank process in problem 4.19.
27
Exercises 5
State Feedback and Kalman Filtering
5.1 A linear system is described by the matrices

   
−1 1  β 
 
A= B= C = 0 γ  D=0

   
0 −2 1
 
a. For which values of β is the system controllable?
b. For which values of γ is the system observable?
5.2 A linear system is described by the matrices

   
−2 0  4
 
A= B= C =  −1 1

 
 
1 0 −2
 
Find the set of controllable states.
5.3 Consider the system    

dx  −2 −1 1
= x+
  u
dt 1 0 2

 
y = 1 1  x
Is it observable? If not, find the set of unobservable states.

     
dx  −1 0  1 1
= x+
   u, x(0) =  
dt 0 −2 0 1
  
! "T ! "T ! "T ! "T ! "T

Which of the states 3 0.5 , 5 5 , 0 0 , 10 0.1 or 1 −0.5 can be
reached in finite time?
5.5 Consider the following system:

   
dx  −2 3  1
= x+
  u
dt 1 −4 2

 
y = 3 7 x
Is it controllable?
5.6 A dynamic system is described by the state space model below

   
−2 2  5
ẋ =  x+ u

   
0 −3 0
 
y = 1 0  x
a. Is the system controllable? Which states can be reached in finite time from the
! "T
initial state x(0) = 0 0 ?
28
Exercises 5. State Feedback and Kalman Filtering
b. Calculate the transfer function of the system.
c. Can the same input-output relation be described with fewer states? Write down
such a representation, if possible.
5.7 A linear dynamical system with transfer function G(s) is given. The system is
controllable. Which of the following statements are unquestionably true?
a. The poles of the closed loop system’s transfer function can be arbitrarily placed by
means of feedback from all states.
b. The zeros of the closed loop system’s transfer function can be arbitrarily placed by
means of feedback from all states.
c. If the state variables are not available for measurements, they can always be
estimated by diffrentiating the system output.
d. If the state vector is estimated by a Kalman filter
x̂˙ = A x̂ + Bu + L( y − C x̂)
one can obtain an arbitrarily fast convergence of the estimate x̂ towards the actual
state vector x, by choice of the matrix L.
5.8 Determine a control law u = k r r − K x for the system

   
dx  −1 0  1
= x+
  u
dt 0 −2 2

 
y = 1 1 x
such that the poles of the closed loop system are placed in −4 and the stationary
gain is 1.
5.9 The position of a hard drive head is described by the state space model
   
dx −0.5 0 3
= x+
  u
dt 1 0 0

 
y = 0 1 x
a. Determine a state feedback

u = − K x + kr r
which places the poles of the closed loop system in s = −4 ± 4i and results in static
gain 1 from reference to output.
b. Determine a Kalman filter

d x̂
= A x̂ + Bu + L( y − C x̂)
dt
for the system. Briefly motivate necessary design choices.
5.10 Figure 5.1 shows the lunar lander LEM of the Apollo project. We will study a
possible system for controlling its horizontal movement above the moon surface.
Assume that the lander floats some distance above the moon surface by means
of the rocket engine. If the angle of attack (the angle of the craft in relation to
the normal of the moon surface) is nonzero, a horizontal force component appears,
yielding an acceleration along the moon surface.
29
θ
attitude rockets
direction of movement
Figure 5.1 The lunar lander in assignment 5.10.
r P u θ¨ θ˙ θ z̈ ż z
K1 1/s 1/s K2 1/s 1/s
feedback x1 x2 x3
Figure 5.2 Block diagram of the lander dynamics along the z-axis.
Study the block diagram in Figure 5.2 showing the relation between the control
signal u of the rocket engine, the angle of attack, θ , and the position z.
The craft obeys Newton’s law of motion in both the θ and z directions. The transfer
function from the astronaut’s control signal u to the position z is
l1l2
G z (s) =
s4
and it is quite impossible to manually maneuver the craft. To facilitate the as-
tronaut’s maneuvering task, we alter the craft dynamics by introducing internal
feedback loops. This means that the astronaut’s control lever is not directly con-
nected to the motors, but works as a joystick that decides the desired velocity of
the craft.
A controller should then convert the movement of the control lever to a control
signal to the steer rockets. We are in possession the following measurement signals:
• The time derivative of the attack angle, θ˙ , measured by a rate gyro.

• The acceleration in the z direction, z̈, measured by accelerometers mounted
on a gyro-stabilized platform.
• The speed in the z direction, ż, measured by Doppler radar.
a. Introduce the states

x1 = θ˙
x2 = z̈
x3 = ż
and write the system on state-space form. Let the velocity in the z direction be
the output signal of the system.
b. Determine a feedback controller which utilizes the three measurements, and re-
sults in a closed-loop system with three poles in s = −0.5, and lets the control
signal of the astronaut be the speed reference in the z direction. You don’t have to
calculate the gain k r .
5.11 A conventional state feedback law does note guarantee integral action. The fol-
lowing procedure is a way of introducing integral action. Let the nominal system
be
dx
= Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx
30
Augment the state vector with an extra component

Z t Z t
xn+1 = e(s) ds = (r(s) − y(s)) ds
The obtained system is described by

     
d xe  A 0  B 0
=  xe + 
   u + 
 r
dt −C 0 0 1

where  
x 
xe = 

 
xn+1

A state feedback law for this system results in a control law of the form
u = − K x − k n+1 xn+1 = − K e x e
This controller, which steers y towards r, obviously has integral action. Use this
methodology in order to determine a state feedback controller with integral action
for the system    
dx 0 1  0
= x + u
 

 
dt 0 0 1
 
 
y = 1 0 x
such that the closed loop system obtains the characteristic polynomial
! "
(s + α) s2 + 2ζ ωs + ω 2 = 0
5.12 Consider the system    

dx  −2 1  1
= x+
  u
dt 1 −2 2

 
y = 0 1 x
One wishes to estimate the state variables by means of the model

d x̂
= A x̂ + Bu + L( y − C x̂)
dt
Determine L such that the poles of the Kalman filter are placed in s = −4.
5.13 Consider the dynamical system

  
dx  −4 −3 1
= x + u
 

 
dt 1 0 0
 
 
y = 1 3  x
One desires a closed loop system with all poles in −4.
a. Assign feedback gains to all states such that the closed loop system obtains the
desired feature.
b. Assume that only the output y is available for measurement. In order to use state
feedback, the state x must be first be estimated by means of e.g. a Kalman filter,
yielding the estimate x̂. Subsequently, the control law u = − K x̂ can be applied.
Is it possible to determine a Kalman filter for which the estimation error decreases
according to the characteristic polynomial (s + 6)2 ?
c. Is it possible to determine a Kalman filter for which the estimation error decreases
according to the characteristic polynomial (s + 3)2 ?
Briefly comment the obtained results.
31
Exercises 6
Design methods
6.1 A PID controller has the transfer function

3 4
1
G R (s) = K 1 + + Td s
Ti s
a. Determine the gain and phase shift of the controller at an arbitrary frequency ω.
b. At which frequency does the controller have its minimal gain? What is the gain
and phase shift for this frequency?
6.2 The process

1
G(s) =
(s + 1)3
is controlled by a PID controller with K = 2, Ti = 2 and Td = 0.5. In order
to investigate the effect of changing the PID parameters, we will change K, TI
and Td by a certain factor, one at a time. We will observe how this affects both
the step response (from reference and load disturbance) and the Bode plot of the
controlled open loop system. The reference is a unit step at t = 0 whereas the load
disturbance is a negative unit step.
a. We start by studying what happens when the parameters are quadrupled, one
at a time. Figure 6.1 shows the nominal case ( K, Ti , Td ) = (2, 2, 0.5) (solid black
curves) together with the cases (8, 2, 0.5), (2, 8, 0.5) and (2, 2, 2). Pair the three
Bode plots and the step responses of Figure 6.1 with the three cases.
b. We now study what happens when each parameter is decreased by a factor 2. The
nominal case ( K, Ti , Td ) = (2, 2, 0.5) (solid curves) is shown in Figure 6.2 together
with the cases (1, 2, 0.5), (2, 1, 0.5) and (2, 2, 0.25). Pair the three Bode plots and
the three step responses in Figure 6.2 with these three cases.
6.3 The steer dynamics of a ship are approximately described by
dr
J + Dr = Cδ
dt
where r is the yaw rate [rad/s] and δ is the rudder angle [rad]. Further, J [kgm2 ]
is the momentum of inertia wrt the yaw axis of the boat, D [Nms] is the damping
constant and C [Nm/rad] is a constant describing the rudder efficiency. Let the
rudder angle δ be the control signal. Give a PI controller for control of the yaw
rate, such that the closed loop system obtains the characteristic equation
s2 + 2ζ ωs + ω 2 = 0
6.4 An electric motor can approximately be described by the differential equation
d 2θ dθ
J +D = ki I
dt2 dt
where J is the moment of inertia, D is a damping constant and k i is the current
constant of the motor. Further, θ denotes the turning angle and I the current
through the motor. Let θ be the measurement signal and I the control signal.
32
Exercises 6. Design methods
102
Magnitude
100
10−2
10−4
−45
−90
Phase
−135
−180
−225
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
Frequency
y( t)
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 t
Figure 6.1 Bode plot and step response for the case when the PID parameters in sub-
assignment 6.2b have been multiplied by four. The solid curves correspond to the nominal
case.
Determine the parameters of a PID controller such that the closed loop system
obtains the characteristic equation
(s + a)(s2 + 2ζ ωs + ω 2 ) = 0
Discuss how the parameters of the controller depend on the desired specifications
on a, ζ and ω.
6.5 a. Draw the Bode plot of a PI controller (let K = 1 and Ti = 1).
b. Draw the Bode plot of a PD controller (let K = 1 and Td = 15).
6.6 A cement kiln consists of a long, inclined, rotating cylinder. Sediment is supplied
into its upper end and clinkers emerge from its lower end. The cylinder is heated
from beneath by an oil burner. It is essential that the combustion zone temperature
is kept constant, in order to obtain an even product quality. This is achieved by
measuring the combustion zone temperature and controlling the fuel flow with a
PI controller. A block diagram of the system is shown in Figure 6.3.
The transfer function from fuel flow to combustion zone temperature is given by
e−9s
G P (s) =
(1 + 20s)2
and the transfer function of the controller is
1
G R (s) = K (1 + )
sTi
33
102
100
Gain
10−2
10−4
−45
−90
Phase[deg]
−135
−180
−225
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
Frequency[rad/s
y( t)
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 t
Figure 6.2 Bode plot and step response for the case when the PID parameters in sub-
assignment 6.2b have been divided by two. The solid black curves correspond to the nominal
case.
burn zone temp.

reference temp. fuel flow
P
GR GP
−1
Figure 6.3 Block diagram of a cement kiln with temperature controller.
Use Ziegler-Nichol’s frequency method to determine the parameters of the con-

troller.
6.7 Martin has heard that the optimal effect from training is obtained when the pulse
is 160 beats per minute (bpm). By feeding back the signal from his heart rate
monitor to a treadmill, he wants to control the speed such that the pulse is exactly
at the optimal value.
a. Suppose the dynamics in Martins body can approximately be described by the
34
y u
PI
Figure 6.4 Treadmill
linear system
1 1
ẋ = − x+ u
30 15 (6.1)
y=x
where u is the speed of the treadmill, and x is the pulse in bpm. Design a PI
controller such that both closed loop system poles are in −0.1.
b. The model in (6.1) is not available to Martin. Thus, he decides to tune his PI
controller using Ziegler-Nichols frequency method. The Bode diagram for a more
accurate model is shown in Figure 6.5. What controller parameters does Martin
obtain? Use the Bode diagram.
1
Gain
0.1
0.01
0
−90
Phase[deg]
−180
−270
−360
−470
10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100
Frequency[rad/s]
Figure 6.5 Bode diagram for assignment 6.7
35
6.8 Use Ziegler-Nichol’s step response and frequency method, to determine the param-
eters of a PID controller for a system with the step response and Nyquist curve
given in Figure 6.6. Also, determine a PI and a PID controller using the Lambda
method with λ = T.
y( t)
0.5
0
2 4 6 8 10 t
−0.5
Im
ω = 1.3
Re
−1 −0.5 0.5 1
−0.5
−1
Figure 6.6 Step response and Nyquist curve of the system in assignment 6.8.
6.9 Consider a system with the transfer function

1 −s
G(s) = e
s+1
a. Draw the step response of the system and use Ziegler-Nichol’s step response
method to determine the parameters of a PID controller. Write down the values of
the obtained controller parameters K, Ti and Td .
b. Use Ziegler-Nichol’s frequency method to determine the parameters of a PID

controller.
c. Use the Lambda method with λ = T to determine the parameters of a PID

controller.
6.10 A process is to be controlled by a PID controller obtained through Ziegler-Nichol’s

methods.
a. Use the step response method for the process with the black step response curve
in Figure 6.7.
b. The Nyquist curve of the same system is shown in Figure 6.8. The point marked
’o’ corresponds to the frequency ω = 0.429 rad/s. Apply the frequency method to
the process.
36
y( t)
1
0.5
0
10 20 30 40 t
−0.5
Figure 6.7 Step response for the process in Problem 6.10
im
ω = 0.429
Re
−1 −0.5 0.5 1
−0.5
−1
Figure 6.8 Nyquist curve for the process in Problem 6.10
c. Unfortunately the step response method results in an unstable closed loop system.
The frequency method yields a stable but poorly damped system. The reason
why the step response method works so badly, is that it tries to approximate the
process with a delayed first order system (the gray step response in Figure 6.7).
By exploiting the Nyquist curve, one can obtain PID parameters yielding the solid
curve step response in Figure 6.9. The dashed and dotted curves were obtained
through the step response method.
How do you think K has changed in the third method, as compared to the Ziegler-
Nichol’s methods (increase or decrease)?
6.11 A second order system has the Bode plot shown in Figure 6.10. We would like to
connect a link G K in series with the system, in order to increase the speed of the
closed loop system. The cross-over frequency, ω c , (the angle for which pG0 p = 1) is
used as a measure of the system’s speed. Which of the following G K -candidates
yield a faster system?
A G K = K, K > 1
1
B GK =
s+1
s+1
C GK =
s+2
D G K = e−sL , L > 0
6.12 A system has the transfer function

1
G P (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
37
2.5
1.5
0.5
−0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 6.9
101
100
10−1
Gain
10−2
10−3
10−4
0
−45
Phase[deg]
−90
−135
−180
10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101 2 5 102
Frequency[rad/s]
Figure 6.10 Bode plot of the system in assignment 6.11.
The system is part of a feedback loop together with a proportional controller with
gain K = 1. The control error of the resulting closed loop system exhibits the
following behavior: e( t) → 0, t → ∞ when the setpoint is a step and e( t) → 2,
t → ∞ when the setpoint is a ramp.
Design a compensation link G k (s) which together with the proportional controller
decreases the ramp error to a value less than 0.2. Also, the phase margin must
not decrease by more than 6○ .
6.13 Consider a system with the following transfer function

1.1
G P (s) =
s(s + 1)
38
A proportional controller with gain K = 1 is used to close the loop. However,

the closed loop system becomes too slow. Design a compensation link, G k (s), that
roughly doubles the speed of the closed loop system without any change in robust-
ness, i.e. the crossover frequency ω c should be doubled and the phase margin φ m
should not decrease.

1
G1 (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
If controlled by a proportional controller with gain K = 1, the stationary error of
the closed loop system is e = 0 for a step input (r = 1, t > 0) and e = 2 for a ramp
input (r = t, t > 0). One wants to increase the speed of the system by a factor
3, without compromising its phase margin or the ability to eliminate stationary
errors. Device a compensation link G k (s) that fulfils the above criteria.
6.15 A servo system has the open loop transfer function

2.0
Go (s) =
s(s + 0.5)(s + 3)
The system is subject to simple negative feedback and has a step response accord-
ing to Figure 6.11. As seen from the figure, the system is poorly damped and has
a significant overshoot. The speed however, is satisfactory. The stationary error of
the closed loop system with a ramp input is e 1 = 0.75.
y( t)
1.5
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 t
Figure 6.11 Step response of the closed loop servo system in assignment 6.15.
Design a compensation link that increases the phase margin to φ m = 50○ without
affecting the speed of the system. (φ m = 50○ yields a relative damping ζ ( 0.5
which corresponds to an overshoot M ( 17%.) The stationary ramp error of the
compensated system must not be greater than e 1 = 1.5.
6.16 Consider a system with the open loop transfer function

1.5
G1 (s) =
s(s2 + 2s + 2)
The system is subject to simple negative feedback. The settling time (5%) is Ts =
8.0 s, the overshoot is Mo = 27%, and the stationary ramp error (r( t) = t) is
e 1 = 1.33.
Device a phase lag compensation link
s+a
G k (s) = K
s + a/ M
such that the stationary ramp error of the closed loop system is decreased to
e 1 = 0.1, while speed and damping (robustness) are virtually sustained.
39
Exercises 7
Controller Structures
7.1 Figure 7.1 shows a block diagram of the temperature control system in a house.
The reference temperature (the thermostat set point) is given by r, the output y is
the indoor temperature and the disturbance d is due to the outdoor temperature.
The transfer function G1 (s) represents the dynamics of the heating system and
G2 (s) represents the dynamics of the air inside the house. The controller G R is a
P controller with gain K = 1.
Assume that the influence d of the outdoor temperature can be exactly measured.
Determine a feedforward link H, such that the indoor temperature becomes inde-
pendent of the outdoor temperature. What is required in order to obtain a good
result from the feedforward?
r P e P u P y
GR G1 G2
−1
Figure 7.1 Block diagram of the temperature control system in a house.
7.2 Figure 7.2 shows a block diagram of a level control system for a tank. The inflow
x( t) of the tank is determined by the valve position and the outflow v( t) is governed
by a pump. The cross section of the tank is A = 1 m2 . The assignment is to control
the system so that the level h in the tank is held approximately constant despite
variations in the flow v. This is done by adjusting the valve at the outflow from
the buffer tank.
Feedforward
v
GF
−1
P-controller Valve Tank

h ref P P u P h
K Gv GT
−1
Figure 7.2 Block diagram of the level control system in assignment 7.2.
40
Exercises 7. Controller Structures
The transfer function of the valve from position to flow is

1
Gv (s) =
1 + 0.5s
The tank dynamics can be determined through a simple mass balance.
a. Assume that G F = 0, i.e. that we don’t have any feedforward. Design a P controller
such that the closed loop system obtains the characteristic polynomial (s + ω )2 .
How large does ω become? What stationary level error is obtained after a 0.1 step
in v( t)?
b. Design a PI controller which eliminates the stationary control error otherwise

caused by load disturbances. Determine the controller parameters so that the
closed loop system obtains the characteristic polynomial (s + ω )3 . How large does
ω become?
c. To further decrease the influence of load disturbances, we introduce feedforward

based on measurements of v( t). Design a feedforward controller G F that eliminates
the influence of outflow variations by making corrections to x( t).
As all variables describe deviations from the operation point, the reference value for the
level h can be set to zero.
7.3 Consider the system in Figure 7.3. The transfer function of the process is given by
1
G P (s) =
s+3
and G R (s) is a PI controller with transfer function
1
G R (s) = K (1 + )
STi
K f is a constant feedforward from the reference signal r.
Kf
r P P u y
G R (s ) G P (s)
−1
Figure 7.3 Block diagram showing assignment 7.3.
a. Let K f = 0 and determine K and Ti such that the poles of the closed loop system
are placed in −2 ± 2i, which is assessed to supress disturbances well.
b. Discuss the influence of the feedforward on the system’s response to reference

changes.
The closed loop transfer function of the system has one zero. Eliminate it by
choosing an appropriate constant feedforward K f .
7.4 The system in assignment 7.3 can be described by an equivalent block diagram,
according to Figure 7.4. Write down the transfer functions Hff (s) and Hfb (s).
Discuss the result and consider the effect of the feedforward when the controller
contains a D term.
41
r P y
Hff G P (s)
Hfb
Figure 7.4 Equivalent block diagram in assignment 7.3.
7.5 The block diagram in Figure 7.5 shows cascade control of a tank. The transfer
function G1 describes a valve whereas the transfer function G2 describes the
dynamics of the tank. The objective is to control the tank level y. This is done by
controlling the valve G1 in an inner control loop, whereas y is controlled by an
outer control loop. Both the control loops are cascaded so that the reference of the
inner loop is the output of the controller in the outer loop. It is presumed that G1
and G2 have no poles or zeros in the origin.
v1 v2
yr P e P P y1 P y
G R2 G R1 G1 G2
−1
−1
Figure 7.5 The cascade in assignment 7.5.
There are two disturbances in the system, namely the disturbance flow v2 , which
is added to the controlled flow y1 and pressure variations v1 in the flow before
the valve. Discuss the choice of controller (P or PI) in the inner and outer loop,
respectively, with respect to elimination of stationary control errors at step changes
in disturbances v1 and v2 .
2
7.6 Consider Figure 7.5 and assume that G1 (s) = s +2
describes a valve whereas
G2 (s) = 1s describes a tank.
a. Determine a P controller G R1 (s) = K 1 such that the inner control loop becomes 5
times faster than the uncontrolled valve.
b. Design a PI controllerG R2 (s) = K 2 (1 + T1i s ) for the outer loop, which gives closed
loop poles a factor 10 closer to the origin than the pole for the inner control loop.
Approximate the inner loop by Ginner (s) ( Ginner (0).
7.7 In a certain type of steam boiler, a dome is used to separate the steam from the
water (see Figure 7.6). It is essential to keep the dome level constant after load
changes. The dome can be described by the model
10−3 s − 0.01
Y (s) = M (s) + 10−3 F (s)
s s(s + 0.1)
where Y is the dome level [m], M is the feed water flow [kg/s] and F is the steam
flow [kg/s].
a. Assume a constant steam flow. Design a P controller, controlling the feed water
flow by measuring the dome level. Choose the controller parameters such that the
control error caused by a step in the dome level goes down to 10 % of its initial
value after 10 seconds.
42
F (s) s − 0.01
10−3
s(s + 0.1)
P Y (s)
M (s ) 10−3
s
Figure 7.6 Block diagram of steam boiler with dome.
b. Consider the closed loop system. Write down the stationary level error Y caused
by a step disturbance of 1 kg/s in the steam flow F.
c. Consider the initial system. Determine a feedforward link H (s) from steam flow
F (s) to feed water flow M (s), such that the level Y becomes independent of changes
in the steam flow.
7.8 Assume that a servo motor

1
G P (s) =
s(s + 1)
is controlled by the P controller G R (s) = 2. What is the delay margin of the
system?
7.9 Consider the same process and controller as in the previous assignment. Now the
process is controlled over a very slow network which introduces a one second delay
in the control loop. In order to deal with this problem a Smith predictor is utilized,
see Figure 7.7.
a. Assume that the model and the process are identical. What are the transfer
functions for the blocks (Controller, Process, Model, Model with no delay) in our
example?
b. The block diagram of the Smith predictor can be redrawn according to Figure 7.8.
What is the transfer function of the Smith predictor (from e to u) in our example?
c. Use the approximation e x ( 1 + x in order to simplify the transfer function of the

controller. Compare the controller to compensation links.
r P u y
Controller Process
y1 P
−1 Model −1
Model y2
without
delay
Figure 7.7 Working principle of the Smith predictor.
7.10 Figure 7.9 shows the result of a frequency analysis carried out on the beam (a
part of the ’ball on the beam’ process). One sees that the process dynamics can
be well approximated by an integrator, for low frequencies. One also sees that
43
Otto Smith Controller
r P e P u y
GR GP
Ĝ P − Ĝ0P
−1
Figure 7.8 Block diagram equivalent to Figure 7.7.
for high frequencies, the phase curve diverges in a way which resembles a delay.
Consequently, it would be possible to describe the process by
k −sL
G(s) = e
s
Use the Bode plot in order to determine approximate values of the gain k and
delay L.
101
Gain
10−1
10−3
−90
−180
Phase[deg]
−270
−360
−450
5 100 2 5 101 2 5 102 2 5
Frequency[rad/s]
Figure 7.9 Measured Bode plot of the beam.
44
Exercises 8
Design Examples
8.1 Depth Control of Submarine
Purpose
This assignment deals with depth control of a submarine from the nineteen-forties.
Two control methods are tested — PD and state feedback. The latter method was
used in reality.
Background
Depth control of submarines can be achieved by means of varying the rudder angle
β according to Figure 8.1. The depth h is measured by means of a manometer. By
Figure 8.1 Depth control of the submarine in assignment 8.1.
manually generating a sinusoidal rudder angle β (by means of a table and watch
— don’t forget that this was the end of the nineteen-forties) one can use frequency
analysis to estimate the transfer function G(s) from β to h (for a constant speed
v). The resulting Bode plots for three different speeds are shown in Figure 8.2.
Specifications
In this case no specifications were given except “Make it as good as you can”.
Problem Formulation
Assume that the speed is v = 3 knots. The problem lies in computing a control law
which gives a satisfactory settling of the depth h for the given speed. This does
not guarantee equally satisfactory results at other speeds.
In an initial approach one wanted to control the depth h of the submarine, solely
based on measurements of h.
a. What is the maximal allowed gain K in order to achieve a stable closed loop system
with a P controller β = K ( h ref − h). Use the Bode plot in Figure 8.2?
b. The desired cross-over frequency is ω c = 0.03 rad/s, using a PD controller Gr (s) =

K (1 + TD s). How should K and TD be chosen in order to obtain a 60○ phase margin
φ m?
45
Exercises 8. Design Examples
102
101
Gain
100
10−1
10−2
−90
−135
Phase[deg]
−180
−225
−270
10−3 2 5 10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100
Frequency[rad/h]
Figure 8.2 Bode plot of the estimated transfer function G(s) from β [deg] to h [m] in
assignment 8.1 for the speeds v = 3 (solid black curves), 5 (dashed curves) and 7 knots (gray
curves).
c. How is the stability of the closed loop system in (b) affected if the speed is increased
from 3 to 7 knots? Suggest different ways in which speed variations can be taken
into consideration.
For angular frequencies above 0.05 rad/s one can use the approximation
 2
Gαβ (s) = kv

s (8.1)
G hα (s) = v

s
where Gαβ (s) and G hα (s) are the transfer functions from β to α and from α to h,
respectively (see Figure 8.3). The constant k v depends on the speed v.
β kv α v h
s2 s
Figure 8.3 Block diagram of a submarine model which is valid for ω > 0.05 rad/s.
d. Determine k v by means of the Bode plot in Figure 8.2. (1 knot ( 1.852 km/h =
1.852/3.6 ( 0.514 m/s.)
e. Assume that the approximate model

kv v
G hβ (s) =
s3
is under P control β = K ( h re f − h). Determine which values of K that yield
an asymptotically stable system. Does this concur with the results obtained in
sub-assignment a?
One can improve the performance of the control system by utilizing additional
feedback from the trim angle α and its derivative dα/ dt.
46
f. Introduce the states x1 = dα/ dt, x2 = α and x3 = h together with the input
u = β . Use the control law u = ur − k 1 x1 − k 2 x2 − k 3 x3 = ur − K x and determine
K such that the characteristic equation of the closed loop system becomes
(s + γω 0 )(s2 + 2ζ ω 0 s + ω 20 ) = 0
g. The reference h ref for the depth h is introduced according to
ur = K r h ref
How should K r be chosen in order to obtain h = h ref in stationarity?
It was decided to choose ζ = 0.5 and γ = 0.2 which was considered to give an
adequately damped step response. However, the choice of ω 0 requires some further
thought. It should not be chosen too low, since the approximate model (8.1) is only
valid for ω > 0.05 rad/s. On the other hand, choosing ω 0 too high would result in
large rudder angles caused by the large values of the coefficients l j , j = 1, 2, 3.
h. How large can ω 0 be chosen if a step disturbance in the manometer signal corre-
sponding to ∆ h = 0.1m should not give rise to larger rudder angles than 5○ ?
In the actual case ω 0 = 0.1 rad/s was chosen. A semi-automatic system was
evaluated first. The signal u = ur − k 1 x1 − k 2 x2 − k 3 x3 was displayed to an operator,
who manually tried to keep the signal zero by means of the ordinary rudder servo.
The control action was very satisfactory. Settling times of 30–60 s were obtained
throughout the speed range. The complete automatic system was then evaluated on
the Swedish submarine ‘Sjöborren’ (The Sea Urchin). The accuracy during cruising
in calm weather was ±0.05 m.
8.2 Control of Elastic Servo
Purpose
The aim of the assignment is to control the angular speed of a flywheel which is
connected to another flywheel by a weak axis. The second flywheel is driven by
a motor. Different control strategies are evaluated and compared with respect to
performance.
Background
Figure 8.4 shows a simplified model of an elastic servo. It could also constitute a
model of a weak robot arm or an elastic antenna system mounted on a satellite.
The turn angles of the flywheels are denoted φ 1 and φ 2 , respectively, whereas
kf
u M ω1 ω2
Motor J1 J2
φ1 φ2
df
d1 d2
Figure 8.4 Model of the elastic servo in assignment 8.2.
ω 1 = φ̇ 1 and ω 2 = φ̇ 2 denote the corresponding angular speeds. The flywheels

have moments of inertia J1 and J2 , respectively. They are connected by an axle
with spring constant k f and damping constant d f . The system is subject to bearing
47
friction, which is represented by the damping constants d 1 and d 2 . One of the

flywheels is driven by a DC motor, which is itself driven by a current-feedback
amplifier. The motor and amplifier dynamics are neglected. The momentum of the
motor is proportional to the input voltage u of the amplifier, according to
M = km · I = km ki u
where I is the current through the rotor coils. Momentum equilibrium about the
flywheel yields the following equations
I
J1ω̇ 1 = − k f (φ 1 − φ 2 ) − d 1ω 1 − d f (ω 1 − ω 2 ) + k m k i u
J2ω̇ 2 = + k f (φ 1 − φ 2 ) − d 2ω 2 + d f (ω 1 − ω 2 )
We introduce the state variables


 x1 = ω 1

x2 = ω 2

x3 = φ 1 − φ 2

and consider the angular speed ω 2 as the output, i.e.

y = kω 2 · ω 2
This gives us the following state space model of the servo.
d1 + d f df kf 
 

 − −  k k 
m i

 J1 J1 J1 
 
J

   
 

1 
d f + d2
  
ẋ = Ax + Bu = 

 df kf  x + 

 
 
 u
 −   0


J2 J2 J2 

 
 
 

  
0

 


−1

1 0
 
y = C x = 0 kω 2 0 x
The following values of constants and coefficients have been measured and esti-
mated for a real lab process.
J1 = 22 · 10−6 kgm2
J2 = 65 · 10−6 kgm2
k f = 11.7 · 10−3 Nm/rad
d f = 2e−5
d 1 = 1 · 10−5 Nm/rad/s
d 2 = 1 · 10−5 Nm/rad/s
k m = 0.1 Nm/A
k i = 0.027 A/V
kω 1 = kω 2 = 0.0167 V/rad/s
Problem Formulation
The input is the voltage u over the motor and we want to control the angular speed
ω 2 of the outer flywheel.
It is desired to quickly be able to change ω c , while limiting the control system’s
sensitivity against load disturbances and measurement noise. The system also
requires active damping, in order to avoid an excessively oscillative settling phase.
Specifications
1. The step response of the closed loop system should be fairly well damped and
have a rise time of 0.1-0.3 s. The settling time to ±2% shall be at most 0.5 s.
A graphical specification of the step response is given in Figure 8.5.
2. Load disturbances must not give rise to any static errors.
3. Noise sensitivity should not be excessive.
48
Figure 8.5 The step response of the closed loop system shall lie between the dashed lines.
Ziegler-Nichols Method
The Bode plot of the transfer function from u to ω 2 is shown in Figure 8.6.
100
10−1
10−2
Gain
10−3
10−4
10−5
−90
−135
Phase[deg]
−180
−225
−270
100 2 5 101 2 5 102 2 5 103
Frequency[rad/h]
Figure 8.6 Bode plot of the servo process.
a. Use Ziegler-Nichols frequency method in order to determine suitable PID param-

eters.
Ziegler-Nichols method often gives a rather oscillative closed loop system. However,
the obtained parameters are often a reasonable starting point for manual tuning.

If it is possible to measure all states, the poles of the closed loop system can be
arbitrarily placed through the feedback control law
u( t) = − K x( t) + K r yr ( t)
49
if the system is also controllable.
b. Determine the gain K r so that the stationary gain of the closed loop system
becomes 1, i.e. y = yr in stationarity.
In order to meet specification 2, one must introduce integral action in the controller.
One way to achieve this it thorough the control law
Z t
u( t) = − K x( t) + K r yr ( t) − K i ( y(s) − yr (s)) ds
−∞
This can be interpreted as feedback from an ’extra’ state xi according to

I
ẋi = y − yr
u = − K x + K r yr − K i xi
Figure 8.7 shows a block diagram of the entire system
kr
yr P E 1 xi P U Y
− ki Process
s
X
−K
−1
Figure 8.7 Block diagram of the state feedback control system in assignment 8.2.
c. How does the augmented state space model look like? Introduce the notion x e for
the augmented state vector.
Since the states are not directly measurable, they must be reconstructed in some
way. A usual way is to introduce a Kalman filter
x̂˙ = A x̂ + Bu + L( y − C x̂)
and then close the loop from the estimated states x̂
u = − K x̂ + K r yr − K i xi
It is, however, unnecessary to estimate xi since we have direct access to this state.
The block diagram of the entire system is shown in Figure 8.8. Let K ′ denote the
augmented row matrix ( K K i ) and call the augmented system matrices A′ and
B′ , respectively. The problem consists in finding suitable K, K i and L by placing
the eigenvalues of A′ − B′ K ′ and A − LC. Since the both eigenvalue problems
are of a bit too high dimension for enjoyable hand calculations, we use Matlab to
investigate a few choices of pole placements.
In order not to end up with too many free parameters, we place the poles in a
Butterworth pattern. I.e. the poles are equally distributed on a half circle in the
left half plane. We place the eigenvalues of A′ − B′ K ′ on a half circle with radius
ω m , whereas the eigenvalues of A − LC are placed on a half circle with radius ω o
(see Figure 8.9). A suitable ω m can be obtained from Specification 1, i.e. that the
50
kr
yr P E 1 xi P U Y
− ki Process
s
Model
X̂
−K
−1
Figure 8.8 Block diagram showing the Kalman filter and state feedback in assignment 8.2.
15
10
ω0
−5
ωm
−10
−15
−25 −20 −15 −10 −5 0 5
Figure 8.9 The pole placement in assignment 8.2.
settling time Ts to reach within 2% of the stationary value must be less than 0.5 s.
A coarse estimation of Ts for a second order system with relative damping ζ and
natural frequency ω is given by
ln ε
Ts ( −
ζω
where ε is the maximal deviation from the final value. Since we have a 4th degree
system, we cannot use this approximation directly. If we, however, only consider
the least damped pole pair (ζ = 0.38 and ω = ω m ) in Figure 8.9 we obtain
ln ε
ωm ( − (8.2)
Tsζ
d. Which value of ω m is obtained from the formula (8.2)?
51
We let ω m = 20 which yields Ts < 0.5 s. We can let K r = 0 since we have integral
action in the controller and thus stationary closed loop gain 1. Figure 8.10 shows
the step response of the closed loop system for K r = 0 and K r chosen according to
sub-assignment b, respectively. By letting K r = 0 the step response overshoot is
sufficiently decreased to fulfill the specification.
We now fix ω m and vary ω o . The following test shall be used to evaluate the control
performance. At time t = 0 there is a unit step in the reference value yr followed
by a load disturbance d = −1 in the control signal at t = 1 and the introduction
of measurement noise (in y) at t = 3. The variance of the noise is 0.01. The result
is shown in Figure 8.11.
e. Which value of ω o seems to be best when it comes to elimination of load distur-

bances? Which ω o is best when it comes to suppressing measurement noise?
Figure 8.10 Step response of the closed loop system for ω m = 20 rad/s. Choosing K r
according to sub-assignment b yields the system with the larger overshoot. The other curve
is the step response corresponding to K r = 0.
52
Figure 8.11 Evaluation of control with ω m = 20 and ω o = 10 (solid curves), 20 (dashed

curves) and 40 (dotted curves).
53
Exercises 9
Interactive Comparison Between

Model Descriptions
There are many ways to describe the dynamics of processes and control systems,
e.g., step responses, transfer functions, state-space descriptions, pole-zero diagrams, Bode
diagrams, and Nyquist diagrams. A good way of learning the correspondence between
different descriptions is to use interactive tools. On the web page
http://aer.ual.es/ilm/
there are several interactive programs that may be downloaded for free. The module
Modeling is convenient to use to study model descriptions. The interface of this module is
shown in the figure below.
The model structure that you want to study is entered by "dragging" poles and zeros
in the pole-zero diagram. Parameters and dead time may then be changed by dragging
points or lines in the different diagrams, or by entering numerical values for the transfer
function. The best way of learning to use the tool and examine its possibilities is to try
things out by experimenting with the different menus. More information is available on
the web page.
The gradation of the axes in the different diagrams can be changed by clicking at the
small triangles by the gradations. It is also possible to zoom in and out.
Under the tab File you find the useful command “Reset data”, which resets all values
to default.
54
Exercises 9. Interactive Comparison Between Model Descriptions
9.1 Study the transfer function

K
G(s) =
1 + sT
Let the starting poing be K = T = 1.
a. First, vary the gain K and note how the pole, step response, Nyquist diagram
and Bode diagram are affected. How can K be determined from the step response,
Nyquist diagram, and Bode diagram?
b. Set K = 1 and vary T. How are the different representations affected? Why is the
shape of the Nyquist diagram not affected?
c. Set K = T = 1 and add a dead time L such that the transfer function becomes
K
G(s) = e− Ls
1 + sT
Vary L and obseve how that affects the representations. Explain what happens
with the step response. Why does the Nyquist curve look like it does? Why is the
gain curve of the Bode diagram not affected?
K
G(s) =
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )
Let the starting point be K = T1 = T2 = 1.
a. First, vary the gain K and note how poles, step response, Nyquist diagram, and
Bode diagram are affected.
b. Set K = 1 and vary T1 and T2 . Note the difference between the cases T1 ( T2 and
T1 ≫ T2 . How can G(s) be approximated in the case T1 ≫ T2 ?
c. Set K = T1 = T2 = 1 and add a zero, such that the transfer function becomes
K (1 + sT3 )
G(s) =
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )
Vary T3 and observe how that affects the representations. What happens when
T3 < 0? What does this mean if you want to control such a process? Try to explain
the phenomenon.
ω2
G(s) =
s2 + 2ζ ωs + ω 2
Let the starting point be ζ = 0.7 och ω = 1.
a. First, vary the frequency ω and note how poles, step response, Nyquist diagram,
and Bode diagram are affected.
b. Set ω = 1 and vary ζ . Note how the representations change.
55
Part II
Solutions to Exercises
Solutions to Exercises 1
Model Building and Linearization
1.1 a. A block diagram of the system is shown in Figure S1.1. The person that takes a
shower senses the temperature and the flow (measurement signals), and adjusts
the shower handle (control signal) to get desired temperature and flow. Feedback is
primarily used. Disturbances may be variations in water pressure and temperature
in the water pipes.
Temp Hot
Person Cold Shower
Flow
Figure S1.1 Block diagram of person taking a shower.
b. A car driver uses several control signals: the gas pedal, the brake, the steering
wheel. The driver wants to control the car such that it keeps on the road with
desired velocity, and keeps safe distance to other vehicles. Measurement signals
are the speedometer, and visual feedback of how the car turns, the distance to the
car in front, and other road conditions. The uses feedforward, e.g., to adjust the
velocity in advance before a curve, but also feedback, by looking at the speedometer
to keep desired velocity. A block diagram of the system is shown in Figure S1.2.
Road Conditions Steering

Road Curvature Accelerator
Driver Car
Distance Brakes
Velocity
Figure S1.2 Block diagram of car driving.
c. The control signal is the heat from the stove plate. Measurement signals from the
systems are obtained by observing how intensively the water boils, and sensing
how soft the potatoes are. Feedback is used, e.g., when adjusting the power of
the stove plate when the water boils too intensively. Feedforward is used when
following a given recipe, e.g., ”the potatoes are done after 20 minutes” or ”when
the water boils, decrease the heat of the stove plate to half of full power”. A block
diagram is shown in Figure S1.3.
1.2 a.
v̇ = ku
The system is linear.
b. Now, we get an additional differential equation
ṗ = v
59
Solutions to Exercises 1. Model Building and Linearization
Heat
Cooker knob Heat
Stove Pot w. water Potatoes
Sight
Person Softness
Figure S1.3 Block diagram of potato boiling.
Choosing the states as x1 = v, x2 = p, we get
ẋ1 = ku
ẋ2 = x1
y = x2
One can also write the system on matrix form

   
0 0  k
ẋ =  x+

  u
1 0 0
 
 
y = 0 1  x
c. The term mx2 makes the system nonlinear. The stationary point is given by
−0.001( x0 )2 + u0 = 0
which for u0 = 0.1 gives x0 = ±10. The stationary velocity thus becomes y0 = 10
m/s.
d. The system is given by
ẋ = f ( x, u) = −mx2 + ku
y = ( x, u) = x
We differentiate f and with respect to x and u and get

f
= −2mx
x
f
=k
u

=1
x

=0
u
We insert the stationary point ( x0 , u0 , y0 ) = (10, 0.1, 10) in the expressions for the
derivatives, and introduce the new variables ∆ x = x − x0 , ∆ y = y − y0 , ∆u = u − u0 .
We get the linear system
d∆ x
= −0.02∆ x + ∆u
dt
∆y = ∆x
1.3 With x1 = y and x2 = ẏ the system is given by

   0 
1  x   0 
 
 ẋ1  1

=
− k c +1
f
     
 
ẋ2 −  x2
   
m m m
 
 x1 

y = 1 0  
 
x2

60
1.4 With states x1 = vout and x2 = v̇out , the system is given by

   0  
1  x   0 

ẋ 1
 1
=  1 R +
 1 
 vin

       
   
ẋ2 − −  x2
  
LC L LC
 
 x1 

y = 1 0  
 
x2

1.5 a. We can choose e.g. the height h as state variable. The volume change in the tank
is given by
A ḣ = q in − q ut
√
and from Torricelli’s law we obtain q ut = a 2 h. The sought differential equation
becomes
ap 1
ḣ + 2 h = q in
A A
b.
ap 1
ḣ = − 2 h + q in ( = f ( h, qin ))
A A
y=h ( = ( h, qin ))
c. The outlflow must equal the inflow q0ut = q0in . The level is calculated by letting
ḣ = 0, which yields
3 42
0 1 q0in
h =
2 a
We determine the partial derivatives
r
f a f 1
=− =
h A 2h qin A

=1 =0
h qin
By inserting h = h0 above and introducing variables which denote deviations from
the operating point: ∆ h = h − h0 , ∆q in = q in − q0in , ∆ y = ∆ h the linearized system
is
r
a 1
∆˙h = − 0
∆ h + ∆q in
A 2h A
∆y = ∆h
1.6
      
 ẋ1   0 1 0   x1  0
= +
      
 ẋ  0 0 1   x2 
 0u
 2

 
  
    
 
−1 −2 −3
 
ẋ3 x3 1
 
x
  1

y = 1 0 0 

x 
 2

 

x3
1.7 a.
ẋ1 = x2
√
ẋ2 = − x1 − x1 x2 + u2
y = x1
b. A stationary point implies ẋ1 = ẋ2 = 0. From the first equation we directly
√
obtain x2 = 0. Subsequently, the second equation yields x1 = u2 . Hence there
are infinitely many stationary points and they can be parametrized through t as
( x01 , x02 , u0 ) = ( t4 , 0, t).
61
c. u0 = 1 gives the stationary point ( x01 , x02 , u0 ) = (1, 0, 1). We let
f1 ( x1 , x2 , u) = x2
√
f2 ( x1 , x2 , u) = − x1 − x1 x2 + u2
( x1 , x2 , u) = x1
and compute the partial derivatives
f1 f1 f1
=0 =1 =0
x1 x2 u
f2 1 f2 f2
= − √ − x2 = − x1 = 2u
x1 2 x1 x2 u

=1 =0 =0
x1 x2 u
At the stationary point we have
f1 f1 f1
=0 =1 =0
x1 x2 u
f2 1 f2 f2
=− = −1 =2
x1 2 x2 u

=1 =0 =0
x1 x2 u
After a variable substitution, the linearized system can be written
  0 
1 
∆˙x1 
   
 ∆ x1  0
 ˙ = − 1 −1  ∆ x2  + 2 ∆u

  
 
 
   
∆ x2
2
 
∆ x1 

∆y = 1 0 
  
 
∆ x2

1.8 At the sought operating point it holds that
0 = x21 x2 + 1
0 = x1 x22 + 1
x2 π2
y = arctan +
x1 8
π2
which yields x01 = −1, x02 = −1 and y0 = π
4
+ 8
. Computation of the partial
derivatives now yields
f1 f1 f1 √
= 2x1 x2 = x21 = 2 cos u
x1 x2 u
f2 f2 f2 √
= x22 = 2x1 x2 = − 2 sin u
x1 x2 u
− x2 x1
= 2 = 2 = 4u
x1 x1 + x22 x2 x1 + x22 u
With the variable substitution

π
∆u = u −
4
∆ x1 = x1 + 1
∆ x2 = x2 + 1
π π2
∆y = y − − .
4 8
62
the linearized system becomes
∆˙x1 
      
2 1 ∆ x1  1
 ˙ = +  ∆u

  
    
∆ x2 1 2 ∆ x2 −1

  
1 1  ∆ x1 
∆y = 
 −    + π ∆u

∆ x2

2 2
1.9 a. The nonlinear state space equations are
ẋ1 = x2 = f1 ( x1 , x2 , u)
β
ẋ2 = ω 2 x1 − 2 + u = f2 ( x1 , x2 , u)
x1
y = x1 = ( x1 , x2 , u)
b. At stationarity it holds that
β
r̈( t) = ω 2 r0 − +0=0
r20
i.e. r30 = β /ω 2 . We now compute the partial derivatives
f1 f1 f1 
 

x2 u 
  
 x 0 1

0  0

1

0
 f1
 
f2 f2 
  
2
= 2
+ 2β /r30 3ω 2
=
     

 
 
ω 0 1
 0 1

x x2 u 
     
1
   


 

 1 0 0 1 0 0

 

x1 x2 u
The linear system hence becomes
   
d∆ x  0 1 0
=
 2  ∆x + 
   ∆u
dt 3ω 0 1
 
∆ y = 1 0 ∆ x
63
Dynamical Systems
2.1 a. The transfer function for a linear system on state-space form is given by
G(s) = C (s I − A)−1 B + D
 3   4 − 1  
 s 0 10 1  0

= 1 0   −
 
  

 
0 s −1 −1 1
    
1
=
(s − 10)(s + 1) + 1
The transfer function gives the relation
1
Y (s) = U (s)
(s − 10)(s + 1) + 1
which may be written as
s2 Y (s) − 9sY (s) − 9Y (s) = U (s)
Inverse Laplace transform gives the differential equation
ÿ − 9 ẏ − 9y = u
b. Laplace transform of the differential equation gives
Js2 Y (s) + DsY (s) = U (s)
We get
1
Y (s) = U (s)
Js2 + Ds
and thus the transfer function is
1
G(s) =
Js2 + Ds
When writing the system on state-space form, the states may be chosen as x1 = y,
x2 = ẏ. This gives the equations
ẋ1 = ẏ = x2
1 1
ẋ2 = ÿ = (− D ẏ + u) = (− Dx2 + u)
J J
The system on state-space form is given by
   
0 1  0
ẋ =  x+ u

  1
0 −DJ J
 
y = 1 0  x
c. The transfer function is given by
1
G(s) = C (s I − A)−1 B + D = 1(s − −1/ k)−1 1/ k =
1 + sk
64
Solutions to Exercises 2. Dynamical Systems
d. The transfer function gives the following relation between Y (s) and U (s)
(s3 + αs2 + β s) Y (s) = γU (s)
Inverse Laplace transform gives

...
y + α ÿ + β ẏ = γ u
Choosing the states
x1 = y
x2 = ẏ
x3 = ÿ
gives the state-space description

   
 0 1 0   0
 
ẋ =  x+
  

 0 0 1 

 
 0u
 
0 −β −α
  
γ
 
y = 1 0 0 x
We may also use any of the "standard forms" for state-space descriptions given in
the collection of formulae (diagonal form, observable canonical form, controllable
canonical form). To write the system on diagonal form we must factorize the
transfer function, which is hard when we don’t know the values of α and β . Thus,
the controllable or observable canonical forms are more convenient to choose. We
compare the coefficients in our transfer function to the structure in the collection
of formulae and get
a 1 = α, a2 = β , a 3 = 0, b1 = 0, b2 = 0, b3 = γ
A state-space description on observable canonical form is thus given by
−α 1 0 
   
  0
 
ẋ =  −β 0 1  x+
  

 
 
 0u
    
0 0 0 γ
 
y = 1 0 0 x
The model is presented and analyzed in the paper Complex dynamics in low-
dimensional continuous-time business cycle models: the Sil’nikov case, H.W. Lorenz,
System Dynamics Review, vol.8 no.3, 1992.
2.2 a. The transfer function is
G(s) = C (s I − A)−1 B + D
3 4−1 3 4
! " s+2 0 5
= −1 1 +2
0 s+3 2
2s2 + 7s + 1
= .
s2 + 5s + 6
From the transfer function it is easy to determine the differential equation
Y (s) = G(s)U (s)

(s + 5s + 6) Y (s) = (2s2 + 7s + 1)U (s)
2
ÿ + 5 ẏ + 6y = 2ü + 7u̇ + u
65
b. The transfer function is
G(s) = C (s I − A)−1 B + D
3 4 3 4
! " s + 7 −2 − 1 3
= −2 1 =
15 s−4 8
2s + 3
= 2 .
s + 3s + 2
The differential equation becomes
Y (s) = G(s)U (s)

2
(s + 3s + 2) Y (s) = (2s + 3)U (s)
ÿ + 3 ẏ + 2y = 2u̇ + 3u
5s + 8
c. G(s) = , ẏ + y = 5u̇ + 8u
s+1
3s2 + 7s + 18
d. G(s) = , ÿ + 2 ẏ + 5y = 3ü + 7u̇ + 18u
s2 + 2s + 5
2.3 a. Partial fraction expansion of the transfer function yields

2 5
G(s) = 2 + −
s+3 s+2
and by applying the inverse Laplace transform, one obtains the impulse response
h( t) = L−1 G(s) = 2δ ( t) + 2e−3t − 5e−2t , t ≥ 0.
Because the system matrix was given in diagonal form, another possibility would have been
to compute the impulse response as
  −2t  
e 0 5

h( t) = Ce At B + Dδ ( t) = 1 1    + 2δ ( t), t ≥ 0.
0e−3t 2
   
The step response is computed by e.g. integrating the impulse response

t t ! "
Z Z
y( t) = h(τ ) dτ = 2δ (τ ) + 2e−3τ − 5e−2τ dτ
0 0
5 6t
5 −2τ 2
=2+ e − e−3τ
2 3 0
1 5 −2t 2 −3t
= + e − e , t ≥ 0.
6 2 3
b. The transfer function has the partial fraction expansion

1 1
G(s) = +
s+1 s+2
and the impulse response becomes
h( t) = L−1 G(s) = e−t + e−2t , t ≥ 0.
The step response is thus given by

Z t
3 1
y( t) = h(τ ) dτ = − e−t − e−2t , t ≥ 0.
0 2 2
c. h( t) = 5δ ( t) + 3e−t , y( t) = 8 − 3e−t , t≥0

√ ! "
d. h( t) = 3δ ( t) + e−t sin 2t + e−t cos 2t = 3δ ( t) + 2e−t sin 2t + π
4
y( t) = 3 + 15 e−t (3 + sin 2t − 3 cos 2t) , t ≥ 0
66
2.4 After the Laplace transform, one obtains
s X = A X + BU
Y = C X + DU
Solve for X
(s I − A) X = BU
X = (s I − A)−1 BU
This gives
1 2
Y = C (s I − A)−1 BU + DU = C (s I − A)−1 B + D U
2.5 a. The poles are the solutions of the characteristic equation s2 + 4s + 3 = 0, i.e. s = −1
and s = −3. The system lacks zeros. Since all poles have negative real part, the
system is stable.
b. The static gain is G(0) = 31 .
c. At a step response, the input signal u( t) is a step, that has the Laplace transform
U (s) = 1s . The output becomes
1 1
Y (s) = G(s)U (s) =
s2 + 4s + 3 s
The final value can be calculated using the final value theorem
1 1 1
lim y( t) = lim sY (s) = lim s =
t→∞ s →0 s →0 s2 + 4s + 3 s 3
The final value theorem may be used only if we know that the final value exists
(i.e., that y( t) does not go to infinity). Since we have shown that the system is
stable, we know that the final value exists. The initial value may, in the same
manner, be computed using the initial value theorem
1 1
lim y( t) = lim sY (s) = lim s =0
t→0 s→∞ s→∞ s2 + 4s + 3 s
d. At an impulse response, the Laplace transform of the input signal is U (s) = 1.

The output signal becomes
1
Y (s) = 2
s + 4s + 3
We use the final and initial value theorems
1
t→∞ s →0 s→0 s2 + 4s + 3
1
t→0 s→∞ s→∞ s2 + 4s + 3
e. The step response of the system is given by
1 1
Y (s) =
s2 + 4s + 3 s
from a previous subproblem. The derivative of a signal is in the Laplace domain
given by multiplication of s. We may denote the derivative of the step response
z( t) and get
1
Z (s) = sY (s) = 2
s + 4s + 3
We see that the derivative of the step response is the same as the impulse response,
and from the previous subproblem we thus get
lim z( t) = 0
t→0
67
2.6 a. The poles are the solutions the characteristic equation s2 + 0.6s + 0.25 = 0, i.e.
s = −0.3 ± 0.4i. The system lacks zeros.
b. The static gain is G(0) = 1.
c. The input (a step) has the Laplace transform U (s) = 1s . The output becomes
0.25
Y (s) = G(s)U (s) =
s(s2 + 0.6s + 0.25)
Because this system has complex poles, we first rewrite it as
ω2
Y (s) =
s(s2 + 2ζ ωs + ω 2 )
where ω = 0.5 and ζ = 0.6. We then utilize the inverse Laplace transformation
(transform no. 28) and obtain
y( t) = 1 − 1.25e−0.3t sin(0.4t + 0.9273)
The step response is shown below.
y( t)
0
0 5 10 15 20 t
2.7 Laplace transformation of the differential equation m ÿ + c ẏ + ky = f yields
(ms2 + cs + k) Y = F
and the transfer function is hence
1
G(s) = .
ms2 + cs + k
p
The poles are s = −c/2m ± i k/m − c2 /4m2 . A change in k implies a change of
the imaginary part of the poles. A change in c affects both the real and imaginary
parts.
The poles cannot end up in the right half plane due to physical reasons, since
c ≥ 0 and m > 0.
1
2.8 a. G(s) =
LCs2 + RCs + 1
s
1 A 2h0
b. G(s) = , T=
Ts + 1 a
2.9 a. To be asymptotically stable, all eigenvalues of the system matrix A must lie strictly
within the left half plane (LHP). I.e. Re(λi ) < 0 ∀ i.
The eigenvalues of A are given by the characteristic equation
det(λ I − A) = 0
which in this case has two solutions, λ1 = −i and λ2 = i. Since the eigenvalues do
not lie strictly within the LHP, the system is not asymptotically stable.
68
b. If all the eigenvalues of A lie strictly within the LHP, we are guaranteed stability.
If any eigenvalue lies strictly in the RHP we have an unstable system. If, on the
other hand, there are eigenvalues on the imaginary axis, the system can be either
stable or unstable.
In this example there are no eigenvalues in the RHP. Additionally, all eigenvalues
on the imaginary axis are distinct. This tells us that the system is stable.
2.10 The characteristic equation is
s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 7 = 0
The transfer function is stable if all coefficients are positive, which is the case, and
if the product of the s2 - and s1 coefficients is greater than the s0 coefficient. The
transfer function is therefore not stable, since 2 · 3 < 7.
2.11 First and second order systems are stable if and only if the coefficients in the
denominator polynomial of the transfer function are positive. All transfer functions
except for G3 are stable. All step responses except for E corresponds to stable
systems. Thus, G3 = E.
All transfer functions except G3 , G4 , and G7 have a static gain of Gi (0) = 1, which
means that the final value of the step response is one. G7 has a static gain of
G7 (0) = 2/3, which gives G7 = C.
Step response D has a derivative that is not equal to 0 at t = 0. Checking the
initial derivative of the transfer functions gives that this only is true for G1 and G5 .
G1 has a time constant of 10s while G5 has a time constant of 1s. Thus, G5 = D.
Now two step responses remain, A and B, which corresponds to second order
systems with complex poles and a static gain of one. The transfer functions that
fulfills these specifications are G2 and G6 . The relative damping ζ is less for G6
than for G2 , which gives G2 = A and G6 = B.
69
2.12 PZ1. The system has the poles in −1/4 ± i and a zero in −1. The transfer function
is thus
s+1 s+1
G(s) = K 1 2
(K 2 1 .
(s + 4 ) + 1 s + 2s + 1
The initial value, initial derivative and final value become
y(0) = lim G(s) = 0

s→+∞
ẏ(0) = lim sG(s) = K ,= 0

s→+∞
lim y( t) = G(0) = K ,= 0
t→+∞
The step response is oscillating with period T = 2π /1 ( 6. This must be step

response D.
PZ2. The system has poles in −1 and −2 and a zero in 1. The transfer function is
s−1
G(s) = K
(s + 1)(s + 2)
y(0) = lim G(s) = 0

s→+∞
ẏ(0) = lim sG(s) = K ,= 0

s→+∞
K
lim y( t) = G(0) = − ,= 0
t→+∞ 2
We see that the initial derivative and the final value have different signs. This fits
step response F.
PZ3. The system has poles in −1/4 ± i and a zero in 0. The transfer function is
s s
G(s) = K (K 2 1
(s + 14 )2 + 1 s + 2s + 1
y(0) = lim G(s) = 0

s→+∞
ẏ(0) = lim sG(s) = K ,= 0

s→+∞
lim y( t) = G(0) = 0
t→+∞
The step response is oscillating with period T = 2π /1 ( 6. This is step response

G.
PZ4. The system has poles in −1 and −2 and a zero in −3. The transfer function
is
s+3
G(s) = K .
(s + 1)(s + 2)
y(0) = lim G(s) = 0

s→+∞
ẏ(0) = lim sG(s) = K ,= 0

s→+∞
3K
lim y( t) = G(0) = ,= 0
t→+∞ 2
The initial derivative and final value have the same sign. The only nonoscillative
step response which suits these criteria is C.
70
2.13 a. For the impulse response, u( t) = δ ( t) (Dirac function). We have

U (s) = 1
Y (s) = G(s)U (s) = G(s)
Initial value:
lim y( t) = lim sY (s) = lim sG(s)
t→0 s→∞ s→∞
Final value:
lim y( t) = lim sY (s) = lim sG(s)
t→∞ s →0 s →0
All transfer functions have stable poles, and thus we may use the final and initial
value theorems.
y(0) lim y( t)
t→∞
G1 (s) 1 0
G2 (s) 3 0
G3 (s) 0 0
G4 (s) 0 0
G5 (s) 0 1
G6 (s) 0 1
Both impulse responses in the figure have initial value 0 and final value 0. Thus,
they correspond to G3 (s) and G4 (s). The poles of G3 (s) are located in s = −1, and
the poles of G4 (s) in s = −3. G4 (s) is thus a faster system, which corresponds
to the impulse response for lemonade. G3 (s) is slower, which corresponds to the
impulse response for whole grain pasta.
b. Normally, you eat a certain amount of food in a relatively short time, and then do
not eat for a longer period of time. Thus, you may model food intake as an impulse,
that occurs instantaneously compared to the time it takes for the body to digest
the food.
A step response in food intake would correspond to eating continuously during a
longer time. Feeding through intravenous therapy could be described by a step
response.
2.14 a.
Y = G1 (U + G2 Y )
Y (1 − G1 G2 ) = G1U
G1
Y = U
1 − G1 G2
b.
Y = G2 ( H1U + G1U + H2 Y )
Y (1 − G2 H2 ) = (G2 H1 + G2 G1 )U
G2 H1 + G2 G1
Y = U
1 − G2 H2
c. Introduce the auxiliary variable Z, being the output of G1

Z = G1 (U + G3 ( Z + G2 Z ))
Z (1 − G1 G3 − G1 G3 G2 ) = G1U
G1
Z= U
1 − G1 G3 − G1 G3 G2
G2 G1
Y = U
1 − G1 G3 − G1 G3 G2
71
d.
Y = G2 (− H2 Y + G1 (U − H1 Y ))
Y (1 + G2 H2 + G2 G1 H1 ) = G2 G1U
G2 G1
Y = U
1 + G2 H2 + G2 G1 H1
2.15 a. From the block diagram we get

Y (s) = G P (s)(U (s) + D(s))
U (s) = G R (s) E (s)
E (s) = R(s) − Y (s)
Solve for Y (s):

G P (s)G R (s) G P (s)
Y (s) = R(s) + D(s)
1 + G P (s)G R (s) 1 + G P (s)G R (s)
The system has two input signals, R(s) and D(s). The transfer function from R(s)
to Y (s) is
G P (s)G R (s)
G yr (s) =
1 + G P (s)G R (s)
b. The transfer function from D(s) to Y (s) is

G P (s)
G yd (s) =
1 + G P (s)G R (s)
c. Solve for E (s):

1 G P (s)
E (s) = R(s) − D(s)
1 + G P (s)G R (s) 1 + G P (s)G R (s)
The transfer function from R(s) to E (s) becomes
1
G er (s) =
1 + G P (s)G R (s)
d. Solve for U (s):

G R (s) G P (s)G R (s)
U (s) = R(s) − D(s)
1 + G P (s)G R (s) 1 + G P (s)G R (s)
The transfer function from D(s) to U (s) becomes
G P (s)G R (s)
Gud (s) = −
1 + G P (s)G R (s)
2.16 a. Partial fraction expansion yields

s2 + 6s + 7 s+1 −1 2
G(s) = = 2 +1= + +1
s2 + 5s + 6 s + 5s + 6 s+2 s+3
One has a certain freedom when choosing the coefficients of the B and C matrices.
However, the products bi c i remain constant. Let e.g. b1 = b2 = 1. This enables us
to immediately write the system in diagonal form:
   
dx  −2 0  1
= x
 + u
 
dt 0 −3 1

   
y =  −1 2 x + 1 u
72
b. First rewrite the system as
b0 s + b1 s+1
G(s) = +d= 2 +1
s2 + a1 s + a2 s + 5s + 6
The controllable canonical form can be directly read from the transfer function
   
dx  −5 −6 1
= x+
  u
dt 1 0 0

   
y = 1 1 x + 1 u
c. The observable canonical form is obtained in the same manner

   
dx  −5 1 1
= x+
  u
dt −6 0 1

   
y = 1 0 x + 1 u
73
Frequency Analysis
3.1
a. The output is given by

1 2
y( t) = pG(3i)p sin 3t + arg G(3i)
where √
0.01 1 + 100ω 2
pG(iω )p = √ √
1 + ω 2 1 + 0.01ω 2
and
arg G(iω ) = arctan 10ω − arctan ω − arctan 0.1ω
For ω = 3 one obtains pG(iω )p = 0.0909 and arg G(iω ) = −0.003 which gives
y( t) = 0.0909 sin(3t − 0.003)
b. Reading from the plot yields pG(3i)p ( 0.09 and arg G(3i) ( 0. We obtain
y( t) = 0.09 sin 3t
3.2 a. The air temperature will affect the water temperature much faster in the small
garden pool than in the sea. Faster influence means that the gain is greater for
higher frequencies. Thus, the solid line represents the garden pool – G2 (s), and
the dashed line the sea water – G1 (s).
b. The time scale in the Bode diagram is hours. Thus, we convert the period time to
hours:
1 year = 365 · 24 h = 8760 h
The angular frequency of the oscillation thus becomes
2π 2π
ω= = rad/h = 7 · 10−4 rad/h.
T 8760
We read off the dashed amplitude curve at this frequency and get
pG(iω )p ( 0.5
This means that the oscillation in the output (the water temperature) has half
as big amplitude as the oscillation in the input (the air temperature) at this
frequency. The difference between the maximum and minimum temperature in
the air is ∆Tlu f t = 19○ C−(−5○ C ) = 24○ C. The difference between the maximum
and minimum temperature in the water thus becomes ∆Tvatten = 0.5 · 24○ C = 12○ C.
c. The angular frequency for the oscillation is now

2π 2π
ω= = rad/h = 0.26 rad/h.
T 24
We read off the solid phase curve at this frequency and get
arg(G(iω )) ( −30○ .
○
30
This means that the peak of the output signal will be 360 ○ ( 0.08 period =
0.08 · 24 h = 1.92 h later than the peak of the input signal. Thus, the pool is as
warmest around 15.00.
74
Solutions to Exercises 3. Frequency Analysis
3.3 a. The output is given by

1 2
y( t) = pG(iω )p sin ω t + arg G(iω )
where
10 10
pG(iω )p = 2
= p
(iω ) + 0.5iω + 1 (1 − ω )2 + (0.5ω )2
2
and
10 ! "
arg G(iω ) = arg = − arg (1 − ω 2 ) + 0.5ωi
(iω )2 + 0.5iω + 1

0.5ω
− arctan 1−ω 2 ,
 ω<1
= −π /2, ω=1
− arctan 10.5ω

−ω 2 − π, ω > 1

The output becomes
10.4 sin (0.2t − 5.9○ ), 20.0 sin ( t − 90.0○ ), 0.011 sin (30t − 179.0○ )
b. For ω = 0.2 one reads pG(iω )p ( 10 and arg G(iω ) ( −5○ . For ω = 1 one reads
pG(iω )p ( 20 and arg G(iω ) ( −90○ . For ω = 30 one reads pG(iω )p ( 0.01 and
arg G(iω ) ( −180○ . The output is approximately
10 sin (0.2t − 5○ ), 20 sin ( t − 90○ ), 0.01 sin (30t − 180○ )
3.4 We use the following general approach to draw Bode plots
• Factor the transfer function of the system.

• Determine the low frequency asymptote (small s).
• Determine the corner frequencies (i.e. the magnitude of the poles and zeros
of the system.)
• Draw the asymptotes of the gain curve from low to high frequencies, aided by
the following rules of thumb
– A pole decreases the slope of the gain curve by 1 at the corner frequency.
– A zero increases the slope of the gain curve by 1 at the corner frequency.
• Draw the asymptotes of the phase curve from low to high frequencies, aided
by the following rules of thumb
– A (stable) pole decreases the value of the phase curve by 90○ at the corner
frequency.
– A (stable) zero increases the value of the phase curve by 90○ at the corner
frequency.
• Draw the real gain- and phase curves, aided by the asymptotes and sample
curves in the collection of formulae.
a. The transfer function can be written

1
G (s ) = 3 ·
1 + s/10
Low frequency asymptote: G(s) ( 3.

Corner frequency: ω = 10 rad/s (pole).
The gain curve starts with slope 0 and value 3. The slope decreases by 1 at
ω = 10 rad/s, due to the pole, and thus ends being −1.
The phase curve starts at 0○ . The phase is decreased by 90○ at ω = 10 rad/s, due
to the pole, and thus ends being −90○ .
The asymptotes and the finished Bode plots are shown in Figure S3.1.
75
10
Magnitude
1
0.1
0
Phase
−45
−90
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
Frequency
3
Figure S3.1 The Bode plot of G(s) = 1+s/10
.
b. The transfer function can be written

1 1
G(s) = 10 · ·
1 + 10s 1 + s

Corner frequencies: ω = 0.1 rad/s (pole), ω = 1 rad/s (pole).
The gain curve starts with slope 0 and value 10. The slope is decreased by 1 at
ω = 0.1 rad/s, due to the first pole, and by 1 at ω = 1 rad/s, due to the second
pole. Thus, the final slope becomes −2.
The phase curve starts at 0○ . The phase is decreased by 90○ at ω = 0.1 rad/s, due
to the first pole, and by 90○ at ω = 1 rad/s, due to the second pole. Thus, the final
phase is −180○ .
The asymptotes and the finished Bode plot are shown in Figure S3.2.
c. The transfer function can be written

1
G(s) = e−s ·
1+s

Corner frequency: ω = 1 rad/s (pole).
The delay (e−s ) does not affect the gain curve, which starts with slope 0 and value
1. The slope is decreased by 1 at ω = 1 rad/s, due to the pole, and the final slope
is thus −1.
The phase curve is harder to sketch. One approach is to draw the asymptotes of
the system without the delay and superposition it with the phase curve of e−s ,
which can be obtained from the collection of formulae or by computing some points
and interpolating between these.
Anyway, we see that the phase curve starts at 0○ and that the phase then decreases
both due to the pole (at ω = 1 rad/s) and the delay. The delay causes the phase to
approach −∞ for large ω.
The finished plot is shown in Figure S3.3.
76
100
Magnitude
10−2
10−4
−45
Phase
−90
−135
−180
10−2 10−1 100 101 102

Frequency
10
Figure S3.2 Bode plot of G(s) = .
(1 + 10s)(1 + s)
d. The transfer function can be written

1 1
G(s) = · (1 + s) ·
s 1 + s/10
1
Low frequency asymptote: G(s) ( .
s
Corner frequencies: ω = 1 rad/s (zero), ω = 10 rad/s (pole).
The gain curve starts with slope −1. The slope increases by 1 at ω = 1 rad/s,
due to the zero, and at ω = 10 rad/s the slope decreases by 1, due to the pole.
Consequently, the final slope is −1.
The phase curve starts at −90○ . The phase increases by 90○ at ω = 1 rad/s, due
to the zero, and decreases by 90○ at ω = 10 rad/s, due to the pole. Consequently,
the final phase is −90○ .
The finished plot is shown in Figure S3.4.
e. The transfer function can be written

1 1
G(s) = 2 · · (1 + 5s) ·
s 1 + 2ζ (s/2) + (s/2)2
where ζ = 0.2.
2
Low frequency asymptote: G(s) ( .
s
Corner frequencies: ω = 0.2 rad/s (zero), ω = 2 rad/s (complex conjugated pole
pair).
The gain curve starts with slope −1. The slope is increased by 1 at ω = 0.2 rad/s,
due to the zero, and decreased by 2 at ω = 2 rad/s, due to the pole pair. Conse-
quently, the final slope is −2.
The phase curve starts at −90○ . The phase is increased by 90○ at ω = 0.2 rad/s,
due to the zero, and decreased by 180○ at ω = 2 rad/s, due to the pole pair.
Consequently, the final phase is −180○ .
77
0.5
Gain
0.2
0.1
−90
Phase
−180
−270
−360
10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101

Frequency
e−s
Figure S3.3 Bode plot of G(s) = 1+s
.
The low damping (ζ = 0.2) of the complex conjugated pole pair gives the gain curve
a resonance peak at ω = 2 rad/s. Additionally, the phase decreases rapidly at this
frequency, cf. the sample curves in the collection of formulae. The finished plot is
shown in Figure S3.5.
3.5 a. The Nyquist curve start in 3 (the static gain) for ω = 0 rad/s. Both the gain
and phase are strictly decreasing, which makes the curve turn clockwise while
its distance to the origin decreases. The gain and phase approach 0 and −90○ ,
respectively, for large values of ω. The curve is thus bound to the fourth quadrant
and approaches the origin along the negative imaginary axis as ω → ∞.
Aided by this analysis, one can now sketch the Nyquist curve by choosing a few
frequencies (e.g. ω = 1, 10 and 100 rad/s) and drawing the corresponding points
in the complex plane. The finished curve is shown in Figure S3.6.
b. The Nyquist curve starts in 10 (the static gain) for ω = 0 rad/s. Both the gain
its distance to the origin decreases. The gain and phase approach 0 and −180○ ,
respectively, for large values of ω. The curve will thus go from the fourth to the
third quadrant, approaching the origin along the negative real axis as ω → ∞.
The intersection with the negative imaginary axis can be drawn by reading off
the magnitude when the phase is −90○ . One can now sketch the Nyquist curve
by choosing a few additional frequencies (e.g. ω = 0.1, 1 rad/s) and drawing
the corresponding points in the complex plane. The finished curve is shown in
Figure S3.7.
c. The Nyquist curve starts in 1 (the static gain) for ω = 0 rad/s. Both the gain
its distance to the origin decreases. The gain and phase approach 0 and −∞,
respectively, for large values of ω. The curve will thus rotate infinitely many times
as it approaches the origin. The first intersections with the axis can be drawn
by reading off the magnitude when the phase is −90○ , −180○ , −270○ and −360○ ,
respectively. The finished curve is shown in Figure S3.8.
78
101
5
Magnitude
2
100
5
2
−1
10
0
Phase
−45
−90
10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101 2 5 102

Frequency
1+s
s(1 + s/10)
3.6 Let the sought transfer function be G(s). The gain curve starts with slope −1,
which indicates that G(s) contains a factor 1s (an integrator). We observe that
there are two corner frequencies: ω 1 = 1 and ω 2 = 100 rad/s. The gain curve
breaks upwards once at ω 1 and downward once at ω 2 . Hence, the nominator hosts
a factor 1 + s, whereas the denominator contains a factor 1 + s/100. In addition,
G(s) contains a constant gain K. We thus have
K (1 + s)
G(s) =
s(1 + s/100)
We evaluate the low frequency asymptote of the gain curve at e.g. ω = 0.01 rad/s,
in order to determine K. This yields
K
pG(0.01i)p = 0.01
=1 [ K = 0.01
Finally we verify that the phase curve matches this system.
3.7 Let the sought transfer function be G(s). The gain curve has two corner frequen-
cies: ω 1 = 2 and ω 2 = 100 rad/s. The gain curve breaks downwards once at ω 1 and
three times at ω 2 . Thus the denominator of G(s) contains the factors (1 + 2s ) and
s 3
(1 + 100 ) . The slope of the low frequency asymptote is 1. Thus G(s) has a factor
s in the nominator. Additionally, G(s) contains a constant gain K. We have
Ks
G(s) = s s 3
(1 + 2
)(1 + 100
)
The factor K is computed by determining a point on the LF asymptote, e.g.

G L F (s) = Ks
pG L F (iω )p = Kω = 1
for ω = 0.5 rad/s. This gives
79
100
Gain
10
−45
Phase[deg]
−90
−135
−180
10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101

Frequency
2(1 + 5s)
s(1 + 0.2s + 0.25s2 )
Im
Re
1 2 3
−0.5
−1
−1.5
3
Figure S3.6 Nyquist curve of G(s) = .
1 + s/10
K =2
Finally we verify by checking that the phase curve matches this system.
80
Im
Re
−2 5
−5
10
(1 + 10s)(1 + s)
Im
Re
−0.5 0.5 1
−0.5
−1
e−s
1+s
81
Feedback Systems
4.1 a. Laplace transformation of the differential equation yields
sY (s) + 0.01Y (s) = 0.01U (s)
The transfer function G P (s) is thus given by
0.01
Y (s) = G P (s)U (s) = U (s)
s + 0.01
b. The transfer function of the closed loop system becomes
0.01
G P (s)G R (s) K 0.01 K
G(s) = = s + 0.01 =
1 + G P (s)G R (s) 0.01 s + 0.01 + 0.01 K
1+ K
s + 0.01
c. The desired and actual characteristic polynomials are the same if all their coeffi-
cients match. Identification of coefficients yields
0.1 = 0.01 + 0.01 K \ K =9
4.2 Since r( t) = 0, the control error becomes e( t) = − y( t).

G P (s)
Y (s) = G P (s)( F (s) − G R (s) Y (s)) \ Y (s) = F (s)
1 + G R (s)G P (s)
If f ( t) is a unit step, we have F (s) = 1s .
a. Seek y(∞) for G R = K

1 1 1
y(∞) = lim sY (s) = lim s =
s →0 s →0 (ms2 + ds + K ) s K
The function sY (s) has all poles in the left-half plane when the parameters m, d
and K are positive.
b. The same assignment, but with G R (s) = K 1 + K 2 /s. This yields

1 1
y(∞) = lim s K2
s →0 (ms2
+ ds + K 1 + s
) s
s
= lim =0
s→0 ms3 + ds2 + K 1 s + K 2
under the assumption of stability, which is the case for m > 0, d > 0 and K 1 >
m
d
K 2 > 0. Rule: If the disturbance is a step, one needs at least one integrator
before the point in the block diagram where the disturbance is introduced, in
order to make the stationary error zero.
4.3 a. For the closed loop system it holds, when R = 0, that

U (s) = K (0 − Y (s)) = − K (G P (s)U (s) + N (s))
from which one obtains
−K
U (s) = N (s)
1 + KG P (s)
(4.1)
1
Y (s) = G P (s)U (s) + N (s) = N (s)
1 + KG P (s)
82
Solutions to Exercises 4. Feedback Systems
1
b. Inserting G P (s) = s +1
into (4.1) yields the relations
− K (s + 1)
U (s) = N (s)
s+1+ K
s+1
Y (s) = G P (s)U (s) + N (s) = N (s) =: G yn (s) N (s)
s+1+ K
In stationarity it holds that
y( t) = ApG yn (iω )p sin(ω t + arg G yn (iω ))
√ 3 4
1 + ω2 ω
= Ap sin ω t + arctan ω − arctan
( K + 1)2 + ω 2 K +1
u( t) = − Ky( t)
√ 3 4
1 + ω2 ω
= −K Ap sin ω t + arctan ω − arctan
( K + 1)2 + ω 2 K +1
c. With A = 1 and K = 1 the amplitudes of the oscillations in u and y become

r
1 + ω2
Au =
4 + ω2
r
1 + ω2
Ay =
4 + ω2
For ω = 0.1 rad/s the amplitudes become
Au ( 0.5
A y ( 0.5
while ω = 10 rad/s yields
Au ( 1
Ay ( 1
4.4 With G P (s) = 1/( Js2 ) we obtain
E (s) = θ re f (s) − θ (s)

= θ re f (s) − G P (s)( M (s) + KG R (s) E (s))
1 G P (s)
[ E (s) = θ re f (s) − M (s)
1 + KG P (s)G R (s) 1 + KG P (s)G R (s)
Assume step changes in disturbance momentum M d0 and reference θ re
0
f . We postu-
late G R (s) = Q(s)/ P ( S ), which gives
1
0
1 Js 2θ re fM0
E (s) = · − · d
Q(s) s Q(s) s
1+ K 2 1+ K 2
Js P (s) Js P (s)
0
s2 J P (s) θ re f P (s) M d0
= · − ·
s2 J P (s) + K Q(s) s s2 J P (s) + K Q(s) s
The stationary error becomes
e ∞ = lim e( t) = lim s E (s)

t→∞ s →0
P (0) P (0)
=0− M0 = − M0
K Q(0) d K Q(0) d
where we have assumed that Q(0) ,= 0 and that the conditions for the final value
theorem are fulfilled. We see that P (0) = 0 yields e ∞ = 0. In order to eliminate
persistent angular errors caused by disturbance momenta, it is consequently re-
quired to utilize a controller G R (s) with at least one pole in the origin ( P (0) = 0).
83
4.5 The input of the thermocouple is the temperature u( t) of the bath, which gives
1
u( t) = t [ U (s) =
s2
The output y( t) is the reading of the temperature sensor. Thus
1 1
Y (s) = G(s)U (s) = ·
1 + sT s2
For the error e( t) = u( t) − y( t) it holds that
5 6
1 1 sT 1
E (s) = U (s) − Y (s) = 2 1 − = ·
s 1 + sT 1 + sT s2
The stationary error is obtained by means of the final value theorem
s2 T 1
e(∞) = lim s E (s) = lim = T = 10
s →0 s →0 1 + sT s2
The thermocouple measurement is hence 10○ less than the actual temperature.
I.e. the actual temperature of the bath is 102.6○ C + 10○ C = 112.6○ C.
Observe that the error in this has a bounded limit, despite the fact that both u( t)
and y( t) lack (bounded) limits as t → ∞. It is the difference between u and y
which converges to a constant value.
4.6 The low frequency asymptote is

K
G L F (s) =
s2
where the constant K is given by
K
pG L F (iω )p = ; pG L F (i)p = 1 [ K =1
ω2
At the corner frequency ω 1 = 1 rad/s the slope changes from −2 to 0, and at
ω 2 = 5 rad/s it changes from 0 to −1. The transfer function for the open loop
system is thus
(1 + sT1 )2
Go (s) = 2
s (1 + sT2 )
where T1 = 1/ω 1 = 1 and T2 = 1/ω 2 = 0.2.
The transfer function of the closed loop system becomes
Go (s)
G(s) =
1 + Go (s)
The output is Y (s) = G(s) R(s) and the error E (s) becomes
1 s2 (1 + 0.2s)
E (s) = R(s) − Y (s) = R(s) = R(s)
1 + Go s2 (1 + 0.2s) + (1 + s)2
a.
a
R(s) = [ e ∞ = lim e( t) = lim s E (s)
s t→∞ s→0
as2 (1 + 0.2s)
= lim =0
s →0 s2 (1 + 0.2s) + (1 + s)2
The system can thus track inputs r( t) = a without a stationary error.
b.
b
R(s) = [ e ∞ = lim e( t) = lim s E (s)
s2 t→∞ s→0
−
bs(1 + 0.2s)
= lim 2 =0
s→0 s (1 + 0.2s) + (1 + s)2
The system can also track inputs r( t) = bt without a stationary error.
84
c.
2c
R(s) = [ e ∞ = lim e( t) = lim s E (s)
s3 t→∞ s →0
2c(1 + 0.2s)
= lim = 2c ,= 0
s →0 s2 (1 + 0.2s) + (1 + s)2
The input r( t) = ct2 , however, yields a stationary error.
d. Superposition can be used, since the closed loop system is linear and time invariant
(LTI). Here, the input is the sum of the inputs in sub-assignments a and b. The
total (superpositioned) stationary error thus becomes e ∞ = 0 + 0 = 0.
e. The input r( t) = sin( t) yields
1
R(s) = [ lim s E (s)
1 + s2 s →0
s2 (1 + 0.2s)
= lim s =0
s →0 (s2 (1 + 0.2s) + (1 + s)2 )(1 + s2 )
but the input r( t) = sin( t) yields the output y( t) = yo sin( t + φ ), where
yo = pG(i)p , φ = ar G(i)
once transients have decayed. The error e( t) = r( t) − y( t) is thus also a sinusoid

and the limit
lim e( t)
t→∞
does not exist. This shows that the final value theorem should not be used without
caution. It is only valid for cases where a limit really exists. The criterion is that all
poles of s E (s) must have negative real parts. (The factor s2 + 1 in the denominator
yields two poles on the imaginary axis.)
4.7 a. The sensitivity function is given by
1 1 s3 + 3s2 + 3s + 1
S (s) = = 6.5
= 3
1 + G P (s)G R (s) 1 + (s+1)3 s + 3s2 + 3s + 7.5
b. For ω = 0 rad/s we have p S (iω )p = 1/7.5. Low-frequency load disturbances are

thus damped by a factor 7.5.
c. The sensitivity functions has its maximum value p S (iω )p =( 10 at ω ( 1.6 rad/s.
4.8 a. The top curve shows the complementary sensitivity function, whereas the sensi-
tivity function is given by the bottom curve.
b. The disturbances at various frequencies are amplified according to the gain curve
of the sensitivity function. Disturbances below 0.2 rad/s are hence reduced, distur-
bances in the range 0.2 to 2 rad/s are amplified and disturbances above 2 rad/s pass
straight through. The worst case gain, 2, is obtained at the frequency 0.55 rad/s.
c. The complementary sensitivity function, corresponding to the closed loop transfer

function from r to y, lies close to 1 up to approximately 0.7 rad/s.
d. The maximal magnitude of the sensitivity function equals the inverse of the min-
imal distance between the Nyquist curve and the point −1. The minimal distance
is thus 1/2 = 0.5. The distance to −1, as the Nyqist curve intersects the negative
real axis, must hence be at least 0.5. This implies that the gain margin is at least
2.
85
4.9 The closed loop transfer function is given by
Go K
G(s) = = 2
1 + Go s + 2s + K
The poles of the closed loop system are given by the characteristic equation
√
s2 + 2s + K = 0 [ s = −1 ± 1− K
For K = 0 the roots s 1,2 = 0, −2, i.e. the poles of the open loop system, are
obtained. The closed loop system G(s) has a double pole in s = −1 for K = 1. And
as K → ∞ the roots become
s 1,2 = −1 ± i∞
The root locus, i.e. the roots of the characteristic equation as K varies, is shown
in Figure S4.1 .
−2
−4
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0
Figure S4.1 Root locus of the system in assignment 4.9.
4.10 The open loop transfer function of the system is
K (s + 10)(s + 11) Q(s)

Go (s) = =K
s(s + 1)(s + 2) P (s)
The closed loop system becomes
Go (s) K Q(s)
G(s) = =
1 + Go (s) P (s) + K Q(s)
The characteristic equation is thus
P (s) + K Q(s) = 0
\s(s + 1)(s + 2) + K (s + 10)(s + 11) = 0
\s3 + (3 + K )s2 + (2 + 21 K )s + 110 K = 0
a. The criterion for stability is that all coefficients of the characteristic polynomial
s3 + (3 + K )s2 + (2 + 21 K )s + 110 K
are positive and that

(3 + K )(2 + 21 K ) > 110 K
The inequality yields
15 2
K2 − K+ >0
7 7
86
It is fulfilled for K > 2 and K < 1/7. The closed loop system is hence stable for
1
0< K <
7
and
K >2
b. Find the root locus for the characteristic equation, P (s) + K Q(s) = 0
s(s + 1)(s + 2) + K (s + 10)(s + 11) = 0 (4.2)
Let n = the degree of P (s) and m = the degree of Q(s). The root locus has a
maximum of max(n, m) = 3 branches.
Starting points:
P (s) = 0 [ s = 0, −1, −2
Ending points:
Q(s) = 0 [ s = −10, −11
The third branch will approach infinity.
To the right of each real point of the root locus, there must exists an odd number
of zeros of P (s) and Q(s). The points x, which fulfill this are
x < −11 − 10 < x < −2 −1< x<0
The root locus has pn − mp = 1 asymptote. This is the negative real axis, since the
range x < −11 on the real axis belongs to the root locus.
The intersection with the imaginary axis is obtained by introducing s = iω (4)
above. This yields
−(3 + K )ω 2 + 110 K + i(−ω 3 + (2 + 21 K )ω ) = 0
The resulting equation has a solution ω = K = 0 and

I
−(3 + K )ω 2 + 110 K = 0
ω 2 − (2 + 21 K ) = 0
√ √
gives K = 1/7, ω = ± 5 or K = 2, ω = ± 44.
We know from sub-assignment a that the closed loop system is unstable for 1/7 <
K < 2. Consequently, the root locus lies in the right half plane for these values of
K. The principal shape of the root locus is shown in Figure S4.2.
4.11 a. The open loop transfer function of the system is

K
G0 (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
The closed loop transfer function is thus
G0 (s) K
Gcl (s) = =
1 + G0 (s) s(s + 1)(s + 2) + K
The system is asymptotically stable if all zeros of the characteristic polynomial
s(s + 1)(s + 2) + K = s3 + 3s2 + 2s + K
have negative real parts. This is the case if all coefficients are positive and if
3·2> K
The system is thus asymptotically stable if 0 < K < 6.
87
20
5
10
0 0
−10
−5
−20
−40 −30 −20 −10 0 −4 −2 0
Figure S4.2 Root locus of the system in assignment 4.10. The right hand figure is a
magnification of the area close to the origin.
b. Now we want to study the dependence of K on the stationary error, as the reference
increases as a linear function of time. The Laplace transform of the control error
is given by
1 s(s + 1)(s + 2)
E (s) = R(s) = R(s)
1 + G0 s(s + 1)(s + 2) + K
With r( t) = 0.1t, i.e. R(s) = 0.1/s2 , we obtain
0.1(s + 1)(s + 2)
E (s) =
s(s(s + 1)(s + 2) + K )
The signal s E (s) has all poles in the left-half plane when 0 < K < 6, according to
sub-assignment a. For this case we can utilize the final value theorem
0.1(s + 1)(s + 2) 0.2

e(∞) = lim s =
s →0 s(s(s + 1)(s + 2) + K ) K
In order to obtain a stationary error less than 5 mV for the given reference, it
is required that K > 40. For such large values of K the system is, however, not
stable. It it hence impossible to meet the specification.
4.12 According to the Nyquist theorem, the closed loop system is stable exactly for those
K > 0, which are also
a. K < 2
b. K < 1/1.5 = 2/3
c. K < 1/1.5 = 2/3
d. K < 1/(2/3) = 1.5
4.13 The Nyquist curve intersects the negative real axis when arg(G0 (iω )) = −π, i.e.
when
−3 arctan(ω ) = −π
This is fulfilled when √
π
ω = tan = 3
3
The intersection point is given by
√ 1
pG0 (i 3)p =
8
This means that the system is stable for K < 8.
88
4.14 The system is stable for

1
0< K < \ 0 < K < 0.29
3.5
as well as
1
1< K < \ 1< K <2
0.5
4.15 The easiest way to solve the problem is through the Nyquist theorem. The transfer
function of the process is
e−9s
G P (s) =
(1 + 20s)2
The phase shift of the process is
arg G P (iω ) = −9ω − 2 arctan(20ω )
We seek the frequency for which the phase shift is −180○ . It is obtained by solving
the equation
−9ω − 2 arctan(20ω ) = −π
The equation lacks an analytic solution. However, it can be solved numerically in
several ways. The solution is
ω 0 ( 0.1
The next step is to determine the process gain for the given frequency.
1
pG(iω 0 )p = = 0.2
1 + 400ω 20
This gives us the gain margin
1
Am = =5
0.2
The gain K = 5 is thus the maximal admissible gain.
4.16 The loop transfer function is

1
10(1 + ) 5(1 + 2s)
G P (s)G R (s) = e−sL · 2s
= e−sL ·
(1 + 10s) s(1 + 10s)
The cross-over frequency is the frequency where the magnitude of the loop transfer
function is equal to one.
p
5 1 + 4ω 2c
pG0 (iω c )p = p =1
ω c 1 + 100ω 2c
The equation can be solved numerically or analytically
25(1 + 4ω 2c ) = ω 2c (1 + 100ω 2c )
ω 4c − 0.99ω 2c − 0.25 = 0
ω 2c ( 1.199
ω c ( 1.1 rad/min
The phase at this frequency is
arg G0 (iω c ) = arctan 2ω c − arctan 10ω c − 90○ − ω c L
The requirement of the phase margin, φ m ≥ 10○ , gives
φ m = 180○ + arg G0 (iω c )

= 180○ + arctan 2ω c − arctan 10ω c − 90○ − ω c L
( 70○ − ω c L ≥ 10○
89
This gives the following limit for the time delay L:
60 π
L≤ · = 1 min
ω c 180
The time delay must therefore be less than one minute.
4.17 a. True. Am = 1/p KG P (iω 0 )p, where ω 0 is the frequency for which the Nyquist curve
intersects the negative real axis.
b. True. φ m = π + arg G P (iω ) for pG P (iω )p = 1.
c. False. As K is decreased, all points on the Nyquist curve move closer to the origin.
Thus the phase margin increases as K is decreased.
d. True. The system is stable for K = 1 and all poles of G P (s) lie in the left half
plane. Consequently, the simplified Nyquist criterion can be applied. For K = 2,
the point −1 lies to the right of the Nyquist curve, when it is traversed as ω
increases. The closed loop system is thus stable.
4.18 a. This is the definition of the gain margin. From the plot one sees that the phase
−180○ corresponds to the gain ∼ 0.4. This yields the gain margin 1/0.4 = 2.5.
b. This is the definition of the phase margin. From the plot one sees that for gain 1,
the phase is approximately −140○ . This yields a phase margin of approximately
180○ − 140○ = 40○ .
4.19 The cross-over frequency and phase margin are read to be ω c = 0.07 and φ m = 40○ ,
respectively. The delay margin becomes
φm 40○ · 180
π
○
Lm = = = 10
ωc 0.07
90

5.1 a. From the controllability matrix
 
β 1 − β
 
Ws =  B AB =  
1 −2
 
we obtain det Ws = −β − 1, i.e. controllability for all β ,= −1.
b. The observability matrix

   
 C  0 γ 
Wo =  =
 
CA 0 −2γ
  
has zero determinant independent of γ , i.e. the system is not observable for any
value of γ .
5.2 The controllability matrix is given by

  
4 −8

Ws =  B AB = 
 
 
−2 4

The controllable states are determined by the columns of Ws and are given as
α(2, −1)T , where α is a scalar.
5.3    
C  1 1 
Wo =  =

  
 
CA −1 −1

We see that Wo is singular (det Wo = 0). The state x is non-observable if and only
if (iff)
Wo x = 0
We obtain a non-observable x iff x1 + x2 = 0. The non-observable states are thus
given by  
1
x = α 
−1

where α is a number ,= 0.
5.4 The controllability matrix

  
1 −1

Ws =  B AB = 
 
 
0 0

is singular, yielding an uncontrollable system. We can, however, conduct a more

detailed investigation. The system can be written
d x1


 = − x1 + u, x1 (0) = 1
dt
 d x2 = −2x ,

x2 (0) = 1
2
dt
Hence x2 ( t) = x2 (0) e−2t = e−2t , independent of the applied control signal u. On
the contrary, x1 can be controlled by means of u, to take on any desired value.
Thus, x2 → 0 as t → ∞. The states ( x1 , x2 ) which can be reached in finite time
t < ∞ make up the band 0 < x2 < 1 in Figure S5.1.
   
3
As a consequence, only the states 
  and 
 10 
   can be reached in finite
0.5 0.1

time.
91
Solutions to Exercises 5. State Feedback and Kalman Filtering
x2
1
x1
Figure S5.1 Reachable states in assignment 2.9.
5.5 The system is controllable, since

  
1 4 

Ws =  B AB = 
 
 
2 −7

has full rank.
5.6 a.   
5 −10

Ws =  B AB = 
 
 
0 0

Ws has rank 1, i.e. the system is not controllable. The states which can be reached
in finite time from the origin are determined by the columns of Ws . The controllable
states can be parametrized by t as x = t · (1 0)T .
b. G(s) = C (s I − A)− 1B + D = 5/(s + 2).
c. The following is a minimal state space representation of G(s)

I
ẋ = −2x + 5u
y=x
5.7 a. True. Since the system is controllable, one can place the poles of the closed loop
system arbitrarily by means of linear feedback from all state variables.
b. False. A linear state feedback does not affect the zeros of the closed loop system.
c. True if the system is observable.
d. True if the system is observable.
5.8 The closed loop system becomes

I
ẋ = ( A − B K ) x + Bk r r
y = Cx
The characteristic equation is thus
det(s I − A + B K ) = s2 + (3 + k 1 + 2k 2 )s + 2(1 + k 1 + k 2 ) = 0
2
We need (s + 4) = s2 + 8s + 16 = 0. Identification of coefficients yields k 1 =
9, k 2 = −2. The closed loop transfer function is G(s) = C (s I − A + B K )−1 Bk r .
The stationary gain is G(0) is unity if
−1 kr
G(0) = C (− A + B K ) Bk r = =1
4
yielding k r = 4.
92
5.9 a. The characteristic polynomial of the closed loop system is given by

s + 0.5 + 3k1 3k 2
det(s I − ( A − B K )) = = s2 + (0.5 + 3k1 )s + 3k2
−1 s
The desired characteristic polynomial is
(s + 4 + 4i)(s + 4 − 4i) = s2 + 8s + 32
Identification of coefficients yields

   
K = 5/2 32/3 = 2.5 10.7
The closed loop system transfer function is G yr (s) = C (s I − A + B K )−1 Bk r . The

stationary gain is unity if
3
G yr (0) = C (− A + B K )−1 Bk r = kr = 1
32
which yields k r = 32/3.
b. According to a rule of thumb, the observer poles shall be chosen 1.5–2 times faster
than the state feedback. Place the poles of the Kalman filter so that the distance
from the origin is twice as large, leading to the following characteristic polynomial
(s + 8 + 8i)(s + 8 − 8i) = s2 + 16s + 128
The characteristic polynomial of the Kalman filter is given by

s + 0.5 l 1
det(s I − ( A − LC )) = = s2 + (0.5 + l 2 )s + 0.5l 2 + l 1
−1 s + l2

 
120.25
L= 
15.5
 
5.10 a. From the block diagram we see that
1
X1 = K 1U
s
1
X2 = K2 X1
s
1
X3 = X2
s
which gives
ẋ1 = K 1 u
ẋ2 = K 2 x1
ẋ3 = x2
y = x3
In matrix form we get

   
0 0 0 K
  1

ẋ =  x+
  

 K 2 0 0

 
 0u
    
0 1 0 0
 
y = 0 0 1 x
93
b. The feedback law is given by

u = kr r − K x
The closed-loop system becomes
ẋ = Ax + B( k r r − K x) = ( A − B K ) x + Bk r r
The poles of the closed-loop system are given by the eigenvalues of A − B K, i.e.,
the roots of the closed loop characteristic equation
s + K 1 k1
 
 K 1 k2 K 1 k3 
det(s I − ( A − B K )) = det  − K2
 

 s 0  

−1
 
0 s
= s3 + K 1 k 1 s2 + K 1 K 2 k 2 s + K 1 K 2 k 3 = 0
The poles of the closed loop system are given by the eigenvalues of A − B K, i.e.
the roots of the closed loop characteristic equation
(s + 0.5)3 = s3 + 1.5s2 + 0.75s + 0.125 = 0
One immediately obtains the solution
1.5
k1 =
K1
0.75
k2 =
K1 K2
0.125
k3 =
K1 K2
5.11 The augmented system becomes

    
x1  x1     
d 
= A 0  B 0
 +  0  u + 1 r

x    
x
     
 2  2
   
 −C 0 
  
dt

x3 x3
      
 0 1 0  x1  0  0
 
= + u+
      

 0 0 0 



 x2 

 
 1

 
 0r
 
−1 0 0
     
x3 0 1
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
Ae xe Be Br
 
We seek K e =  k 1 k2 k 3  such that
det(s I − ( A e − B e K e )) = (s + α)(s2 + 2ζ ωs + ω 2 )
Insertion of A e , B e and K e into the above expression yields
s3 + k 2 s2 + k 1 s − k 3 " s3 + (α + 2ζ ω )s2 + (ω 2 + 2ζ ωα)s + αω 2
Identifications of coefficients now yields
k 1 = ω 2 + 2ζ ωα
k 2 = α + 2ζ ω
k 3 = −αω 2
 T
5.12 The estimation error x̃ fulfills x̃˙ = ( A − LC ) x̃. where L = l 1 l 2  . The char-
acteristic equation of the estimation error becomes
det(s I − ( A − LC )) = s2 + (4 + l 2 )s + l 1 + 2l 2 + 3 = 0
The desired characteristic equation is
(s + 4)2 = s2 + 8s + 16 = 0
Identification of coefficients yields l 1 = 5, l 2 = 4.
94
5.13 a. The characteristic equation of the closed loop system is given by

! " s + 4 + k1

3 + k 2
det s I − ( A − B K ) = = s2 + (4 + k1 )s + 3 + k2 = 0
−1 s
(s + 4)2 = s2 + 8s + 16 = 0
Which yields k 1 = 4 and k 2 = 13. The control law becomes
u = − k 1 x1 − k 2 x2 = −4x1 − 13x2
b. The states shall be estimated by means of a Kalman filter, i.e.

d x̂
= A x̂ + Bu + L( y − C x̂)
dt
For x̃ we have
d x̃
= ( A − LC ) x̃
dt
Determine L such that all eigenvalues of the matrix A − LC are placed in λ = −6.
det(λ I − A + LC ) = λ2 + (4 + l 1 + 3l 2 )λ + 3 + 3l 1 + 9l 2
= (λ + 6)2 = λ2 + 12λ + 36
Identify the coefficients and solve for l 1 and l 2 :

I I
4 + l 1 + 3l 2 = 12 l 1 + 3l 2 = 8
[
3 + 3l 1 + 9l 2 = 36 l 1 + 3l 2 = 11
The system of equations lacks solution, see the comment below.
c. The states are to be estimated by a Kalman filter, for which the eigenvalues of
A − KC shall be chosen such that
λ2 + (4 + l 1 + 3l 2 )λ + 3 + 3l 1 + 9l 2 = (λ + 3)2 = λ2 + 6λ + 9
Identifying coefficients and solving for l 1 and l 2 yields

I I
4 + l 1 + 3l 2 = 6 l 1 + 3l 2 = 2
[
3 + 3l 1 + 9l 2 = 9 l 1 + 3l 2 = 2
This leaves only one equation, which implies that there exists infinitely many
solutions, e.g. l 1 = 2, l 2 = 0 or l 1 = 0, l 2 = 23 etc.
The drawback of the proposed observer pole placement is that it yields an es-
timation slower than the closed loop system. This does not affect the response
to reference changes, which is governed by the poles of the closed loop system.
However, the handling of process disturbances becomes slower.
Comment
An inspection of the system’s observability shows that

C 1 3

det Wo = = =0
C A −1 −3
95
I.e. the system is not observable. The transfer function of the system is given by
s+3 1
G(s) = C (s I − A)−1 B = =
s2 + 4s + 3 s+1
The eigenvalue −3 corresponds to a non-observable mode. The mode is, however,
controllable, which follows from the canonical controllable form realization of the
system. The characteristic equation of A − LC can be written
det(λ I − A + LC ) = (λ + 3)(λ + l 1 + 3l 2 + 1)
This means that the Kalman filter has to estimate the non-observable mode with
its own speed. I.e. (at least) one of the eigenvalues of A − LC must be placed in −3.
This explains the failure to compute a Kalman filter when the eigenvalues were
to be placed in −6 and a success when they were to be placed in −3. Note that in
cases such as this one, the result is either that there does not exist a solution L
to the Kalman filter problem, or that it exists infinitely many solutions. When the
system is observable, there exists a unique solution L to the Kalman filter.
96
Design methods
6.1 a. The frequency function of the controller is given by

3 4
1
G R (iω ) = K 1 + i(ω Td − )
ω Ti
The gain and phase shift for a frequency ω are directly obtained from the gain
function A(ω ) and phase function φω of the controller, respectively.
r
1 2
A(ω ) = pG R (iω )p = K 1 + (ω Td − )
ω Ti
1
φ (ω ) = arg G R (iω ) = arctan(ω Td − )
ω Ti
b. We immediately realize that the gain function A(ω ) has a unique minimum for
Im A(iω ) = 0, which means that
1
ω min = √
Ti Td
At this frequency the gain and phase shift are given by
A(ω min ) = K
φ (ω min ) = 0
Note that the phase shift is negative for ω < ω min (phase lag) and positive for
ω > ω min (phase lead).
6.2 a. The gray gain curve is identical to the nominal one, except that it is raised by a
factor 4. This is thus the case where K has been multiplied by 4. Observe that the
gray phase curve is not visible in the plot since it coincides with the solid black
phase curve. The dotted gain curve differs from the nominal (solid black) curve at
low frequencies, for which it is lower. This indicates that Ti has been increased,
resulting in decreased low frequency gain. Also note that the phase curve has been
raised for low frequencies. The last (dashed) curve apparently corresponds to the
case where Td has been increased. This is further indicated by the factor 4 raise
of the gain curve for high frequencies. Also for this case, one can notice a certain
increase in the phase, although for somewhat higher frequencies.
The gray step response is faster and less damped than the nominal (solid black)
one. This is a characteristic sign of an increased gain K. The corresponding Bode
plot confirmingly shows that the cutoff frequency, ω c , has increased (faster), while
the phase margin has decreased (less damped). The dotted step response features
a slow mode both in the reference- and load disturbance responses. Observe the
relatively fast increase in the reference response to approximately 0.8, followed
by a slow convergence to 1. This must be due to decreased integral action. The
integral time Ti has thus increased in this case. The corresponding Bode plot
shows that ω c is virtually unchanged. This is seen in the step response by the
fact that the first part has approximately the same speed as the nominal case,
whereas the following slow settling is due to the decreased low frequency gain. The
last (dashed) step response obviously corresponds to an increase of the derivative
time Td . The reference response is subject to an fast initial increase, followed by
97
Solutions to Exercises 6. Design methods
a somewhat slower settling. This is seen in the Bode plot by the fact that the
high frequency gain has increased, while the low frequency gain has remained
unchanged. The load response is somewhat slower and more damped than in the
nominal case.
b. The gray gain curve is lowered by a factor 2 in comparison to the nominal (solid
black) one, corresponding to a decreased value of K. The gray phase curve conse-
quently coincides with the nominal (solid black) case. The dotted gain curve has
been increased for low frequencies, i.e. Ti has decreased. The dashed gain curve
has been lowered at high frequencies, i.e. Td has decreased.
The gray step response is slower and more damped than the nominal (solid black)
one. This indicates that K has decreased, since neither a decrease in Ti nor Td
would yield a more damped step response. This is further confirmed by the Bode
plot. The only case where ω c has decreased is when K has decreased. It is also
the only case for which the phase margin has increased. The two remaining step
responses are both less damped than the nominal one. In order to determine which
of these corresponds to a decrease of Ti , we look at the corresponding Bode plot
(the dotted one). This shows that the cutoff frequency ω c has increased somewhat
compared to the other nominal case. The dashed Bode plot, however, shows that
the decrease of Td has not changed ω c . The dotted step response is initially
somewhat faster than the nominal (solid black) one, whereas the dashed one is
initially approximately as fast as the nominal one. This implies that the dotted
step response corresponds to a decrease in Ti , while the dashed one corresponds
to a decrease in Td .
6.3 The transfer function of the process is given by

C
GP =
Js + D
and the transfer function of the PI controller is given by
3 4
1
GR = K 1 +
sTi
We can now write down the closed loop transfer function Gcl as
GRGP
Gcl =
1 + GRGP
The characteristic polynomial is the denominator of Gcl
D + CK CK
s2 + s+
J JTi
and the desired characteristic polynomial is
s2 + 2ζ ωs + ω 2

I
2ζ ω J − D
K= C
2ζ ω J − D
Ti = ω2 J
6.4 The transfer function of the process, Gp , is given by
ki
Θ = GP I = I
Js2 + Ds
and the transfer function of the PID controller, G R , is given by
3 4
1
I = G R ( Θ re f − Θ ) = K 1 + + sTd ( Θ re f − Θ )
sTi
98
where Θ re f is the Laplace transform of the reference value of θ . The transfer

function of the closed loop system, G, is thus given by
GRGP
Θ = GΘ re f = Θ re f
1 + GRGP
The characteristic polynomial is given by the denominator of G and is
D + K k i Td 2 K ki K ki
s3 + s + s+
J J JTi
We hence arrive at the polynomial equation
(s + α)(s2 + 2ζ ωs + ω 2 ) = s3 + (α + 2ζ ω )s2 + (2αζ ω + ω 2 )s + αω 2
Identification of coefficients yields the equations


D+ K k i Td

 J
= α + 2ζ ω
K ki
J
= 2αζ ω + ω 2
 K ki
= αω 2

JTi
from which one can calculate the sought controller parameters


J 2
 K = ki (2αζ ω + ω )

2ζ
Ti = ω + α1
 α+2ζ ω − D/ J
Td = 2αζ ω +ω 2

6.5 a. The transfer function of the controller is

1 1 s+1
Gr (s) = K (1 + ) = (1 + ) =
sTi s s
The low frequency asymptote becomes
1
Gr (s) (
s
I.e. the gain curve is a straight line with slope = -1 and arg Gr (iω ) = −90○ . The
slope of the gain curve increases to 0 at the corner frequency ω 1 = 1.
The high frequency asymptote is Gr (s) ( 1 with pGr (iω )p = 1, i.e. slope = 0 and
arg Gr (iω ) = 0. The corresponding Bode plot is shown in Figure S6.1.
b. The transfer function of the controller is
Gr (s) = K (1 + Td s) = 1 + s
The low frequency asymptote becomes Gr (s) ( 1, i.e. the gain curve is a straight
line with magnitude 1 and slope = 0 and the phase curve is described by
arg Gr (iω ) = 0○ . The slope of the gain curve increased to +1 at the corner frequency
ω 1 = 1.
The high frequency asymptote is given by Gr (s) ( s, i.e. the slope of the gain curve
is +1 and the phase curve is described by arg Gr (iω ) = +90○ . The corresponding
Bode plot is shown in Figure S6.2.
6.6 With the Ziegler-Nichols frequency method, an oscillation is generated at the

frequency ω 0 , where the phase shift of the process is −180○ . This frequency is
given by
−2 arctan 20ω 0 − 9ω 0 = −π
Numerical solution gives ω 0 ( 0.1 rad/s.
99
102
Gain
101
100
0
Phase[deg]
−45
−90
10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101 2 5 102

Frequency[rad/s]
Figure S6.1 Bode plot of a PI controller with K = 1 and Ti = 1.
The process gain at ω 0 is

1
= 0.2
1 + 202ω 20
The critical gain K c becomes

1
Kc = =5
0.2
and the period time is
2π
To = = 63
ωo
The controller parameters become
I
K = 0.45 K c = 2.25
Ti = To /1.2 = 53
6.7 a. Laplace transform of Martins dynamics give
1 1
sX = − X+ U
30 15
Y =X
and the transfer function Y = G P U becomes
2
GP =
30s + 1
The process is controlled by a PI controller, U = G R ( R − Y ) where
1 Ti s + 1
G R = K (1 + )= K
Ti s Ti s
The controller parameters K and Ti should be chosen such that the closed loop
transfer function Y = Gcl R has its poles in −0.1. The transfer function from R to
100
102
Gain
101
100
90
Phase[deg]
45
10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101 2 5 102

Frequency[rad/s]
Figure S6.2 Bode plot of a PD controller with K = 1 and Td = 1.
Y is
Ti s + 1 2
K ·
GP GR Ti s 30s + 1
Gcl = =
1 + GP GR Ti s + 1 2
1+ K ·
Ti s 30s + 1
K (Ti s + 1)2
=
Ti s(30s + 1) + K (Ti s + 1)2
where the denominator polynomial has the same roots as
2K + 1 K
s2 + s+
30 Ti 15
These roots should be −0.1, i.e., the same as for
(s + 0.1)2 = s2 + 0.2s + 0.01
This is true if the coefficients for the polynomials are equal, i.e.,
2K + 1
= 0.2
30
K
= 0.01
Ti 15
The controller parameters thus become
K = 2.5
Ti = 16.7
b. When using Ziegler-Nichols frequency method, an experiment is performed using

feedback with a P controller. The gain is increased until the system starts oscillat-
ing (stability boundary). The Bode diagram of the process can be thought of as the
Bode diagram for the loop transfer function, when the controller is a P controller
101
with a gain of 1. When the gain is increased, the gain curve in the Bode diagram
will move upwards, whereas the phase will remain unaffected. The system will
start to oscillate when the phase margin becomes 0. In the figure it can be seen
that this will happen when the cutoff frequency is 0.3 rad/s, since the phase curve
crosses −180○ at this frequency. This is the resonant frequency, with which the
system will oscillate. For this frequency, the gain is equal to 0.2. Thus, a gain of 5
is needed in order for the system to start oscillating with the resonant frequency.
According to the collection of formulae, we have
K = 0.45 K 0
Ti = T0 /1.2
where K 0 is the gain and T0 the period time of the oscillation. With
K0 = 5
2π
T0 = = 20.9
0.3
we get the controller parameters K = 2.25 and Ti = 17.4.
6.8 See fig. S6.3.
y( t)
y = 0.63
0.5
0
2 4 6 8 10 t
−0.5
Figure S6.3 Step response for the system in assignment 6.8 with some interesting lines
included.
Ziegler-Nichols step response method: With the customary notion we obtain a = 0.4
and b = 1.1. The controller parameters become K = 1.2/ a = 3, Ti = 2b = 2.2 and
Td = b/2 = 0.55.
Ziegler-Nichols frequency method: The Nyquist curve intersects the negative real
axis in −0.4 for ω = 1.3 rad/s, which yields T0 = 2π /ω = 4.8 and K 0 = 2.5. The
controller parameters become K = 0.6 K 0 = 1.5, Ti = T0 /2 = 2.4 and Td = T0 /8 =
0.6.
The Lambda method: By drawing the tangent to the step response, an approx-
imation of the dead time is obtained, L ( 1.1s. The step response has reached
63% of its final value after approximately 2.7s. The time constant thus becomes
T = 2.7 − 1.1 = 1.6s. The static gain is K P = 1. With λ = T, we get the PI
controller parameters
1 T
K= ( 0.6
Kp L + λ
Ti = T = 1.6s
102
For a PID controller, we get the parameters
1 L/2 + T
K= =1
K p L /2 + λ
Ti = T + L/2 = 2.15s
TL
Td = = 0.4s
L + 2T
6.9 a. The step response of the system is shown in Figure S6.4.
y( t)
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 t
Figure S6.4 Step response of G(s) = e−s /(s + 1).
From the figure we obtain (with the customary notion) a = b = 1. This yields the
controller parameters K = 1.2/ a = 1.2, Ti = 2b = 2 and Td = b/2 = 0.5.
b. The resonance frequency is determined by arg G(iω 0 ) = − arctan ω 0 − ω 0 = −π.

Numerical solution yields ω 0 ( 2.03, resulting in T = 2π /ω 0 = 3.1.
Further, K 0 = 1/pG(iω 0 )p = 2.26, which gives K = 1.4, Ti = 1.5 and Td = 0.39.
c. From the step response in subproblem a, we get the process parameters K P = 1,

L = 1 and T = 1. This gives the controller parameters
1 L/2 + T
K= =1
K p L /2 + λ
Ti = T + L/2 = 1.5
TL
Td = ( 0.33
L + 2T
103
6.10 a. The figure does not allow for any greater precision. Draw the tangent of the step
response where the derivative attains a maximum and study the intersection of
the tangent and the two coordinate axis. The parameter a is given by the distance
between 0 and the intersection with the vertical axis, whereas b is given by the
distance between 0 and the intersection with the horizontal axis. In our example
we have a = 0.65 and b = 4. From the table we obtain the following controller
parameters: K = 1.9, Ti = 8 and Td = 2.
y( t)
1
0.5
0
10 20 30 40 t
−0.5
b. The critical gain K c is the gain which causes the Nyquist curve to pass through
-1. In our case we have K c = 1/0.55 = 1.8. The critical period T0 corresponds to
the frequency at ’o’, i.e. T0 = 2π /ω = 14.6. This yields the controller parameters:
K = 1.1, Ti = 7.3 and Td = 1.8.
c. The value of K obtained from the last method is smaller than the values obtained
through Ziegler-Nichol’s methods.
6.11 Generally it is required that pG K (iω c )p > 1 in order for ω c to increase.
A The speed of the system increases, but simultaneously its robustness is reduced
since the phase margin decreases.
B pG K p < 1 for all ω, resulting in decreased cross-over frequency and speed.
C Cf. B.
D pG K p = 1 for all ω, leaving the cross-over frequency unaffected.
6.12 The process is connected in a feedback loop with a proportional controller. By

adding a compensation link one wants to decrease the ramp error of the com-
pensated system by a factor 10. Simultaneously, a small decrease in robustness
(phase margin) is accepted, resulting in a certain decrease of the system’s transient
behavior.
We can affect the ramp error by introducing a phase lag compensation link
s+a
G k (s) = M
sM + a
Assuming that the system is stable, the resulting ramp error becomes
1 1
lim e( t) = lim s E (s) = lim s · ·
t→∞ s→0 s →01 + G k (s)G P (s) s2
(sM + a)(s + 1)(s + 2) 2
= lim =
s→0 s(sM + a)(s + 1)(s + 2) + K M (s + a) KM
By choosing M = 10 ( K = 1) the ramp error is reduced to 0.2.
104
Now it remains to decide a value for a. The phase lag link contributes to a
√phase
lag in the open loop. The phase lag is largest around the frequency ω = a/ M. In
order not to compound the transient behavior of the closed loop system excessively,
a must be chosen such that the phase around the cross-over frequency is left
unaffected. This can be achieved by choosing a adequately small. However, a
overly small value of a results in a long time before the ramp error decreases to
0.2. Let ω c denote the cross-over frequency of the uncompensated system. At this
frequency, the compensation link has a phase contribution
ωc Mω c
arg G k (iω c ) = arctan − arctan
a a
A simple rule of thumb is to choose a = 0.1ω c . In our example it means that the
compensation link contributes with a phase shift of
arg G k (iω c ) = arctan 10 − arctan 100 ( −5.1○
The crossover frequency may be determined numerically according to
1
pG P (iω c )p = p p =1
ωc 1 + ω 2c 4 + ω 2c
which gives ω c ( 0.45-

The compensation link thus becomes
s + 0.045 s + 0.045
G k (s) = 10 =
10s + 0.045 s + 0.0045
104
100
Gain
0.01
−90
Phase[deg]
−180
−270
10−3 2 5 10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101
Frequency[rad/s]
Figure S6.5 Bode plot of the uncompensated open loop system (black line) and compensated
open loop system (gray line) in assignment 6.12. K = 1 for both cases.
In Figure S6.5 Bode plots for both the uncompensated open loop system KG P (s)
and the compensated open loop system KG k (s)G P (s) are shown.
The compensation link alters the transient behavior of the system. Figure S6.6
shows how the overshoot of the step response has increased, compared to the
105
y( t)
1.5
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 t
Figure S6.6 Step responses of the uncompensated closed loop system (solid line) and the
compensated closed loop system (dashed line) in assignment 6.12.
uncompensated system. Also the settling time has increased, partly due to the
slow mode in the compensation link. The purpose of introducing the compensation
link was to decrease the ramp error. Figure S6.7 shows the error e = r − y for both
the uncompensated and compensated systems, with r = t.
As seen from the figure, the compensated system fulfills the criterion of a ramp
error less than 0.2.
e( t)
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 t
Figure S6.7 Ramp error of the uncompensated system (solid line) as well as the compen-
sated system (dashed line) in assignment 6.12.
6.13 Use a phase lag compensation link

s+b
G k (s) = K N
s + bN
The crossover frequency ω c of the uncompensated system can be read from the
Bode plot in Figure S6.8.
One can also determine ω c from the equation
1.1
pG P (iω c )p = p =1
ω c ω 2c + 1
This yields ω c = 0.84. The new cross-over frequency is chosen to be ω ∗c = 1.68.

The phase shift of the uncompensated system at the frequency ω c is
arg G P (iω c ) = −90o − arctan(0.84) = −130o
In order not to decrease the phase margin, it must hold that
arg(G k (iω ∗c )G P (iω ∗c )) ≥ arg G P (iω c )
We have
arg G P (iω ∗c ) = −90o − arctan(1.68) = −149o
106
10
Gain
0.1
0.01
−90
Phase[deg]
−135
−180
10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101

Frequency[rad/s]
Figure S6.8 Bode plot of the uncompensated open loop system (black line) as well as the
compensated open loop system (gray line) in assignment 6.13.
For the compensation link it must hence hold that
arg G k (iω ∗c ) ≥ 19o
From the collection of formulae we find that N = 2 is √

adequate. The compensation
link has its maximal phase shift at the frequency b N. This shall occur at the
new cross-over frequency, i.e.
√ ω∗
ω ∗c = b N [ b = √ c = 1.2
N
Now choose K √ such that ω ∗c becomes the actual cross-over frequency (observe that
∗
pG k (iω c )p = K N)
pG k (iω ∗c )G P (iω ∗c )p = 1 [ K = 2.1
We thus obtain the compensation link

s + 1.2
G k (s) = 4.2
s + 2.4
Figure S6.8 shows the Bode plot of the uncompensated open loop system G P (s) as
well as the compensated open loop system G k (s)G P (s). Figure S6.9 shows the step
responses of the uncompensated and compensated systems.
6.14 We choose a phase lead link

s+b
G k (s) = K K · N
s + bN
The specification implies that the low frequency gain shall not decrease (which
would increase the stationary error). The cross-over frequency shall increase by a
factor 3 and the phase margin shall remain unchanged.
The open loop transfer function is
s+b 1
G0 (s) = G k (s)G1 (s) = K K · N ·
s + bN s(s + 1)(s + 2)
107
y( t)
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 t
Figure S6.9 Step response of the uncompensated closed loop system (black line) as well as
the compensated closed loop system (gray line) in assignment 6.13.
101
100
Gain
10−1
10−2
10−3
−90
Phase[deg]
−180
−270
10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101

Frequency[rad/s]
Figure S6.10 Bode plot of the uncompensated system G1 (solid line) and compensated
system G k G1 (dash-dotted line) in assignment 6.14.
The Bode plot of G1 is presented in Figure S6.10. From this, or from numerical
calculations, the cross-over frequency is determined to ω c = 0.45 rad/s and the
phase margin is φ m = 53○ . The new cross-over frequency shall thus be ω ∗c =
3 · ω c = 1.35 rad/s with unchanged phase margin. Since arg G1 (iω ∗c ) ( −180○ , the
phase curve must be raised approximately 50○ by G k .
From the collection of formulae it is obtained that N = 8 gives a maximal
√ phase
lead of approximately 50○ . The phase lead is maximal at the frequency b N = ω ∗c ,
yielding b = 0.48. The gain shall be unity at the new cross-over frequency ω ∗c , i.e.
pG k (iω ∗c )p · pG1 (iω ∗c )p = 1

√
The magnitude of the compensator is pG k (iω ∗c )p = K K N. Numerical calculations
give pG1 (iω ∗c )p = 0.183. Hence
1
KK = √ = 1.9
N · 0.183
The step response of the uncompensated and compensated systems, respectively,
are shown in Figure S6.11 and the ramp response is shown in Figure S6.12. Since
K K > 1 the stationary errors become smaller than before, thus fulfilling the
specifications.
108
y( t)
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 t
Figure S6.11 The step response of the uncompensated closed loop system (black line) as
well as the compensated closed loop system (gray line) in assignment 6.14.
y( t)
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 t
Figure S6.12 The ramp response of the uncompensated system (solid line) as well as the
compensated system (dashed line) in assignment 6.14.
6.15 From the Bode plot of Go (s) (see Figure S6.13) we obtain φ m = 20○ and ω c =
0.7 rad/s. Unchanged speed necessitates a compensation link which does not affect
the cross-over frequency. We hence need a phase lead of ∆φ = 30○ at ω = ω c =
0.7 rad/s. We utilize a phase lead compensation link
s+b
G k (s) = K N
s + bN
1. The sample curves in the collection of formulae yield N = 3.
√ 0.7
2. b N = ω c [ b= √
3
= 0.40
√ 1
3. pG k (iω c )Go (iω c )p = K N · 1 gives K = √ = 0.58
N
The compensation link thus becomes
s + 0.4
G k (s) = 0.58 · 3
s + 1.2
The system is stable, so the resulting stationary error becomes
1 s(s + 0.5)(s + 3)(s + bN )
E (s) = R(s) = R(s)
1 + G k Go s(s + 0.5)(s + 3)(s + bN ) + 2 K N (s + b)
With R(s) = 1/s2 the stationary ramp error becomes
1.5
lim s E (s) = = 1.29
s →0 2K
which fulfills the specification. Figure S6.14 shows the step response of the system
before and after the compensation. The ramp error is shown in Figure S6.15. The
fact that the ramp error is increased by the compensation is due to K < 1.
109
101
100
Gain
10−1
10−2
10−3
−90
Phase[deg]
−180
−270
10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101

Frequency[rad/s]
Figure S6.13 Bode plot of Go (s) in assignment 6.15.
y( t)
1.5
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 t
Figure S6.14 Step response of the uncompensated closed loop system (black line) and
compensated system (gray line) in assignment 6.15.
6.16 We know that a phase lag compensation link dimensioned according to the rules of
thumb will decrease the phase margin by approximately 6○ , which yields a certain
decrease of robustness. In order not to obtain an excessive overshoot, we start by
decreasing the gain of the process in order to increase the phase margin.
From the Bode plot of the process (see Figure S6.16) we find that G − 1 has a phase
shift of −133○ at the cross-over frequency ω c = 0.7. At the frequency ω ∗c = 0.6 we
have the phase shift −133○ + 6○ = −127○ and the gain pG1 (ω ∗c )p = 1.2.
By decreasing the open loop gain by a factor 1.2 we obtain the new cross-over
frequency ω ∗c and a phase margin increase of 6○ . Since we cannot affect the
process gain directly, we equivalently let K = 1/1.2 = 0.83 in the compensation
link.
The main problem is to decrease the stationary ramp error to e 1 ≤ 0.1. The final
value theorem gives
1
e(∞) = lim sU (s) =
s →0 1 + G k (s)G1 (s)
1 (s + a/ M )s(s2 + 2s + 2) 2
= lim s 2 2
= ≤ 0.1
s →0 s (s + a/ M )s(s + 2s + 2) + 1.5 K (s + a) 1.5 K M
110
e( t)
1.5
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 t
Figure S6.15 Ramp error of the uncompensated closed loop system (black line) as well as
103
102
101
Gain
100
10−1
10−2
10−3
−90
−135
Phase[deg]
−180
−225
−270
10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101

Frequency[rad/s]
Figure S6.16 Bode plot of the uncompensated open loop system (black line) as well as the
compensated open loop system (gray line) in assignment 6.16.
which yields M ≥ 16. Choose M = 16. According to the rule of thumb we let
a = 0.1ω ∗c = 0.06. The chosen compensation link thus becomes
s + 0.06
G k (s) = 0.83
s + 0.00375
Figure S6.17 shows the step response before and after the compensation. The ramp
errors of the uncompensated closed loop system and the compensated closed loop
system are shown in Figure S6.18.
Comment:
Since we have decreased the open loop gain we obtain a decreased cross-over
frequency and hence a somewhat slower system. In Figure S6.17 one especially
notes the slow mode which appears as the process settles. It is caused by the slow
pole of the controller in combination with the low gain. The rise time and damping
are, however, virtually unaffected. An alternative to decreasing the open loop gain,
in order to maintain the desired phase margin, would be to introduce a phase lead
compensation link.
111
y( t)
1.5
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 t
Figure S6.17 Step response of the uncompensated closed loop system (black line) as well
as the compensated closed loop system (gray line) in assignment 6.16.
e( t)
2
1.5
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 t
Figure S6.18 Ramp error of the uncompensated closed loop system (black line) as well as
112
Controller Structures
7.1 The disturbance d does obviously lack influence if
1
G1 (s) H (s) + 1 = 0 \ H (s) = −
G1 (s)
To be a practically useful control law it is required that the disturbance can be

measured, that the model G1 (s) of the heating system is a "good" description of
reality and that the inverse transfer function 1/G1 (s) is practically realizable.
This means that H (s) must not contain derivatives of the signal d. The realization
of H (s) can also be problematic if G1 (s) lacks a stable inverse (i.e. if G1 (s) has
right half plane zeros, which is equivalent to being a non-minimum phase system).
Further, we cannot invert processes with low pass characteristics more than at
low frequencies and delays can obviously not be inverted.
7.2 A block diagram for the system is shown in Figure S7.1. Mass balance for the tank
Feedforward
v
GF
−1
P-controller Valve Tank

h ref P P u P h
K Gv GT
−1
Figure S7.1 Block diagram of the level controlling system in assignment 7.2.
yields
dh
A = x( t) − v( t)
dt
Laplace transformation gives ( A = 1 m2 )
1
H (s) = ( X (s) − V (s))
s
The transfer function of the tank is thus
1
GT (s) =
s
a. The closed loop transfer function becomes
GT G V K K
G(s) = = 2
1 + GT G V K 0.5s + s + K
113
Solutions to Exercises 7. Controller Structures
The characteristic polynomial is hence
s2 + 2s + 2 K
(s + ω )2 = s2 + 2ωs + ω 2

I
ω=1
K = 21
The transfer function form v( t) to h( t) is given by
GT 1 + 0.5s
H (s) = − V (s) = − V (s )
1 + GT G V K s(1 + 0.5s) + K
If v( t) is a step of amplitude 0.1 we obtain V (s) = 0.1/s. The final value theorem
gives
0.1
h(∞) = lim s H (s) = −
s→0 K
The theorem may be used since s H (s) is of second order with positive coefficients
in the denominator.
b. A PI controller has the transfer function

1
G R (s) = K (1 + )
sTi
The closed loop transfer function becomes
GT G V G R K (1 + sTi )
G(s) = =
1 + GT G V G R s(1 + 0.5s)sTi + K (1 + sTi )
The characteristic polynomial becomes
2K
s3 + 2s2 + 2 Ks +
Ti
(s + ω )3 = s3 + 3ωs2 + 3ω 2 s + ω 3



ω = 32

K = 23

Ti = 92


c. The relation between the flow disturbance v and the level h is given by
GT (G V G F − 1)
H (s) = V (s)
1 + GT G V G R
To eliminate the influence of v, we choose
1
G F (s) = = 1 + 0.5s
GV
Note that G F is not realizable. One can either cancel the derivative term or add a
low-pass filter so that the infinite gain at high frequencies is avoided.
114
7.3 The closed loop system has the transfer function
(G R + K f )G P ( K + K f )s + K /Ti
= 2
1 + GP GR s + (3 + K )s + K /Ti
a. The characteristic equation of the closed loop system is
s2 + (3 + K )s + K /Ti = 0
(s + 2 − 2i)(s + 2 + 2i) = s2 + 4s + 8 = 0
Identification of coefficients yields K = 1 and Ti = 1/8.
b. The feedforward K f affects the zeros of the closed loop system, but leaves the
poles unaffected. The poles can be placed by means of the controller H in order to
obtain adequate supression of disturbances, cf. sub-assignment a above. One can
subsequently translate the zeros by means of K f in order to e.g. reach a desired
overshoot in the reference step responses. The zero of the closed loop system is
eliminated by choosing K f = − K. With the pole placement
√ in sub-assignment a,
which corresponds to a relative damping ζ = 1/ 2 ( 0.7, the overshoot of the
closed loop system becomes approximately 5%.
7.4 The block diagram in assignment 7.3 can be re-drawn according to Figure S7.2.
By comparing to the block diagram in assignment 7.3 we see that H f f = H + K f
and H f b = H. Observe that manipulation of K f offers the possibility to neutralize
the derivation in H, i.e. achieve a controller which derivates the output, but not
the reference value.
Kf
r P u y
H G P (s )
H −1
Figure S7.2 Modified block diagram in assignment 7.3.
7.5 The system has three inputs: the reference yr and the two disturbances v1 and v2 .
The transfer functions between these three signals and the output y are given by
G1 G2 G R1 G R2 G1 G2
Y = Yr + V1
1 + G1 G R1 + G1 G2 G R1 G R2 1 + G1 G R1 + G1 G2 G R1 G R2
(1 + G1 G R1 )G2
+ V2
1 + G1 G R1 + G1 G2 G R1 G R2
Let us name the three transfer functions G yr , Gv1 and Gv2 , respectively. Ideally we
would have G yr = 1 and Gv1 = Gv2 = 0 for all frequencies. This is, however, not
achievable. Nonetheless, we can assure that it holds in stationarity, i.e. for s = 0.
For a P controller we have G R (0) = K, where K is the gain of the controller. For
a PI controller it holds that G R (0) = ∞.
115
The transfer function G yr becomes unity if G R2 is a PI controller. The transfer

function Gv1 becomes 0 if any of the controllers are PI. The transfer function Gv2 ,
however, is only zero if G R2 is a PI controller.
Consequently G R2 must contain an integral part in order to guarantee 0 stationary
control error. The controller G R1 can then be chosen to be a P controller. (If we
furthermore want the internal signal y1 to coincide with its reference, also this
controller would need an integral part.)
7.6 a. The closed loop transfer function is given by
K 1 G1 (s) 2 K1
Ginner (s) = =
1 + K 1 G1 (s) s + 2 + 2 K1
In order to make the system 5 times as fast, the pole of the closed loop system
must be placed in s = −10, calling for K 1 = 4.
b. The approximation Ginner (s) ( Ginner (0) = 0.8 yields
G R2 (s)G2 (s)Ginner (0) ( K 2 s + KTi2 )0.8

Gouter (s) = =
1 + G R2 (s)G2 (s)Ginner (0) s2 + 0.8 K 2 s + 0.8 KTi2
The specification of a system 10 times slower than the inner loop calls for a pole in
s = −1. Since we deal with a second order system, we choose to locate both poles
in s = −1 (somewhat slower than the single pole case). This yields K 2 = 2.5 and
Ti = 2.
A general rule when cascading controllers is to make the inner loop 5–10 times faster than
the outer loop in order to enable separation of the controller calculations for the two loops.
The actual closed loop system (without approximations) becomes
10(2s + 1)
Gouter (s) =
s3 + 10s2 + 20s + 10
and has poles in approximately −7.516, −1.702 and −0.7815 where the slower pole (s =
−0.7815) will be the one essentially determining the speed of the system. This corresponds
fairly well to the specified speed.
7.7 a. Since the steam flow is assumed to be constant, we can let F = 0, which yields
the following description of the dome
10−3
Y (s) = M (s)
s
Since the controller is of P type we have M (s) = K ( Yr − Y ), where Yr denotes the
reference dome level. This yields
K
Y (s) = Yr (s)
K + 103 s
Since the system is linear and subject to negative feedback, a step disturbance in
the level gives rise to the same transient behavior as a step disturbance in the
reference. Hence let Yr (s) = 1s . Inverse transformation of Y (s) yields
−3
y( t) = 1 − e− K10 t
The specification on the settling time of the system now yields

−2
y(10) = 1 − e− K10 = 0.9 [ K = 230
b. The dome and P controller are described by
K s − 0.01
Y (s) = Yr (s) + F (s)
K + 1000s (s + 0.1)(1000s + K )
116
1
Let Yr (s) = 0. A step disturbance in the steam flow F (s) = s
thus gives
s − 0.01 1
Y (s) =
(s + 0.1)(1000s + K ) s
The final value theorem yields
s − 0.01 1 −0.1
lim y( t) = lim sY (s) = lim s =
t→∞ s→0 s →0 (s + 0.1)(1000s + K ) s K
and stationary error becomes
0.1
e = yr − y = − y =
K
c. Determine a feedforward link H (s) from steam flow F (s) to feed water flow M (s)
for the initial system, such that the level Y (s) becomes independent of changes in
the steam flow.
The system with feedforward H (s) F (s) is described by
10−3 s − 0.01
Y (s ) = ( M (s) + H (s) F (s)) + 10−3 F (s)
s s(s + 0.1)
3 4
10−3 10−3 s − 0.01
= M (s) + + H (s) F (s)
s s s + 0.01
We want the influence from F (s) to be zero. Therefore choose H (s) so that the
expression in front of F (s) becomes zero. This criterion is fulfilled when
s − 0.01
H (s) = −
s + 0.1
which gives the desired feedforward.
7.8 The delay margin is given by

φm
Lm =
ωc
First we compute the cross-over frequency ω c as

2 2
pG0 (iω c )p = pG P (iω c )G R (iω c )p = = p "1
iω c (iω c + 1) ω c ω 2c + 1
√
s
−1 + 17
\ ω 4c + ω 2c −4=0 \ ωc = = 1.25
2
Then we calculate the the phase margin φ m
π
φ m = π + arg G0 (iω c ) = π − − arctan ω c = 0.675
2
We thus obtain L m = φ m /ω c = 0.54.
7.9 a. The one second delay e−s is considered part of the process.
Controller G R (s) = K
1
Process G P (s) = e −s
s(s + 1)
1
Model Ĝ P (s) = G P (s) = e−s
s(s + 1)
1
Model without delay Ĝ0P (s) =
s(s + 1)
117
b. According to the block diagram the control signal is given by

1 2
U (s) = G R (s) E (s) + Ĝ P (s)U (s) − Ĝ0P (s)U (s)
The transfer function of the controller becomes

G R (s)
U (s) = E (s)
1 − G R (s)Ĝ P (s) + G R (s)Ĝ0P (s)
2 2s(s + 1)
= E (s) = E (s)
2 2 s(s + 1) + 2 − 2e−s
1− e −s +
s(s + 1) s(s + 1)
The Bode plot of the controller is shown in Figure S7.3. One notes that the Smith
predictor gives a large phase lead at the cross-over frequency of the initial system.
2
Gain
0.5
60
40
Phase[deg]
20
10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101 2 5 102

Frequency[rad/s]
Figure S7.3 Bode plot of the Smith predictor.
c.
2s(s + 1) 2s(s + 1)
U (s) = E (s) ( E (s)
s(s + 1) + 2 − 2e−s s(s + 1) + 2 − 2(1 − s)
2(s + 1)
= E (s)
s+3
This is a phase lead link with N = 3.
7.10 The gain curve of the system is given by

k
pG(iω )p =
ω
It is sufficient to read the value of the gain curve at a single frequency in order to
determine k. The gain is e.g. 1 at approximately ω = 4.5. This yields
k
1= \ k = 4.5
4.5
The phase curve of the system is given by
arg G(iω ) = −π /2 − ω L
Now, it is sufficient to read the value of the phase curve at a single frequency in
order to determine L. The phase is e.g. −π at approximately ω = 120. This yields
−π = −π /2 − 120L \ L = 0.013
118
Design Examples
8.1 a. The phase curve for v = 3 knots cuts −180○ at ω o ( 0.03 rad/s. At this frequency
we have pG(i0.03)p ( 2. The gain K must hence be smaller than 0.5 in order to
yield a stable closed loop system.
b. In order to acquire the cross-over frequency ω c and phase margin φ m it is required

that
pGr (iω c )G(iω c )p = 1

arg Gr (iω c )G(iω c ) = φ m − 180○
where Gr (s) = K (1 + TD s). This leads to the equations

q 2
K pG(iω c )p 1 + TD2 ω c = 1
arg G(iω c ) + arctan TDω c = φ m − 180○
With ω c = 0.03 rad/s, φ m = 60○ , pG(iω c )p ( 2 and arg G(iω c ) ( −180○ we obtain
√
tan 60○ 3
Td = = ( 57.7
0.03 0.03
1 1
K= 2
( = 0.25
2 ·2
q
2
pG(iω c )p 1 + Td ω c
c. If the speed suddenly increases from 3 to 7 knots, we have to turn to the gray
Bode plots in Figure 8.2. The most drastic change is that the gain curve has been
raised by a factor of 20. Additionally, the phase curve has decreased for frequencies
above 0.03 rad/s. This results in heavily reduced phase- and gain margins. A more
thorough examination shows that this in fact leads to instability of the closed loop
system. This can be seen in the Bode plot in Figure 8.2, which shows both the
nominal case v = 3 knots and the case v = 7 knots.
One way to avoid this problem is to instead choose v = 7 knots as the nominal
case for the calculation of the PD controller. This, however, means that one has to
accept a slower settling time for the slowest speed v = 3 knots. A better way is to
let K and Td depend on the speed v. This method is known as gain scheduling.
d. The transfer function from β to h can be approximated by
kv v
G hβ (s) =
s3
From the Bode plot one can see that pG hβ (i · 0.1)p ( 0.04 for v = 3 knots =
3 · 1.852/3.6 ( 0.5144 · 3 m/s, which yields
0.13 · 0.04
kv ( ( 2.6 · 10−5
3 · 0.5144
119
Solutions to Exercises 8. Design Examples
102
101
100
Gain
10−1
10−2
10−3
−45
Phase[deg]
−90
−135
−180
10−3 2 5 10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100

Frequency[rad/h]
Figure S8.1 Bode plot of the PD compensated open loop system in assignment 8.1. The
black curves show the case v = 3 knots (nominal case), while the gray curves show the case
v = 7 knots. Note that the latter case yields an unstable closed loop system.
e. The characteristic equation of the closed-loop is given by

s3 + K k v v = 0
Since not all coefficients are positive, the closed-loop system is not asymptotically
stable for any value of K. In sub-assignment a it was concluded through the
measured frequency response that the closed loop system was stable for K < 0.5.
The explanation to this apparent contradiction is found in the Bode plot which
was used in sub-assignment a: The approximation only holds for high frequencies
(ω > 0.05). For low gains, such as K < 0.5, the cross-over frequency ω c < 0.03 lies
outside the valid range of the model.
For e.g. ω < 0.03 the Bode plot shows a phase above −180○ while the simplified
model features the phase −270○ for all frequencies.
f. If x = (α̇, α, h)T and u = β we obtain the state space equations

   
 0 0 0  kv 
ẋ =  +
   

 1 0 0

 x 0

 u

   
0 v 0 0
With the state feedback u = − K x + ur the characteristic polynomial of the closed

loop system becomes
p(s) = det(s I − A + B K ) = s3 + k v k 1 s2 + k v k 2 s + k v vk 3
the desired characteristic polynomial is
p(s) = (s + γω 0 )(s2 + 2ζ ω 0 s + ω 20 ) = s3 + (γ + 2ζ )ω 0 s2 + (2γζ + 1)ω 20 s + γω 30
Direct comparison gives
(γ + 2ζ )ω 0


 k1 =


 kv
(2γζ + 1)ω 20


k2 =

 kv
3

γω

0

 k3 =

kv v
120
g. Here stationarity means constant height, h = h ref . This in turns mean that all
derivatives of h must be zero, i.e. α = 0 and α̇ = 0. When the height has reached
its correct value the control signal u = β must also be zero since the submarine
would otherwise continue to rise. Thus K r is obtained from the equation
0 = K r h ref − k 1 · 0 − k 2 · 0 − k 3 h ref
For v = 3 knots, we end up with the following result
γω 30 γω 30 · γω 30 ·
K r = k3 = ( (
kv v 2.6 · 10−5 · 3 · 0.5144 4.0 · 10−5
h. At a momentary disturbance ∆ h = 0.1 m the rudder angle becomes
γω 30 0.2ω 30
∆β = k 3 · ∆ h = · 0.1 (
vk v 3 · 0.5144 · 2.6 · 10−5
Since ∆β ≤ 5○ , we must have

3 4 13
5 · 3 · 0.5144 · 2.6 · 10−5
ω0 ≤ ( 0.1
0.2
8.2 a. The oscillation frequency ω o ( 27 rad/s and critical gain K c ( 3.6 can be read from
the Bode plot. The oscillation period is hence To = 2π /ω o ( 0.23. This yields the
PID parameters K = 0.6 K c ( 2.2, Ti = To /2 ( 0.12 and Td = To /8 ( 0.03. The
step response of the closed loop system is shown in Figure S8.2. The specifications
Figure S8.2 The step response with PID control according to Ziegler-Nichols.
are apparently not fulfilled. A PID controller (with filter factor) can be considered a
second order controller with integral action. As a matter of fact, the specifications
can be met, using a more general second order controller with integral action (see
Figure S8.3). If one tries to interpret it as a PID controller, one would end up with
a negative derivative time Td .
b. In stationarity all derivatives of the states must be zero ẋ = 0. It hence holds that
I
0 = Axo + Buo = ( A − B K ) xo + B K r yr
yr = yo = C xo
This yields
1
Kr = −
C ( A − B K )−1 B
121
Figure S8.3 The step response of the closed loop system with a second order integrating
controller.
c. With x augmented to x e = ( x1 , x2 , x3 , xi )T we obtain
d1 + d f df kf
 
 − − 0 k k 
 m i
 

 J1 J1 J1   
0 
J

 
 
 

1 
d f + d2
   
df kf
 
0 

 
 
 
 
ẋ e =  − 0 xe +  u+ 
 
yr
   
0 
  
 
J J2 J2 0
  
2

 
 
 
  
   0 
   
−1

   
−1
  


 1 0 0


0

 
0 kω 2 0 0
 
y = 0 kω 2 0 0 x e
where the reference yr has been introduces as an extra input.
d. The approximate value of ω m becomes
ln 0.02
ωm ( − ( 20
0.5 · 0.38
e. When it comes to load disturbances, the fast Kalman filter (ω o = 40) has the
best performance. It is also best when it comes to suppressing the influence of of
measurement noise. However, it is the worst choice when it comes to suppressing
the influence of noise in the control signal. The two cases ω o = 10 and ω o = 20
feature approximately the same noise sensitivity, while ω o = 10 is slower when it
comes to eliminating load disturbances. A satiable choice is thus ω o = 20.
122
Interactive Comparison Between

Model Descriptions
9.1
a. The amplitude of the step response is affected, but not the time constant. The pole
is not affected. The Nyquist diagram keeps its shape, but each point on the curve
moves radially from the origin. In the Bode diagram, the gain curve changes in
the y direction while the phase curve is unchanged.
Since the control signal is a unit step, K is given by the stationary value of the
measurement signal in the step response. In the Nyquist diagram, K is given from
the starting point on the positive real axis. In the Bode diagram, K is given from
the gain curve where ω → 0.
b. The amplitude of the step response is not affected, but the time constant is given
by T. The pole is in s = −1/T, which means that a large time constant gives a pole
close to the origin, whereas a short time constant gives a pole far away from the
origin. In the Bode diagram, the corner frequencty is 1/T, and it thereby varies
when T varies. No change is visible in the Nyquist diagram, but the frequency
varies along the curve.
Suppose that we have two processes with different values of T. Then, we can
always find two frequencies such that
K K
G(iω 1 T1 ) = = G(iω 2 T2 ) =
1 + iω 1 T1 1 + iω 2 T2
i.e., all points that are on the first Nyquist curve are also on the second one, but
at another frequency.
c. A variation in L corresponds to a translational movement of the step response.

We can not represent a dead time in a singularity diagram. The gain curve in
the Bode diagram is not affected, since p e−iω L p = 1, but the phase is reduced. For
each frequency point in the Nyquist diagram, the distance to the origin remains
unchanged, but the phase decreases. Since the phase goes towards −∞ when
ω → ∞, the Nyquist curve has the spiral shape.
9.2
a. The changes are the same as in problem 1a.
b. The changes are analogous to the ones in problem 1b. When T1 ≫ T2 , the step
response is similar to the one in problem 1a, with T ( T1 . The Bode and Nyquist
diagrams are also similar to the ones in problem 1a for low frequencies. Thus, you
can in many cases approximate the transfer function by
K K
G(s) = (
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 ) (1 + sT1 )
c. If the zero is far away from the origin, the representations are not significantly
affected. If the zero is negative and is close to the origin, there is a large overshoot
in the step response. If the zero is positive and close to the origin, the step response
123
Solutions to Exercises 9. Interactive Comparison Between Model Descriptions
will initially go in the wrong direction. If the zero is positive it will give a positive
contribution to the phase.
When T3 < 0, e.g., when the zero is in the right half plane, the process is hard to
control. You can imagine that it is hard for a controller to act in the right way when
a control signal change makes the measurement signal go in the wrong direction
initially. The phenomenon could be understood by writing the transfer function in
the following way
K (1 + sT3 ) K s K T3
G(s) = = +
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 ) (1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 ) (1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )
Thus, the transfer function consists of two terms, one that is the transfer function
that we had in problem 2a, and one that is the same transfer function, but
multiplied with sT3 . Thus, the second term is proportional to the derivative of the
measurement signal we would have obtained if we did not have any zero. If T3 < 0,
this term will give a negative contribution, which explains that the step response
initially goes in the wrong direction.
9.3
a. The frequency ω affects the speed of the system, but not the shape of the step
response. Variations in ω moves the poles radially from the origin. In the Bode
diagram, ω does not affect the shape, but only the location of the corner frequency.
The shape of the Nyquist curve is not affected, but the frequencies are moved
along the curve.
b. The relative damping ζ does not affect the speed of the step response, but the
shape. A small value of ζ gives an oscillatory and poorly damped response. A
small value of ζ gives a large resonance peak in the Bode diagram. In the Nyquist
diagram, you get a big increase of gain and fast phase shift around ω.
124

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Automatic Control Basic Course

Department of Automatic Control

Department of Automatic Control

© 2022 by Lund University. All rights reserved

Part II. Solutions to Exercises 57

Model Building and Linearization

• What should be controlled?

b. You drive a car.

c. You boil potatoes on the stove.

d. Linearize the system around the stationary point in c.

1.5 A cylindrical water tank with cross section

b. Asume that measurement signal y is given by level h. Give a state-space repre-

1.6 Give the state space representation of the system

a. Introduce states x1 = y, x2 = ẏ and give the state space representation of the

b. Find all stationary points ( x01 , x02 , u0 ) of the system.

c. Linearize the system around the stationary point corresponding to u0 = 1.

1.8 Linearize the system

around the stationary point u0 = π /4.

Figure 1.1 Satellite orbiting the earth.

a. Introduce the state vector  

b. Linearize the state space equations around the stationary point

a. A model for bacterial growth in a bioreactor is given by

b. A simple model of a telescope is given by

c. An electronic low pass filter is used at recordings to attenuate high frequency

Determine the transfer function from u to y.

2.4 Derive the formula G(s) = C (s I − A)−1 B + D for a general system

b. What is the static gain of the system?

e. Calculate the initial derivative of the step response of the system.

2.6 Consider the system

b. What is the static gain of the system?

c. Calculate and sketch the step response of the system.

2.8 Determine the transfer function of

a. the RLC circuit in assignment 1.4,

b. the linearized tank in assignment 1.5.

2.9 Consider the linear time invariant system

a. Is the system asymptotically stable?

b. Is the system stable?

2.10 Does the transfer function

Food intake Glucose level

R(s) P E (s) U (s) P Y (s)

a. Determine the transfer function from R(s) to Y (s).

b. Determine the transfer function from D(s) to Y (s).

c. Determine the transfer function from R(s) to E (s).

d. Determine the transfer function from D(s) to U (s).

2.16 Consider the transfer function

b. controllable canonical form,

c. observable canonical form.

3.1 Assume that the system

a. Determine the output y( t).

Figure 3.2 Bode diagram in problem 3.2.

10−2 10−1 100 101 102 103 104

b. The oven is to be controlled by a P controller, G R (s) = K, according to the block

b. How is this error changed if the amplifier is replaced by a PI controller with

4.3 A process is controlled by a P controller according to the figure below. It is assumed

a. Measurements of the process output indicate a disturbance n. Calculate the trans-

c. Assume that K = 1 and A = 1 in the previous sub-assignment. Calculate the

ω=1 ω=5 log ω

a. Determine the sensitivity function S (s).

10−2 2 5 10−1 2 5 100 2 5 101