ENG 102: Language, Culture and Society

Topics to Master Second Language

• Review of the Definition of: • A language a person learns in order to communicate with
o Language the native speaker of that language.
o Macro Skills • Is a personal choice of a person.
o Communicative Competence • Can be chosen.
• First Language (L1) vs. Second Language (L2) • Requires constant conscious effort so that the learners can
• Macro and Micro Linguistic Studies internalize the structures of the second language.
• Prescripive vs. Descriptive • ‘Learned’.
• World Englishes
o Kachru’s Conscentric Circles Their Similarities – Tend to achieve the language rules in a similar
o Philippine English pattern; morphological features such as -ing, plural, past, singular,
o Multilingualism and possessive. (Krashen, 1985)
• Language and Humans
o Features of Human Language by Hockett
o Halliday’s Language Fuctions Macro Skills
o Non-Human Communication
Macro skills refer to the primary, key, main, and largest
skill set relative to a particular context. It is commonly referred to
in English language.
From Group 2 Presentation: Review of Definition of Language,
Macro Skill, and Comunicative Competence; First Language (L1) The four macro skills are reading, listening, writing, and
vs. Second Language (L2) speaking. Each skill has its reasons of why we should be
knowledgeable on how to communicate using the four macro skills.
o Asia, Elaine Joy
o Besco, Kyla Mhae These skills are essential for communicating. It is
o Montefalcon, Arjay tough to study a balance of the four macro skills which are writing,
o Reforsado, Renalyn Ann reading, writing, and listening. Being good at only one of these
o Serdena, Melody communicative skills will not help us smooth away the difficulties
in communicating. With these four macro skills, it can make a big
Language According to Dictionaries difference in your workplace in social situations and personal
According to Collins Dictionary, language is the use of a achievements.
system of communication which consists of a set of sounds or Listening – This basic skill is about hearing and perceiving other
written symbols. people's opinions, and absorbing facts and emotional intelligence
According to Britannica Dictionary, language, a system derived from the spoken word. However, not every person must
of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by hear to listen.
means of which human beings, as members of social group and Speaking - Speech is a vital form of self-expression; it is also an
participants in its culture, express themselves. The functions of important tool for survival. For example, speech can be used to
language include communication, the expression of identity, play, indicate danger, or to defend against threats.
imaginative expression, and emotional release.
Reading – Literacy is the key to social progress; without the
Language According to Linguists reading skills needed to get an education, citizens will lag behind.
The American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Many people still struggle with illiteracy or learning disorders,
Trager formulated the following definition: “A language is a such as dyslexia.
system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social Writing – Another fundamental tool for expression ideas, facts and
group cooperates.” figures. Cursive writing and printing are important methods, but
Edward Sapir – one influential linguist of the early 20th century. both are slowly being replaced by typing, since the world has
Sapir describes languages as "arbitrary systems of symbolism". become centered around electronics, computer keyboards, and
texting devices.
Sapir is saying that languages are three things:
Viewing – Is the fifth macro-skill today. It refers to perceiving,
• Languages are Symbolic examining, interpreting, and construction meaning from visual
• Languages are Systems images and is crucial to improving comprehension of print and
• Languages are Arbitrary non-print materials. This is the skill to be taught as the learners are
exposed on multimedia.

First Language vs. Second Language

Communicative Competence
• The mother toungue or native language.
• Like an instinct which is triggered by birth and developed It is a term in linguistics which refers to a language
with the experience of being exposed to it. users’ grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology
• Cannot be decided. and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to
use utterances appropriately.
• Does not require any conscious effort; the acquisition process
of the first language is subconscious. The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966, reading
• ‘Acquired.’ against the perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's 1965
distinction between competence and performance.
 ENG 102: Language, Culture and Society

Four Components of Grammatical Competence • Historical Linguistics – It is concerned with a theory of

language change – why and how languages develop. The
• Grammatical Competence comparative method compares languages in an attempt to
Includes knowledge of phonology, orthography, determine the relationship between languages and to establish
vocabulary, word formation and sentence formation. families of languages and their roots.
• Socio-Linguistic Competence • Dialectology – It explores how these factors connect one
Includes knowledge of socio-cultural rules of use. It is language to many. Language planning, literacy, bilingualism,
concerned with the learner's ability to handle, for example and the learning of second languages are further topics of
settings topic and communicative functions in different socio- interest for sociolinguistics and applied linguistics.
linguistics context. In addition, it deals with the use of • Computational Linguistics – Computational linguistics is a
appropriate grammatical forms of different communicative method of studying the language with natural language
functions in different socio-linguistic context. computer applications, e.g., parsing automatically, processing
• Discourse Competence of machine and understanding, and computer simulation
Related to the learners’ mastery of understanding and related to grammatical models to general and parses the
producing text in models of listening, speaking, reading and sentences. If we view it as a branch of Artificial Intelligence
writing. It deals with cohesion and coherence in different (AI), computational linguistics may have the goal of modeling
types of texts. human language as just like a cognitive system.
• Strategic Competence • Neurolinguistics – The study of how the brain represents and
Refers to compensatory strategies in case of grammatical processes language is neurolinguistics. Because it generally
or socio-linguistic or discourse difficulties, such as the use of focuses on the impairments to language comprehension and
reference sources, grammatical and lexical paraphrase, request production brought on by brain injury to specific regions.
for repetition, clarification, slower speech or problems in • Stylistics – Is the study and interpretation of texts of all types
addressing strangers when unsure of their social status or in and/or spoken language in regard to their linguistic and tonal
finding the right cohesion devices. It is also concerned with style, where style is the particular variety of language used by
such performance factors as coping with the nuisance of different individuals and/or in different situations or settings.
background noise or using gap fillers.

Microlinguistics
(Branches of Linguistics)
From Group 3 Presentation: Macro and Micro Linguistics Microlinguistics is a branch of linguistics that concerns
Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar itself with the study of language systems in the abstract, without
o Tanay, Princess Wency regard to the meaning or national content of linguistic expressions.
o Vecinal, Louissa • Phonetics – Phonetics is the scientific study of the physical
o Manalo, Jennifer properties of speech sounds of human language. It generally
o Panlubasan, Eula studies the characteristics of speech sounds. It deals with three
o Borbo, Bernadette functions, articulation, transmission, and reception of speech
o Banasihan, Alice
sounds.
• Phonology – Phonology is the study of how speech sounds
function in a language, and the ways speech sounds are
Macro Linguistics organized. And, it examines sounds as discrete, abstract
(Branches of Linguistics) elements in the speaker’s mind that distinguish meaning.
• Morphology – Morphology is the study of the formation and
A field of study concerned with language in its broadest internal structure of words from smaller units called
sense and including cultural and behavioral features associated morphemes. It might be seen as word grammar that divides
with language. words into morphemes. Free Morphemes: can’t be divided
e.g., ‘cat’, ‘pen’, and ‘bag’ etc. Bound Morphemes: can be
• Sociolinguistics – Sociolinguistics is the study of how
divided further into chunks e.g., ‘unkind’=un+kind,
language and society interact. Specifically, how social
‘flying’=fly+ing, ‘fashionable’= fashion+able, etc.
variables affect and how languages are used and structured.
• Semantics – Semantics is the study of language meaning of
• Psycholinguistics – Language and the mind are the subjects
words; is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the
of psycholinguistics, which examines the mental mechanisms
study of meaning in all its formal aspects. Words have several
that underline language learning, understanding, and
types of meanings. For example: “conceptual, connotative,
production.
collocative, reflective, affective, social, and thematic”.
• Theoretical Linguistics – It refers to generative linguistics,
• Syntax – Syntax is the grammar of sentence construction; is
having its basis in views by Chomsky’s 1955 “The Logical
the study of word relationships that result in grammatical
Structure of Linguistic Theory.” The major aim was to
characterize the nature of human linguistic knowledge or sentences. It deals with the combination of words into phrases,
clauses, and sentences. It is the grammar of sentence
competence (represented in the mind as mental grammar). The
construction.
production and comprehension of speech are ‘performance,’
distinct from ‘competence’ but dependent on it. • Pragmatics – Pragmatics: (study of meaning in context or
study of language in use) it studies language in context and
• Descriptive Linguistics – It analyses applied linguistics and
the influence of the situation on meaning. Therefore, it
aims to cover the grammar of languages. ‘Indo-European-
focuses on how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or
linguistics,’ ‘Roman linguistics,’ and ‘African linguistics,’
otherwise) in communicative acts.: the study of the meaning
cites the studies of particular languages and their families,
from diachronic and synchronic points of view. of words (lexical semantics).
 ENG 102: Language, Culture and Society

• Applied Linguistics – Is the study of how language is used in Inner Circle

real-life situations. It covers a wide range of topics, from
language teaching and learning to language research. o It refers to English as it originally took shape and was spread
Discourse Analysis Discourse analysis is the study of words across the world in the first diaspora.
and phrases, as well as the relationships between them. o The Inner Circle thus represents the traditional historical and
• Discourse Analysis – Discourse analysis is the study of the sociolinguistic bases of English in regions where it is now
way in which language is used in a specific context. It focuses used as a primary language: the United Kingdom, the United
on the meanings of words and phrases, as well as the States, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and anglophone
relationships between them. Canada. English is the native language or mother tongue of
most people in these countries.
o The total number of English speakers in the inner circle is
as high as 380 million, of whomsome 120 million are outside
Prescriptive and Descriptive the United States.
• Prescriptive grammar – is the traditional approach of Outer Circle
grammar that tells people how to use the English language,
what forms they should utilize, and what functions they o English was produced by the second diaspora of English,
should serve. Prescriptive grammar is essential as it helps which spread the language through imperial expansion by
people use formal English speech and writing. Great Britain in Asia and Africa.
• Descriptive grammar – This is how native English speakers o In these regions, English is not the native tongue, but serves
actually talk and write, and it has no concrete idea of the way as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups.
it should be structured (Tamasi & Antieau, 2015, p.28). It is Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national
not saying how it should be used; however, it focuses on commerce and so on may all be carried out predominantly in
describing the English language as it is used. It is also not English.
saying that there is a right or wrong way to use language. o The total number of English speakers in the outer circle is
estimated to range from 150 million to 300 million.
Prescriptive put down the rules for English usage, whereas Singapore, while in the Outer Circle, may be drifting into the
descriptive synthesises rules for English usage from the Inner Circle as English becomes more often used as a home
terminology that people use. A prescriptive grammarian believes language (see Languages of Singapore), much as Ireland did
that certain forms are correct while others are erroneous, even if earlier. Countries where most people speak an English-based
they are used by native speakers. creole and retain standard English for official purposes, such
as Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Guyana, Belize
Descriptive grammar is based on the idea that terminology and Papua NewGuinea, are also in the Outer Circle.
usage varies depending on the speaker. As a result, it does not
consider what constitutes ‘incorrect’ or ‘right’ vocabulary, whereas The Expanding Circle
prescriptive vocabulary operates on the assumption that the long-
established vocabulary rules developed by native speakers are o Encompasses countries where English plays no historical or
‘correct,’ and modifications are ‘incorrect.’ governmental role, but where it is nevertheless widely used as
a medium of international communication.
o The total in this expanding circle is the most difficult to
estimate, especially because English may be employed for
specific, limited purposes, usually in a business context.
From Group 4 Presentation: World Englishes; Kachru’s o The estimates of these users range from 100 million to one
Conscentric Circles, Philippine English, and Multilingualism billion.

o Barrameda, Anne Nicole

o Manalo, Marcela
o Tortuga, Jean Rose
o Piñana, Leonard
o Caro, Marwin
o Tulagan Jr., Ronaldo

Introduction of World Englishes

Introduction of World Englishes

The term World Englishes refers to the differences in

the English language that emerge as it is used in various contexts
across the world. These include American English, British English,
Australian English, Canadian English, Indian English, and so on.
Scholars of World Englishes identify the varieties of English used
in different sociolinguistic contexts, analyzing their history,
background, function, and influence.

World Englishes is a term for emerging localized or

indigenized varieties of English, especially varieties that have
developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the
United States.
 ENG 102: Language, Culture and Society

Kachru (1985) described the spread of English in terms of three • Vocal Auditory Channel – The standard human
concentric circles: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the language occurs as a vocal type of communication which
Expanding Circle. These circles represent “the type of spread, the is perceived by hearing it.
patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which • Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception –
English is used across cultures and languages” The human language signal is sent out in all directions,
while it is perceived in a limited direction.
• Rapid Fading (Transitoriness) – The human language
Philippine English signal does not persist over time. Speech waveforms fade
rapidly and cannot be heard or retrieved after they fade.
o It is a legitimate nativized variety of English. • Interchangeability – The speaker can both receive and
o It is the language used by Filipinos in controlling domains broadcast the same signal.
such as science and technology, the judiciary, the legislature, • Total feedback – The speaker can hear themselves speak
bureaucracy, higher education, scholarly discourse, and the and can monitor their language performance as they go.
like. While it shares some of the linguistic properties ascribed • Specialization – The organs used for producing speech
to other varieties of English, especially those used in Asia, it are specially adapted to that task.
has features that are unique to it. • Semanticity – Specific signals can be matched with
o Based on findings of previous empirical studies, this chapter specific meanings.
aims to describe the core linguistic features of Philippine • Arbitrariness – There is no necessary connection
English at the phonological (segmental and suprasegmental), between the form of the signal and the thing being
lexical, grammatical and discourse levels. It also touches on referred to.
the international intelligibility of the spoken register of this • Discreteness – The basic units of speech (such as
variety. sounds) can be categorized as belonging to distinct
Examples of words used differently in the Philippines categories.
• Displacement – The speaker can talk about things which
o Chancing are not present, either spatially or temporally.
o Eat-All-You-Can • Productivity – Human languages allow speakers to
o Salvage create novel, never-before-heard utterances that others
o Live-In can understand.
o Boodle Fight • Traditional Transmission – Human language is not
something inborn.
• Duality of Patterning – The discrete parts of a language
Multilingualism can be recombined in a systematic way to create new
forms.
o It is the ability of an individual speaker or a community of
speakers to communicate effectively in three or more
languages. Contrast with monolingualism, the ability to use
Halliday’s Language Functions
only one language.
o A person who can speak multiple languages is known as a In 1975, Halliday published his 'seven functions of
polyglot or a multilingual. language,' which describes the way children use language. He
o The original language a person grows up speaking is known as refers to these as ‘developmental functions’ or ‘micro functions.’
their first language or mother tongue. Someone who is raised When we refer to the functions of language, we are actually talking
speaking two first languages or mother tongues is called a about the properties of language, and the purposes it is used for by
simultaneous bilingual. If they learn a second language later, individuals.
they are called a sequential bilingual.
For Halliday, there are three macrofunctions that
provide the basic functions on learning a foreign language. They
are: Ideational, Interpersonal, and Textual.

Ideational meanings
From Group 1 Presentation: Language and Human; Features of
Human Language by Hockett, Halliday’s Language Functions, and It represents our experience of phenomena in the world
Non-Human Communication framed by different processes and circumstances which are set in
time by means of tense and logical meanings.
o Abarico, Crystal Kaye
o Belen, Ma. Giselle H. Interpersonal meanings
o Guerra, Myrell Joy D.
o Mangubat, Jardine Floremer C. Are shaped by the resources of modality and mood to
o Sarmiento, Chelden Grace A. negotiate the proposals between interactants in terms of probability,
obligation or inclination, and secondly, to establish and maintain an
ongoing exchange of information by means of grammar through
declaratives, questions, and commands.
According to Charles Hockett 1960's
Textual meanings
The features of human language by Hockett is also
known as ‘design features of human language.’ These features Are concerned with the information as textin context at a
help to understand the essential ingredients of human language. lexicogrammatical level. Phonology is related arbitrarily to this
The Human language is complex phenomenon, especially when we function as its abstract wordings includes intonation, rhythm and
try to explore the amazing similarities that the languages of the syllabic and phonemic articulation.
world display together.
 ENG 102: Language, Culture and Society

Halliday identified seven types of function that Auditory Signals

language serves for children in the early years, as they attempt to
find out their environment, control it, interact with other human Auditory communication is sending information from
beings, and comment on their environment and their experience. one member to another by producing the sound. It is widely used in
the animal kingdom.
• Instrumental – The instrumental function of language refers
to when language is used to fulfil a need, such as requiring • Birds
food, drink, or comfort. This is the ‘I want’ function, where a o Chirping - They usually do this to declare the territorials’
child shows their desires and needs. boundaries.
• Regulatory – Or ‘Do as I tell you’function,’ where a child is o Matting call - The matting call is usually done by male to
exercising control of people in their environment, telling them attract female birds so they can mate.
what to do. Regulatory language controls the listener's o Singing - The birds singing to communicate with an entire
behavior. group of birds.
• Interactional – Or ‘Me and you’ function, where a child uses • Non-Birds species
language to establish personal contact and enter into social o Monkey - Monkeys cry out a warning when a predator is
relationships. This example of Halliday's function is how we near, giving the other members of the troop a chance to
form relationships with others as it encompasses the escape. Vervet monkeys even have different calls to
communicative use of language. indicate different predators.
• Personal – Or ‘Here I come’ function, where the child uses o Bullfrogs - Bullfrogs croak to attract female frogs as
language to assert their individuality and to express their mates. In some frog species, the sounds can be heard up to
identity and feelings. a mile away!
o Gibbons - Gibbons use calls to mark their territory,
In the first four functions, language is used to enable a child to keeping potential competitors away. A paired male and
satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. The next two female, and even their off spring, may make the calls
functions concern the use of language by the child in relation to together.
their environment. o Dolphins - Water, like air, can carry sound waves, and
marine animals also use sound to communicate. Dolphins
• Heuristic – Or ‘Tell me why’ function, where the child uses produce various noises including whistles, chirps, and
language to explore their environment, to find out about the clicks and arrange them in complex patterns.
reality that they inhabit. This term refers to language
associated with discovery and explanation, usually in the form
of questions or a running commentary.
Visual Signals
• Imaginative – Or ‘let’s pretend’ function, where a child uses
language to create their own imaginary environment or where Visual communication involves signals that can be seen.
they simply use language playfully. Imaginative language Examples of these signals include: Gestures, Facial Expressions,
usually occurs in leisure or play scenarios. Body Postures, and Coloration
• Representational – The last function is the one most readily
associated with adult language. The ‘I’ve got something to tell • Gesture and Posture are widely used visual signals. For
you’ function, where language is used as a means of instance, chimpanzees communicate a threat by raising their
communicating in formation or expressing propositions. arms, slapping the ground, or staring directly at another
chimpanzee. Gestures and postures are commonly used in
matting rituals and may place other signals such as bright
coloring on display.
Non-Human Communication
• Facial Expressions are also used to convey information in
Non human communication is the way anything non some species. For instance, what is known as the fear grin
human communicates without using words, i.e., natural shown on the face of the young chimpanzee below signals
communication of animals. Animals communicate using signals, submission.
which can include visual; auditory, or sound based chemical, • Coloration is changing the color for example, the poison dart
involving pheromones; or tactile, touch based, cues. frog. It changes its color and acts as a do not eat warning
signal to predators.
Communication behaviors can help animals find mates, • Tactile Signals Touch – Information transmitted in the form
establish dominance, defend territory, coordinate group behavior, of physical touch is called tactile communication. Tactile
and care for young. signals are more limited in range than the othertypes of
signals. These signals are an important part of the
Pheromone – A pheromone is a secreted chemical signal used to
communication repertoire of many species. Tactile signals are
trigger a response in another individual of the same species.
fairly common in insects.
Pheromones are especially common among social insects, such as
ants and bees. Pheromones may attract the opposite sex, raise an
alarm, mark a food trail, or trigger other, more complex behaviors.

o Ants – Ants use pheromones to communicate their social

status, or role, in the colony, and ants of different "castes" may MIDTERM EXAM IS ON APRIL 13, 2023 AT 11:00 TO 12:00
respond differently to the same pheromone signals.
o Dogs – Dogs also communicate using pheromones. They sniff
each other to collect this chemical information, and many of
the chemicals are also released in their urine. By peeing on a
bush or post, a dog leaves a mark of its identity that can be
read by other passing dogs and may stake its claim to nearby
territory.