FIELDS/ CAREERS OF CIVIL infrastructures and the ground, including

ENGINEERING: consequences of earthquakes on

structures.
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
2. STEEL DESIGN
- among the oldest types of engineering; a
specialty within the field of Civil - Structural steel design is an area of
Engineering that focuses on the structural engineering used to design the
framework of structures, and on designing steel structures.
those structures to withstand the stresses
3. TIMBER DESIGN
and pressures of their environment and
remain safe, stable, and secure - Also called “post and lintel”; one of the
throughout their use. oldest construction methods known. It can
refer to designing a structure that will be
Prominent structural engineers include
built using primarily wood elements from
GUSTAVE EIFFEL (Eiffel Tower, Statue
raw logs to milled timbers and or
of Liberty) and EERO SAARINEN
engineered wood products.
(Gateway Arch).
4. REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
LARGE HADRON COLLIDER and the
JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE are - Reinforced concrete (RC) is a versatile
famous modern structures that are composite and one of the most widely
attributed to companies and government used materials in modern construction.
organizations. Concrete is a relatively brittle material
that is strong under compression but less
so in tension.
Structural Engineering is mainly
5. WIND ENGINEERING
involved with two activities:
- It is a subset of mechanical engineering,
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
structural engineering, meteorology, and
- It deals with analyzing a particular applied physics to analyze the effects of
structural system. It estimates or finds wind in the natural and the built
resultant stresses (or forces) so that these environment and studies the possible
elements can be designed to withstand damage, inconvenience or benefits which
the load that comes over it. may result from wind. It includes string
winds, which may cause discomfort, as
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
well as extreme winds, such as tornado,
– it determines the type of structure that is hurricane or heavy storm, which may
suitable for a particular purpose, the cause widespread destruction.
materials to be used, the loads and other
actions that the structure must sustain,
and the arrangement, layout and How to become a Structural Engineer?
dimensions of its various component.
Other key Structural Engineer skills
include:
Areas/Subfields of Structural  Mathematics
Engineering  Critical Thinking
1. EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING  Complex problem solving
 Active listening
- It is the science of the performance of  Negotiation
buildings and structures when subjected
 Persuasion
to seismic loading. It also assists
 Writing
analyzing the interaction between civil
 Operations analysis
 users to apply logic and exercise their
mental capacity; generally, the slowest of
To become a professionally accredited
the possible methods.
Structural Engineer you are usually
required: 2. IN-HOUSE SPREADSHEET - an
extremely cost-effective solution, as the
A. Academic Foundation
only 'cost' is the time spent by the
B. An Apprenticeship engineer or IT department to build the
solution. The limitations include a high
C. A License
upfront time and cost, as engineers build
D. Working towards this role the tools themselves.
EXCEL is a valuable tool used by
Methodologies and Softwares engineers to produce a repeatable
currently used in the Field of Structural outcome.
Engineering MACROS are also relatively easy for
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS and DESIGN engineers to pick up as they typically
SOFTWARE boost productivity and are have an analytical and logical mind.
user-friendly. They make structural 3. FREEWARE - the obvious benefit of
modelling and load analyzing more being free; a great way to calculate your
seamless and efficient, thus reducing the designs once you can roughly estimate
time and effort required for finite element the forces applied to your members.
analysis.
4. FULL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
STRUCTURAL SOFTWARES SOFTWARE - the most effective and
1. STAAD PRO - a structural design and fastest method of designing your
analysis tool Considered as the best structure. the most effective and fastest
structural analysis software and an array method of designing your structure.
of essential tool required for
accomplishing an analytical process on
Jobs/ Careers of Structural
different structures.
Engineering
- developed by Research Engineers
1. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER - primarily
which was later acquired by BENTLEY
concerned with designing and
SYSTEMS, a CAD/CAM software
constructing buildings and structures that
company based in Pennsylvania.
are safe and capable of withstanding the
2. SAFE - this software is mostly used in elements to which they will be exposed,
designing foundation slab system and as well as improving the structural
concrete floors. It is a comprehensive integrity of existing buildings.
package that combines all the aspects of
2. JUNIOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNER -
engineering design process.
Prepares structural analysis/investigation
3. RISA -3D analysis and design tool for on existing house plans and structural
creating general structures such as analysis/design on different structures for
buildings, bridges, arenas, industrial site development/special projects.
structures, crane rails, and more. It is fast,
3. SENIOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNER -
productive and accurate.
creates and recommends valuable and
cost-effective structural designs to our
METHODOLOGIES prospective clients. Prepares construction
material estimates, requirements,
1. HAND CALCULATIONS - are the engineering proposals and specifications.
cornerstone of engineering: they force
Monitors and supervises the erection of are around 99% iron, along with
steel structures & structural steel works manganese, carbon, sulphur and
upon commencement of construction. phosphorous.
4. BRIDGE ENGINEER - Management of Rebar cages are either pre-fabricated or
structural analysis and design, load rating constructed on site using HYDRAULIC
of roadway and rail bridges, and contract BENDERS AND SHEARS.
document preparation (plans,
specification, and estimate) for
design/build and conventional bridge FORMWORKS - the process of creating a
projects. temporary mould into which concrete is
poured and formed. Traditionally, it
fabricated using timber, but it can also be
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND constructed from steel, glass fibre
MANAGEMENT reinforced plastics and other materials.
SHUTTERING -a term that is often used
to refer to the process of using plywood to
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING form the mould.
- The field that focuses on the design, -the most popular type of formwork and is
planning, building and management of normally constructed on site using timber
roads, bridges, utility systems, dams and and plywood.
other pieces of infrastructure.
SIMPLE PLANK SHUTTERING - used
- It seeks to ensure that the projects are for the construction of a path or hard
completed on time and that the blueprints standing. The planks should be trimmed
and technical specifications are followed. so they are level with the top surface of
- a fusion between civil engineering and the slab, allowing a tidy concrete finish to
construction management. be achieved.
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT CONCRETING
- the process of planning, coordinating CONCRETE is a vital material and plays
and providing monitoring and controlling a major role in the quality of buildings or
of a construction project. structures.
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION Placing of Concrete Within Small Earth
MANAGEMENT Mould - In this kind of placing, concrete is
placed in a small surface area on the
-Industrial -Commercial -Residential
earth such as foundation bed below the
-Civil -Environmental walls or columns.
Construction Methodologies Placing of Concrete within Large Earth
Mould - In this type of placing, concrete is
REBAR
placed in a large surface area on the
- also known as reinforcement steel and earth such as road slab and airfield slab
reinforcing steel; a steel bar or mesh of or timber plank form work.
steel wires used in reinforced concrete
and masonry structures to strengthen and
hold the concrete in tension. Underwater Concrete Placement
- commonly manufactured using mild or 1. BOTTOM DUMP BUCKET METHOD -
high yield steel of grade 250 or 250 In this method concrete is taken through
N/mm2 characteristic tensile strength. the water in a water-tight box or bucket.
The constituents of both of these grades On reaching the final place of deposition
the bottom of the bucket is made to open
by some mechanism and the whole
Softwares for Project/ Construction
concrete is dumped gradually.
Management
2. TOGGLE BAGS METHOD -
1. CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM) - a
considered as one of the oldest methods
step-by-step methodology, technique or
of underwater concreting; used for small
algorithm for planning projects with
works or repair works. In this method, wet
numerous activities that involve complex,
concrete is placed inside the bags and
interdependent interactions; An important
are squeezed out by a diver at the site or
tool for project management because it
place (underwater). The reusable canvas
identifies critical and non- critical tasks to
bag is used for this method which is filled
prevent conflicts and bottlenecks.
with concrete and is lowered to the site
which is underwater and then the 2. PROGRAM EVALUATION REVIEW
concrete is discharged. TECHNIQUE
3. PREPLACED AGGREGATE METHOD - a project management tool used to
(GROUTED AGGREGATE METHOD) schedule, organize, and coordinate tasks
within a project; A methodology
- used when the normal underwater
developed by the U.S. Navy in the 1950s
concrete placement is difficult. Forms are
to manage the Polaris submarine missile
used for this method and it is packed with
program.
well-graded aggregates and injected with
mortar to fill the voids. 3. GANTT CHART- a type of bar chart
that illustrates a project schedule. It
4. TREMIE METHOD - used for the
shows the dependency relationships
underwater concrete placement and
between activities and current schedule
below the ground level concrete
status; Named after its inventor, HENRY
placement. concrete is placed by gravity
GANTT (1861–1919)
through a long vertical pipe which is
called tremie pipe. 4. PRIMAVERA - an enterprise project
portfolio management software. It
5. PUMPS AND PIPELINE METHOD -
includes project management, product
widely used and more reliable method for
management, collaboration and control
the concrete placement of underwater
capabilities, and integrates with other
concrete as well as multi- storied
enterprise software such as Oracle and
buildings, bridges, tunnel etc. its working
SAP’s ERP systems. Primavera was
starts with the suction stroke that sucks
launched in 1983 by Primavera Systems
the concrete inside the pipe.
Inc., which was acquired by Oracle
Corporation in 2008.
Special Concrete Placement 5. MICROSOFT PROJECT - a project
management software product, developed
1. SLIP FORMING - a continuous
and sold by Microsoft. It is designed to
placement and consolidation of concrete.
assist a project manager in developing a
In this technique, concrete is poured into
schedule, assigning resources to tasks,
a continuously moving form.
tracking progress, managing the budget,
2. SHOTCRETE OR GUNITING - and analyzing workloads.
concrete is applied by spraying through a
nozzle by means of compressed air with
fine aggregate and sand are used. She Stages of a Construction Project
materials are dry mixed and the water is
1. FEASIBILITY AND DESIGN STAGE -
injected just before entering the nozzle.
the responsibility of the design team to
Wet concrete can also be sprayed.
ensure that the design meets all building complete the project are purchased. This
codes and regulations. Where the bidding can be done by the general contractor if
process takes place. the company does all their own
construction work.
Feasibility and design involve four
steps: Purchase orders- an agreement
between a buyer and seller that the
 CONCEPTUAL/PROGRAMMING
products purchased meet the required
AND FEASIBILITY- The needs,
specifications for the agreed price.
goals, and objectives must be
determined for the building. 4. CONSTRUCTION STAGE - begins
Decisions must be made on the with a pre-construction meeting brought
building size, number of rooms, how together by the superintendent.
the space will be used, and who will
5. OWNER OCCUPANCY - Once the
be using the space.
owner moves into the building, a warranty
 SCHEMATIC DESIGN- sketches period begins. This is to ensure that all
used to identify spaces, shapes, materials, equipment, and quality meet
and patterns. Materials, sizes, the expectations of the owner that are
colors, and textures must be included within the contract.
considered in the sketches. This
phase usually involves developing
the floor plan, elevations, a site Contractor, Owner and Consultant
plan, and possibly a few details.
 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT (DD) - CONTRACTOR - anyone who directly
This step requires research and employs or engages construction workers
investigation into what materials or manages construction work.
and equipment will be used as well OWNER - The person “in charge” of the
as their cost. During this phase, the overall project; often the only
drawings are refined with nonprofessional in the entire project.
information from structural,
plumbing, mechanical, and CONSULTANT - the one who is
electrical engineers. It also involves completely independent and professional
a more rigorous evaluation how the engineer and performs well detailed
applicable building codes will engineering services to his/her client on
impact the project. an agreed sum of money.
 CONTRACT DOCUMENTS (CDS) -
Contract documents are the final
Jobs/Careers of Construction
drawings and specifications of the
Engineering and Management
construction project. They are used
by contractors to determine their bid 1. PROJECT IN CHARGE - responsible
while builders use them for the for directing, organizing, controlling and
construction process. implementing project activities, under the
direction of a Project Manager/Project
2. PRE-CONSTRUCTION STAGE -
Operations Manager.
begins when the owner gives a notice to
proceed to the contractor that they have
2. PROJECT SUPERINTENDENT- Also
chosen through the bidding process. A known as a Construction Foreman.
notice to proceed is when the owner gives Responsible for overseeing staff on a
permission to the contractor to begin their construction site and for handling the
work on the project. project’s schedule.
3. PROCUREMENT STAGE - when
3. PROJECT SUPERVISORS – they
labor, materials and equipment needed to make sure all aspects of a project are
completed smoothly. In order to make 8. ESTIMATOR – They calculate an
sure projects are done correctly, they estimate of a given quantity based on
must have a strong knowledge of each observed data.
task. They are employed by a number of
industries, the largest being the Geotechnical Engineering as a Discipline
construction, engineering, manufacturing,
marketing, and design industries. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

4. FIELD OR SITE ENGINEER – They - branch of engineering concerned with

are integral to construction projects. the analysis, design and construction of
Working alongside civil engineers, foundations, slopes, retaining structures,
structural engineers, architects and embankments, tunnels, levees, wharves,
surveyors, they use their technical skills landfills and soil or rock.
and managerial prowess to make sure
that building sites are fit for purpose. - engineering related to the performance
of the soil mechanics, including their
a. REBAR ENGINEER - they are the one subsurface conditions, determination of
who prepare design drawings that the physical, mechanical, and chemical
develop required strengths by applying properties that will influence the project
rebar size, spacing, location and lap of under consideration, and the assessment
steel. of the risks that may be created by
conditions of the site.
b. FORMWORK DESIGN ENGINEER -
supports the Formwork General Areas/ Subfields of Geotechnical
Superintendent, Project Superintendents, Engineering
Project Managers and Project Engineers.
Professional Engineer with an emphasis SOIL MECHANICS- the study of soil
in structural engineering. composition, strength, consolidation, and
the use of hydraulic principles to deal with
c. CONCRETE ENGINEER – They plan issues concerning sediments and other
and implement construction projects that deposits; one of the major sciences for
use concrete. They are experts in the resolving problems related to geology and
properties of concrete, the principles of geophysical engineering.
design, and the physics of construction.
SOIL COMPOSITION - an important
5. PLANNING AND CONTROL aspect of nutrient management. While soil
ENGINEER - develop, implement and minerals and organic matter hold and
maintain cost controls on a project, and store nutrients, soil water is what readily
provide centralized planning and provides nutrients for plant uptake.
scheduling on many projects.
The basic components of soil are
6. QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY minerals, organic matter, water and air.
ASSURANCE ENGINEERS - focuses on The typical soil consists of approximately
preventing defects. They ensure that the 45% mineral, 5% organic matter,
approaches, techniques, methods and 20-30% water, and 20-30% air.
processes are designed for the projects
are implemented correctly. SOIL CLASSIFICATION - Deals with
systematic categorization based on
7. QUANTITY SURVEYORS - a distinguishing characteristics as well as
construction industry professional with criteria that dictate choices in use
expert knowledge on construction costs Engineers.
and contracts. They are not to be
confused with land surveyors or building CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GRAIN
surveyors. SIZE - to indicate particle size and not to
signify nature soil type in this system are
clay, silt, sand and gravel.
- The same system with minor LIQUID LIMIT TEST- defined in
modification was adopted by ISI for ASTM Standard D4318, determines the
general engineering purpose (ISI 1498- water content at which the behavior of a
1970) is system divides soil into three clayey soil changes from plastic to liquid.
major groups: coarse grained, fine
grained and organic soils and other PLASTIC LIMIT - a test that
miscellaneous soil materials. involves rolling out a thread of the fine
portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous
TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF surface. The procedure is defined in
SOIL-- it is the classification of soil ASTM Standard D4318.
exclusively based on particle size and
their percentage distribution; this system SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST - a test
specifically names the soil depending on that evaluates the water content of a soil
the percentage of sand, silt and clay. where further loss of moisture will not
result in an additional volume reduction.
AASHTO CLASSFICATION SYSTEM
SOIL - known as PRA classification C. Test to density of soil
system; developed based on particle size
and plasticity characteristics of soil mass; Laboratory tests
in this system the soils are divided into
seven major groups. 1. STANDARD PROCTOR TEST - The
soil is compacted in a mold that has a
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION volume of 944 cm3. The diameter of the
SYSTEM - the most common Engineer mold is 101.6 mm. during the laboratory
classification system in North American test, the mold is attached to a baseplate
for soils, Has three major classification at the bottom and to an extension to the
group: Course Grained Soil, Fine top.
Grained Soil, and Highly Organic Soil.
2. MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST - Same
mold 944 cm3, 101.6 mm diameter,
hammer mass4.54 kg and drop height
SOIL TEST AND SURVEY 45.7 cm mold is connected with base
plate at bottom and extension at top no. of
A. Test for particle size layers is 5, no. of blows to each layer is
25 compaction energy 2700 KN-m/m2
1. SIEVE ANALYSIS - Determines
the grain size distribution curve of the soil 3. GYRATORY COMPACTION TEST -
sample passing them through a stack of Designed to compact asphalt specimens.
sieves or decreasing mesh opening sizes It also handles soils, emulsions, and
and by measuring the weight retained on concrete. It is a customer favorite
each sieve generally applied to the soil because it is user- friendly, reliable,
fraction larger than 0.075 mm. durable and well-supported.

2. HYDROMETER TEST - Defines Field tests

the grain size distribution curve for soils
that are too fine to be tested with sieves 1. SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD -
sorts soil particles by size using the can be used in different type of soils and
physical process of sedimentation. The the results obtained are much more
grain size is calculated from the distance appropriate than the core cutter method
of sedimentation of soil particles. the calculation is lengthy as it involves
many steps and you need more area of
B. Test to evaluate the effect moisture the reach to test it also tend to be less
accurate than nuclear density gauge.
1. ATTERBERG TEST
2. CORE CUTTER METHOD - well suited
for soft soils like clay soils or other
cohesive soils or other cohesive soils that cyclic stress, it is also subjected to a static
are placed as fills cannot be used for confining stress provided by a triaxial
coarse grained soil as the core cutter pressure chamber.
would not penetrate through them due to
high resistance at the tip of the
instrument.
E. SOIL SURVEY - a systematic study of
3. WATER REPLACEMENT METHOD the soil of an area including classification
and mapping of the properties and the
used for determination of field compaction distribution of various soil units.
or field density in large excavation pits for
earth embankments, road fills or structural
backfills.
SOFTWARES USED IN
4. RUBBER BALLOON METHOD - GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
although it can get large samples, direct
readings are obtained but it is little 1. BEARING CAPACITY AND
awkward method that is slow and can be SETTLEMENTS – LOADCAPS
abandoned easily in case of balloon
breakage. - software for the computation of bearing
capacity on loose or rocky soils,
5. NUCLEAR MOISTURE DENSITY computation of bearing capacity factors,
METER - fastest of all methods and is easiest analysis of soil reinforced with geogrids,
to redo when needed cannot be used if rocks calculations of: increase bearing capacity,
are in the path and it can lead to ambiguous deformation in the reinforcements, tensile
results if miscalibrated. force in the reinforcement for membrane
effect
D. TEST FOR STRENGTH OF SOIL
2. DEEPFOUND-SETTLEMENTS OF
1. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO MAT FOUNDATIONS ON PILE - the
METHOD - a measure of resistance of a settlements of mat foundations on piles
material to penetration of standard are not easy to calculate. The software
plunger under controlled density and DeepFound offers the possibility to
moisture conditions it was developed by calculate the settlements of mat
the California Division of Highways as a foundations on piles using the
method of classifying and evaluating soil- computation method PDR proposed by
subgrade and base course materials for Poulus (2000) deriving from the
flexible pavements may be conducted in combination of the methods Poulus and
remolded and undisturbed sample. Davis (1980) and the method Randolph
(1994).
2. HVEEM STABILOMETER METHOD -
used to analyze the resistance offered by 3. EARTH SMALL DAMS – ESD -
the asphalt aggregate mix in the form of software for the check of earth small
horizontal pressure towards the traffic dams under both static and seismic
wheel induced loading. It is obtained conditions check under: full tank, empty
through imposing the vertical stress tank, quickly, emptied tank. hydraulic
sample of the mix is used to determine piping check determination of the
the strength of pavement in horizontal seepage rate through the world, seepage
direction. length, saturation line trend.

3. TRI-AXIAL DESIGN METHOD - In a 4. ADONIS - an easy-to-use yet powerful

triaxia,l resilient modulus test a repeated geotechnical- engineering tool for the
axial cyclic stress of fixed magnitude, load linear and nonlinear analysis of
duration and cyclic duration is applied to a geotechnical problems it features a full
cylindrical test specimen. While the graphical user interface (GUI) for pre-
specimen is subjected to this dynamic processing or post-processing and uses
fully automatic mesh generator to create 1. PILE FOUNDATION - used to reduce
complex finite element meshes. cost and when as per soil condition
considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads
5. GEOTECHNICAL AND F.E.M. to soil strata which are beyond the reach of
ANALYSIS SYSTEM – GFAS - software shallow foundations.
for mechanical analysis of soil using finite
elements method. The traditional methods 2. PIER FOUNDATION - an underground
of analysis based on the concept of limit structure that transmits heavier load
equilibrium (LEM) do not allow the which cannot be transmitted by shallow
determination of stresses and foundations. It is usually shallower than
deformations in the analyzed volumes. pile foundations.

3. CAISSON FOUNDATION - a watertight

retaining structure used as a bridge pier,
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - the construction of dam etc. It is generally
engineering field of study devoted to the used in structures which require
design of those structures, which support foundation beneath a river or similar water
other structures, most typically buildings, bodies.
bridges or transportation infrastructure.

TYPES OF FOOTING
RETAINING WALL - a structure used for
Shallow Foundations maintaining the bottom surfaces at very
different elevations on either aspect of it.
1. ISOLATED /SPREAD FOOTING - This It provides lateral support to vertical
is the most common and simplest type of slopes of soil. They keep soil that might
foundation as this is the most economical otherwise collapse into an additional form.
type of foundation. They are generally
used for ordinary buildings GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS -
Depends on its self- weight only to resist
2. WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING lateral earth pressure. massive because it
- This type of footing is used to distribute requires significant gravity load to
loads of structural load-bearing walls to encounter act soil pressure sliding,
the ground. Wall foundation runs along overturning and bearing forces shall be
the direction of the wall. taken into consideration while this type of
retaining wall structure is designed that it
3. COMBINED FOOTING - When the can be constructed from different
columns of the structure are closely materials such as concrete, stone,
placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil masonry units.
is low and their footing overlap each
other, this type of footing is provided. TYPES OF GRAVITY RETAINING
WALLS
4. CANTILEVER OR STRAP FOOTING -
the footings under the columns are built 1. CRIB RETAINING WALL - are
individually and connected by strap beam. constructed of interlocking individual
boxes made from timber or pre-cast
5. RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATION - used concrete then the boxes are filled with
where other shallow foundation or pile crushed stone or granular materials to
foundation is not suitable. It is also create a free draining structure suited to
recommended in situations where the support planter areas, but it is not
bearing capacity of the soil is poor, the recommended for support of slopes or
load of the structure is to be distributed structures.
over a large area or structure is constantly
subjected to shocks or jerks. 2. GABION RETAINING WALL - are
multi-celled, rectangular wire mesh boxes,
DEEP FOUNDATIONS which are filled with rocks or other
suitable materials employed for 8. HYBRID SYSTEMS - Retaining walls
construction or erosion control structures that use both mass and reinforcement for
used to stabilize steep slopes. stability

3. CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL - GROUND IMPROVEMENT- t involves the

Composed of stem and base slab modification of soil properties or constructing
constructed from reinforced concrete, inclusions within the soil to achieve a required
precast concrete or most common performance Hayward Baker’s experience
prestressed concrete type. Used as providing optimal ground improvement
retaining wall either constructed on site or solutions spans four decades and thousands of
prefabricated offsite requires smaller projects.
quantity of concrete compared with
gravity wall.

4.COUNTER-FORT/BUTTRESSED SLOPE STABILIZATION - the potential

RETAINING WALL - it is a cantilever of soil covered slopes to withstand and
retaining wall but strengthened with undergo movement. Stability is
counter forts monolithic with the back of determined by the balance of shear stress
the wall slab and base slab counter fort and shear strength.
spacing is equal or slightly larger than half
of the counter fort height counter-fort wall
height ranges from 8-12 mm.
OFFSHORE GEOTECHNICAL
5. ANCHORED RETAINING WALL - his ENGINEERING
type of retaining wall is employed when
the space is limited or thin retaining wall is - concerned with foundation design for
required suitable for loose soil over rocks human-made structures in the sea, away from
considerably high retaining wall can be the coastline. Oil platforms, artificial islands
constructed using this type of retaining and submarine pipelines are examples of such
wall structure system deep cable rods or structures.
wires are driven sideways into the earth,
then the ends are filled with concrete to
provide anchor. Anchors act against
overturning and sliding pressure

6. PILED RETAINING WALL - are

constructed by driving reinforced concrete
piles adjacent to each other piles are
forced into a depth that is sufficient to
counter the force which tries to push over
the wall employed in both temporary and
permanent works economical until the
height of 6 meters.

7. MECHANICALLY STABILIZED
EARTH (MSE) RETAINING WALL -
among the most economical and most
commonly constructed retaining walls is
supported by selected fills (granular) and
held together by reinforcements, which
can be either metallic strips or plastic
meshes types include panel, concrete
block and temporary earth retaining walls.