Skncoe: Savitribai Phule Pune University

Cellular Network Lab (304196)
Savitribai Phule Pune University
Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Engineering
Department of E&TC Engineering
E
O
C
N
SK
T.E (Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering)

(Course 2019)
(w.e.f. June 2021)
Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 1

E
O
C
N
SK

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Engineering
S. No. 44/1, Vadgaon (Bk.), Off Sinhgad Road, Pune – 411 041.
INDEX
Name: ________________________________________ Roll No.: ____________
Class: ____________________ Subject: __________________________________
Page
S.N. Title Date Signature Remarks
No.
E
O
C
N
SK

Page
S.N. Title Date Signature Remarks
No.
E
O
C
N
SK
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr./Miss. ____________________________________________________
Roll No.: _______________ of T.E. Class: _______________ has satisfactorily completed the
Term Work in Subject as per the Syllabus of Pune University during the academic year
____________ Semester ___________ Exam Seat No.: __________________.
Staff Member Head of Dept.

Date: _______________ In charge Dept. of E&TC

Vision of the Institution

"उत्तमपुरुषान् उत्तमाभियंतृन् भनमाातुं कटीबध्दा: वयम्" |
We are committed to produce not only good engineers but good human beings, also.
Mission of the Institution:

M1: Our mission is to do what it takes to foster, sustain and upgrade the quality of Education
by way of harnessing Talent, Potential and optimizing meaningful Learning Facilities.
M2: Our endeavour is to provide the best learning, conductive environment & equip the
students with effective Learning Strategies.
E
Objectives of Institution
• To build a personality with technical and non-technical skills, which are globally at
par.
•
•
O
To implement effective teaching-learning process (T-L-P) so as to achieve excellent
academic performance in the university examination.
To provide the opportunity to the students to participate in various co-curricular and
extra-curricular activities for their overall development.
To upgrade the staff qualification.
C
• To make the students employable by introducing various skill development programs
like Student Training Programs (STPs) and Value Addition Programs (VAPs).
• To create top notch entrepreneurs, through Entrepreneurship Development Cell (EDC).
• To make the students competitive with practical oriented problem-solving techniques
through Project Based Learning (PBL) & Lab Innovations (LI).
N
• To introduce various Faculty Development Programs (FDPs) like Train the Trainer
(TTT), Teacher Advancement Program (TAP), etc.
• To inculcate the research culture among students and faculties.
SK

Department Vision
We aim quality education in the field of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering to
build Techno-Social engineers for solving real life challenges.
Department Mission
• Rendering technical academic aura through unique teaching learning process.
• Encouraging students to develop skills and resolve the social and environmental
problems of current times.
• Endorsing research and innovation in Engineering & Technology.
E
Program Educational Objectives
Graduates will be able to
• PEO 1: Apply concepts of mathematics, science and engineering for design and
O
development of creative and interdisciplinary frameworks for advancement of the
society
• PEO 2: Demonstrate quantifiable advancement in the careers they decide to seek after.
• PEO 3: Adopt life-long learning with high morals to outshine in the volatile economic
and technological environment.
C
Program Specific Outcomes
After successful completion of the program, the graduates will
• PSO 1: Design and Implement Modern Electronics Communication System utilizing
N
knowledge of Embedded Systems, VLSI and Signal Processing.
• PSO 2: Identify and apply appropriate Modern tools for the design and implementation
of communication using IoT, AI and Robotics.
Mapping
SK

CO1: Understand fundamentals of wireless communications.
CO2: Study of performance parameters of communication systems.
CO3: Elaborate fundamentals mobile communication.
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
CO1 3 2 1 2 3 3 2 0 0 1 0 1 2 2
CO2 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 2 2
CO3 3 1 1 1 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 2 2

RUBRICS
Rubrics for Laboratory Experiments Evaluation (Software)
Parameter for
Excellent Good Average Poor
Assessment
1 Familiarity Students has full Students has Students has Students has no
with command on basic adequate limited idea idea how to use
software tools of software command on basic how to use basic tools of
tools of software basic tools of software
E
software
Marks (4) 4 3 2-1 0
2 Execution Students have Students have Some steps are Students have
steps applied all the steps applied all the followed but no idea
in correct sequence steps in correct not in proper regarding the
O
and debugging to sequence but sequence. steps to be
obtain the results. failed to debug to followed to
obtain the results. obtain the
results
Marks (3) 3 2 1 0
3 Coding Code is completely The code is correct The code has
C
skills functional and regarding syntax several syntax The code has
responds correctly but required output errors. several errors to
producing the is not correct. Important part obtain the output
outputs. of code is
missing.
N
Marks (3) 3 2 1 0
SK

Rubrics for Mock Oral Evaluation
Parameter for
Excellent Good Average Poor
Assessment
1 Depth of Demonstrates Adequate Superficial Superficial
knowledge deep knowledge knowledge of knowledge of knowledge of
and answer the most topics and topic and only topic and not
questions with answer the able to answer able to answer
accurate questions but basic questions. basic questions
information and fails to elaborate. also.
relevant
illustrations.
E
Marks (4) 4 3 2-1 0
2 Presentation Relevant to the Relevant to the Relevant to the Not relevant to
Skill, fluency topic, Confident topic, appropriate topic, lack of the topic, lack of
oral ethics delivery style verbal confidence and confidence, poor
O
with clear voice communication average verbal verbal
and appropriate which does not communication communication
verbal disrupt others but
communication lack of
which does not confidence.
disrupt others
C
Marks (3) 3 2 1 0
3 Mapping of Efficient mapping Adequate Moderate Cannot relate
concept with of theory mapping of mapping of concept with
real concepts with theory concepts theory concepts practical or real-
life/practical real life/practical with real with practical life example
N
examples problem-solving life/practical problem-solving
Approaches. problem-solving approaches but
Approaches. cannot relate with
real life
examples.
SK
Marks (3) 3 2 1 0


Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Engineering, Vadgaon
E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Engineering, Vadgaon Expt. No.
Title
Hata Model for large city
1
Aim
Compute and compare the median loss by employing Hata model for various distance for
carrier frequencies of 2.1 GHz and 6 GHz. Assume transmit and receive antenna heights of 40
m and 2 m in a large city. Plot the graph of path loss vs distance.
Apparatus
PC, Octave
E
Theory
To plan the installation and deployment of a wireless network, one needs to characterize the
performance of the communication system in terms of the transmitted power and total load in
O
terms of users that can be supported by the network. Link-budget of wireless link is a systematic
listing of power losses and gains of different intermediate components in the transceiver chain.
Hata Model
C
The Hata model is a popular model for signal strength prediction proposed initially by the
Japanese engineer Masaharu Hata in his 1980 paper titled “Empirical Formula for Propagation
Loss in Land Mobile Radio Services”. The Hata model presents an analytical approximation
for the graphical information based on another Okumura model. Parameters required for
N
simulations:
𝐻𝑏𝑡𝑠 = Height measured from the base of the BTS tower to the radiation centreline
𝑇𝑏𝑡𝑠 = Terrain elevation at the location of the BTS
SK
𝐻𝑡𝑎𝑣 = Height of the average terrain (from 3 Km to 15 km distance from the BTS)
𝐻𝑚 = Height of the mobile antenna in meters
𝑓 = Range of frequencies in MHz
𝑑 = Range of Tx-Rx separation distances in Kilometers
𝑃𝑡 = Power transmitted by the BTS antenna in Watts
𝐺𝑡 = BTS antenna gain in dBi
𝐻𝑏 = 𝐻𝑏𝑡𝑠 + 𝑇𝑏𝑡𝑠 − 𝐻𝑡𝑎𝑣 = Effective Height of the BTS antenna in meters
Models
Big City (Urban model)
𝑎𝐻𝑚 = 3.2(log(11.75 𝐻𝑚))2 − 4.97;
𝐶=0

Small & Medium City (Urban model)

𝑎𝐻𝑚 = (1.1 log 𝑓 − 0.7)𝐻𝑚 − (1.56 log 𝑓 − 0.8);
Sub-urban environment
𝑎𝐻𝑚 = (1.1 log 𝑓 − 0.7)𝐻𝑚 − (1.56 log 𝑓 − 0.8);
𝑓 2
𝐶 = −2 (log ) − 5.4;
28
Open Rural environment
𝑎𝐻𝑚 = (1.1 log 𝑓 − 0.7)𝐻𝑚 − (1.56 log 𝑓 − 0.8);
𝐶 = −4.78 (log 𝑓 )2 + 18.33 log 𝑓 − 40.98;
E
𝐴 = 69.55 + 26.16 log 𝑓 − 13.82 log 𝐻𝑏 − 𝑎𝐻𝑚;
𝐵 = 44.9 − 6.55 log 𝐻𝑏 ;
O
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵), 𝑃𝐿 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 log 𝑑 + 𝐶;
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙(𝑑𝐵), 𝑃𝑟 = 10 log(𝑃𝑡 ∗ 1000) + 𝐺𝑡 − 𝑃𝐿
C
N
SK


Department of E&TC Engineering Expt. No.
Title Hata Model for large city
1
Student Worksheet
Problem Statement
Compute and compare the median loss by employing Hata model for various distance for
carrier frequencies of 2.1 GHz and 6 GHz. Assume transmit and receive antenna heights of 40
m and 2 m in a large city. Plot the graph of path loss vs distance.
E
Formulae
𝐻𝑏𝑡𝑠 = Height measured from the base of the BTS tower to the radiation centreline
𝑇𝑏𝑡𝑠 = Terrain elevation at the location of the BTS
O
𝐻𝑡𝑎𝑣 = Height of the average terrain (from 3 Km to 15 km distance from the BTS)
𝐻𝑚 = Height of the mobile antenna in meters
𝑓 = Range of frequencies in MHz
𝑑 = Range of Tx-Rx separation distances in Kilometers
C
𝑃𝑡 = Power transmitted by the BTS antenna in Watts
𝐺𝑡 = BTS antenna gain in dBi
𝐻𝑏 = 𝐻𝑏𝑡𝑠 + 𝑇𝑏𝑡𝑠 − 𝐻𝑡𝑎𝑣 = Effective Height of the BTS antenna in meters
N
Big City Model (Urban model)
𝑎𝐻𝑚 = 3.2(log(11.75 𝐻𝑚))2 − 4.97;
𝐶=0
SK
𝐴 = 69.55 + 26.16 log 𝑓 − 13.82 log 𝐻𝑏 − 𝑎𝐻𝑚;

𝐵 = 44.9 − 6.55 log 𝐻𝑏 ;
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵), 𝑃𝐿 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 log 𝑑 + 𝐶;
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙(𝑑𝐵), 𝑃𝑟 = 10 log(𝑃𝑡 ∗ 1000) + 𝐺𝑡 − 𝑃𝐿
Conclusion
From the output result, it is apparent that the loss increases and the received power decrease
with the increase in transmitter-receiver distance as well as the transmission frequency.
Review Questions
Q. 1 Explain free space propagation model (Friis Propagation Model).
Q. 2 Explain two-ray model.

Q. 3 Employing the Hata model, compute the median loss at a distance d = 8 km, when the
carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 = 2.1 𝐺𝐻𝑧, ℎ𝑡𝑒 = 40 𝑚, ℎ𝑟𝑒 = 2 𝑚 for a large city.
Q. 4 What is meant by Small Scale Fading?
Q. 5 Explain different types of diversity in wireless communications.
E
O
C
N
SK


Title Hata Model for large city
Expt. No.
Name 1
Roll No.
Program
1 clc;
2 clear all;
3 %----------Input Section---------------
E
4 Hbts = 40; %Height measured from the base of the BTS tower to the
radiation centerline
5 Tbts = 350; %Terrain elevation at the location of the BTS
6 Htav = 300; %Height of the average terrain (from 3 Km to 15 km
distance from the BTS)
7 Hm = 2; %Height of the mobile antenna in meters
8
9
10
11
12
13
O
f = 2100; %100:100:3000; %Range of frequencies in MHz
d = 0.5:0.5:15; %Range of Tx-Rx separation distances in Kilometers
Pt = 0.020; %Power transmitted by the BTS antenna in Watts
Gt = 10; %BTS antenna gain in dBi
%--------------------------------------
Hb = Hbts + Tbts - Htav; %Effective Height of the BTS antenna in
C
meters
14 C = 0;
15 aHm = 3.2 * (log10(11.75 * Hm)) ^ 2 - 4.97;
16
17 A = 69.55 + 26.16 * log10(f) - 13.82 * log10(Hb) - aHm;
18 B = 44.9 - 6.55 * log10(Hb);
19 PL = A + B * log10(d) + C;
N
20
21 subplot(2, 1, 1)
22 plot(d, PL, 'r', 'LineWidth', 2);
23 title('Hata-Okumura Path Loss Model', 'Fontsize',20);
24 xlabel('Distance - Kilometers', 'Fontsize',16);
25 ylabel('Path Loss (dB)', 'Fontsize',16);
SK
26 %Compute Received Signal Level

27 Pr = 10 * log10(Pt * 1000) + Gt - PL
28 subplot(2, 1, 2)
29 plot(d, Pr, 'r', 'LineWidth', 2);
30 title('Hata-Okumura Model', 'Fontsize',20);
31 xlabel('Distance - Kilometers', 'Fontsize',16);
32 ylabel('Received Signal Level (dBm)', 'Fontsize',16);

Output
For 𝑓 = 2100 𝑀𝐻𝑧
E
For 𝑓 = 6000 𝑀𝐻𝑧
O
C
N
SK


E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title
BER performance over a wireline AWGN channel
3
Aim
Simulate BER performance over a wireline AWGN channel with BPSK transmission for SNR:
0 to 50 dB.
Apparatus
PC, Octave
E
Theory
BPSK Modulation:
In digital modulation techniques, a set of basis functions are chosen for a particular modulation
scheme. Generally, the basis functions are orthogonal to each other. Basis functions can be
functions.
O
derived using ‘Gram Schmidt orthogonalization’ procedure. Once the basis functions are
chosen, any vector in the signal space can be represented as a linear combination of the basis
In Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) only one sinusoid is taken as basis function modulation.
Modulation is achieved by varying the phase of the basis function depending on the message
C
bits. The following equation outlines BPSK modulation technique.
N
Here, A is the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal, is the carrier angular frequency measured in
radians/second, t is the instantaneous time. S 0 (t) represents the carrier signal when ‘0’ is
transmitted and S 1 (t) represents the carrier signal when ‘1’ was transmitted. The constellation
diagram of BPSK will show the constellation points lying entirely on the x axis. It has no
projection on the y axis. This means that the BPSK modulated signal will have an in-phase
SK
component (I) but no quadrature component (Q). This is because it has only one basis function.
A BPSK modulator can be implemented by coding the message bits using NRZ coding (1
represented by positive voltage and 0 represented by negative voltage) and multiplying the
output by a reference oscillator running at carrier frequency ω.

BPSK Demodulation:
For BPSK demodulator, a coherent demodulator is taken as an example. In coherent detection
technique the knowledge of the carrier frequency and phase must be known to the receiver.
This can be achieved by using a Costas loop or a Phase Lock Loop (PLL) at the receiver. A
PLL essentially locks to the incoming carrier frequency and tracks the variations in frequency
and phase. For the following simulation, neither a PLL nor a Costas loop is used but instead
the output of the PLL or Costas loop is used. For demonstration purposes we simply assume
that the carrier phase recovery is done and directly use the generated reference frequency at the
receiver -cos(ωt).
In the demodulator the received signal is multiplied by a reference frequency generator
(assuming the PLL/Costas loop is present). The multiplied output is integrated over one bit
E
period using an integrator. A threshold detector decides on each integrated bit based on a
threshold. Since an NRZ signalling format is used with equal amplitudes in positive and
negative direction, the threshold for this case would be ’0′.
O
C
N
This concept is extended further to simulate the performance of BPSK modulation technique
over an AWGN. Note that this is a baseband simulation of BPSK modulation and
demodulation. Baseband simulation is faster and yields performance results same as that of
pass band simulation.
SK
Transmitter:
For the BPSK modulation, a series of binary input message bits are generated of which 1′s are
represented by 1V and 0′s are translated as -1V (equivalent to NRZ coding).
AWGN channel:
For BPSK modulation the channel can be modelled as
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑛
where, y is the received signal at the input of the BPSK receiver, x is the modulated signal
transmitted through the channel, ‘a’ is the channel amplitude scaling factor for the transmitted
signal usually assumed as unity. ‘n’ is the Additive Gaussian White Noise random variable
with zero mean and variance𝜎 2 .
For an AWGN channel, the noise variance in terms of noise power spectral density (𝑁0 ) is
given by

𝑁0
𝜎2 =
2
For M-ARY modulation schemes like M-PSK including BPSK, the symbol energy is given by
𝐸𝑠 = 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑐 𝐸𝑏
Where, 𝐸𝑠 =Symbol energy per modulated bit (x), 𝑅𝑚 = log 2 𝑀, (for BPSK M=2, QPSK M=4,
16QAM M=16 etc..,). R C is the code rate of the system if a coding scheme is used. In this
example, since no coding scheme is used R c = 1. E b is the Energy per information bit.
Assuming 𝐸𝑠 = 1for BPSK (Symbol energy normalized to 1) E b /N 0 can be represented as
(using above equations),
E
𝐸𝑏
From the above equation the noise variance for the given ⁄𝑁 can be calculated as
0
O
For the channel model “randn” function in MATLAB is used to generate the noise term. This
C
function generates noise with unit variance and zero mean. In order to generate a noise with
sigma for the given E b /N 0 ratio, use the above equation, find , multiply the “randn”
generated noise with this sigma, add this final noise term with the transmitted signal to get the
received signal.
Receiver:
N
BPSK receiver can be a simple threshold detector which categorizes the received signal as ‘0’
or ‘1’depending on the threshold that is being set.
Considering a binary symmetric channel, where the a-priori probabilities of 0’s and 1’s are
equal, the decision threshold can be conveniently set to T=0. The comparator decides whether
SK
the projected symbols are falling in region A or region B. If the symbols fall in region A, then
it will decide that 1was transmitted. It they fall in region B, the decision will be in favor of ‘0’.
For deriving the performance of the receiver, the decision process made by the comparator is
applied to the underlying distribution model. The symbols projected on the axis will follow a
Gaussian distribution. The threshold for decision is set to T=0. A received bit is in error, if the
transmitted bit is ‘0’ & the decision output is ‘1’. Similarly, the received bit is considered to be
in error - if the transmitted bit is ‘1’ & the decision output is ‘0’.
This is expressed in terms of probability of error as,
Or equivalently,

By applying Bayes Theorem Q functions and error functions, we can write,
For BPSK, since E S =E b , the probability of symbol error (P S ) and the probability of bit
error (P b ) are same. Therefore, expressing the P S and P b in terms of Q function and also in
E
terms of complementary error function:
O
C
N
SK


Title BER performance over a wireline AWGN channel
3
Student Worksheet
Problem Statement
Simulate BER performance over a wireline AWGN channel with BPSK transmission forSNR0
to 50 dB.
Formulae
E
𝑅𝑚 = log 2 𝑀
1
𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑎, 𝜎 = √
𝐸
2𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑐 𝑁𝑏
O
𝑃𝑏 = 0.5 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐√
𝐸𝑏
𝑁0
0
C
Conclusion
This program for the bit error rate (BER) performance of BPSK modulation in an Additive
White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel is simulated. The simulation is performed at baseband
so there is no need of a carrier and sampling rate of 1 sample/symbol, or 1 sample/bit is used.
N
The simulation is done using real numbers since we do not need to model two orthogonal
carriers as we would need to do for QPSK modulation.
Review Questions
1. Comparison of Analog Modulation Schemes with Digital Modulation.
SK
2. Mention theoretical bandwidth efficiency limits for each modulation formats.

3. List services and features of different generations of cellular networks.
4. Explain the BPSK in detail.
5. What is the bit error rate?

E
O
C
N
SK


Title BER performance over a wireline AWGN channel
Expt.No.
Name 3
Roll No.
Program
1 % Demonstration of Eb/N0 Vs BER for BPSK modulation scheme
E
2 clear;
3 clc;
4 %---------Input Fields------------------------
5 N=10000000; %Number of input bits
6 EbN0dB = 0:2:50; % Eb/N0 range in dB for simulation%--------------
8
9
and 0s
O
-------------------------------
data=randn(1,N)>=0; %Generating a uniformly distributed random 1s
bpskModulated = 2*data-1; %Mapping 0->-1 and 1->1

M=2; %Number of Constellation points M=2^k for BPSK k=1
C
10 Rm=log2(M); %Rm=log2(M) for BPSK M=2
11 Rc=1; %Rc = code rate for a coded system. Since no coding is used
Rc=1
12 BER = zeros(1,length(EbN0dB)); %Place holder for BER values for
each Eb/N0
N
13 index=1;
14 for k=EbN0dB,
15 %-------------------------------------------
16 %Channel Noise for various Eb/N0
17 %-------------------------------------------
SK
18 %Adding noise with variance according to the required Eb/N0

19 EbN0 = 10.^(k/10); %Converting Eb/N0 dB value to linear scale
20 noiseSigma = sqrt(1./(2*Rm*Rc*EbN0)); %Standard deviation for AWGN
Noise
21 noise = noiseSigma*randn(1,length(bpskModulated));
22 received = bpskModulated + noise;
23 %-------------------------------------------
24 %Threshold Detector
25 estimatedBits=(received>=0);
26 %------------------------------------------
27 %Bit Error rate Calculation
28 BER(index) = sum(xor(data,estimatedBits))/length(data);
29 index=index+1;
30 end
31 %Plot commands follows
32 plotHandle=plot(EbN0dB,log10(BER),'r--');

33 set(plotHandle,'LineWidth',1.5);
34 title('SNR per bit (Eb/N0) Vs BER Curve for BPSK Modulation
Scheme');
35 xlabel('SNR per bit (Eb/N0) in dB');
36 ylabel('Bit Error Rate (BER) in dB');
37 grid on;
38 hold on;
39 theoreticalBER = 0.5*erfc(sqrt(10.^(EbN0dB/10)));
40 plotHandle=plot(EbN0dB,log10(theoreticalBER),'k*');
41 set(plotHandle,'LineWidth',1.5);
42 legend('Simulated','Theoretical');
43 grid on;
E
Output
O
C
N
SK


Smt. KashibaiNavale College of Engineering, Vadgaon
E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Smt. KashibaiNavale College of Engineering, Vadgaon Expt.No.
Title
Power vs RMS Delay spread
5
Aim
Compute the RMS delay spread for a given Power profile and plot the graph of Power vs Delay.
Apparatus
PC, Octave
E
Theory
In radio systems with low antenna heights, there are often multiple indirect paths between the
transmitter and receiver due to reflections from surrounding objects, in addition to the direct
O
path when there is line-of-sight. Such multipath propagation is particularly significant in urban
environments, where the sides of buildings and paved road surfaces provide strong reflections.
As a result, the received signal consists of the summation of several components having various
amplitudes, phase angles and directions of arrival.
C
N
SK
Figure: Illustration of reflections of various kinds

The resulting spatial variability of signal strength can be viewed as having two regimes:
a) rapid fading which varies over distances of the order of a wavelength due primarily to
changes in phase angles of different signal components.
b) slow fading which varies over larger distances due primarily to changes in shadowing loss
by surrounding objects.
In addition, the various signal components can be Doppler shifted by different amounts due to
the movement of the mobile or of reflecting objects such as vehicles.
The multipath mobile channel can be characterized in terms of its impulse response which
varies at a rate dependent on the speed of the mobile and/or the scatterers. Therefore, a receiver
has to be able to cope with the signal distortion arising from echoes in the channel as well as
the rapid changes in the nature of this distortion. Such characteristics of the mobile radio

channel are described by the power delay profiles and the Doppler spectra which are obtained
from wideband channel sounding measurements.
Delay Spread
As an electromagnetic wave can travel from the transmitter to the receiver via multiple paths,
the signal can reach the receiver with interference from its own echoes. Delay spread measures
the effect of the time dispersion in multipath channels. Thus, the total power received in a
multipath wireless channel occurs over a spread of time referred to as the delay spread.
Figure shows how a transmitted pulse its received at the receiver with different signal strength
as it travels through a multipath channel with different propagation delays (τ, τ1, τ2).
E
O
C
Figure: Power Delay Profile Example 1
N
SK
Figure: Power Delay Profile Example 2

Detection of the first arrival peak is not an easy task to do when generating a power delay
profile. Generally, one might think that the first peak corresponds to the maximum peak of the
signal, but this is not necessarily the case. It may be that the peak of maximum energy is not
the first peak, as this can suffer greater attenuation than other arrivals in Non-Line of Sight
(NLOS) situations.
Power Delay Profile is usually supplied as a table of values obtained from empirical data and
it serves as a guidance to system design. Nevertheless, it is not an accurate representation of
the real environment in which the mobile is destined to operate at.

Power delay profile is a good representation of the average “geometry” of the transmitter, the
receiver, and the reflectors. To quantify “how spread-out” the arriving signals are, we use time
dispersion parameters:
Excess delay: the delay with respect to the first arriving signal (𝜏)
Maximum excess delay: the excess delay of the latest arriving Multi Path Component (MPC)
Mean excess delay: the “mean” excess delay of all arriving MPC
RMS delay spread: the “standard deviation” of the excess delay of all arriving MPC
In a nutshell, the RMS delay spread indicates the capability of the communication channel of
supporting high data rate communications by implying the probability of performance
E
degradation which may occur due to the ISI because of multipath signal propagation.
Even though a same signal is transmitted from single transmission antenna, the signal may go
through various different path. Each of the different path may cause different travel distance if
the signal get reflected by one or more obstacles (like buildings) and in some case different
O
path may has different physical property of propagation media, so it is higly likely that the
signal traveling through different path would arrive at the reciever antenna at different timing.
So if you send a signal from a transmitter antenna and measure the arrival time at the reciever
antenna which is a certain distance away from the transmitter antenna, you would get multiple
different arrival timing.
C
If you plot those arrival timing on the axis of time, you would see a certain variation (spread)
of those values. This spread is called 'Delay Spread'.
N
SK
If I plot the signals detected by a receiver antenna in time vs amplitude plot, it can be
represented as follows. As you see here, you will see multiple copies of the same signal coming
in with different timing and different amplitude. Using these time variation and amplitude
variation, we can define several different criteria (metrics) to define the nature of the channel.
To introduce these criteria (metric) is the main purpose of this page.

E
Max Delay Spread
O
C
Problems with Max Delay Spread
N
SK

Average Delay Spread
E
O
C
N
SK

E
O
C
N
SK

E
O
C
RMS Delay Spread
N
SK

Power delay profile
E
Figure: (1) Discrete PDP (2) Continuous/exponential PDP
For continuous PDP, the RMS delay spread (τrms) can be calculated as
O
C
N
SK
Knowledge of the delay spread is essential in system design for determining the trade-off
between the symbol rate of the system and the complexity of the equalizers at the receiver. The
ratio of RMS delay spread (τrms ) and symbol time duration (Tsym ) quantifies the strength of
intersymbol interference (ISI). Typically, when the symbol time period is greater than 10 times
the RMS delay spread, no ISI equalizer is needed in the receiver. The RMS delay spread
obtained from the PDP must be compared with the symbol duration to arrive at this conclusion.
With the power delay profile, one can classify a multipath channel into frequency selective or
frequency non-selective category. The derived parameter, namely, the maximum excess delay
together with the symbol time of each transmitted symbol, can be used to classify the channel
into frequency selective or non-selective channel.
PDP can be used to estimate the average power of a multipath channel, measured from the first
signal that strikes the receiver to the last signal whose power level is above certain threshold.
This threshold is chosen based on receiver design specification and is dependent on receiver
sensitivity and noise floor at the receiver.

Maximum excess delay, also called maximum delay spread, denoted as (Tm), is the relative
time difference between the first signal component arriving at the receiver to the last component
whose power level is above some threshold. Maximum delay spread (Tm) and the symbol time
period (Tsym) can be used to classify a channel into frequency selective or non-selective
category. This classification can also be done using coherence bandwidth (a derived parameter
from spaced frequency correlation function which in turn is the frequency domain
representation of power delay profile).
A channel is classified as frequency selective, if the maximum excess delay is greater than the
symbol time period, i.e, Tm >Tsym . This introduces intersymbol interference into the signal
that is being transmitted, thereby distorting it. This occurs since the signal components (whose
powers are above either a threshold or the maximum excess delay), due to multipath, extend
E
beyond the symbol time. Intersymbol interference can be mitigated at the receiver by an
equalizer.
On the other hand, if the maximum excess delay is less than the symbol time period, i.e, Tm
<Tsym , the channel is classified as frequency non-selective or zero-mean channel. Here, all
O
the scattered signal components (whose powers are above either a specified threshold or the
maximum excess delay) due to the multipath, arrive at the receiver within the symbol time.
This will not introduce any ISI, but the received signal is distorted due to inherent channel
effects like SNR condition. Equalizers in the receiver are not needed.
C
N
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Department of E&TC Engineering Expt.No.
Title Power delay profile
5
Student Worksheet
Problem Statement
Consider the average power profile 𝜙(𝜏) = 𝛼𝑒 −𝜏/𝛽 where 𝛼 = 3 𝑑𝐵, 𝛽 = 1𝜇𝑠. Compute the
RMS delay spread 𝜎𝜏𝑅𝑀𝑆 for this profile.
Formulae
E
∞
∫−∞ 𝜙(𝜏) 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦, 𝜏̅ = ∞
∫−∞ 𝜙 (𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
∞
∫−∞ 𝜙(𝜏)(𝜏 − 𝜏̅)2 𝑑𝜏
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦, 𝜎𝜏𝑅𝑀𝑆
O
=√ ∞
∫−∞ 𝜙(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝐼𝑆𝐼 =

1
10 × 𝜎𝜏𝑅𝑀𝑆
C
1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 0.9 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵𝑊 =
50 × 𝜎𝜏𝑅𝑀𝑆
Conclusion
N
A transmitted pulse gets received at the receiver with different signal strengths as it travels
through a multipath channel with different propagation delays. Depending on the nature of the
transmitted signal with respect to characteristics of channel, the fading channels can be
classified based on effects due to multipath delay spread and the Doppler spread. Multipath
delay spread, characterized by power delay profile, leads to time dispersion and frequency-
SK
selective fading.
Review Questions
Q. 1 What is the difference between large scale and small scale propagation model?
Q. 2 Calculate the mean excess delay, rms delay spread, and the maximum excess delay (10
dB) for the multipath profile given in the figure below. Estimate the 50% coherence
bandwidth of the channel. Would this channel be suitable for AMPS or GSM service
without the use of an equalizer? (Refer: Example 4.4, Wireless Communications,
Principles and Practice, Rappaport)

For Q.2 → For Q.3→

Q. 3 A local spatial average of power delay profile is shown in figure,
a. Determine the RMS delay spread and mean excess delay for the channel.
b. Determine the maximum excess delay (-20 dB)
c. Determine the maximum RF symbol rate if the symbol duration 𝑇 is less than
E
10𝜎, where 𝜎 is RMS delay spread, an ISI takes place.
d. If the mobile travelling at 30 Km/hr receives a signal through the channel,
determine the time over which the channel appears stationary. Refer:
http://www.comlab.hut.fi/opetus/227/2002/s5.pdf
O
Q. 4 What is the significance of rms delay spread explain?
C
N
SK


Title Power delay profile
Expt.No.
Name 5
Roll No.
Program
Consider,
∞
E
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡_1 = ∫ 𝜙 (𝜏) 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡_2 = ∫ 𝜙(𝜏)(𝜏 − 𝜏̅)2 𝑑𝜏
−∞
O
Define new function, File→New Function→meas_continuous_PDP
1 function[meanDelay,rmsDelay,symbolRate,coherenceBW]=meas_continuous
_PDP(fun,lowerLim,upperLim)
2 %FunctiontocalculatemeanDelay,RMSdelayspread,maximumsymbol
C
3 %ratethatasignalcanbetransmittedwithoutISIandthecoherence
4 %BWforthePDPequationspecifiedasfunctionhandle(fun)
5 %example:fun=@(tau)exp(-tau/0.00001);%givenPDPequation
6 %lowerLim-lowerlimitforintegration
7 %upperLim-upperlimitforintegration
N
8 moment_1=@(x)x.*fun(x);
9 meanDelay=integral(moment_1,lowerLim,upperLim)/integral(fun,lowe
rLim,upperLim);
10 moment_2=@(y)((y-meanDelay).ˆ2).*fun(y);
11 rmsDelay=sqrt(integral(moment_2,lowerLim,upperLim)/integral(fun,
SK
lowerLim,upperLim));
12 symbolRate=1/(10*rmsDelay);%maximumsymbolratetoavoidISI
13 coherenceBW=1/(50*rmsDelay);%for0.9correlation
14 %coherenceBW=1/(5*rmsDelay);%for0.5correlation
15 Endfunction
Run following script after saving above function in a file.
1 fun = @(tau)2*exp(-tau/1e-6);
2 [meanDelay,rmsDelay,symbolRate,coherenceBW] =
meas_continuous_PDP(fun,0,10e-6);
3 tau = [0:0.01e-6:5e-6];
4 fun1 = 2*exp(-tau/1e-6);
5 plot (tau, fun1, 'r', 'LineWidth', 2);
6 title ('Power vs Delay', 'Fontsize',20);
7 xlabel ('Delay', 'Fontsize',16);

8 ylabel('Power(dBm)', 'Fontsize',16);
Output
E
O
C
N
SK


E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title
Link-Budget analysis
6
Aim
Perform a Link-Budget analysis for a wireless communication system.
Apparatus
PC, Octave
Theory
E
The increased popularity of short-range wireless in home, building and industrial applications
with 2.4 GHz band requires the system designers to understand the methods, estimation, cost
and trade-off in short range wireless communication. Apart from considering the range
estimation formula, it is good to understand the wireless channel and propagation environment
O
involved with 2.4 GHz. Generally, RF/wireless engineers perform a link budget while starting
an RF design. The link budget considers range, transmit power, receiver sensitivity, antenna
gains, frequency, reliability, propagation medium (which includes the principles of physics
linked to reflection, diffraction and scattering of electromagnetic waves), and environment
factors to accurately calculate the performance of a 2.4 GHz RF radio link.
C
An account of all the various gains and losses between the transmitter and the receiver is
referred to as the link budget. The system factors involved in this accounting are illustrated in
following figure.
N
SK
Figure: System Gain-Loss Profile for a Link Budget

Link budget is the accounting of all gains and losses from the transmitter (TX) through the
medium (free space) to the receiver (RX) in a wireless communication system. Link budget
considers the parameters that decide the signal strength reaching the receiver. The factors such
as antenna gain levels, radio TX power levels and receiver sensitivity figures must be
determined to analyze and estimate the link budget. The following parameters are considered
to perform the basic link budget:
• Transmitter power
• Antenna gains (related to TX and RX)
• Antenna feed losses (related to TX and RX)
• Antenna type and sizes
• Path losses
E
Several secondary factors which are directly or indirectly responsible for link budget are as
follows:
• Receiver sensitivity (this is not part of the actual link budget, but this threshold is
O
necessary to decide the received signal capability)
• Required range
• Available bandwidth
• Data rates
• Protocols
•
C
Interference and Interoperability
A link budget is an accounting of all of the power gains and losses that a communication signal
experiences in a telecommunication system; from a transmitter, through a communication
medium such as radio waves, cable, waveguide, or optical fiber, to the receiver. It is an equation
giving the received power from the transmitter power, after the attenuation of the transmitted
N
signal due to propagation, as well as the antenna gains and feedline and other losses, and
amplification of the signal in the receiver or any repeaters it passes through. A link budget is a
design aid, calculated during the design of a communication system to determine the received
power, to ensure that the information is received intelligibly with an adequate signal-to-noise
SK
ratio. Randomly varying channel gains such as fading are taken into account by adding some
margin depending on the anticipated severity of its effects. The amount of margin required can
be reduced by the use of mitigating techniques such as antenna diversity or frequency hopping.
A simple link budget equation looks like this:
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) + 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 (𝑑𝐵) − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 (𝑑𝐵)
Power levels are expressed in (dBm), Power gains and losses are expressed in decibels (dB),
which is a logarithmic measurement, so adding decibels is equivalent to multiplying the actual
power ratios.
In wireless communication, a good range is usually obtained from the Free Space Path Loss
(FSPL). FSPL is the loss in signal strength of an electromagnetic wave due to the Line of Sight
(LOS) path through the free space with no obstacles near the source of the signal to cause
reflection or diffraction. Path loss (or path attenuation) is the reduction in power density
(attenuation) of an electromagnetic wave as it propagates through free space.

Path loss is caused by free space loss, refraction, diffraction, reflection and absorption, or all
of these. It is also influenced by the terrain types, environment (urban or rural, vegetation and
flora), propagation medium (moist or dry air), distance between the TX and RX, and antenna
height and location. Path loss is unaffected by the factors such as antenna gains of TX and RX,
and the loss associated with hardware imperfections. The FSPL is dominant in an outdoor LOS
environment, where the antenna is placed far from the ground and with no obstructions.
The path loss formula calculates the FSPL, and these calculations are compared to actual
measurements specified in Range Measurement Conditions and Results. When the antennas
are assumed to have unity gain, the path loss formula reduces to following equation. The free
space model is only valid for distances that are in the far field region of the transmitting
antenna.
E
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 × log(𝑓 ) + 20 × log(𝑑 ) + 32.44 𝑑𝐵
where, f = Frequency (MHz) d = Distance (km)
For above equation in free space (ideal transmission channel), the path loss is calculated when
O
loss coefficient is 2. When the transmission channel is nonideal, the typical path loss coefficient
values are 2.05 to 2.5 for LOS and 3.0 to 4.0 for indoor/non-LOS environments. The non-ideal
characteristics of the transmission channel result in the transmitting wave producing reflection,
diffraction, absorption and scattering. In an indoor environment, many obstructions may add
constructively or destructively for the radio wave propagations. For example, part of the wave
C
energy is transmitted or absorbed into the obstruction, and the remaining wave energy is
reflected off the medium's surface.
Also, the RF wave energy is a function of the geometry and material properties of the
obstruction, phase, amplitude and polarization of the incident wave. Reflection occurs when
electromagnetic (RF) wave strikes upon an obstruction with very large dimension compared to
N
the wavelength of the radio wave during propagation. Reflections from the surface of the earth
and from buildings produce reflected waves that may interfere constructively or destructively
at the receiver point. Diffraction occurs when the radio transmission path between the TX and
RX is obstructed by sharp edges. Based on Huygen’s principle, secondary waves are formed
SK
behind the obstructing body even though it is not LOS between the TX and RX. RF waves
travelling in urban and rural area (non-LOS) are due to Diffraction. This phenomenon is also
called Shadowing, because the diffracted field can reach a receiver even when it is shadowed
by thick obstruction.
Similar to reflection, diffraction is affected by the physical properties of the obstruction and
the incident wave characteristics. When the receiver is heavily obstructed, the diffracted waves
may have sufficient strength to produce a useful signal. Scattering occurs when the radio
channel contains objects with dimensions that are in the order of the wavelength or less of the
propagating wave. Scattering almost follows the same physical principles as diffraction and
causes energy from a TX to be radiated again in different directions. Scattering also occurs
when the transmitted wave encounters a large quantity of small dimension objects such as lamp
posts, bushes and trees. The reflected energy in a scattering situation is spread in all directions.
Analyzing and predicting the scattered waves is the most difficult of the three propagation
mechanisms in wireless communication.

Generally, the obstructed path loss is more difficult to analyze, especially for different indoor
scenarios and materials. Hence, different path loss models exist to describe unique and
dominant indoor characteristics, such as multi-level buildings with windows and single level
buildings without windows. The attenuation decreases floor wise with the increase in the
number of floors. This phenomenon is caused by diffraction of the radio waves along the side
of a building as the radio waves penetrate the building's windows. However, this is apart from
the average signal loss for radio path obstruction by different materials and Floor Attenuation
Factor (FAF) for signal penetration across multiple floors. Also, different indoor configurations
can be categorized for buildings with enclosed offices or office spaces consisting of a mix of
cubicles and enclosed rooms.
E
O
C
N
SK


Title Link-Budget analysis
6
Student Worksheet
Problem Statement
For a wireless communication system, following parameters are prescribed.
1. Operating frequency = 12 GHz
2. Transmit Power = 6W
E
3. Transmitting antenna gain = 48.2 dB
4. Receiving antenna gain = 50 dB
5. Distance between transmitting and receiving antenna = 50 km
6. Receiver feeder losses = 1.5 dB
7. Atmospheric absorption loss = 0.5 dB
8.
9.
O
Antenna pointing loss = 0.5 dB
Depolarization losses may be neglected.
Calculate the total received power for clear-sky conditions.
C
Formulae
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP),
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 = 10 log(𝑃𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) + 𝐺𝑡
Free Space Path Loss
N
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 × log(𝑓 ) + 20 × log(𝑑 ) + 32.44 𝑑𝐵
Total Losses
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐹𝑆𝐿 + 𝐴𝑀𝐿 + 𝑅𝐹𝐿 + 𝑃𝐿 + 𝐴𝐴
SK
FSL = Free space loss, AML = Antenna Misalignment loss, RFL=Receiver Feeder loss,
PL=Polarization Loss, AA = Atmospheric Absorption.
Received Power
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃𝑟 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 + 𝐺𝑟 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 (𝑑𝐵)
Calculations
----do calculations
Conclusion
A link budget provides a quick, simplistic assessment of a link’s viability and should only be
used as a design tool. All link budgets should be verified via observed measurements before
committing to an installation. Analysis is no substitute for empirical data. The link budget
calculation enables the losses and gains to be seen and devising a link budget enables the

apportionment of losses, gains and power levels to be made if changes need to be made to
enable the radio communications system to meet its operational requirements.
Review Questions
Q. 1 Why do we need link budget?
Q. 2 What is link budget analysis in wireless communications?
Q. 3 What are the two methods of calculating the link budget?
Q. 4 What are the factors affecting link budget?
Q. 5 What is link budget loss?
E
O
C
N
SK


Title Link-Budget analysis
Expt. No.
Name 6
Roll No.
Program
1 clc;
E
2 close all;
3 clear all;
4 pt=input('enter the input power in watts:');
5 Pt=10*log10(pt) %calculating transmitted power in db
6 gt=input('enter the transmitting antenna gain in db:');
7
8
9
10
11
EIRP=Pt+gt
O
gs=input('enter the receiving antenna gain in db:');
%calculating EIRP
d=input('enter the distance in km:');
f=input('enter the frequency in mhz:');
fsl=32.4+20*log10(d)+20*log10(f) %calculating path loss
C
12 rfl=input('enter the receiver feeder loss in db:');
13 aa=input('enter the atmospheric absorption in db:');
14 aml=input('enter the antenna misalignment loss in db:');
15 pl=input('enter the polarization loss in db:');
16 losses=fsl+rfl+aa+aml+pl; %calculating total losses
N
17 disp(sprintf('%s %f %s','total loss',losses,'db'));
18 P=EIRP+gs-losses; %calculating power recieved
19 P_watt = 10^(P/10);
20 disp(sprintf('%s %f %s','Total received power =',P_watt,'W'));
SK
Output
enter the input power in watts:6
Pt = 7.7815
enter the transmitting antenna gain in db:48.2
enter the receiving antenna gain in db:50
EIRP = 55.982
enter the distance in km:50
enter the frequency in mhz:12000
fsl = 147.96
enter the receiver feeder loss in db:1.5
enter the atmospheric absorption in db:0.5
enter the antenna misalignment loss in db:0.5
enter the polarization loss in db:0
total loss 150.463025 db
Total received power = 0.000036 W

E
O
C
N
SK


E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title BER MIMO

7
Aim
Simulate BER performance of multi-antenna Rayleigh channel for SNR varying from 0 to 60
dB.
Apparatus
PC, Octave
E
Theory
In a multipath environment, it is reasonably intuitive to visualize that an impulse transmitted
from transmitter will reach the receiver as a train of impulses.
O
C
Figure: Impulse response of a multipath channel
The phase of each path can change by 2𝜋radian when the delay 𝜏𝑛 (𝑡)changes by 1/𝑓𝑐 . If 𝑓𝑐 is
N
large, relatively small motions in the medium can cause change of2𝜋 radians. Since the
distance between the devices are much larger than the wavelength of the carrier frequency, it
is reasonable to assume that the phase is uniformly distributed between 0 and 2𝜋 radians and
the phases of each path are independent.
SK
2×2 MIMO channel

In a 2×2 MIMO channel, probable usage of the available 2 transmit antennas can be as follows:
1. Consider that we have a transmission sequence, for example {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }
2. In normal transmission, we will be sending 𝑥1 in the first time slot, 𝑥2 in the second time slot,
and 𝑥3 so on.
3. However, as we now have 2 transmit antennas, we may group the symbols into groups of
two. In the first time slot, send 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 from the first and second antenna. In second time slot,
send 𝑥3 and 𝑥4 from the first and second antenna, send𝑥5 and𝑥6 in the third time slot and so on.
4. Notice that as we are grouping two symbols and sending them in one time slot, we need only
𝑛/2 time slots to complete the transmission – data rate is doubled! :)
5. This forms the simple explanation of a probable MIMO transmission scheme with 2 transmit
antennas and 2 receive antennas.

E
Figure: 2 Transmit 2 Receive (2×2) MIMO channel
Other Assumptions
O
1. The channel is flat fading – In simple terms, it means that the multipath channel has only
one tap. So, the convolution operation reduces to a simple multiplication.
2. The channel experience by each transmit antenna is independent from the channel
C
experienced by other transmit antennas.
3. For the transmit antenna to receive antenna, each transmitted symbol gets
multiplied by a randomly varying complex number . As the channel under consideration
is a Rayleigh channel, the real and imaginary parts of are Gaussian distributed having
N
mean and variance .
4. The channel experienced between each transmit to the receive antenna is independent and
randomly varying in time.
SK
5. On the receive antenna, the noise has the Gaussian probability density function with
with and .
6. The channel is known at the receiver.
Zero forcing (ZF) equalizer for 2×2 MIMO channel

Let us now try to understand the math for extracting the two symbols which interfered with
each other. In the first time slot, the received signal on the first receive antenna is,
The received signal on the second receive antenna is,

where
, are the received symbol on the first and second antenna respectively,
is the channel from transmit antenna to receive antenna,
E
, are the transmitted symbols and
is the noise on receive antennas.
O
We assume that the receiver knows , , and . The receiver also
knows and . The unknowns are and . Two equations and two unknowns. Can we
solve it? Answer is YES.
For convenience, the above equation can be represented in matrix notation as follows:
C
.
Equivalently,
N
To solve for , we know that we need to find a matrix which satisfies .
The Zero Forcing (ZF) linear detector for meeting this constraint is given by,
.
SK
This matrix is also known as the pseudo inverse for a general m x n matrix.
The term,
BER with ZF equalizer with 2×2 MIMO

Note that the off-diagonal terms in the matrix are not zero. Because the off-diagonal
terms are not zero, the zero forcing equalizer tries to null out the interfering terms when
performing the equalization, i.e when solving for the interference from is tried to be
nulled and vice versa. While doing so, there can be amplification of noise. Hence Zero Forcing
equalizer is not the best possible equalizer to do the job. However, it is simple and reasonably
easy to implement.

Further, it can be seen that, following zero forcing equalization, the channel for symbol
transmitted from each spatial dimension (space is antenna) is a like a 1×1 Rayleigh fading
channel. Hence the BER for 2×2 MIMO channel in Rayleigh fading with Zero Forcing
equalization is same as the BER derived for a 1×1 channel in Rayleigh fading.
For BPSK modulation in Rayleigh fading channel, the bit error rate is derived as,
E
O
C
N
SK


Title BER MIMO
7
Student Worksheet
Problem Statement
Compute the BER for BPSK modulation in a Rayleigh fading channel with 2 Tx, 2Rx MIMO
channel Zero Forcing equalization.
Simulation Model
E
The Matlab/Octave script performs the following
(a) Generate random binary sequence of +1′s and -1′s.
(b) Group them into pair of two symbols and send two symbols in one time slot
(d) Equalize the received symbols
O
(c) Multiply the symbols with the channel and then add white Gaussian noise.
(e) Perform hard decision decoding and count the bit errors
C
(f) Repeat for multiple values of and plot the simulation and theoretical results.
Conclusion
The simulated results with a 2×2 MIMO system using BPSK modulation in Rayleigh channel
N
is showing matching results as obtained in for a 1×1 system for BPSK modulation in Rayleigh
channel.
Review Questions
SK
Q. 1 What is zero forced MIMO?

Q. 2 Why is it called zero forcing?
Q. 3 What is meant by Rayleigh fading channel?
Q. 4 What is the difference between AWGN and Rayleigh fading channel?
Q. 5 What is the difference between Rayleigh and Rician fading?

E
O
C
N
SK


Title BER MIMO
Expt.No.
Name 7
Roll No.
Program
1 clear
E
2 N = 10^6; % number of bits or symbols
3 Eb_N0_dB = [0:25]; % multiple Eb/N0 values
4 nTx = 2;
5 nRx = 2;
6 for ii = 1:length(Eb_N0_dB)
7
8
9
10
11
% Transmitter
O
ip = rand(1,N)>0.5; % generating 0,1 with equal probability
s = 2*ip-1; % BPSK modulation 0 -> -1; 1 -> 0
sMod = kron(s,ones(nRx,1)); %
C
12 sMod = reshape(sMod,[nRx,nTx,N/nTx]); % grouping in [nRx,nTx,N/NTx ] matrix
13
14 h = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx) + j*randn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx)]; % Rayleigh channel
15 n = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(nRx,N/nTx) + j*randn(nRx,N/nTx)]; % white gaussian noise,
0dB variance
N
16
17 % Channel and noise Noise addition
18 y = squeeze(sum(h.*sMod,2)) + 10^(-Eb_N0_dB(ii)/20)*n;
19
20 % Receiver
SK
21
22 % Forming the Zero Forcing equalization matrix W = inv(H^H*H)*H^H
23 % H^H*H is of dimension [nTx x nTx]. In this case [2 x 2]
24 % Inverse of a [2x2] matrix [a b; c d] = 1/(ad-bc)[d -b;-c a]
25 hCof = zeros(2,2,N/nTx) ;
26 hCof(1,1,:) = sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1); % d term
27 hCof(2,2,:) = sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1); % a term
28 hCof(2,1,:) = -sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1); % c term
29 hCof(1,2,:) = -sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1); % b term
30 hDen = ((hCof(1,1,:).*hCof(2,2,:)) - (hCof(1,2,:).*hCof(2,1,:))); % ad-bc term
31 hDen = reshape(kron(reshape(hDen,1,N/nTx),ones(2,2)),2,2,N/nTx); % formatting
for division
32 hInv = hCof./hDen; % inv(H^H*H)
33 hMod= reshape(conj(h),nRx,N); % H^H operation
34
35 yMod = kron(y,ones(1,2)); % formatting the received symbol for equalization

36 yMod = sum(hMod.*yMod,1); % H^H * y

37 yMod= kron(reshape(yMod,2,N/nTx),ones(1,2)); % formatting
38 yHat = sum(reshape(hInv,2,N).*yMod,1); % inv(H^H*H)*H^H*y
39
40 % receiver - hard decision decoding
41 ipHat = real(yHat)>0;
42
43 % counting the errors
44 nErr(ii) = size(find([ip- ipHat]),2);
45 end
46
47 simBer = nErr/N; % simulated ber
E
48 EbN0Lin = 10.^(Eb_N0_dB/10);
49 theoryBer_nRx1 = 0.5.*(1-1*(1+1./EbN0Lin).^(-0.5));
50 p = 1/2 - 1/2*(1+1./EbN0Lin).^(-1/2);
51 theoryBerMRC_nRx2 = p.^2.*(1+2*(1-p));
52 close all
53
54
55
56
57
figure
hold on
O
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBer_nRx1,'bp-','LineWidth',2);
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBerMRC_nRx2,'kd-','LineWidth',2);
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,simBer,'mo-','LineWidth',2);
C
58 axis([02510^-50.5])
59 grid on
60 legend('theory (nTx=1,nRx=1)', 'theory (nTx=1,nRx=2, MRC)', 'sim (nTx=2, nRx=2,
ZF)');
61 xlabel('Average Eb/No,dB');
N
62 ylabel('Bit Error Rate');
63 title('BER for BPSK modulation with 2x2 MIMO and ZF equalizer (Rayleigh channel)');
Output
SK


E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title
MIMO Channel Coefficient
9
Aim
Estimate channel coefficient vector Multi-Antenna Systems.
Apparatus
PC, Octave
Theory
E
Two flavors of MIMO implementation – spatial multiplexing and spatial diversity – were
discussed in the previous article. In that, it was mentioned that the reliability of a MIMO system
is governed by diversity and the capacity of the link is governed by degrees of freedom.
Channel State Information (CSI)
O
Multiple data streams can be spatially multiplexed over the M transmit antennas and are
received by the N receiver antennas. Spatially multiplexing increases the capacity of the link,
since multiple data streams are transmitted over the same available frequency band. On the
other hand, antenna diversity systems (dubbed as MIMO using diversity) merely improve the
reliability of the link.
C
But the question of whether the transmission of multiple streams of data over multiple antenna
really works, depends on the actual geometry of the antenna systems. Transmission of
independent data streams over multiple antennas depends on the correlation factor that
measures the influence of the spatially separated signals over each other. One way to eliminate
N
correlation (there by mutual influence of spatially separated signals) is to use orthogonally
polarized antennas (one antenna is horizontally polarized and the other is vertically polarized)
that sufficiently separate the signals in spatial dimension.
Finally, the transmission matrix (also called Channel State Information (CSI)) determines the
SK
suitability of MIMO techniques and influences the capacity to a great extent. In a SISO channel,
the channel state information is constant and does not change from bit to bit. Thus, the
knowledge of CSI in a SISO link is often not needed as it is characterized by steady state SNR.
In the case of rapid fading channels, the channel state information varies rapidly, and we may
think of employing MIMO to break the channel variations into spatially separated sub channels.
Thus, the knowledge channel state information (at transmitter or receiver) will open up the
possibility of incorporating this information in intelligent system design.
In a MIMO configuration, a typical CSI matrix is formed by transmitting a symbol (say value
‘1’) from each of the transmitting antenna and its response on the multiple receiving antennas
are noted. For example, in a 3×3 configuration, at some time instant, we transmit the voltage
‘1’ from the first antenna and record its response on the three receiving antennas. Let’s say the
three receiver antennas picks up the following voltage values – [0.8, 0.7, 0.9].

At the same time instant, the procedure is repeated for other transmit antennas and the response
of multiple receive antennas are recorded. A complete CSI matrix is shown below
E
In this method, the transmitter transmits the data blindly and the receiver constructs the CSI
matrix. This method of transmission is called open loop transmission scheme and are not
generally effective. From the sample CSI matrix above, it can be noted that the transmission
through antenna 2 is not effective (note the low voltage values recorded at the receiver antennas
O
(second column on the right)) the receiver may feedback the CSI matrix to the transmitter and
the transmitter may decide not to transmit on antenna 2, thereby saving power. This is an
example for closed loop diversity scheme. In this way the knowledge of CSI opens up the
possibility for intelligent communication.
The CSI matrix shown above contain only real numbers that describe the amplitude variations.
C
In reality the CSI matrix contains elements that are complex, and they describe both the
amplitude and phase variations of the link.
N
MIMO channel Model
A channel model is needed to properly assess a MIMO channel. In MIMO, the system
SK
configuration typically contains M antennas at the transmitter and N antennas at the receiver
front end as illustrated in the following figure.
Here, each receiver antenna receives not only the direct signal intended for it, but also receives
a fraction of signal from other propagation paths. Thus, the channel response is expressed as a
transmission matrix H. The direct path formed between antenna 1 at the transmitter and the
antenna 1 at the receiver is represented by the channel response ℎ11 . The channel response of
the path formed between antenna 1 in the transmitter and antenna 2 in the receiver is expressed
as ℎ21 and so on. Thus, the channel matrix is of dimension N×M.
The received vector y is expressed in terms of the channel transmission matrix H, the input
vector x and noise vector n as

E
O
C
where the various symbols are
N
Note that the response of the MIMO link is expressed as a set of linear equations. For a simple
2×2 MIMO configuration, the received signal vector is expressed as
SK
The receiver has to solve this set of equations to find out what was transmitted x. The stability
of the solution depends on the condition number of the transmission matrix H (CSI).

E
O
C
N
SK


Title MIMO Channel Coefficient
9
Student Worksheet
Problem Statement
Suppose NT = NR = 2. Generate the elements of the channel matrix H for a Rayleigh fading
AWGN channel given the corresponding inputs to the detectors for the two receive antennas
as [3.0691+0.24416i;1.184-0.039403i]
E
Formulae
The elements of Hare ℎ11 , ℎ12 , ℎ21 , ℎ22 . For the Rayleigh fading channel, these parameters are
complex-valued, statistically independent, zero-mean Gaussian random variables with
identical variances 𝜎ℎ2 . Hence, the two inputs to the detectors for the two antennas are
O
𝑌1 = ℎ11 𝑠1 + ℎ12 𝑠2 + 𝜂1
𝑌2 = ℎ21 𝑠1 + ℎ22 𝑠2 + 𝜂2
where s1 and s2 are the transmitted symbols from the two transmit antennas and (𝜂1 , 𝜂2 ) are
C
the statistically independent additive Gaussian noise terms with zero mean and equal variances
𝜎𝑛2 .
Conclusion
Once the channel coefficients are computed, these can be used by receiver to solve this set of
N
equations to find out what was transmitted. Solving a set of linear equation has problems
associated with rounding effects and how bad a matrix is. Storage of coefficients in computer
memory is prone to fixed point effects or rounding.
SK
Review Questions
Q. 1 What are Rayleigh Rician fading channels?
Q. 2 What is the difference between AWGN and Rayleigh fading channel?
Q. 3 What is Rayleigh fading and its solution?
Q. 4 How do you model for fading channel?

E
O
C
N
SK


Title MIMO Channel Coefficient
Expt.No.
Name 9
Roll No.
Program
1 Nt = 2; % No. of transmit antennas
E
2 Nr = 2; % No. of receive antennas
3 No = 1; % Noise variance
4 y = input('Enter received signal coefficients at the detector =
');
5 s = 2*randi([0 1],Nt,1) - 1; % Binary transmitted symbols
6
7
8
9
O
%H = (randn(Nr,Nt) + 1*i*randn(Nr,Nt))/sqrt(2) % Channel
coefficients
%disp ('Channel coefficients are:');
%disp(H);
noise = sqrt(No/2)*(randn(Nr, 1) + 1*i*randn(Nr,1 )); % AWGN
C
noise
10 %y = H*s + noise; % Inputs to the detectors
11 H = (y - noise) / s ;
12 disp(' The channel coefficients are: ');
13 disp(H);
N
Output
Enter received signal coefficients at the detector =
SK
[3.0691+0.24416i;1.184-0.039403i]
The channel coefficients are:
-1.6227 - 0.3860i -1.6227 - 0.3860i
0.0475 + 0.6100i 0.0475 + 0.6100i
>>

E
O
C
N
SK


E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title Doppler Shift

10
Aim
Compute the Doppler shift of the received signal at a carrier frequency under given scenario.
Apparatus
PC, Octave
Theory
E
unique aspect of communication over wireless channels is the Doppler fading nature of such
channels. The Doppler shift is a fundamental principle related to the electromagnetic radio-
wave propagation. In this context, the Doppler shift associated with an electromagnetic wave
is defined as the perceived change in the frequency of the wave due to relative motion between
O
the transmitter and receiver. This is schematically shown in following figure. The perceived
frequency is higher than the true frequency if the transmitter is moving towards the receiver
and lower otherwise. Doppler fading is inherent in wireless communications due to the
untethered nature of mobile transceivers, which enables mobility in wireless systems, leading
to relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver. This is different compared to the
C
conventional wired communications, where the tethered nature of the fixed radio-access
medium does not allow for mobility.
N
SK
Figure: Doppler fading due to user mobility

Doppler Shift Computation
Consider the scenario shown pictorially in following figure, where the mobile station is moving
with a velocity v at an angle θ with the line joining the mobile and base station. Let the carrier
frequency be fc. The Doppler shift for this scenario is given as

Figure: Doppler scenario
E
where c = 3 × 108 m/s is the velocity of light, i.e., velocity of an electromagnetic wave in free
space. It can be clearly seen that the Doppler shift increases with the velocity v. Moreover, it
depends critically on the angle θ between the direction of motion and the line joining the
transmitter and receiver. For instance, the Doppler shift is maximum when θ = 0, π, i.e., when
O
the relative motion is along the line joining the transmitter and receiver. However, when θ =
π/2, i.e., the motion is perpendicular to the receive direction, the Doppler shift is zero. Also,
the Doppler shift is positive in the sense that the perceived frequency is higher if 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2,
in which case cos θ > 0. On the other hand, it is negative, leading to a lower perceived frequency
that the transmit frequency is π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π.
C
N
SK


Title Doppler Shift
10
Student Worksheet
Problem Statement
Consider a vehicle moving at 60 miles per hour at an angle of θ = 30◦ with the line joining the
base station. Compute the Doppler shift of the received signal at a carrier frequency of 𝑓𝑐 =
E
1850 MHz.
Formula
𝑣
𝑓𝑑 = ( cos 𝜃) 𝑓𝑐
𝑐
O
𝑓𝑑 is the frequency shift in hertz, 𝑣 is the velocity of the target in meters/second, 𝜆 = 𝑓𝑐 /𝑐 is
the wavelength in meters, 𝜃 is the angle defined by the direction of target travel and the radar
line of sight to the target.
Calculations
C
To begin with, we convert the velocity v from units of miles per hour to the standard metres
per second. Noting that a mile is equal to 1.61 km, the required velocity in meters per second
can be derived as
5
N
60 𝑚𝑝ℎ = 60 × 1.61 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ = 60 × 1.61 × 𝑚/𝑠 = 26.8 𝑚/𝑠
18
Employing the expression shown above, the Doppler shift 𝑓𝑑 can be computed as
26.8
𝑓𝑑 = × cos 300 × 1850 × 106 = 143 𝐻𝑧
3 × 108
SK
Thus, the Doppler shift is 𝑓𝑑 = 143 Hz. Further, since the mobile user is moving towards the
base station, the Doppler shift is positive, i.e., the perceived frequency 𝑓𝑟 is higher compared
to the carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 and is given as 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑑 = 1850 𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 143 𝐻𝑧.
Conclusion
In a mobile communication system, signals which are transmitted from mobile stations moving
relative to a base station are subject to a Doppler effect. Here theoretical analysis and
calculation of transmitter motion influence on received signal is conducted.
Review Questions
Q. 1 How does Doppler shift affect mobile radio communication?
Q. 2 What is Doppler shift in mobile communication?
Q. 3 How do you mitigate the Doppler effect?
Q. 4 What is fading and its types?
Q. 5 What are the fading effects due to Doppler spread?

E
O
C
N
SK


Title Doppler Shift
Expt.No.
Name 10
Roll No.
Program
1 clc;
E
2 clear all;
3 speed = input('Enter the moving vehicle speed in miles per hour:
');
4 theta = input ('Enter the angle of vehicle with the line joining
the base station: ');
O
5 carrier = input ('frequency over which Doppler shift is to be
observed (in Hz): ');
6 fprintf('1. mobile user is moving towards the base station \n2.
mobile user is moving away from the base station\n');
7 movement = input('Enter appropriate scenario: ');
C
8 speed_m = speed * 1.61 * 5 / 18;
9 speed_m
10 fd = speed_m * cosd(theta) * carrier / (3 * 10^8) ;
11
12 fprintf('The Doppler shift is fd = %d.\n', fd);
N
13
14 switch movement
15 case 1
16 fprintf ('Since the mobile user is moving towards the base
station, the Doppler shift is positive, i.e., the perceived
SK
frequency fr = %dHz + %dHz\n', carrier, fd);

17 case 2
18 fprintf ('Since the mobile user is moving towards the base
station, the Doppler shift is positive, i.e., the perceived
frequency fr = %dHz - %dHz\n', carrier, fd);
19 end
Output
Enter the moving vehicle speed in miles per hour: 60
Enter the angle of vehicle with the line joining the base station: 30
frequency over which Doppler shift is to be observed (in Hz):
1850000000
1. mobile user is moving towards the base station
2. mobile user is moving away from the base station

Enter appropriate scenario: 1

speed_m = 26.833
The Doppler shift is fd = 143.303.
Since the mobile user is moving towards the base station, the Doppler
shift is positive, i.e.,
the perceived frequency fr = 1850000000Hz + 143.303Hz
>>
E
O
C
N
SK


E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title Simulating wireless network simulator tool
Name
11
Roll No.
NS2 (Network Simulator):
E
Definition:
NS2 stands for Network Simulator Version 2. It is an open-source event-driven simulator
designed specifically for research in computer communication networks. Their corresponding
O
behaviors. Due to its flexibility and modular nature, NS2 has gained constant popularity in the
networking research community since its birth in 1989. Ever since, several revolutions and
revisions have marked the growing maturity of the tool, thanks to substantial contributions
from the players in the field. Among these are the University of California and Cornell
University who developed the REAL network simulator,1 the foundation on which NS is
C
invented. Since 1995 the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) supported
the development of NS through the Virtual InterNetwork Testbed (VINT) project. Currently
the National Science Foundation (NSF) has joined the ride in development. Last but not the
least, the group of researchers and developers in the community are constantly working to keep
NS2 strong and versatile.
N
Features of NS2:
SK
1. It is a discrete event simulator for networking research.

2. It provides substantial support to simulate a bunch of protocols like TCP, FTP, UDP,
https and DSR.
3. It simulates wired and wireless networks.
4. It is primarily Unix based.
5. Uses TCL as its scripting language.
6. Otcl: Object oriented support.
7. Tclcl: C++ and otcl linkage.
8. Discrete event scheduler.
Basic Architecture
NS2 consists of two key languages: C++ and Object-oriented Tool Command Language
(OTcl). While the C++ defines the internal mechanism (i.e., a backend) of the simulation
objects, the OTcl sets up simulation by assembling and configuring the objects as well as
scheduling discrete events. The C++ and the OTcl are linked together using TclCL. Mapped to

a CCC object, variables in the OTcl domains are sometimes referred to as handles.
Conceptually, a handle is just a string (e.g., “_o10”) in the OTcl domain and does not contain
any functionality. Instead, the functionality (e.g., receiving a packet) is defined in the mapped
CCC object (e.g., of class Connector). In the OTcl domain, a handle acts as a frontend which
interacts with users and other OTcl objects. It may define its own procedures and variables to
facilitate the interaction. Note that the member procedures and variables in the OTcl domain
are called instance procedures (instprocs) and instance variables (instvars), respectively.
E
O
Fig. Basic Architecture of NS2
C
N
SK
Fig. simulation of NS2 software

E
O
C
Fig. Transmitting packets to neighbouring nodes
Different Simulation Tools used in Wireless Networks:

N
To simulate wireless networks, we can use traditional programming languages such as C11 and
Java, simulation languages like SIMSCRIPT III, CSIM, and JAVASIM, and simulation tools
like NS2, OPNET, and OMNeT11.
Network simulator 2:
SK
Network Simulator (NS) is simply a discrete event-driven network simulation tool for studying
the dynamic nature of communication networks. Network Simulator 2 (NS2) provides
substantial support for simulation of different protocols over wired and wireless networks. It
provides a highly modular platform for wired and wireless simulations supporting different
network elements, protocols, traffic, and routing types. NS2 has been developed using the C11
programming language and OTcl. OTcl is a relatively new language that uses object-oriented
aspects. It was developed at MIT as an object-oriented extension of the Tool command
language (Tcl).
Optimized network engineering tool (OPNET):
The Optimized Network Engineering Tool (OPNET) is designed by OPNET Technologies to

analyse the performance of communication networks, including wireless systems. The main
features of OPNET are as follows:

1. Simulation and Modelling Cycle: It has powerful means to aid in model building,
simulation running and analysis of the simulation outputs.
2. It backs a hierarchical configuration of modelling.
3. It has an efficient set of library modules that support communication protocols and
network-related topologies.
4. It has an excellent troubleshooting tool and the model can be easily compiled and run.
OPNET has three sorts of editors for modelling three types of networks
1. Network topology models are modelled using the Network Editor.

2. Data flow models are designed using the Node Editor.
3. Control flow models are expressed by using the Process Editor.
E
OPNET enables the possibility of simulating entire heterogeneous networks. Simulation in
OPNET operates at “packet-level.” The main difference with other simulators lies in its power
and versatility. This simulator makes it possible to work with OSI models, from layer 7 to the
O
modification of the most essential physical parameters.
OMNeT++:
OMNeT++ is an open-source discrete-event simulation tool that is used for simulating

C
computer communication networks, including wireless networks. It supports three kinds of
modules: simple, complex and system modules. Modules in the model communicate with each
other by message passing. Modules that are active are named active modules. Complex
modules are made by assembling the simple modules. Messages are sent via the gates in the
case of simple modules. The input interface and the output interface are called gates and links
N
are used to link input and output gates. To trace the behaviour of the system, OMNeT11 uses
three methods: automatic animation, module output windows and object inspectors. Whenever
we model, we may generate some data textually as a checkpoint for troubleshooting. This type
of data that is employed for debugging is shown in the module output window. The status of
SK
the object at any point of time may be shown using object monitors. In general, OMNET11 is
an extensible, modular, component based C11 simulation library and framework, primarily for
building network simulators. It features a generic architecture, so it can be employed in various
problem domains including wireless communication and networks.
GloMoSim:
GloMoSim is a simulation tool that is mainly used for simulating wireless networks. It was
designed using the parallel discrete-event simulation capability provided by PARSEC.
PARSEC (Parallel Simulation Environment for Complex Systems) is a parallel simulation
language that is written in C.
There are two options of GloMoSim operation: one for simulating the models in a shared
memory setting, and the other one for simulating the models in a distributed memory setting.
It can also be used as a parallel programming language. PARSEC can be used to describe the

library in GloMoSim. Rather than coding each and every component, a graphical environment
called PAVE is provided, which can be used to develop the simulation models. In PARSEC,
each node is defined as an entity. Global Mobile system Simulator (GloMoSim) is designed to
be extensible and modular. It effectively utilises parallel execution to reduce the simulation
time of detailed high-fidelity models of large communication networks.
LTE-Sim:
LTE-Sim encompasses several aspects of LTE networks, including both E-UTRAN and EPS.
It supports single and heterogeneous multi-cell environments, QoS management, multi-user
environments, user mobility, handover procedures, and frequency reuse techniques. LTE-Sim
is presented to provide a complete performance verification of LTE networks. LTE-Sim has
E
been conceived to simulate uplink and downlink scheduling strategies in multi-cell/multi-user
environments, taking into account user mobility, radio resource optimization, and frequency
reuse techniques, among others.
MOBILITY MODELS:
O
Modelling of user mobility plays an important role in the evaluation of wireless networks. The
movement pattern of mobile users and how their location, velocity and acceleration change
over time are described by the mobility model. Mobility models are used to simulate and
C
evaluate the performance of mobile wireless systems and the algorithms and protocols.
Random walk mobility model:
The Random Walk mobility model is a widely used model to represent purely random
N
movements of the entities of a system in various disciplines from physics to meteorology.This
mobility model was developed to mimic irregular movement in nature. The Random Walk with
Wrapping mobility model is similar to the standard Random Walk mobility model, with the
difference that it is not bounded.
SK
Random waypoint mobility model:
The Random Waypoint mobility model is a simple stochastic model in which a node
perpetually chooses destinations (waypoints) and moves towards them. This can be considered
as an extension of the Random Walk mobility model, with the addition of pauses between
changes in direction or speed.
Other mobility models:
Starting from the Random Walk and Random Waypoint models, many variations have been
proposed. The common characteristic of this class of models is that the movements of the nodes
are independent of each other and that the movements are based on random distributions.
Modified random waypoint model: In this model, the chosen destination points can only be

located at the borders of the system area. In this model nodes are located at the border and try
to reach from source to destination along the same border with high probability.
Gauss-Markov mobility model: In this model, the velocity of a mobile node is assumed to be
correlated over time and modelled as a Gauss-Markov stochastic process. In the Gauss-Markov
model, the temporal dependency plays a key role in determining the mobility behaviour.
Smooth Random mobility model: This mobility model considers the temporal dependency of
velocity over various time slots. In the Smooth Random mobility model, the frequency of speed
change is assumed to be a Poisson process.
Conclusion
E
Thus, we have discussed the different wireless network simulator tools.
O
C
N
SK


E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title
OFDM – BER Vs Eb/N0
13
Aim
Program to implement OFDM and evaluate frame error rate against SNR.
Apparatus
PC, Octave
Theory
E
To simulate an OFDM system, following design parameters are essential. Let us consider the
OFDM system parameters as defined in IEEE 802.11[IEEE80211] specifications. The sample
parameters derived in the previous section are used here as inputs for simulation.
O
Given parameters in the spec:
N=64;%FFT size or total number of subcarriers (used + unused) 64
Nsd = 48;%Number of data subcarriers 48
Nsp = 4 ;%Number of pilot subcarriers 4
C
ofdmBW = 20 * 10^6 ; % OFDM bandwidth
Derived Parameters:
deltaF = ofdmBW/N;% Bandwidth for each subcarrier - include all used and unused
N
subcarriers
Tfft = 1/deltaF;% IFFT or FFT period = 3.2us
Tgi = Tfft/4;% Guard interval duration - duration of cyclic prefix - 1/4th portion of OFDM
symbols
SK
Tsignal = Tgi+Tfft;% Total duration of BPSK-OFDM symbol = Guard time + FFT period
Ncp = N*Tgi/Tfft;%Number of symbols allocated to cyclic prefix
Nst = Nsd + Nsp;% Number of total used subcarriers
nBitsPerSym=Nst;%For BPSK the number of Bits per Symbol is same as number of
subcarriers
We will use the following model for simulating the OFDM system.
The channel in this case is modeled as a simple AWGN channel. Since the channel is
considered to be an AWGN channel, there is no need for the frequency domain equalizer in the
OFDM receiver (Frequency domain equalizer will be helpful only if the channel introduces
multipath fading). Since our channel is an AWGN channel, the frequency domain equalizer
block in the above diagram can be removed.

Calculating E S /N 0 or E b /N 0 for OFDM system:

In order to do a Monte Carlo simulation of an OFDM system, required amount of channel noise
has to be generated that is representative of the required E b /N 0 . In Matlab it is easier to
generate a Gaussian noise with zero mean and unit variance. The generated zero-mean-unit-
variance noise has to be scaled accordingly to represent the required E b /N 0 or E S /N 0 . If
we have E S /N 0 , the required noise can be generated from zero-mean-unit-variance-noise by,
Since the OFDM system transmits and receives the data in symbols, it is appropriate/easier
togenerate the required noise based on E S /N 0 instead of E b /N 0 (as given above). But we
are interested in plotting BER against E b /N 0 . Ok!!! Then… how do we convert given E b
E
/N 0 to E S /N 0 for an OFDM system?
Normally for a simple BPSK system, bit energy and symbol energy are the same. So E b /N 0
and E S /N 0 are the same for a BPSK system. But for an OFDM BPSK system, they are not
the same. This is because; each OFDM symbol contains additional overhead in both time
O
domain and frequency domain. In the time domain, the cyclic prefix is an additional overhead
added to each OFDM symbol that is being transmitted. In the frequency domain, not all the
subcarriers are utilized for transmitting the actual data bits, rather a few subcarriers are unused
and are reserved as guard bands.
C
Effect of Cyclic Prefix on E S /N 0 :
The following diagram illustrates the concept of cyclic prefix. Each OFDM symbol contains
both useful data and overhead (in the form of cyclic prefix). The bit energy represents the
energy contained in the useful bits. In this case, the bit energy is spread over N bits (where N
is the FFT size). On top of the useful data, additional Ncp bits are added as cyclic prefix, which
N
forms the overhead. So if the entire OFDM symbol is considered, the symbol energy is spread
across N+Ncp bits.
SK
This relationship is given as
which translates to,

Effect of unused subcarriers on Es/N0:

As mentioned earlier, not all the subcarriers are used for transmission. Out of the total N
subcarriers, only Nst carriers are used for the OFDM symbols transmission (this includes both
data and pilot subcarriers). Again, in the frequency domain, the useful bit energy is spread
across Nst subcarriers, whereas the symbol energy is spread across N subcarriers. This gives
us another relationship between E S and E b as given below
E
which translates to,
From (1) and (2), the overall effect of both cyclic prefix and unused subcarriers on Es/N0 is
given by
O
C
which, when converted to dB yields the following relationship.
Since Ncp- cyclic prefixes are added to the OFDM symbol, the output signal from the parallel
N
to serial converter has to be boosted to compensate the wastage of energy associated with the
addition of cyclic prefix. To properly generate the required SNR in Matlab, the signal term at
the output of the parallel to serial converter has to be scaled as follows
SK
The received signal is represented as (for the given E b /N 0 )
Arrangement of subcarriers:
The IEEE 802.11 specification specifies how to arrange the given subcarriers. The 52 used
subcarriers (data + pilot) are assigned numbers from -26,-25, …,-2,-1 and 1,2,…,25,26. The
following figure illustrates the scheme of assigning these subcarriers to the IFFT inputs.

The schematic diagram of a simplified cyclic-prefixed OFDM (CP-OFDM) data transmission

system is shown in Figure 1. The basic parameter to describe an OFDM system is to specify
the number of subchannels (N) required to send the data. The number of subchannels is
E
typically set to powers of 2, such as {64,256,512,1024, ···}. The size of inverse discrete Fourier
transform (IDFT) and discrete Fourier transform (DFT) need to be set accordingly. The
transmission begins by converting the source information stream into N parallel subchannels.
For convenience, the information stream d is already represented as a symbol from the set {1,
2..., M}. The data symbol in each subchannel is modulated using the chosen modulation
O
technique such as BPSK, QPSK or MQAM (refer chapter 5 for their models). Since this is a
baseband discrete-time model, where the signals are represented at symbol sampling instants,
the information symbol on each parallel stream is assumed to be modulating a single orthogonal
carrier. At this juncture, the modulated symbols X on the parallel streams can be visualized as
coming from different orthogonal subchannels in the frequency domain. The components of
C
the orthogonal subchannels in the frequency domain are converted to time domain using IDFT
operation. The following generic function implements the modulation mapper (constellation
mapping) shown in the Figure 14.3. The function supports MPSK modulation for M ∈ {2,4,8,
···} and MQAM modulation that has square constellation: M ∈ {4,16,64,256,1024, ···}.
N
SK
Fig. 1: Discrete-time simulation model for OFDM transmission and reception

OFDM signal is a composite signal that contains information from subchannels. Since the
modulated symbols X are visualized to be in frequency domain, it is converted to time-domain
using IDFT. In the receiver, the corresponding inverse operation is performed by the DFT
block. The IDFT and DFT blocks in the schematic can also be interchanged and it has no impact
to the transmission. In a time-dispersive channel, the orthogonality of the subcarriers cannot be
maintained in a perfect state due to delay distortion. This problem is addressed by adding a
cyclic extension (also called cyclic prefix) to the OFDM symbol [2]. A cyclic extension is
added by copying the last Ncp symbols from the vector x and pasting it to its front as shown in
Figure 2. Cyclic extension of OFDM symbol converts the linear convolution channel to a
channel performing cyclic convolution and this ensures orthogonality of subcarriers in a time-
dispersive channel. It also completely eliminates the subcarrier interference as long as the
impulse response of the channel is shorter than the cyclic prefix. At the receiver, the added
E
cyclic prefix is simply removed from the received OFDM symbol.
O
C
Fig. 2: Adding a cyclic prefix in CP-OFDM
On the receiver side, the demapper for demodulating MPSK and MQAM can be implemented
N
by using a simple IQ detector that uses the minimum euclidean distance metric for
demodulation.
Performance of MPSK-CP-OFDM and MQAM-CP-OFDM on AWGN channel
SK
The code in student worksheet puts together all the functional blocks of an OFDM transmission
system, that were described in previous section, to simulate the performance of a CP-OFDM
system over an AWGN channel. The code supports two types of underlying modulations for
OFDM - MPSK or MQAM. It generates random data symbols, modulates them using the
chosen modulation type, converts the modulated symbols to frequency domain using IDFT
operation and adds cyclic prefix to form an OFDM symbol. The resulting OFDM symbols are
then added with AWGN noise vector that corresponds to the specified 𝐸𝑏 /𝑁0 value. On the
receiver side, cyclic prefix is removed from the received OFDM symbol, DFT is performed
and then the symbols are sent through a demapper for getting an estimate of the source symbols.
The demapper is implemented by using a simple IQ detector that uses the minimum euclidean
distance metric for demodulation. Finally, the symbol error rates are computed and compared
against the theoretical symbol error rate curves for the respective modulations over AWGN.
The theoretical equations and the function to calculate symbol error rates for MPSK and
MQAM modulations are given below.

AWGN channel
In this section, the relationship between SNR-per-bit (Eb /N0) and SNR-per-symbol (Es /N0)
are defined with respect to M-ary signaling schemes. Then the complex baseband model for an
AWGN channel is discussed, followed by the theoretical error rates of various modulations
over the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel.
Signal to noise ratio (SNR) definitions
Assuming a channel of bandwidth B, received signal power Pr and the power spectral density
(PSD) of noise N0/2, the signal to noise ratio (SNR) is given by
E
Let a signal’s energy-per-bit is denoted as Eb and the energy-per-symbol as Es , then γb = Eb
/N0 and γs =Es /N0 are the SNR-per-bit and the SNR-per-symbol respectively. For uncoded
M-ary signalling scheme with k = log2(M) bits per symbol, the signal energy per modulated
symbol is given by
The SNR per symbol is given by
O
C
AWGN channel model
In order to simulate a specific SNR point in performance simulations, the modulated signal
from the transmitter needs to be added with random noise of specific strength. The strength of
N
the generated noise depends on the desired SNR level which usually is an input in such
simulations. In practice, SNRs are specified in dB. Given a specific SNR point for simulation,
let’s see how we can simulate an AWGN channel that adds correct level of white noise to the
transmitted symbols.
SK
Fig. 3: AWGN noise model - computes and adds white Gaussian noise vector for a given
SNR value
Consider the AWGN channel model given in Figure 3. Given a specific SNR point to simulate,
we wish to generate a white Gaussian noise vector N (0,σ2) of appropriate strength and add it
to the incoming signal. The method described can be applied for both waveform simulations
and the complex baseband simulations. In following text, the term SNR (γ) refers to γb = Eb

/N0 when the modulation is of binary type (example: BPSK). For multilevel modulations such
as QPSK and MQAM, the term SNR refers to γs = Es /N0.
1. Assume, s is a vector that represents the transmitted signal. We wish to generate a vector r
that represents the signal after passing through the AWGN channel. The amount of noise added
by the AWGN channel is controlled by the given SNR - γ.
2. For waveform simulation model, let the given oversampling ratio is denoted as L. On the
other hand, if you are using the complex baseband models, set L = 1.
3. Let N denotes the length of the vector s. The signal power for the vector s can be measured
as,
E
4. The required power spectral density of the noise vector n is computed as
O
5. Assuming complex IQ plane for all the digital modulations, the required noise variance
(noise power) for generating Gaussian random noise is given by
C
6. Finally, generate the noise vector n drawn from normal distribution with mean set to zero
and the standard deviation computed from the above equation
N
7. Finally add the generated noise vector to the signal s
SK
The following custom function written in Matlab, can be used for adding AWGN noise to an
incoming signal. It can be used in waveform simulation as well as complex baseband
simulation models.
Theoretical symbol error rates
Denoting the symbol error rate (SER) as Ps , SNR-per-bit as γb = Eb /N0 and SNR-per-symbol
as γs = Es /N0, the symbol error rates for various modulation schemes over AWGN channel
are listed below.

E
The theoretical symbol error rates are coded as a reusable function. In this implementation, erfc
function is used instead of the Q function shown in the above table. The following equation
describes the relationship between the erfc function and the Q function.
O
C
N
SK


OFDM – BER Vs Eb/N0
Title
13
Student Worksheet
Problem Statement
Implement OFDM and evaluate frame error rate against SNR. Consider,
no_of_data_bits =64
E
M =4
n=256
block_size = 16
Conclusion
O
From the following simulated result, it can be ascertained that the OFDM- BPSK modulation
has no advantage over a normal BPSK system in AWGN. OFDM proves to be effective in
multipath environments.
Review Questions
C
Q. 1 Write a short note on Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
Q. 2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of OFDM?
Q. 3 Explain OFDM with IFFT?
Q. 4 Explain OFDM transmitter with cyclic prefix?
N
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title OFDM – BER Vs Eb/N0
Expt.No.
Name 13
Roll No.
Program
1. clc;
2. clear all;
3. close all;
E
4. no_of_data_bits =64;
5. M =4;
6. n=256;
7. block_size = 16;
8. cp_len = floor(0.1*block_size);
O
9. data = randsrc(1, no_of_data_bits, 0:M-1);
10. figure(1),stem(data); grid on; xlabel('Data Points');
ylabel('Amplitude')
11. title('Original Data')
12. qpsk_modulated_data = pskmod(data, M);
13. figure(2),stem(qpsk_modulated_data);
14. title('QPSK Modulation ')
C
15. S2P = reshape(qpsk_modulated_data, no_of_data_bits/M,M);
16. Sub_carrier1 = S2P(:,1);
20. figure(3),
21. subplot(4,1,1),stem(Sub_carrier1),title('Subcarrier1'),grid on;
N
25. number_of_subcarriers=4;
26. cp_start=block_size-cp_len;
27. ifft_Subcarrier1 = ifft(Sub_carrier1);
SK

31. figure(4), subplot(4,1,1),plot(real(ifft_Subcarrier1),'r'),
32. title('IFFT on all the sub-carriers')
33. subplot(4,1,2),plot(real(ifft_Subcarrier2),'c')
34. subplot(4,1,3),plot(real(ifft_Subcarrier3),'b')
35. subplot(4,1,4),plot(real(ifft_Subcarrier4),'g')
36. for i=1:number_of_subcarriers

37. ifft_Subcarrier(:,i) = ifft((S2P(:,i)),16);
38. for j=1:cp_len
39. cyclic_prefix(j,i) = ifft_Subcarrier(j+cp_start,i);
40. end
41. Append_prefix(:,i)=vertcat(cyclic_prefix(:,i),
ifft_Subcarrier(:,i));
42. end
43. A1=Append_prefix(:,1);

47. figure(5), subplot(4,1,1),plot(real(A1),'r'),title('Cyclic prefix
added to all the sub-carriers')
48. subplot(4,1,2),plot(real(A2),'c')
49. subplot(4,1,3),plot(real(A3),'b')
50. subplot(4,1,4),plot(real(A4),'g')
51. figure(11),plot((real(A1)),'r'),title('Orthogonality'),hold on ,
52. plot((real(A2)),'c'),hold on ,
53. plot((real(A3)),'b'),hold on ,
54. plot((real(A4)),'g'),hold on ,grid on
55. [rows_Append_prefix, cols_Append_prefix]=size(Append_prefix);
56. len_ofdm_data = rows_Append_prefix*cols_Append_prefix;
57. ofdm_signal = reshape(Append_prefix, 1, len_ofdm_data);
58. figure(6),plot(real(ofdm_signal)); xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
59. title('OFDM Signal');grid on;
E
Output
O
C
N
SK

E
O
C
N
SK

E
O
C
N
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title OFDM – BER Vs Eb/N0
Expt. No.
Name 13
Roll No.
Program
1. %Simulation of OFDM system in an AWGN environment
E
2. %Follows IEEE 802.11 specification
3. clear; clc;
4. %--------Simulation parameters----------------
5. nSym=10^4; %Number of OFDM Symbols to transmit
6. EbN0dB = -20:2:8; % bit to noise ratio
10.
11.
O
7. %---------------------------------------------
8. %--------OFDM Parameters - Given in IEEE Spec--
9. N=64; %FFT size or total number of subcarriers (used + unused) 64
Nsd = 48; %Number of data subcarriers 48
Nsp = 4 ; %Number of pilot subcarriers 4
C
12. ofdmBW = 20 * 10^6 ; % OFDM bandwidth
13. %----------------------------------------------
14. %--------Derived Parameters--------------------
15. deltaF = ofdmBW/N; %=20 MHz/64 = 0.3125 MHz
16. Tfft = 1/deltaF; % IFFT/FFT period = 3.2us
N
17. Tgi = Tfft/4;%Guard interval duration - duration of cyclic prefix
18. Tsignal = Tgi+Tfft; %duration of BPSK-OFDM symbol
19. Ncp = N*Tgi/Tfft; %Number of symbols allocated to cyclic prefix
20. Nst = Nsd + Nsp; %Number of total used subcarriers
21. nBitsPerSym=Nst; %For BPSK the number of Bits per Symbol is same as
SK
num of subcarriers
22. %----------------------------------------------
23. EsN0dB = EbN0dB + 10*log10(Nst/N) + 10*log10(N/(Ncp+N)); % converting
to symbol to noise
24. ratio
25. errors= zeros(1,length(EsN0dB));
26. theoreticalBER = zeros(1,length(EsN0dB));
27. %Monte Carlo Simulation
28. for i=1:length(EsN0dB),
29. for j=1:nSym
30. %-----------------Transmitter--------------------
31. s=2*round(rand(1,Nst))-1; %Generating Random Data with BPSK
modulation
32. %IFFT block
33. %Assigning subcarriers from 1 to 26 (mapped to 1-26 of IFFT input)

34. %and -26 to -1 (mapped to 38 to 63 of IFFT input); Nulls from 27 to

37
35. %and at 0 position
36. X_Freq=[zeros(1,1) s(1:Nst/2) zeros(1,11) s(Nst/2+1:end)];
37. % Pretending the data to be in frequency domain and converting to
time domain
38. x_Time=N/sqrt(Nst)*ifft(X_Freq);
39. %Adding Cyclic Prefix
40. ofdm_signal=[x_Time(N-Ncp+1:N) x_Time];
41. %--------------Channel Modeling ----------------
42. noise=1/sqrt(2)*(randn(1,length(ofdm_signal))+1i*randn(1,length(ofdm_
signal)));
E
43. r= sqrt((N+Ncp)/N)*ofdm_signal + 10^(-EsN0dB(i)/20)*noise;%----------
-------Receiver----------------------
44. %Removing cyclic prefix
45. r_Parallel=r(Ncp+1:(N+Ncp));
46. %FFT Block
47.
48.
49.
50.
O
r_Time=sqrt(Nst)/N*(fft(r_Parallel));
%Extracting the data carriers from the FFT output
R_Freq=r_Time([(2:Nst/2+1) (Nst/2+13:Nst+12)]);
%BPSK demodulation / Constellation Demapper.Force +ve value --> 1, -
ve value --> -1
C
51. R_Freq(R_Freq>0) = +1;
52. R_Freq(R_Freq<0) = -1;
53. s_cap=R_Freq;
54. numErrors = sum(abs(s_cap-s)/2); %Count number of errors
55. %Accumulate bit errors for all symbols transmitted
N
56. errors(i)=errors(i)+numErrors;
57. end
58. theoreticalBER(i)=(1/2)*erfc(sqrt(10.^(EbN0dB(i)/10))); %Same as BER
for BPSK over AWGN
59. end
SK
60. simulatedBER = errors/(nSym*Nst);

61. plot(EbN0dB,log10(simulatedBER),'r-o');
62. hold on;
63. plot(EbN0dB,log10(theoreticalBER),'k*');
64. grid on;
65. title('BER Vs EbNodB for OFDM with BPSK modulation over AWGN');
66. xlabel('Eb/N0 (dB)');ylabel('BER');legend('simulated','theoretical');
Output
Program 14.1: modulation mapper.m: Implementing the modulation mapper for
MPSK and MQAM
function [X,ref]=modulation_mapper(MOD_TYPE,M,d)
%Modulation mapper for OFDM transmitter
% MOD_TYPE - 'MPSK' or 'MQAM' modulation

% M - modulation order, For BPSK M=2, QPSK M=4, 256-QAM M=256 etc..,
% d - data symbols to be modulated drawn from the set {1,2,...,M}
%returns
% X - modulated symbols
% ref -ideal constellation points that could be used by IQ detector
if strcmpi(MOD_TYPE,'MPSK'),
[X,ref]=mpsk_modulator(M,d);%MPSK modulation
else
if strcmpi(MOD_TYPE,'MQAM'),
E
[X,ref]=mqam_modulator(M,d);%MQAM modulation
else
error('Invalid Modulation specified');
O
end
end;end
Program 14.2: add cyclic prefix.m: Function to add cyclic prefix of length Ncp
symbols
C
function s = add_cyclic_prefix(x,Ncp)
%function to add cyclic prefix to the generated OFDM symbol x that
%is generated at the output of the IDFT block

N
% x - ofdm symbol without CP (output of IDFT block)
% Ncp-num. of samples at x's end that will copied to its beginning
% s - returns the cyclic prefixed OFDM symbol
s = [x(end-Ncp+1:end) x]; %Cyclic prefixed OFDM symbol

SK
end
Program 14.3: remove cyclic prefix.m: Function to remove the cyclic prefix
from the OFDM symbol
function y = remove_cyclic_prefix(r,Ncp,N)
%function to remove cyclic prefix from the received OFDM symbol r
% r - received ofdm symbol with CP
% Ncp - num. of samples at beginning of r that need to be removed
% N - number of samples in a single OFDM symbol
% y - returns the OFDM symbol without cyclic prefix
y=r(Ncp+1:N+Ncp);%cut from index Ncp+1 to N+Ncp

end
Program 14.4: ofdm on awgn.m: OFDM transmission and reception on AWGN channel
clearvars; clc;
%--------Simulation parameters----------------
nSym=10ˆ4; %Number of OFDM Symbols to transmit
EbN0dB = 0:2:20; % bit to noise ratio
MOD_TYPE='MPSK'; %modulation type - 'MPSK' or 'MQAM'
M=64; %choose modulation order for the chosen MOD_TYPE
E
N=64; %FFT size or total number of subcarriers (used + unused) 64
Ncp= 16; %number of symbols in the cyclic prefix
O
%--------Derived Parameters--------------------
k=log2(M); %number of bits per modulated symbol
EsN0dB=10*log10(k)+EbN0dB;%convert to symbol energy to noise ratio
errors= zeros(1,length(EsN0dB)); %to store symbol errors

C
for i=1:length(EsN0dB),%Monte Carlo Simulation
for j=1:nSym
%-----------------Transmitter--------------------
N
d=ceil(M.*rand(1,N));%uniform distributed random syms from 1:M
[X,ref]=modulation_mapper(MOD_TYPE,M,d);
x= ifft(X,N);% IDFT
SK
s = add_cyclic_prefix(x,Ncp); %add CP
%-------------- Channel ----------------
r = add_awgn_noise(s,EsN0dB(i));%add AWGN noise r = s+n
%-----------------Receiver----------------------
y = remove_cyclic_prefix(r,Ncp,N);%remove CP
Y = fft(y,N);%DFT
[˜,dcap]= iqOptDetector(Y,ref);%demapper using IQ detector
%----------------Error counter------------------

numErrors=sum(d˜=dcap);%Count number of symbol errors
errors(i)=errors(i)+numErrors;%accumulate symbol errors
end
end
simulatedSER = errors/(nSym*N);
theoreticalSER=ser_awgn(EbN0dB,MOD_TYPE,M);
%Plot theoretical curves and simulated BER points
plot(EbN0dB,log10(simulatedSER),'ro');hold on;
E
plot(EbN0dB,log10(theoreticalSER),'r-');grid on;
title(['Performance of ',num2str(M),'-', MOD_TYPE,' OFDM over AWGN

channel']);
xlabel('Eb/N0 (dB)');ylabel('Symbol Error Rate');
O
legend('simulated', 'theoretical');
Output
C
N
SK


E
Name of Student
O
C
Division
Roll Number
N
Experiment Title
Marks
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


Title Cellular System

15
Aim
Determine the number of users that can be supported in a city with given constraints.
Apparatus
PC, Octave
Theory
E
Traffic in Switching Networks
All the switching exchanges are designed to meet an estimated maximum average simultaneous
traffic, usually known as busy hour traffic. Past records of the telephone traffic indicate that
even in a busy exchange, not more than 20-30 per cent of the subscribers are active at the same
O
time. Hence, switching systems are designed such that all the resources in a system are treated
as common resources and the required resources are allocated to a conversation as long as it
lasts. The quantum of common resources is determined based on the estimated busy hour
traffic. When the traffic exceeds the limit to which the switching system is designed, a
subscriber experiences blocking. A good design generally ensures a low blocking probability.
C
The traffic in 'a telecommunication network is measured by an internationally accepted unit of
traffic intensity known as Erlang (E), named after an illustrious early contributor to traffic
theory. A switching resource is said to carry one Erlang of traffic if it is continuously occupied
throughout a given period of observation.
N
The unit of traffic
Traffic intensity or simple traffic is defined as the average number of calls in progress. The
unit of traffic is Erlang [E], named after A.K Erlang the Danish pioneer of traffic. On a group
of trunks the average number of calls in progress depends on both the number of calls which
SK
arrive and their duration.

Holding time
Duration of call is often called its holding time, because its holds a trunk for that time.
Figure: Examples of 1 Erlang of traffic carried on three trunks

The example in above figure shows how one Erlang of traffic can result from one trunk being
busy all of the time, for each of two trunks being busy for half of time or from each of three
trunks being busy for one third of the time as in figure a, b and c.
In North America, traffic expressed in terms of hundreds of call seconds per hour (CCS).
1 hour= 3600 seconds
1 Erlang=36CCS
From the definition of the Erlang that the traffic carried by the group of trunks is given by
𝐶ℎ
𝐴=
𝑇
E
A= traffic in Erlangs
C= average number of call arrivals during time T
h= average call holding time.
of the calls.
O
If T=h, then A=C. Thus, number of calls arriving during a period equal to the mean duration
Since a single trunk cannot carry more than one call, A<=1, the traffic is a fraction of an Erlang
equal to the average propagation of time for which the trunk is busy. This is called the
C
Occupancy of the trunk.
Grade of Service (GOS)

Grade of Service (GOS) is the ratio of lost traffic to offered traffic. Offered traffic is the
product of the average number of calls generated by users and the average holding time per
N
call. The actual traffic carried by the network is called the carried traffic. Accordingly, GOS
is given by,
𝐴 − 𝐴0
𝐺𝑂𝑆 =
𝐴
SK
where,
A= offered traffic
A0= carried traffic
𝐴 − 𝐴0 = lost traffic
So, the smaller the value of grade of service, the better is the service.
GOS is called call congestion or loss probability and the blocking probability is called time
congestion.
Delay probability is the probability that a call experiences delay. If the offered load or the
input rate of traffic far exceeds the network capacity, then the queue lengths become very
large and the calls experience undesirably long delays.
Subscriber viewpoint:

GOS = Call congestion = loss probability

Network viewpoint:
Blocking probability = time congestion
Blocking probability
If the number of trunks is finite and the number of subscribers are more, system faces a problem
of congestion.
In this situation of congestion, if new call request arrives, it is rejected or delayed.
If the call request is simply rejected, it is called as last call system. If the call request is delayed
by waiting, is a queue. It is called as delayed call system.
E
Erlang determined grade of service of last call system of finite number of trunks based on
following assumptions.
• Pure chance traffic
•
O
Statistical equilibrium
• Full availability
• Calls which face is congestion and gets lost
Full availability means every call request will be served that is every call request can be
allocated an outgoing trunk which is free. In practice, this is not possible.
C
During congestion every new call request is rejected. This is generally observed during busy
hours.
N
SK

E
O
C
N
SK


15
Student Worksheet
Problem Statement
Simulate a cellular system with 48 channels per cell and blocking probability of 2%. Assume
traffic per user is 0.04 E. What is the number of users that can be supported in a city of 603 km
2 area if cell radios are changed in the steps of 500 m, 700m, 900 m, 1000 m 1200 m and 1500
m.
E
Calculations
For N = 48 channels and blocking probability PB = 0.02, from Erlang Traffic table the net
offered load or supported traffic is given as A = 38.4 E.
O
Also, since the total traffic 𝐴 = 𝑁 × 𝐴0 , we have
𝐴 38.4
Number of users per cell, 𝑁 = 𝐴 = 0.02 = 960
0
C
N
Further, from above figure, the area of a typical hexagonal cell of radius 1 km is given as
1
𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 6 × 1 × = 3.46 𝑘𝑚2
SK
√3
Therefore, the number of cells that are required to cover the entire city is given as
𝐶𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 603
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 = = ≈ 174 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 3.46
Therefore, the total number of users that can be supported by the cellular provider is given as
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 × 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 ≈ 174 × 960 = 167, 040
Thus, approximately 167,040 users can be supported by the cellular service provider in the
given city for the desired blocking probability of 2%.

𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑

= 6 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = # 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
=
× 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠(𝑘𝑚) 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × # 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
× tan 300
500m
700m
900m
1000m
E
1200m
1500m
Conclusion
O
Increasing the geographical area of a cell results in deterioration of number of users to whom
C
service can be provided.
Review Questions
Q. 1 What is trunking and Grade of Service?
N
Q. 2 How does blocking probability affect network traffic?
Q. 3 What is blocking in mobile communication?
Q. 4 What is GOS in telecommunication?
SK


Expt.No.
Name 15
Roll No.
Program
1 clc;
E
2 clear all;
3 ch = input('Enter number of channels = ');
4 pb = input('Enter the blocking probability = ');
5 city_area = input('Enter city area in km2 = ');
6 radius = input('Enter the multiple values of radius (in km) = ');
7
8
9
10
cell_users = A/pb ;
O
%38.4, supported traffic for 48 channels and pb = 0.02, from
Erlang Traffic table
cell_area = radius .* (6 * (1/sqrt(3))) ;

cell_numbers = fix (city_area./cell_area) ;
C
11 supported_users = cell_numbers * cell_users ;
12 %execute following two line in command window
13 %pkg install https://github.com/apjanke/octave-
tablicious/releases/download/v0.3.5/tablicious-0.3.5.tar.gz
14 %pkg load
N
15 Results_table = table(radius, supported_users,
'VariableNames',{'Radius_of_Cell', 'Number_of_users'});
16 prettyprint(Results_table);
SK
Output
Enter number of channels = 48
Enter the blocking probability = 0.02
Enter city area in km2 = 603
Enter the multiple values of radius (in km) = [0.5; 0.7; 0.9; 1; 1.2;
1.5]
------------------------------------
| Radius_of_Cell | Number_of_users |
------------------------------------
| 0.5 | 668160 |

| 0.7 | 476160 |
| 0.9 | 370560 |
| 1 | 334080 |
| 1.2 | 278400 |
| 1.5 | 222720 |
------------------------------------
>>
E
O
C
N
SK

Skncoe: Savitribai Phule Pune University

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Skncoe: Savitribai Phule Pune University

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Skncoe: Savitribai Phule Pune University

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cellular Network Lab (304196)

Savitribai Phule Pune University

Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Engineering

Department of E&TC Engineering

T.E (Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering)

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 1

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 2

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 3

Staff Member Head of Dept.

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 4

Vision of the Institution

Mission of the Institution:

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 5

Cellular Network Lab (304196)

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 6

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 7

Rubrics for Mock Oral Evaluation

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 8

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 1

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 2

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 3

Small & Medium City (Urban model)

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 4

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

𝐴 = 69.55 + 26.16 log 𝑓 − 13.82 log 𝐻𝑏 − 𝑎𝐻𝑚;

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 5

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 6

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

26 %Compute Received Signal Level

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 7

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 8

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 9

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 10

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 11

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 12

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 13

By applying Bayes Theorem Q functions and error functions, we can write,

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 14

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

2. Mention theoretical bandwidth efficiency limits for each modulation formats.

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 15

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 16

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

bpskModulated = 2*data-1; %Mapping 0->-1 and 1->1

18 %Adding noise with variance according to the required Eb/N0

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 17

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 18

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 19

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 20

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

Figure: Illustration of reflections of various kinds

Department of E&TC Engineering, SKNCOE 21

Figure: Power Delay Profile Example 2

36 yMod = sum(hMod.yMod,1); % H^H y