Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized

Philippirss
F
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MONITc,\ LO&
 The World Bank Group

1818 H Street, N.W. Country Office IManila

Washington D.C. 20433 U.S.A 23rd Floor, The Taipan Place
Tel.: (202) 477-1234 Emerald Avenue, Ortigas Center
Fax: (202) 477-6391 Pasig City, Philippines
Tel.: (632) 637-5855 to 64
Fax.: (632) 637-5870

November 2002
I

The Philippines Environment Monitor 2000

presented the snapshots of the general
environmental trends in the country.

The Philippines Environment Monitor 2001

focused on solid waste management.

The 2003 edition, currently under preparation,

will focus on water quality management.

This document was prepared by a World Bank Team composed ofMdrnes./Messrs. Anjali Achaiya, Sally Burningham, Jenna Diallo, Surhid
Gautam, Bebet Gozzrn, Palchamuthu Illangovan, Tanvi Nagpal, Kevin Rolfe, Anjir Sachdeva, .Jitendra Shah (Task Team Leader), Josefo Ttryou,
Maya G. Villal~rz,ancl Hlra Wang. MI:Milchell Lzrs/re andMs. Agatha Anchela ussisted in data collection and analysis. The docunzent was peer
reviewed by Messrs. Carter J. Brandon and Konrad % Ritter of The World Bank. Comments and i~zfbrmalior? provided by The World Bank staSf'
including Mdmes./Messrs. Bhuvan Bhatnagar; Robert D. Crooks, Zafer Ecevit, Heidi Hennrich-Hanson, Lloyd Mckay, May Olalia, and Roberl
VancePulley aregrate/irlly acknowledged.

Ms. L~risciSumbeli Espatiola coordinaled the cover design, luyotrl, and production. ME Jeflrey Lecksell prepared the map. ~Mnmes.Leonora
Gonzales and Charito Cabalang are respo~isiblefordissenzinalion. The drawing in the cover was a selected entry to the EMB-DENR Billboard
Design Contest 2000. Photographs are from Banlay Kalikasan, Melropolitan Manila Development Authority, and The World Bank.

The views expressed in the Philippines Environment Monitor 2002 are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited without priorpermission. They do not necessarily reflect the
views of The World Bank Group, its Executive D~rectors,or the countries they represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliable but it is not
necessarily complete andcannot be guaranteed

& Prinled on Recycled Paper

 Preface ........................................................................................................................................ i
Abbreviations and Acronyms.......................................................................................................... ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY - WANTED: A BREATH OF FRESH AIR! ...................................... 1
AIR QUALITY PRIOFUTIES AT A GLANCE ............................................................................. 2
AIR QUALITY (TSP) HOT SPOTS ............................................................................................. 3

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 4

SOURCES ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Mobile Sources: Transport ........................................................................................................ 5
Stationary Sources: Industry ...................................................................................................... 6
Stationary Sources: Power Plants ...............................................................................................7
Area Sources ............................................................................................................................... 7

POLLUTANTS .............................................................................................................................. 8
Particulate ...................................................................................................................................8
Oxides of Nitrogen ..................................................................................................................... 12
Sulfur Dioxide ............................................................................................................................ 13
Carbon Monoxide/Ozone ...........................................................................................................14
.................................... , .................................................................................................. 1.
Greenhouse Gases..................................................................................................... ..... 16 *I
Ozone Depleting Substances .......................................................................

Public Health ...........................................................................................................

. Public Perception ....................................................................................................
.-
I
2
r

RESPONSES ...............................................................................................................

MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................................................... 24
Legislation ............................................................................................................................... 24
Institutions ............................................................................................................................... 24
Budget.........................................................................................................................................26

SEVEN CHALLENGES ................................................................................................................27

Glossary of Terms .......................................................................................................................... 31
Relevant Websites ........................................................................................................................... 32
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ 33
Philippines aat a Glance
 .
PREFACE

Air quality is the focus of the Philippines Environment Monitor 2002. Initiated in 2000, the Philippines
Environment Monitor series presents a snapshot of key environmental trends in the country. Its purpose is to
inform stakeholders of key environmental changes as they occur, in an easy-to-understand format. Using charts,
graphs, and texts, the 2000 Monitor benchmarked trends in various environmental indicators associated with
water and air quality, and natural resources conservation. The 2001 Monitor addressed solid waste management.
The Monitor is not a strategy document of either the Philippine Government or The World Bank. Since
environmental changes occur over the medium- to long-term, the series is designed to track general trends every
five years.

Growing human and vehicle populations and increasing industrial activities are the main causes ofworsening air
quality in the urban centers of the Philippines. Industrial activities, transport sources, and waste burning, cause
pollution that may take the form of particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and
global greenhouse gases. These pollutants have many economic costs, including increased health costs.
Although data are scarce, one study estimates that health costs of exposure to PM,, in four urban centers are over
US$400 million.

In the last few years, efforts by the Government have helped to reduce and even eliminate some of the pollutants.
The most comprehensive government action has been the passage of the Clean Air Act (CAA) in 1999. Among
the key policy shifts incorporated in CAA are the use of market-based instruments and the increased role of the
private sector. On the programmatic side, the phase-out of lead in gasoline by January 200 1 has mostly
eliminated the lead problem. Sulfur dioxide emissions in Metro Manila have fallen because of the closure of a
few power plants around the metropolis. Selected private sector enterprises have taken steps to help reduce
vehicular emissions by allowing only pollution-free vehicles to enter their premises. Similarly, civil society
organizations have been very active in promoting awareness and catalyzing public opinion for improvements in
air quality. Despite these positive steps, air quality in tbe country remains poor. The major impediments to
alleviating the problem include poorly enforced laws, weak institutional capacity, and inadequate mvcstrnent.
By acting now, the country and its peop!e can enhance their qualityof life while advancing the goals of economic
development.

The Philippines Environment Monitor 2002 includes: 1) an introduction to air pollution; 2) a description of the
pollution sources for eight key pollutants and the resulting trends in ambient air; 3) impacts of these pollutants,
particularly particulates, on public health and public perception; 4) responses of the Government, civil society,
and the private sector; srnd 5) a description of the institutional arrangements, legal framework, and budget. The
Monitor concludes by identiQing challenges to implementing an integrated air quality management program
including low cost measures that could yield significant benefits.

The Philippines Environment Monitor 2002 is the result of a joint exercise involving national agencies,
academics, civil society, and researchers. A draft of the Monitor was discussed at a consdbtion workshop in
May 2002. Information contained in this Monitor has been obtained from published and unpublished data and
reports of government agencies, universities, non-governmental organizations, individuals, The World Bank,
and its international partners.
I

Robert Vance Puney Zafer Ecevit

Country Dikctm Philippines Sector Director, Environment and Socinl Development
East Asia and Paaific Region East Asia and Pacific Region
The World Bad The World Bank
 ADB Asian Development Bank NEDA National Economic and Development
CAA Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 Authority
CAR Cordillera Autonomous Region NGO Non-governmental organization
co Carbon monoxide NO, Oxides of nitrogen
co2 Carbon dioxide NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
COCAP Concerned Citizens Against Pollution 0 3 Ozone
DA Department of Agriculture ODs Ozone depleting substance
DOE Department of Energy PAGASA Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and
Astronomical Services Administration
DENR Department of Environment and Natural
PCA Partnership for Clean Air
Resources
PGH Philippine General Hospital
DILG Department of Interior and Local
PIA Philippine Information Agency
Government
PhP/P Philippines Peso
DOH Department of Health PM Particulate matter
DOTC Department of Transportation and Particulate matter less than 10 microns in
PM,,
Communications diameter
DTI Department of Trade and Industry Particulate matter less than 2.5 microns in
EDSA Epifanio de 10s Santos Avenue diameter
EMB Environmental Management Bureau PNRI Philippine Nuclear Research Institute
ENRAP Environmental and Natural Resources PUV Public Utility Vehicles
Accounting Project SIDA Swedish International Development 4

..-
-
' ,l
G8 Gigagram (1 0' gram) Cooperation Agency L. . ,

l1
r:
*
GHG
HC
LGU
Greenhouse gaC
Hydrocarbon
Local Government Unit
. SMC San Migucl Corporatior. L
Sulfir dioxide
G..
+'"~
~

Science Park of the Philippines, Inc.

-
LTO Land Transportation 0 Socid Weather Station
rng/m3 Milligrams per cubic meter Total suspended particulates
Micrograms per deciliter
MMAQISDP Metropolitan Mzniln Air Quality
Improvement Sector Development Project pg/m3 Micrograms per cubic meter
UNFCCC United Nations Framework
MMDA Metropolitan Manila Development
Convention on Climate Change
Authority
UP University of the Philippines
MP Montreal Protocol VOC Volatile organic compound
MVIS Motor Vehicle Inspection System WHO World Health Organization
MW Megawatt
NCR National Capital Region Exchange Rate: 1 US$ = 52.71 Pesos
NSCB National Statistical Coordination Board (As of Oct 12,2002)
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
L WANTED:A BREATH OF FRESH AIR! A
Urban smog, smoke-belching buses, and industrial While there is a general perception that poor air quality
smoke stacks. These are prominent and visible reminders negatively impacts health, there is little reliable data on
of the need to manage air quality. However, air pollution the health impacts of air pollution in the Philippines.
is not just an aesthetic problem; it can also cause acute Despite extensive policies and laws, air quality manage-
and long-term health effects - personally and economi- ment in the Philippines remains a challenge.
cally very damaging. The health cost of air pollution in
four cities (Metro Manila, Davao, Cebu, and Baguio) has The Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1999 aims to provide a com-
been estimated to be more than US$400 million per year, prehensive air pollution control policy for the country.
equivalent to 0.6 percent of the country's national gross However, implementation difficulties point to the com-
domestic product (GDP). These four cities represent plexities associated with solving a problem involving
more than a quarter of the Philippines' urban population. many agencies. Inter-agency collaboration remains a
challenge despite many multi-sectoral working
According to a perception survey conducted in 2001, committees and memoranda of agreement. Lack of
more than 72 percent of Manila's residents were alarmed provincial and local government capacities for air quality
by air pollution and 73 percent said they were not aware management will be further exposed, as these entities are
that the government was doing something to control it. under-prepared to carry out the functions devolved to
This public perception is in sharp contrast to the amount them by CAA. Preliminary estimates for implementing
of time spent by governmental agencies and non-govern- parts of CAA indicate that the country will need to spend
mentai organizations (NGOs)in discussing and debating at least PhP25 billion (US$500 million) between 2000

-
air pollution issues in recent years and reflects a genera! and 2010 but the benefits are likely to far exceed these
-- - -.-

action.
I rLLu-
.'" - "-
faiture to convert analyses and discussions into effective
,'7' - .
-.
'
- . I . --
costs. , . .
-, . = M a :11m '
ctive non-governmental initiatives have raised public
Reliable monitoring is the foundation for sound policy awareness and provided examples of possible actions on
and needs to be established as a priority. In the Philip- a small scale. Their effectiveness is limited; yet, comple-
pines, only a patchy network of air quality monitoring ments government efforts. They can, however, apply
sbtions provides limited information on pollutant levels. pressure on the Government to improve its institutional
It is estimated that while particulate matter levels have response.
decreased since 1995, these still exceed standards at most
Implementation of CAA emerges as a national priority to
locations in Manila and in many other cities. The dwihe
combat air pollution. In so doing, the country will need to
in pollution can largely be attributed to improved auto-
address seven key challenges:
motive technology and standards enacted several years
ago, and the switch to natural gas use in power plenfa and > Reducing particulate matter in Metro Manila
industries. Other pollutants such as ozone and nitrogen through improved maintenance for high use
oxides are on the rise. Although extensive information commercial vehicles, improved fuel qudity, and
regarding indoor air pollution is not yet available, preli- shifting to four-stroke motorcycles;
minary results indicate that this is aproblem. P Requiringcatalytic converters in gasoline vehicles;
Diesel emissions h r n buses, jeepneys, utility vehicles, > Lmproving public transport and traffic management;
and trucks are recognized as causing cancer, and are P Implementation of CAA with adequate institutio-
estimated to be tbe largest contributor to urban air poilu- nal capacity, funding,asdpolitical commitment;
tion. In spite of many anti-smoke-belching campaigns 9 Strengthening enforcement with incentives and
and programs, buses and utility vehicles emitting visible penalties;
smoke are a common sire in Metro Manila and other 9 Improving air quality managemmt by integrating
urban centers. monitoring and analytical capacity with decision-
making; and
Moving from public awareness to participation.
 PHILIPPINES AIR QUALITY AT A GLANCE

-
Sources
Vehicle ownership is rising rapidly (from 1.2 million jn 1983 to 3.9 milllon in 2001).
Diesel vehicles: Over 65% of the fleet are high mileage vehicles; suspected of contributing

-
Transport to majority of urban exposure and health impacts.
Motorcycles: 75% are two-stroke engines whose exhaust contains high levels of unburned
fuel and lubrication causing PM emissions and HC emissions.

Total contribution is not available and should be quantified. Contribution to PM,, may
Resuspension
and construction
be small.
Controlling these sources is the most cost-effective way to reduce pollution load and dust. .
I,
Burning of agricultural waste and refuse is widely practiced. It contributes significantly
Wa

*
to particujate matter and should be quantifiqil, , .
Indoor air '7
An emerging problem in Metm Manila.
pollution @M '

Industry and
power
Not a maNr source in Metro Manila or across the Philippines for urban air pollution but
has localized impacts and needs to be controlled. a
Responses
I 1
I
I,
Analysis and
actions
Lack of data and systematic analyses are mjor impediments toward the formulation of
effective action plans and their implementation.
I

Inter-agency
cooperation
Air quality management requires all agencies to cooperate, which has not been easy
across sectors and government departments. 7
-
Enforcement and
institutional Enforcement of legislation and regulations is weak including th mwndy enacted CAA.
capacity Need to smgthen the institutional capacity to eafOrce these d u 4 m~dntions.

.C3( Medium 0Low

I A
i '
AIR QUALITY (TSP) HOT SPOTS A7
IBRD 32029

PHILIPPINES
AIR POLLUTION EXPOSURE

I .1 HIGH, Populohon HIGH

Concentrat~on
ConcentreironHIGH, Populahon COW

ConcentrahonLOW, Population HIGH

LOW
Concenkotan LOW, Populat~on

REGION CAPmLS

NATIONAL CAPIRL

- 14

p.w -
!k 1-

- 12
Soh

China
sea

EL
 '
i
INTRODUCTION ,7
Air Pollution Guidelines
An air pollutant is any substance in air that could, in In 1999, the Government approved CAA, which is the
sufficient concentration, harm humans, animals, most comprehensive legislation enacted to address air
vegetation, or material. Air pollutants may occur in the pollution. It proposes limits for ambient levels of major
form of solid particles, liquid droplets, and/or gases. pollutants (Table 1). These limits are set to protect public
They are generally grouped into two main classes: i) health and the environment.
primary pollutants, which are those emitted directly from
sources, and ii) secondary pollutants, which are those
produced in the air by an interaction between two or more
primary pollutants, with or without sunlight. There are
over 100 identified air pollutants. They fall into the
r POLLUT*NT I ~ a ~ ~ ~ nI v ~ l I
I
Table 1. Philippines, US-EPA and WHO ambient air
quality guidelines for common pollutants, 1999

US-EPA
(wrn)
PHILIPPINE!
(pg/rn?
following major categories: particulate (various sizes),
oxides o f s u l f u r and nitrogen, volatile organic suspended
compounds (VOCs), and ozone (0,). Noise and odor are particulates (TSP)
also considered pollutants.
less than
Air pollution is not limited to the visible smoky auto- 10 microns (PM,,)
mobile exhaust or the plume from an industrial chimney.
Such emissions invoke public concern because of the annual
health hazards and odor nuisance these present.
However, several pollutants, such as carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NO,), sulfur dioxide (SO,), and
&+''fine particles, are not visible but are equally or even more 1
damaging for human health and the environment.
m
. rn
-
- ,
Sources and Impacts of Air Pollution
Sources of air pollution in and around the population
centers in the Philippines include emissions from (i)
mobile sources-vehicles; (ii) stationary sources-power
plants and factories; and (iii) area sources - refuse S m e : Clean AirAct of 1999 snd wHWSDE/OEH/00.02,Genew 2000.
Notes
burning, road dust, open cooking. Burning of agricultu- '* WHO no longer recommends air qualily guidehe for PM because
ral waste in rural areas aho causes airpothttion. there is no safe lower Ilmit.
-Valuesof US-EPA are for primarystandards.
-Annual average is an average of daily measurements taken during a
Increased levels of ah pollution are threatening the well period of one year.
being of city dwellers, and imposing notjust a direct eco- -yq/m3 is a unit of measmementand refers to one milienthof a gram of
a pollutantin a cubic meterofair.
nomic cost by impacting human health but also threate- -Guideline refers to the safe level of a pollutant, for the given everaging
ning long-term productivity (material and vegetation time, to protect the public trom acute health effects.
damage, quality of life, reduced t o ~ s mto the country,
discourage foreign investment, etc.). In rceent years, Monitoring Air Poliur~on
health studies in various counties have elrtablisbed a Ambient monitoring is essential to evaluate compliance
direct relatianship between daily concentrations of with standards and the need for action. It provides
particuiatc matter and premature deaths and excess primary data to estimate damage to human health, eco-
morbidity. Some of these can be quantified, while others systems, and material infrastructure. Human exposure is
can only be expressed qualitatively. For example, preli- calculated by multiplying the ambient concentration
minary estimates carried out by World Bank staff for the with the population exposed. This information forms the
Philippines show health costs in four urban centers to be basis for analyzing the costs and benefits of control
over US$400 million per year. options, public participation, andpolicy response.
In the Philippines, air pollution is caused by transport,
industries, power plants, and area sources such as road Figure 1. Registered motor vehicles in
dust, construction, and waste burning. National level the Philippines, 1983-2001
source inventories are not available. There are estimates
for Metro Manila but they contain significant discrepan-
cies. Area sources are either not accounted for or their
contribution is under represented.

Mobile Sources: Transport

Transport is a significant contributor. In 2001, there

were 3.9 million registered vehicles in the country - a
threefold increase within the past two decades (Figure 1).
Of these vehicles, 70 percent are gasoline-fueled and 30
percent are diesel-fueled. Nationally, utility vehicles'
outnumber cars, with a 2: 1 ratio. Beginning in 1994,
motorcycles and tricycles have surpassed cars as the -
second largest group ofvehicles. In Metro Manila, utility
vehicles marginally outnumber cars (44 percent to 36
percent) and motorcycles/tricycles account for only 14
I Source: Land Trimportalion O h (LTO), Central Olfice, Qyezon W
I
percent of the 1.3 million vehicles f Figure 2). Judging
from the experience of other Asian countries, personal
Figure 2. Vehicle comp,,,.ion, nationwide
vehicle ownership will rise as individual incomes and in Metro Manila, 2001
increase in tbc Philippines. Despite advances in control

J
technology for newer vehicles, a high growth in vehicle
ownership, combined with low turnover, contributes
significantly to air pollution.
II Nationwide (3.9 million)

Utility vehicles-
39% ,
Diesel-powered vehicles e m i t ~ ~ i g n i f i c aamount
nt 4
jitzeparticles. The number of diesel-powered vehicles
)as grown rapidly in recent years, and these account for lses &
nearly a third of all vehicles. Of the 1.2 million diesel- trucks
7%
fueled vehicles, over 65 percent are high mileage (utility
vehicles, buses, and trucks). Repeated anti-smoke
belching campaigns carried out by local governments
and the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority
(MMDA) over the last decade have reduced the number Metro Manila (1.3 million) I
of smoky vehicles in the main roads. In Metro Manila,
pollution caused by jeepneys may have declined because C,sa,r
MW
of the use of larger and cleaner second-hand engines by
the manufacturers; however, introduction of van-type 1
"FX-taxis" may have negated this gain.

I
Sounu,: Land Transportation Oflice, 2002.
'Utility vehicles include taxis, jeepneys, and vans.
L
SOURCES

Two-stroke engines dominate the motorcycle market. pollution control devices installed in the remaining one-
Two-stroke engines power more than 75 percent of third are not operational because companies believe
motorcycles and tricycles. Their exhaust contains a high these are very expensive to operate.
level of fine particles, unburned fuel and lubricants as
compared to four-stroke engines. The motorcycle
industry is beginning to use fuel-efficient and less Figure 3. Motorized trips in Metro Manila, 1996
polluting four-stroke engines in their production. The
cost of four-stroke motorcycles is similar to that of two-
strokes. Furthermore, other countries in the region have
13%,
5% 2%
- 41%

already moved to four-stroke engine production.

Jeepneys remain the popular choice for daily transport
2
in Metro Manila. According to a survey taken in 1996, Jeepney 1 Cars & u l i vehllcles
Tncyle 1 Bus
the 10 million residents of Metro Manila took over 23 Taxi D Light rail transit
million trips daily, with jeepneys accounting for over 40
percent of these trips. Of these trips, 80 percent were by I Source: Metro Manila Tmnspodationand T m f i Situalion SU@ 1996. 1
public transport, while 20 percent was made by cars and
utility vehicles (Figure 3). The survey also indicated that
only 20 percent of households owned cars, far fewer than
many large cities in the region. A third of the trips in Table 2. Composition of industrial air pollution
sources
Metro Manila covered a distance of less than two kilo- --
--

meters, which may contribute substantially to both Industry National MM Airshed

congestion and pollution. Tricycles, cars, and jeepneys
are responsible for 95 percent of such short-distance Cement 8 (42%)
trips. 011Refining 3 3(-100%)
StationarySources: Industry Others
(air polluting) 21800 737 (28%)
Most industrialsources are located in the Metro Manila I
Note: Metro Ma& Cgum are br L e airshed,which include geographical
airshed3The major types of industry contributing to air areas auisideof NCR
Soum: EMBIDENR, 2001.
pollution are thermal power stations, cement manufac-
turing plants, and oil refineries (Table 2). The Table 3. Estimated ernisslans In the industrial sector,
mostly located within the Metro ~ a n i l a airs he^^^ ,\
TI--. Metro Manila, 1997 (in metric tons)
..lo

An initial attempt at constructing a souri%'ffi%

indicates that food products, textiles, and iron and ste
industries most likely account for nearly 80 percent ofthe
-
particulate emissions fiom the industrial sector (Table 3). ~ 7 y
Of the 737 establishments, nearly two-thirds do not have I1
the necessary air pollution control facilities The air

a1Wrl!
The Metro Manila Transportation and T r a c Siruation Study of
1996 included a household survey that interviewed 235,000
residents from 50,000 households (about 2.5 percent sample size). Sourn: lbpament of Energy, E N W 1997.
EMB has designated the area between Batangas to the South and
Bataan to the North as the Metro Manila Airshed, as required by the
CAA. 4DENR, 1W8.
 Stationary Sources: Power Plants
Figure 4. Sources of power generation, 2000
Two-thirds of the country's electricity is supplied by (total 45,290 Gwh)
thermal sources. In 2000, the Philippines had a total
installed (as opposed to actual production Figure 4)
-

generation capacity of 13,264 MW, of which 66 percent HYdm

17%
is thermal, 19 percent hydro, and 14 percent geothermal.
About 2,000 MW of the oil-fired generation capacity,
located in the two highly populated regions - the
National Capital Region (NCR) and the Southern
Tagalog Region (Region IV) - are scheduled for
decommissioning by 2005. The Rockwell Power Station 0 Coal
Geothermal 37%
in Makati and the Manila Power Station in Isla de 26%
Provisor have been shut down.

Power generation is a major source of sulfur-dioxide.

5 Note: Th~scomposit~on1s d~fferentfrom the installed capacity
Based on recent estimates , oil and coal-fired power Source, Phlllppines Energy Plan 2002-2011. Deparlment of Eneqy
plants emit 223,000 metric tons (MT) of SO,, annually.
However, recent plant closings and the proposed shut
down of other power plants are expected to reduce these Local and transboundary haze pollution arising from
emissions substantially. land and forest &s has been an increasingly significant
sue for Southeast Asian countries. Regional haze
, Existing pollution control measures in power plants
prablems became acute dwiag the 1997 Indonesian
target mainly particulate matter. To minimize SO,
fmest fires in which about 4.5 million hectares of Indo-
emissions, fuel with lower sulfur content is used. Only
n W e national forests were scorched. An estimated 20
the latest cd-fired power plants me equipped with flue
million people in hregion were exposed to high levels
gas desulfurization {FGD) systems to control SO,
ofpollutants over several months.
missions. The shift to the use of natural gas will elimi-
ndte SO, emissiorrs komhpower generation &r, . Natural sources also contribute to the bwkground level
H a i r pollution and need to be better accounted for. The
rea Sources eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 199 1 created a vast
amount of pollution including particulates that covered a
Incomplete inventories. Area sources of pollution are
wide land area.
widespread, difficult to estimate in inventories, and
generallyoverlooked. Importd area source%include the

resuspended road dust;

rcfust,forest and rtacultur~lburning; and
opencooking fires using fossil fircle.

Unpaved roads and pavements, building activity, and

-a:? Z
traffic are the main contributars to resuspended (or
reentrained) dust. The contribution of refuse burning to
local air pollution has not yet been well quantified even
for cities like Bangkok.
.
-.=:
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p::, D
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'ENRAP.
 Y V L L U IAN 13

Particulate matter (PM) is a complex mixture of dust,

dirt, smoke, and liquid droplets, varying in size and
I Table 4. P M control options and their use in the Philippines I
composition. which are emitted into the air. These
I Mobile I
particles are either emitted directly or are formed in the
- 75 percent are 2-stroke
atmosphere. Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) are
composed of particles of different sizes. Finer particles
MoGy~s I - Regular maintenance
- Switch to 4-stroke e m i n e l m01orc~des
- Exiting inspectionl
Trucks I buses - Regular maintenance
- Reduced sulfur m fuel maintenance system not
called PM,, and PM,, (less than 10 or 2.5 microns in dia- PUVs - Trap oxidizer functioning effedively
meter, respectively) are receiving increasing attention Stationary
because of their more serious health impacts. However,
Industry End-of-pipe control
the majority of ambient measurements gathered in the
Philippines are still for TSP. Measures to control TSP and power
PM and the degree to which they have been used in the and cyclones)
Philippines, are summarized in Table 4.
I I to cleaner fuels
.---
AM
Fineparticulates are generated as a result of combus-
- Widespread buming of
tionprocesses. Particle pollution is generated from fossil
buming
- Disposal in sanitary landfills - ~ or broper
age
disposal
fuel burning for steam generation; heating and house- hcilties
hold cooking; agricultural and forest waste burning; - Regulating movement of - Truck movement
diesel-fueled engine combustion; and various industrial Reentraimment trucks canying dehb unregulated
processes. Coarse or larger particles usually contain - Better mnsbuctim practices - Ineffective mnbds at
- Paved mds rn~ onstruction sites
geological materials and fugitive dust from roads and :i
industries. Agi;ltural
jmposting of waste
Metro Manila residents are exposed to ~ v e 100,000
f ,
burning i,
I-.
tons of PM,, annually. The most comprehensive :
b
;-
= I I
emissions inventory for Metro Manila was done in 1990.
'-;Thisinventory is now outdated. A partial update done for
i .the Metro Manila airshed in 2001 reported that stationary Figure 5. Source contributions to total PM,,emissions
and mobile sources contribute 37,000 and 39,000 metric in Metro Manila, 2001 (tons per year)
tons per year to PM,,, respectively. Area sources
(burning of agriculture and solid waste, construction,
and road dust) contributed 51,000 tons per year based on
the 1990 inventory. Based on these two studies, the 2001
emissions inventory for Metro Manila (Figure 5) is about
127,000 tons annually. Accordingly, area sources domi-
nate the overali emissions.

However, the extent of health impact is determined by

the amount of exposure, which is dominated by the
transport sector in urban centers. Thus, air quality action
plans for wban areas focus on the transport sector.
II Transport
31% I
'1
M Told emissions of l27,GOO 1 4 dati ouo extrapolated
from 1890 data. d

S m e : ADB MMAQISDF! 2Wfl.

 POLLUTANTS

PM,, levels in Metro Manila continue to exceed guide-

lines, but on a declining number of days. The Environ- Figure 6. TSP exceedances for selected air quality
monitoring stations in Metro Manila, 1995-2001
mental Management Bureau (EMB) of the NCR main-
tains 12 stations, 11 manual and one automatic. Sporadic
monitoring of TSP from 1995 to 2001 shows that in 1997
and 1998, the 24-hour average air quality guideline (230
pg/m3) was exceeded at some sites on as many as 90
percent of the days monitored. Recently, this frequency
has dropped to about 50 percent (Figure 6 ) .

A recent study supported by the Asian Development

Bank (ADB) analyzed the annual geometric mean
concentrations of TSP at all available sites in Metro
Manila since 1987.6 The average results for each year
confirm the downward trend in concentrations since
1995. However, all the values are still above the annual
8 East Ave (traffic) EEDSA (traffic)
guideline of 90 &m' (Figure 7).

PM,, and PM,., monitoring is recent. The Manila Source: DENR-EMB, Central Ofice, Quezon City, 2002.
Observatory initiated monitoring for PM,, and PM,, at
three sites in Metro Manila in April 2002.7The three
selected sites are representative ofresidential, traffic, and
commercial activities. Preliminary results for two Figure 7. Annual mean total suspended particulate
months are shown in Figure 8. The initial results indicate (TSP) concentration in Metro Manila, 1987-2001
that 55 to 60 percent of PM,, is the finer PM,,, which can

problems . -
- m
. y ~
L
A
+, :
Two of the three sites are co-located
ahich are collecting TSP and PM,, data. This combin
tion oftwo sets of monitoring stations under two different
institutions should result in a unique primary data set for
Year

+ TSP(p(llm3)
- Annual average TSP guideline value (90 pglm3)
-
Some:Prelimimry Assessment of Outdoor A t Pollution and Health In
MebP Manila, 30 October 200f.

6PreliminaryAssessment of Outdoor Air Pollutim and Hntth in

Metro Mnnila", University of the Philippines, Diliman, October
2001.
'This monitoring a e undertaken as r background ~tudyfm thin
Monitor. The ~ i t cat the Manill Observatory located at Loyoh
Heights is represemhtivt of a rnlxed resirtentialltraffic NU.The
National Printing Ofklcc at Epifiano de Ias Smtoo Avenue
(EDSA) is a trafiic-dominated site. The Philippine Gmurnl
Hospital (PCiH) dtc h a t e d at tbc Padre Faura rrer is r mixed
instituti~nai/eommercirlsite.
 rL POLLUTANTS
PARTICULATE
1

Air quality in other urban areas is also poor. DENR

monitors TSP at over 40 stations in the Philippines. Figure 9. Annual total suspended particulate (TSP)
Monitoring data for three highly urbanized areas in the concentration in major cities nationwide, 1997.2001
country (Baguio, Cebu, and Davao) from 1997-2001,
suggests that annual TSP averages exceed guidelines for
most years (Figure 9). In Cebu and Davao, TSP levels are
beginning to decline, whereas in Baguio, the TSP levels
are two to three times the annual guidelines. This is
partially due to an increasing urban activity and the unfa-
vorable meteorological conditions that limit dispersion
and result in higher pollution levels. Figures 10A and B
show annual TSP concentrations and their exceedance
over the guideline value for various stations for all
regions for 2000 and 2001. Region 9 (Zamboanga City)
values are skewed because the monitoring stations are
located close to major roads and traffic intersections. The
EMB has already taken steps to relocate these stations.
+- EiAGU#)(Luzm)
+- CEBU ( v w s )
DAVAO(MWam)
- Annual A w m e guideline (90 u(llm3)

I
I
Figure 8. PMlo and PM2.~results for three stations
I Source: DENR-EMB Central Office and Regional Ofice - CAR, R7, R11, 2002. 1
Manila Observatory-Residential

Dairy
glridmn
~1L.e1%

300
National Prmting Omce -Traffic
ZW,

I I --1 PMppinea General Hospital - Commercial

 Figure 10A. Annual average TSP concentration for the National Capital Region (NCR) and
the Cordillera Autonomous Region (CAR), 2000 and 2001

Annual

guideline

$ . S $ g . g g g

S
E8 n
E

+b
EAR

Figure 1OB. Annual average TSP cancontralions for aU other reglono, 2000 and 2001
600
Incorrect sample
collection
5@ procedure used

-
-
E 300
5
'%

1W. -- - - - - -
I
:= '=.,=-
I 8 .
4

i I k
'

-mIr ml. m
I:
4-'
Region 5
R8pon 1 Re.
gm 2

I
SOWC8.S: .?om.
Site
 POLLUTANTS I

An oxide of nitrogen, or NO,, is a collective term used for

nitrogen oxide (NO) and dioxide (NO,), which are in
gaseous forms. However, NO2is used as a measurement
jources I Control options I Status
indicator for NO,. In urban areas, these oxides are
emitted mainly from fuel combustion. NO, emissions
play a major role in the formation of ozone, particulate
matter, and acid rain. The effects of NO, on human health
depend on its reaction with other pollutants. With
hydrocarbons (HC), NO, creates smog; with sulfur
dioxide, NO, creates acid rain; and with ammonia,
moisture, and other compounds, it reacts to form nitric
acid and harmful nitrate. NO, also causes retardation and
leaf bleaching in plants. Measures to control NO, and the

I
-- -

status of their application in the Philippines are

Figure 11. Source conmbutionso;t emissions in Metro
summarized in Table 5. Manila, 2001 (tons per year)
Diesel-powered vehicles are the worst offenders. A Burning 8
road dust
partial update of the emissions inventory for Metro 1%
Manila in 2001 indicates that transport sources -
contribute 58 percent, while industrial sources contribute
41 percent to the total emissions of nitrogen oxides
1-
(Figure 11). Transport, especially diesel-fueled
vehicles, is the principal contributor of nitrogen oxides. 'ransporl
Results available from a monitoring site at the Atetleo 58%

station in Quezon City (control site) show that NO, levels

range from 58 to 214 pg/m3 (Figure 12). No reliable -

inference can be made from these results, as some Notes: Total emissions 239,000; data for area contribulion extrapdated
from 1990data.
measurements exceeded the guideline value while others Source: ADB, 200f.
conformed.

I Flgure 12. NO, concentrations at the Ateneo Station,

September 2801-April 2002 I
 Sulfur dioxide (SO,) is a colorless gas, formed when fuel
that contains sulfur (coal and oil) is burned in energy Figure 13. Source contributions to.SO, emissions in Metro
production and other industrial processes. SO, is one of Manila, 2001 (tons per year)
the leading causes of respiratory problems in humans. Burning &
The deposition ofsulfurous and sulfuric acids on metallic
parts of equipment, building roofs, etc., results in
1
"iOd
corrosion, reducing the life of built surfaces and increa-
sing repair costs. SO, can also severely damage plants.
SO, control measures and the extent to which they have Industry
90%
been applied in the Philippines are summarized in Table
6.

Coal and oil-fredpowerplants are major contributors. Notes: Total emissions=176,000 tons; data for area sources extrapolated from
1990 data.
Fuel combustion, largely from coal-fired power plants, Source: ADB, 2001.
I I
accounts for most of the anthropogenic SO, emissions in
the Philippines. This is evident from the 2001 update of
Figure 14. Sulfur dioxlde (SO,) trends for air quality
the inventory for Metro Manila (Figure 13). For example, monitoring stations in Metro Manila, 1995.2001

*
when three power plants were operating in Metro
Manila, more than 90 percent of industria1 emissions of
C)

'" '
5 120 -
SO, were attributed to them. 0

im-
Attibierrt sulfur dioxida ( o w 3 levels are declining.':
EE
a
C
BO- .
8 60 -
Following the closure of Sucat, Rockwell, and Manila
power plants, there has becn a remarkable decline in -
8 /j,\~
ambient SO, level. Levels of SO, at the Ateneo station 5 20-
have consistently been below the guideline (Figure 14).
-im% 07
5 19% 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
L
Ateneo (Instltutional)
Sevenna. Parafiaque (power stabon)
--
-+
Man~laMem Park, Paraflaque (power station)

Source: DENR-EMB, Central OfficdManila ObrervaWg Ateneo ds Manila

UniversHy Campus, Quezon GIN 2002.

I I
Table 6. SO2 control options and their use in the philippines
control options I status
- ---- A -

-r ~uonary
Power - Low sulfur fuel - Two diesel power plants closed, remaining will be decommissioned by 2010
- Flue gas de-sulfurization - Few plants converted to natural gas, while he use d low sulfur coal is increasing
- The recenYy apprpved Energy Plan proposes to expand n&l gas use dufing the next 10 years

- Few enterprises haw hstalled control measures and are poorly regulated
lndusffy Same as above - AwleMlity sf natural gas m Southern Lumn will allow replacement of fuel oil and oaal with
natural gas I
r- -

b. MoMfe
Tnrcks!
- pub'ic hnsport -Sulfur content In d l o d & x e d hrn 0.5 to 0.2 p m t In @01
buses
,
&ystem
- Low sulfur diesel - Funcfionlng Ught RalI Trandt &Rt/ s y h In Mehb h h k bla k ody 2 percent al
the daily ridership
PUVs - Gas
Use Of
(CNG)
NatulB' - lnlmductla of CNG b 9 g W b d
 CARBON MONOXIDEIOZONE A
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Figure 15. Carbon monoxide (CO) concentration at the
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless Ateneo monitoring station, July-November 1999
gas, slightly lighter than air. It is formed when carbon in
fuel is not burned completely. Once emitted into the
40 -
-35 -
atmosphere, CO is oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO,). The
d
- 30-
inhalation of CO can disrupt the supply of necessary 3
V)

g 25 -
oxygen to the blood, causing a major health threat. With 5 20-
-.'
prolonged exposure, CO affects the nervous system and '0
5 15 -
a

can be lethal forpeople with weakhearts.

L

f *
7

5:c*
Motor vehicles are the major source. Almost all the CO .-5
E 0
emissions in Metro Manila come from vehicles (99.2 Jul-99 Aug-99 Sep-99 Ocl-99 Nov-99
percent). Proper maintenance and use of catalytic + 1-hr average concenlraCon
converters in vehicles will reduce CO emissions by over - 1-hr average CO guideline value (35mglm3)
8-hr average concentration
- 8-hr average CO guideline value (10mg/m3)
90 percent. Recent monitoring of CO in the area shows
the concentration to be above the eight-hour guideline Source: Manila ObSe~atofyAteneo de Manila University Campus /DENR-EMB,
Central Office lElectrobyie-Opsis Open Path System, 2001.
value of 10 mg/m3, but under the one-hour guideline
value of 35 mg/m3(Figure 15).

Ozone (0,)
Figure 16. Ozone (0,)concentrations at the Ateneo Quallty
Ozone (0,) is a highly oxidizing gas formed by the Monitoring Station, September 2001-April 2002
reaction of VOCs and NO, in the presence of sunlight.
Ozone can cause a range of acute effects including eye,
nose and throat irritation; chest discomfort; cough; and L. 250,

4
h A-
headache. Other effects include pulmonary impairment fl ' - J
y*
$moo-. I rn

I I in children and young adults, and increased incidence of; '

f 160 -.

t
F
asthmatic attacks and respiratory symptoms, along with
damage to materials and vegetations. .' 0 :: SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FE
Recent results of ozone monitoring at the Ateneo site in 2001

Metro ManiLa show that concentrations are higher than I

Ateneo (inslihrtional)
the one-hour guideline of 140 pg/m3in seven out af eight -
months monitored between 2001 and 2002(Figure 16).
1-hr average 0, guideline value (140 vglm') Aleneo (institulional)

I
Source: DENR-EMB, C e n M O W M a n i l a Obrenrilfary, AMm de Man17a
UniveMy &pus Quezon City, 2002.
 7

POLLUTANT5
L LEAD

Lead has been phased-out. Lead can damage vital

human organs and also affect the brain. Among children, Box 1. Lead phase-out in the Philippines
prolonged exposure to lead can lead to neurological
impairment. The seriousness of the health impacts of lead
April 1993 Lead content in gasoline was reduced from
was recognized around the mid-1990s in the Philippines. 0.6 gll lo 0.15 gll
In 1993, the President of the Philippines signed a Memo-
randum of Agreement with three oil companies - Shell, February 1994 Introduction of unleaded gasoline (ULG)
Petron, and Caltex - to reduce, and eventually eliminate,
the lead content ofgasoline. Lead was eliminated from all January 1995 Oil Deregulation Law lowered tax on ULG,
and priced it cheaper than leaded-gasoline
gasoline in the Philippines starting in January 2001 (see ULG sales rose
Box I).
April 2000 Leaded gasoline phased-out in Metro Manila
Although Metro Manila phased out leaded gasoline nine
months ahead of the schedule set by CAA, it took longer December 31, 2000 Leaded gasoline completely phased-out in
for the rest of the country to follow. The removal of lead the Philippines
additives from gasoline has the following benefits:

removes a toxic substance from the environment;

reduces vehicle maintenance; and Figure 17. Ambient lead levels recorded at air quality
6 reduces other pollutants by the use ofcatalytic monitoring stations in Metro Manila, 1993-1995
converters in vehicles.

Ambient leaa monitoring dlscontinuea. Lead

I concentrations have been sEowly decreasing since 1994,
and were generally below the air quality guideline of 1.5
pg/m3(Figure 17) by 1995. These levels are expected to
drop further. However, DENR has discontinued the
ambient monitoringoflead.
 GREENHOUSE GASES 4

The Philippines was among the first countries to respond

to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) in 1991. The Philippines Inter- I Figure 18. Philippines greenhouse gas emissions, 1999
I
agency Committee on Climate Change (IACCC), Nitrous
composed of 15 government and non-government oxide -
14%
representatives, wi I1 propose climate change policies, A
and develop, update, and publish information on
inventories ofgreenhouse gases (GHG).

Global Warming Methane,

Energy and transport sectors contrib~itethe most 31%
amount of GHG. Based on 1999 estimates, national
GHG emissions are 100,738 gigagrams (Gg or lo9gram Total CO, emmisions 100, 738 gigagrams
of equivalent CO,). Of the total GHG emissions, 50 Source: Manila Observatory, Ateneo de Manila Universily Campus,
Quezon City, 2001.
percent are from the energy and transport sector, followed
by agriculture (33 percent), industry (10 percent), and
solid waste (7 percent). Forest and land use changes
contribute 65,000 Gg of CO, but the woody biomass of
forests is a major sink for GHG and takes up 68,000 Gg of
CO,. This results in an overall reduction of 3,000 Gg of
CO, from land use and forestry sector.

Out of the total emission of 100,738, CO, is estimated to

I
be 55,157, methane 31,335, and aitrwus oxide 14,246 Gg
(Figure 18).

Much of the new power generated in the country will we

naturalgas, a d e number ofoil and coal-hred stations arc
being phased-out, H O m r , witb the pjected d ~ u b h g
of p o w u generation over the next 10 years, and the
continuing high demand for motor vehicles, the energy
and transport sectors are likely to remain the major
sources of emissions.

The Philippines stands to benefit from the Clean

Development Mechanism(CDM)process under the
Kyoto Protocol. Opportunities for investments in
renewable energy and other CO, reducing a c t i v i t i ~ c
should be harnessed and promoted with private Q*,-

participation. CDM process enables investments

cost through carbon trading, as well as
country to cut-backon both local and
b OZONE DEPI,ETTNC: SIJRSTANCIE

Fifty-fivepercent reduction in ODS consumption. Most

Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)
of the O D s used in the Philippines are for servicing
In 1987, the Philippines adopted the Montreal Protocol existingrefrigeration and air conditioning equipment (70
(MP), an international convention, which aims to protect percent), manufacturing foam (23 percent), and
the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. In 199 1, the refrigeration manufacturing (7 percent). The use of
Philippines ratified the MP, in which developed and solvents that were once a major source of ODs, has
developing countries agreed on a common strategy to almost vanished, with the help of the multilateral fund
address aglobal environmental problem. described above. Between 1995 and 1999, O D s con-
sumption fell by 55 percent, from 3,625 to 1,640 metric
Totalphase-out of ODS by 2010. According to the
tons. Future reductions to meet phase-out targets may
Protocol, O D s consumption in the Philippines must be
come from the foam and servicing sectors, but these
reduced to 50 percent by 2005,85 percent by 2007, and
reductions may be more difficult to achieve. A national
100 percent by 20 10 (Figure 19). To meet these targets,
phase-out proposal that includes a series of investment
US$23 million has been provided by the Multilateral
and non-investment activities including policy and
Fund to replace equipment, hold training programs, and
regulatory reforms is currently being formulated to assist
pay extra operating costs. The find served as a financial
the Government inmeeting its obligations.
mechanism to help developing countries meet the agreed
incremental cost of fulfilling the Protocol's control
measures.

- .
~ F ~ and projection of ODs use
Figure 19. Consumption - in the Philippines; ~ , . ; 1 ~
I
h: 7 7
4'7 . fl. b .-
I-
-*+ L 1
--LA&- a

- L -
Montreal Protocol I

I
ODP
MT 2.000 1 CFC Total - no
htervention
.. .

+
2002
-
CFC Total with NCPP
implemented

NO4
-

I -~ontreal Protocol
:ticen in service -m-
CFC Total - no intervention
CFC Total - with NCPP implemented 1 11
Source: Annual UNEP dmfl Repq'l qrtm 6t@@-~f
Modreal Prof@ to Ozone Secrelaflat, 2002.
- --
. .k
. . . -.
L.
-
.
 IMPACTS
PITRT . T P HF.A T .TH

Detrimental effects of various pollutants include impact

on health, productivity, infrastructure, and overall I Figureto20.localContribution of emissions of various pollutants 1
quality of life. As shown in Figure 20, PM,, contributes
the most to health damage, and a significant portion of I damages from fuel burning in six cities,
1993 (percent)

the non-health cost.

Fine particles (PM,,) represent a threat to human

health. Fine particles can penetrate the upper defenses of
the respiratory tract and deposit deep in the lungs.
Vulnerable groups within the population - children, the
elderly, and people with heart and lung diseases - are
most at risk. Health Costs Non Health Costs Tolal Local costs I

There are few reliable quantitative environmental health

I
Source: Environmental Costs of Fossil Fuels - A Rapid
studies conducted for the Philippines. Epidemiological Assessment Method with Application to Six Cities, by K Lvovsky
data from hospitals and clinics have not been used to eta/., The Wodd Bank, 2000.

verify health cost estimates that rely on population

numbers, ambient measurements, and dose-response
equations.

Valuing the health cost. An initial analysis of the cost of

I Box 2. Methodology for estimating health costs

An inaease in PM,, concentration by 1 ~glrnbas

health impacts o f PM,, in four urban areas of the estimated to inaease mortdity rate by 0.084 -
Philippines - Metro Manila, Davao, Cebu, and Baguio - percent, chronic bronchitis cases to 3.06 per
was undertaken as a background study for this Monitor. 100,000, and incidence of respiratory symptoms to
18,300 per 100,000 adults.
Based on earlier international studies, this analysis Health impacts were estimated by multiplying these
computed the numbers of excess deaths and incidence of dose-response coefficients with exposed
disease due to impacts ofpollutants. populations and the PM, levels above the safety
m
fhreshold of 20 pglm3.
Based on the methodology outlined in Box 2, the yearly It Is very difficult to put a monetary value on health,
cost of exposure to PM, in the four cities is estimated as and on human life. In the willingness-to-pay
methodology in several countries, individuals are
follows: sked how much they would be willing to pay to
avoid a certain symptom or illness. Per capita
Over 2,000 people die prematurely. This loss is incomes were used to adjust the unit values of
valued at aboutUS$l40 million. statistical lives in different cities. The value of
statistical life in the four Philippine cities is
Over 9,000 people suffer from estimated between US$25,000 to $70,000, at lower
which is valued at about US$120 million. bounds.
The unlt cost of chronic bronchitis (per person) is
Nearly 5 1 million cases of respiratory symptom estimated at US$12,750 and respiratory symptoms
days in Metro Manila (averaging twice a year in at US$3 per incident. The monetary values of the
Davao and Cebu, and five to six times in Metro health damages are finally estimated by multiplying
Manila and Baguio), costs about US$170 million. the health damages with the unit values.
This is a 70 percent increase, over a decade, M e n
compared with the findings of a similar study h e
in 1992 for Metro Manila. which reported 33
million cases.'

&Thisis reported in the Philippines Environment Monitor 2000, based on

studies of DOH.
 IMPACTS
PIJR1,TC H E A 1 , T H A

An estimated loss of over US$430 million. The total

cost of the exposure to PM,, in these four cities alone adds Table 7. Estimates of health impact and costs
up to over US$430 million (Table 7). These costs are by PM,, in four cities for 2001
equivalent to 2.5 to 6.1 percent of per capita incomes in
these cities. The population of the four cities represents
28.4 percent of the urban population. If the rest of the
country's population is assumed to be exposed to levels I
similar to those in the four cities, then the urban health
cost is extrapolated to be over US$1.5 billion for the
country per year.

Jeepney drivers and children face thegreatest exposure

t o v e h i c u l a r p o l l u t i o n . T h e University o f the
Notes:
Philippines has carried out studies on the impact of 1. The PM,, data are fmm monitoring stations and estimates based on an air
vehicular emissions on vulnerable populations in Metro quality projection model.
2. Excess deaths, chronic bronchitis, and respiratory symptomscauredby
Manila during 1990-9 1 and 1994. Results showed the PM,, are estimated based on simplified methodologies.
9 3. The tdal cost of death, chronic bonchitis and respiratcry m m s causd
prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
by PM,, is eshated by first mlliplyhg the unit costs with the respective
(COPD) to be highest among jeepney drivers, the most cases and then adding up We costs for &rent categaies. Since only &a&,
exposed group, at 32.5 percent. Commuters had the chronic bronchitis and respratcry symp(oms Caused by PM, are mcluded in
the h e d h damage e h a t i o n , the total costs presented in Vr! above t h l e
q lowest prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms at are only lower bounds of the total costs caused by air pollution.
14.8 percent. Incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis
(PTB) is also highest among jeepney drivers at 17.5
percent, compared to 9 percent for commuters. The
prevalence of respiratory symptoms among school Box 3. Indoor air pollution: health impact
children ranged h m4.8 to 27.5 percent and from 15.8 to
The Department of Health (DOH) conducted a baseline health
40.6 percent among child vendors. A comparison of h e profile of cornrnunitles in Metro Manila during 1999. It covered
pulmonary functions ofurban schooi children with those 108randomly selected households, in 54 barangays. DOH found
in rural areas, showed more compromised pulmonary that ambient standards for PM,, were exceeded in 9 out of 19
study areas (47 percent). Indoor monitoring showed that 42
fanctims forchildren inMetm Manila. percent of households exceeded the standard. The average
hwrly levels obtained (209.5 vglrn3)are indicative of unhealthy
TAe e x & n q f W l n r r a i q w M o n isyd'tobe qum@%d conditions. While vehicular traftlc could be a major source,
Since m k sptd rlw poltion dtb h d k pwr. results indicate that smoking inside the house and cooking with
indoor air quality can cause at pontribnm to the : kerosene, wood, and charcoalwere primarycontributorsin these
'households, A similar study in 1995 in urban slums in Metro
developmnnt of chronic muphtorp d.lauuea m h I ~ J Manila foundsimilar results.
asthma md hypersemhivitp pncumoniti~( h f l b
of the lungs). Tbae are many sources of indoor dr
pollution: tabecco moke, cocking uld heatink md
vapors ~ i ~ m & w i a l ppinu,
s, h i t w e ! etc.
S t n ~ h r ~ € & ~ u r p , m ktobigh
e lwds Pd,t&Wr
airpJln$m is io-$ arrssjakalih ~ b k i & t k
PailIpp&&(B0x.l).

, .
9Chronic obstructive p u l m o n a r y disease i s manifested by!
a chronic c o u g h a n d phlegm, wheezing a n d shortness of
breath.
 7
IMPACTS
L PUBLICHEmTH A

Non-heulth impacts. While health impacts are no doubt

the most compelling reason to take action, the non-health
costs ofpollution are also significant. These costs include
Table 8. Non-health impacts of air pollution
those stemming from congestion and loss of produc-
tivity, damage to ecosystems and physical infrastructure.
One study estimates that in six cities, including Metro
Manila, the non-health costs of NO, and SO, outweigh
health costs. In the case ofparticulate pollution, however, I
 r IMPACTS
PUBLIC PERCEPTION A

The Philippine Information Agency (PIA) of the Few know about CAA. Only one in three among the
Philippines conducted a knowledge awareness and general public are aware of CAA. This is surprising given
practice (KAP) survey for the DENR in 2001. A total of that the draft law was discussed extensively and over a
1,600 people representing four groups - general public, long period of time. Only a third to half of the surveyed
public utility vehicle (PUV) drivers, PUV ownerslopera- PUV drivers and owners are aware of the Act.
tors, and industry owners/managers - were surveyed.
Figure 21 compares concerns about air pollution, aware- Roadside enforcement has wide support. The four
ness ofprograms to control air pollution, and awareness groups were nearly unanimous (96 percent) that there
about CAA, among the four groups. The survey findings should be roadside apprehension of smoke-belching
to some extent conform to previous survey results of the vehicles.
Social Weather Station (SWS) in 1995, which concluded
Most believe that air pollution is primarily caused by
that air pollution is among the top three environmental
motor vehicles.
concerns of Metro Manilaresidents.
Motor vehicles - 98 percent (public); 96 percent
A large majority is alarmed about airpollution. Nearly (PUV drivers); 92 percent (industrial owners/
three-quarters of the general public believe that air managers)
pollution is an alarming problem. This concern is also Factories- 5 1 percent (public); 49 percent (PUV
shared by a large majority of PW drivers and owners. drivers); 44 percent (industrial owners/operators)

Low-level of awareness about control efforts. Just over Over halfthe PUVownerddrivers do regular checks on
a quarter of the general public is aware of programs that their vehicles.
are being implemented by institutions and individuals to 62 percent of PUV owners/opZi-'af6?s take their 1:
control air pollution. While the level of awareness vehicles to commercial shops for maintenance
, , - .'r,j4
among polluters (industry and P W ) is high (at 38 to 44 checkups. .. I-
- ~ e r c e n t )a, greater majority of the general public (72 -1
.' L1

53 percent of P
W drivers bring their vehicles to
is still unaware of CAA &ct/v/tie$.. the Land Transportation Office (LTO) for emission
testing.

P I Survey respandents
Figure 21. Public perception of air pollution
I
--
General puMic

PUV drivers

36
PUV ownerdoperatars ,

I f
Industry owerslmanagen

I 0 1C
 RESPONSES
I GOVERNMENTICIVIL SOCIETYIPWATE SECTOR A

With the common goal of achieving clean air, the govern- cleaner production. Technical assistance in the forms of
ment, private sector, and civil society have initiated training and support to conduct plant level environmental
several policies, programs, and projects that address air audit isprovided.
pollution.

Enacting CAA. The most comprehensive policy to date

Box 4. Programmatic approach and partnership
is CAA. Among the key policy shifts incorporated in
to clean.up Metro Manila's air quality
CAA are the use of market-based instruments and the
expanded role of the private sector (see section on Mana- The Government and the ADB have launched a major effort
through the Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Sector
gement and Box 4). Studies are ongoing for the develop-
Development ProgramlProject (MMAQISDP) to reduce air
ment of an emission charge system for stationary and pollution in the metropolis. The four-year US$200 million project
mobile sources. Progressive improvements in gasoline supported by ADB since 1999, aims to reform policies, strengthen
and diesel fuel are planned by 2004. institutions, and implement specific actions to improve the air
quality by abating pollution from mobile and stationary sources.
Implementing anti-smoke belching campaigns. MMAQISDPactivities include:
Roadside enforcement of smoky vehicles, especially in establishmentof a motor vehicle inspection system (by the
Metro Manila, is being strengthened. The enforcement DOTCILTO);
teams of the MMDA, implement as well as coordinate the implementation of a program of industrial air emission
abatement (DENR);
anti-smoke belching efforts of local government units
introduction of vehicularemissions technology measures
(LGUs). The program has resulted in the decreased and the review of policies on second-hand vehicles and
number of smoke-belching vehicles on Epifanio de 10s engines and the setting up of an age limit on public transport
Santos Avenue (EDSA) from more than 20 percent to less vehicles;
than 10 percent over a five month period (April-August trafficengineering and management and roadside
enforcement in Metro Manila (MMDA);
strengtheningand upgrading of existing ambient air quality
En forcing vehicle emission standards. The Department monitoring system and the improvementof the air quality
of Trade and Industry (DTI) issued regulations requiring reporting system (DENR, DTI, PIA, DOTCILTO, private
sector, NGOs);and
importers to submit a certificate that the imported vehi-
estabiishmentof an effective publjcawareness program;
cles have passed the emission standards of the country of and capacity building and institutionaldevelopment programs
origin or the Philippines, whichever is higher. Once in of various stakeholders,and studies of health impact.
use, these vehicles aresubject to annual emissions testing
prior to renewal of registration. The Land Transportation
Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB) has also
adopted the policy of canceling the franchise of vehicles Broadening education and communication. The
proven to be repeat offenders of emissions standards. DENWEMB and other agencies have launched
information, education, and communicatiol~
Promoting cleaner fuels. Renewable and indigenous to raise public awareness about air pollution.
.
d-!--. ,:;7:: ,
cleaner fuels such as natural gas, solar energy, hydro, "'</<.,', :. . -
geothermal, and wind power are being promoted. The Expanding private se'cf$r role. Tlie private
-
Government is developing capacity to produce renewa- also taken proactive action to address air pollution.
ble energy applications through a UNDPIGEF US$6 Noteworthy is the initiative of the San Miguel Corpora-
million grant. This will be followed up by a WBIGEF- tion (SMC) that started an emissions testing program in
supported rural electrification program. 1993 in one of its breweries. Vehicles that failed emis-
sions tests were prohibited from entering the premises of
Advancing cleanerprodsrction. The DENR and the thePo10 Brewery and in transacting business. Since then,
Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) have SMC and other establishments have adopted emissions
adopted a policy to shift the focus from pollution control testing as a corporate policy and implemented it in all
or end-of-thc-pipe solutions to pollution prevention and their facilities throughout the country.
 GOVERNMENTICIVIL SOCLETYPIUVATE SECTOR

Continuing involvement of civil society. Civil society Government agencies and trade associations are
has been an important partner in environmental undertaking pilot initiative such as the Green Vehicle
protection programs in the Philippines, and successive Program and Jeepney Engine Remanufacturing and
governments have recognized its role. Reconditioning Project to reduce air pollution caused
by the transport sector.
Concerned Citizens Against Pollution (COCAP) is
active in advocacy work, includingpublic demonstra-
tions. COCAP has raised public awareness about air
pollution, lobbied for the passage of CAA and for its
implementation.
I Box 5. Pedal power in Marikina! I
Recent traffic counts reveal that a third of the trips undertaken in
Bantay Kalikasan gathered five million signa- the metropolis are shorter than two kilometers (1.2 miles) in
tures nationwide to push for the passage of CAA. It is distance, which contribute significantly to both congestion and
the first NGO deputized to conduct roadside enforce- pollution. This short distance is ideal for travel by bicycles. Many
residents of Metro Manila are becoming biking enthusiasts, but
ment. It is also implementing aBantay Usokproject to lack of facilitiesand bicycle lanes keep many more off the roads.
encourage people to report gross polluters using text
messaging, email, fax or phone. The City of Marikina in Metro Manila is pioneering non-motorized
transport with the participation of citizens groups like the Firefly
A recent program called "Schools for Clean Air", Brigade. With part funding provided by the Global Environmental
led by Miriam Public Education and Awareness Facility (GEF) through The World Bank, the city is implementing
a US$1.3million project to construct 66 kilometers of bicycle
Campaign for the Environment (Miriam PEACE,
lanes. The first phase was recently commissioned, and this
supported other NGOs, government agencies, anc innovative approach should s e w as a model for other LGUs in
I
private sector, to raise awareness about air quality the metropolis and elsewhere to replicate. This would enable
i~the
management amongschools of Metro Manila. local governments in the Philippines to contributeto the country's

-:# The Green Forum and the Firefly BriguJe have

commitmenl to contain local and global pollution, by
encouraging a shift to an environmentally friendly mode of
transport.

';t
taken the lead in highligbting the need for more
sustainable transport. In the two d i e s where The World Bank has supported non-
motorized transporl (NMT) investments Lima, Peru and Leon,
Advancing multi-sectoral cooperation. Recognizing Nicaragua the modal share of NMT is reported to have
the fact that improving air quaiity requires conce~ted increased.
efforts by different stakeholders, several multi-sectoral
initiatives, including the following, have mcently been
undertaken:
The Sustainable Transport Network aims to identify
and develop policies and octionplans needed to make
transportation more sustainable. Composed of NGOs
under the leadership of Green Forum, the private
sector and DOTC, it advocates for more nm-
motorized transport (see Box 5), more pedestrian
areas, and extensive mass transit systems.
The Parhemhip for Clean Air (Pa) building
, on
the success of the Lead Free Coslitioo, serves as the
facilitator, coardinrtor, and discussion fwum far
various a w a r ~ s - n i s i n gactivities to i m p m air
quality. l t m i n t a i m a website (www.hmgip.org)
which savts IS the ccmprebenaive informlfion m-
ter forlaw%, dus, regulatiutw, and clean airnew.
 7
MANAGEMENT

LEGISLATION lities for air quality management to specific agencies

(Figure 22). These responsibilities are further clarified
The Philippine Constitution (Article 11 Section 16) of by CAA. A description of core agencies and their func-
1986 stipulates that the State shall protect and advance tions follow. However, cooperation among different
the people's right to a balanced and healthful ecology. agencies remains low.
The Philippines has an extensive body of environmental
legislation, and regulations that provide the legal bases
for policies and programs related to air quality manage-
Figure 22, Institutional arrangements
ment.

PresidentialDecree 984, Pollution Control Law (1976).

Provides guidelines for the control of air and water
pollution from industrial sources and sets penalties for
violations. It requires all polluters to secure permits fkom
the environmental agency.

Presidential Decree 1151, Environmental Policy (1978).

Recognizes the right of the people to a healthy environ-
ment.

Presidential Decree 1152, Philippine Environmental

Code (1978). Provides guidelines on landuse, air quality,
water quality, waste management and natural resources
management. Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR). The lead agency responsible for air quality
Presidential Decree 1586, Envlronme~talImpact management in the country. Its responsibilities are set out I
(1978).Mandatesthat -. in CAA. A board for each designated airshed
-. -

mpact statements be issued for all new investments ~ . r d'

- -h'formulates policies and standards subject to national '
ertaken by thegovernment and the private sector. '
laws. It is responsible for pt~blishingan annual Air
cutive Order 192 (1987). Established the Depart- Quality Status Report for the airshed. The board is
nent of Environment andNatural Resources headed by the DENR Secretary and composed of
representatives from local governments (governors,
Republic Act 7160, Local Government Code (1991). mayors), each concerned government agency, people's
Devolves functions of some national agencies to local organizations, and the private sector. The Environmen-
government units. One of these is the roadside enforce- tal Management Bureau (EMB) serves as the technical
nent ofvehicularemissions standards. arm of DENR.

Republic Act 8749, Clean Air Act of 1999. A compre- Department of Transportation and Communication
?ensive air pollution management and control program (DOTC). Responsible for implementing emissions
limed to achieve and maintain a healthy air as described standards for motor vehicles, set by the Act. DOTC can
n Box 6 . This Act repeals Presidential Decree 1181, and deputize other law enforcement agencies and LGUs for
-1artly modifies Presidential Decrees 1 152. 1586, and this purpose. It also authorizes private emissions testing
984. centers duly accredited by DTI, implements the motor
vehicle inspection system, and imposes and collects
INSTITUlrONS emission fees. It carries out emissions testing for vehicle
type approval with LTO and under the supervision of
Several laws and regulations have assigned responsibi- DENR.
 B o x 6, Implementation progress o f the Clean Air Act, 1999
The Clean Air Act was passed by the House of Representativesand the Senate in May 1999, and signed into law by the President on June
23,1999, with the aim of providing a comprehensiveair pollution control policy for the country. The Implementing Rules and Regulations
(IRR) were published on November10,2000 and the law thus became effectiveon November25,2000. The scorecardbelow assesses the

nths DENR and LGUs are required to fter a year. No LGU

report on the extent of pollution in the country, analyze and evaluate

current trends and projections, identify critical areas, activities, or
projects, and make recommenda(ions knecessary action and other
 1
MANAGEMENT
L LEGISLATION/INSTITUTION/BUDGET,
Land Transportation Office (LTO) of the DOTC. and local government levels is difficult to estimate as all
Responsible for roadside inspection, emissions tests for activities are aggregated. For 2002, the Government has
type approval and renewal of registration. appropriated PhP5,433 million (US$l10 million) for
DENR. This is about 0.009 percent of the total national
Department of Energy (DOE). Sets specifications for budget. From this budget, EMB, which is tasked to
all fuel types and fuel-related products, which are then handle brown issues pertaining to air, water, solid and
established by the Bureau of Product Standards as toxic waste pollution, has been allocated PhP362 million
Philippine National Standards. DOE is also responsible (US$7 million and 6.6 percent of total DENR budget).
for the exploration and development of clean and EMB's central office and its 15 regional offices share this
alternative energy. budget.
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). Respon-
sible for certifying institutions to train individuals in
vehicle and industrial emissions control technologies. It
I Box 7. LGU initiative for motorcycles
Recently, LGUs have undertaken the following initiatives to
I
is also responsible for maintaining national motor reduce motorcycle pollution:
vehicle standards, and regulations for second hand a Moratorium on registration of two-stroke tricycles the
vehicles. City of Makati has been successful in promoting cleaner
and fuel efficient four-stroke motorcyclesfor tricycles.
Financing and limiting vehicle age, the Mayor of San
Department of Health (DOH). Monitors indoor pollu- Fernando City, Province of La Union has convinced 200
tion and conducts studies on the health impacts. The drivers to convert lo four-strokes wilhout any financial
Department chairs the Inter-agency Committee on assistance from the clty. May ban 1970s model by 2003,
Environmental Health. and 1980s models by2004.
I a Information dissemination - the Clean Air Initiative in Asia
...--h.
o r p a r t m e n t of 5
c l e ~ ( D o s
(CAI-Asia)held a regional workshop. The Partnership for
~ Clean Air in Manila has organized a technical working
Conducts research and development program with group to investigate the extent of the problem and find
DENR for the prevention and control of air pollution. technical and financial alternatlves.
DQST is also responsible for funding research on air a Through the Partnership for Clean Air, a large group of
stakeholders is testing the feasibility of liquefied
pollution control technologies. petroleumgas (LPG) as fuel and converting the fuel
delivery system to direct injection to address the problem
Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astro- of,two-strokeengines.
nomical Service Administration (PAGASA). Res-
ponsible for monitoring meteorological factors affecting
environmental conditions. Of the 1,176,022 regular employees of the national
government, 1.8 percent works in DENR. EMB has 599
Local Government Units (LGUs). Share responsibility technical and administrative staff at the central and
for the management and maintenance of air quality regional levels. There are 113 technical and administra-
within their territory. LGUs are also responsible for tive staff at EMB in Metro Manila responsible for envi-
issuing franchises to tricycles in their areas of jurisdic- ronmental management. In other regions, the total tech-
tion and enforcement ofemissions standards (See Box 7). nical and administrative EMB personnel range from 1 1 to
29 staff per region.
Metropelitan Manila Development Authority
(MMDA). Responsible for environmental considera- M M D A i s implementing an anti-smoke belching
tions, including air qual.ity, that impact across LGU program and coordinating the efforts of all the 17 LGUs
territorial boundaries in Metro Manila. in the me&opolis. For 2002, MMDA has allocatedPhP38
million (US$760,000)specifically for its air quality
BUDGET management activities. This is about 2.3 percent of the
The budget for air quality management at thenational entire MMDA b ~ d g e t . ' ~

'OBudget of MMDA br 200 I PW2,003,5 16,000.

 The Philippines needs to improve its air quality manage- for aromatics and benzene are high by international
ment record. CAA, and pre-existing laws and regulations standards, and specification for other compounds
need to be implemented immediately. Poor air quality in like olefins are yet to be established. Similarly, the
urban centers, (e.g., Metro Manila), not only harms sulfur content of automotive diesel is currently 2,000
human health and productivity, but also deters tourism ppm, and CAA requires that this level be reduced to
and foreign investment. Based on the foregoing analysis 500 ppm by 2004, the norm widely used by many
and feedback received during discussions and consulta- countries currently.
tions carried out for the preparation of this Monitor, the
following key challenges emerged. These include Four-stroke motorcycles. The Philippines lags
actions needed in the immediate to short-term to arrest behind most of its neighbors in the shift toward
the problem in hotspots like Metro Manila; and longer- cleaner and fuel-efficient four-stroke motorcycles
term reforms required for improving the functioning of (Table 9). Two-stroke motorcycles dominate the
institutions and instruments. market in the Philippines, and there a r e f e w
incentives to change consumer preference to four-
Targeting particulate matter reduction in Metro strokes which are priced similarly. Regulations and
Manila. Ambient lead levels are down, and SO, levels incentives could include stricter emissions standards
are on the decline, but PM levels continue to exceed for new and in-use vehicles, age limits, limiting new
guidelines at most locations in Metro Manila. Therefore, registrations to cleaner motorcycles, and improving
controlling PM pollution should be the country's access to financing schemes for poor tricycle owners
immediate priority. This action will bring immediate
,
benefits to over a fifth of the country's 70 million people.
..+. Many Asian capitals such as Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur,
Seoul, and Taipei havesuccessfilly reduced ambient PM Tabie 9. Share of new four-stroke
levels in recent years. Political will, resulting from motorcyc~s
growing public pressure, has forced national govern-
ments to introduce tough measures, which ate beginning
to have public health pay-offs. SimilarIy, the Philippines
can introduce a number of low-cost measures, but these China
would require sustained political commitment. An
initial listing of such control measures follows. India
Philippines
Inspection and maintenance (UM) of high use
vehicles. Stricter inspection and maintenance
requirements for diesel vehicles (especially the high
miIeage commercisl fleet) are a cost-effective way
of reducing PM emissions. DOTC already has plans Garbage disposal. A large portion of the municipal
to establish I/M centers through long-term con- solid waste is currently burned. As noted in the
cessions to private sector operators at an estimated Philippines Environment Monitor 2001, there is m
I cost ofPkP8.6 (US$i60 million). Initially, there will urgent need for the government to promote waste
I be 28 inspection lanes, which will be expanded to recycling, composting, and sanitary land filling of
100 lanes, with the capacity to inspect 6.7 million municipal solid waste along with public education to
I \ :hicles by 2007. This ambitious plan should focus
prevent open burning.
on high-use and diesel vehicles first. Using catal'ic converters in motor vehicles. In
Gasoline and diesel fuels standards need to be Metro Manila, CO, NO, and 0, levels are at times above
reviewedandrevised. The proposed limits in CAA the guidelines and are on the rise. Experience worldwide
 -
SEVEN CHALLENGES 1
has shown that using catalytic converters in gasoline cars speeds, thus reducing pollution, and providing safe road
drastically and most cost-effectively, reduces CO, HC, space for pedestrians and those using non-motorized
and NO,. Even though lead has been completely phased transport.
out, setting the stage for the introduction of catalysts,
Priority lanes in traffic management. Streamlining
current vehicle emissions regulations are lax and do not
traffic management and introducing solutions
require the use of catalytic converters. A catalytic
proven to work in other countries should be an
converter for a gasoline car costs approximately U S 2 0 0
immediate priority for MMDA's traffic planners.
per unit, while the environmental benefits of emissions
The introduction of bus, jeepney and public trans-
reductions outweigh this cost, and more importantly,
port priority lanes; the use of high occupancy vehicle
shift the burden to thepolluters.
(HOV) lanes; and the provision of adequate side-
%improving Public Transports and TrafJic Manage- walks and bicycles lanes (see Box 5 for details), will
ment. A ride through Metro Manila traffic is a challeng- encourage people to use public transport, carpool,
ing experience that tests one's patience. Traffic snarls, bicycle or simply walk shorter distances. Some
undisciplined motorists, and belching vehicles are a capital cities like Santiago, Chile have successfully
common site, together with overflowing bus stops. Daily introduced such measures, and seen a reduction in
traffic jams are indicative of the inefficiency of public pollution by as much as 1 0 percent for s o m e
transport and the explosive growth of private vehicles in pollutants.
the metropolis. It is estimated that daily motorized trips Light Rail Transit (LRT). Two LRT lines are
will nearly double between 1996 and 2015 (Table 10). currently operating, while another one is under
&& w o n s t r u c t i o n . The two are operating at capacity and
recorded 550,000 daily users in 2001. However,

+
Table 10. Daily motorized trips between 1996-2015 LRT accounts for less than five percent of the trips

I II
made daily in Metro Manila. The Government
Trips (milllonlday)
should consider introducing measures that will
.Ode
10.3 \/Y70) L0.Y (M)Yo'/o)
I incrtaseLRT capacity to increase ridership.

Private 4.7 (21%) 14.8 (34%) b ~ m p l e m e n t a t i o nof the ~ l e a n ~ i r ~ c tenactment

The .
Total 23.2 43.7 of CAA after eight years of debate and discussion is the
Increase (%) 88 first building block in the long-term integrated approach
to air quality management. The challenge now is its
Source: Metm Manik Trampodationand TmtYic SRvabn stud^ 1996.
implementation. Thus far, actions have been slow and
scattered, and have not met expectations. Government
The use of private vehicles, is expected to increase by agencies lack the capacity and the budget to implement
nearly three-fold, while the share of public transport ia the law and numerous regulations. Many strategic plans
anticipated to shrink to 66 percent from the current 80 have been drafted but not implemented.
percent. Ifthese projections hold, then the implications
Stakeholder commitment.The consultative process
for air pohtion are very serious. Even th+ targeted
actions to reduce emissions will lead to gains in the and politica1 commitment that was employed during
immediak- to short-teraz, in the long-term, Metro Manila the preparation of CAA should be continued through
needs to improve the coverage andeficiency of its public its implementation. There is clearly a need to
transportsystem to ensure sustained improvements in air improve awareness about CAA, since two-thirds of
quality. In addition, with ever-larger numbers of vehicles the population is not evenaware of the Act.
on the road, traffic management should become an Stafing and capacity. There is an urgent need to
immediate priority. The Government may be able to strengthen the capacity of core agencies responsible
focus on easing congestion and increasing vehicle for air quality management. The main agencies -
I
 SEVEN CHALLENGES
-

EMBIDENR, DOH, and DOE - must overcome the Despite years of anti-smoke belching campaigns, a
shortages of personnel, equipment, and technical solution is yet to be found for the problem ofpollution
know-how. The problem is more acute at the regional
and local levels. The private sector is similarly
Box 8. Costing the implementation of the Clean Air Act
understaffed, with nearly 70 p e r c e n t of the
enterprises which participated in the KAP survey No attempt has so far been made to fully cost the
indicating that they have not appointed a Pollution implementation of CAA or the associated economic benefits.
However, 'project- mode" estimates have been made for a
Control Officer, as mandated by law. limited number of actions. Some are to be financed by the
comprehensive Metropolitan Manila Air Quality lrnprovement
Outsourcing. A potential solution that is being tried
Sector Development Project (MMAQISDP) supported by ADB.
is the outsourcing of some technical functions to the
private sector and universities. This is being imple-
mented for selected programs with the statutory
agencies maintaining overall control ofthe activities.
Results of these activities may create a new partner-
ship for environment management, and also enable
the achievement of some of the immediate goals of Intensive enforcement of industrial
CAA.
Funding.The fill cost of implementing CAA is yet to
be compiled. An initial estimate has been made for
implementing some actions (Box 8). A rough
extrapolation from these estimates indicates that the
country will need to spend at least PhP25 billion
(US$5Mrnillion) over l e next I0years to realize the
goals of CAA. Although PhP750 million (US$15
x=- - - million) has been set aside for the initial implementa-
tion of CAA, the amount is yet to be allocated in
government budget appropriations. Adequate When extrapolatedtocover current and future requirements and
annual appropriations are needed to ensure the expanded to undertake countrywide activities, these are
estimated to be at least PhP25billion (US$500million) between
sustainability ofactjons.
2000 and 2010. This is a huge amount, but the benefits (reduced
hospital admissions, reduced deaths, and improved
productivity) are likeiy to far exceed these costs.
penalties. Thee-fourthsof the genml public ie & m e d
at air pollution and a clear majority supports enforce-
caused by diesel vehicles such as buses, jeepneys, utility
ment of rules. There is a need to design and pilot creative
vehicles, and trucks. Stricter maintenance along with
policies for tnforcemcnt as current practices are ineffec-
harmonization of standards for vehicles and fuel are
tive. Effective implementation may require tougher
required. Similarly, substantial sanctions for non-
penalties not just for the offenders but also for the
compliance must be enforced.
regulators. Options that could be considered include: (i)
public d i s c l o m ofknownpolluters, polluted areas and &lnlproving air quality management. A systematic
performance of regulators; (ii) fwding sanctions for approach is needed to integrate monitoring and analyti-
L G U s not acting to control polluters in their jurisdic- cal capacity with decision-making. Monitoring is spotty
tions; and (iii) application of market-based economic and unreliable, analysis of monitoring data is very
instruments. These approaches have proven effective in limited or non-existent, and consequently policy making
other countries. is tentative.
 SEVEN CHALLENGES 1
Monitoring. Air quality monitoring, the foundation Health causality. The effects of air pollution on
for decision-making, is sporadic and lacks quality human health and ambient air quality, especially the
control. A transparent and systematic ambient moni- costs of damage to health, productivity, and linkages
toring system is needed in the Philippines. As prog- with poverty need to be further established and
ress is made in controlling obvious and large sources publicized. Health impact costs are still based solely
of pollution, and eliminating visible pollutants such on estimated pollution and exposure and not con-
as smoke and dust, new challenges are already on the firmed by epidemiological surveys. Once the magni-
horizon. Levels of fine particulates, ozone, and toxic tude of damage is publicly known, the public will
hydrocarbons are on the rise and will need even more demand that polluters pay for the controls and there
complex monitoring systems, technical understan- will be political support for continual actions.
ding, and analysis.
?~ovin~ public awareness to participation.
Emissions inventories. Basic and essential informa- While some people are aware of air pollution and many
tion, such as an emissions inventory for major non-governmental and citizens groups are advocating for
sectors, and source contribution to human exposure cleaner air, public perception surveys show that majority
are outdated, (the last one was done in 1990 for Metro are dissatisfied with the government's response. Civil
Manila) and not even available for other cities. Large society and the private sector have an important role to
uncertainties in the estimates that are available make play, but must have access to the necessary information.
analysis and drafting of action plans difficult. The Without reliable information and active involvement, the
role of area sources, such as wastes, and agricultural public assumes air quality management to be purely a
and forest burning, is unknown and needs to be government function. They do not know and recognize
quantified and control options identified. However, the need and utility of their participation. Without public .
for the immediate term, control measures should
focus on particulate reduction in Metro Manila,
knowledge and demand for specific actions, political
-h, C!

9
- 1 +.
m
action will continue to lag behind the rhetoric. There I

where the problem is most severe. In order to clevis#- should be systematic collaboration and consensus buil-

& a targeting strategy, in the interim, a source inventory

for Metro Manila should be done and a source
apportionment analysis conducted as a matter of
ding across sectors, and among affected stakeholders, to
get agreements on priorities and adoptable measures.

.. Urgency.
 GLOSSARY OF T E W
C

Abatement: Thereductionor elimination ofpollution. Exposure: The concentration of the pollutant in the air
Adverse health effect: A health effect from exposure to air multiplied by the population exposed to that concentration over
contaminants that may range from relatively mild temporary a specified time period.
conditions, such as eye or throat irritation, shortness of breath, Greenhouse gas: A gas, such as carbon dioxide or methane,
or headaches to permanent and serious conditions, such as which contributes to potential climate change.
birth defects, cancer, or damage to lungs, nerves, liver, heart, or
other organs. Hydrocarbons: Compounds containing various combinations
of hydrogen and carbon atoms. These may be emitted into the
Airshed: An airshed has similarities in climate, meteorology,
and topology that could affect the interchange and diffusion of air by natural sources (e.g., trees) and as a result of fossil and
pollutants in the atmosphere, or those areas, which share vegetative fuel combustion, fuel volatilization, and solvent use.
common interest or face similar development programs, Hydrocarbons are amajor contributor to smog.
prospects, or problems Indoor air pollution: Air pollutants that occur within buil-
Air quality monitoring: Sampling for and measuring of dings or other enclosed spaces, as opposed to those occurring in
pollutants present in the atmosphere. outdoor, or ambient air. Some examples ofindoor airpollutants
Air pollution: Degradation of air quality resulting from are nitrogen oxides, smoke, asbestos, formaldehyde, and
unwanted chemicals or other materials occurring in the air. carbon monoxide.
Air quality standards: The level of pollutants prescribed by Mobile sources: Sources of air pollution such as automobiles,
regulations that are not to be exceeded during a given time in a motorcycles, trucks, off-road vehicles, boats, and airplanes.
defined area. Morbidity: Rate ofdisease incidence.
Alternative fuels: Fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural Mortality: Death rate.
gas, and liquid petroleum gas that are cleaner burning. These
fuels may be used in place of less clean fuels for powering
motor vehicles.
I. Ambient air quality standards: Health- and welfare-based
A one depletion: Destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer
at shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation harmful to life.
is destruction of ozone is caused by the breakdown of certain
chlorine andforbromine containing compounds (chloroftuorro-

3
standards for outdoor air that identify the maximum acceptable
average concentrations of air pollutants during a specified carbons or halons), which break down when they reach the
period oftime. stratosphere and then destroy ozone molacules.
Barangay: Pilipino term used to describe a community or PM,,: Includes tiny particles with an aerodynamic diameter
village; also the s~nallest
political unit in the country. less than or equal to a nominal 2.5 microns. This fraction of
Benzeee: An aromatic hydrocarbon that is produced by the particulatematter penetrates most deeply into the lungs.
burning ofnaturalproducts like c o d and petroleum. PM,,: Particulates smaller than 10 microns. Small particulates
Carbon diexlde (Cob: A colorless, odorless rhat occurs are of special concern because of their ability to penetrate deep
naturally in the errth'n atma~phcrc.Sigtdiiant quantities iitre into the lungs andcause major health impacts.
also m i t t d i n t o the air by fossil fuelcombustion. Pollutant: Generally, any substance introduced into the
Chlorofluo~earbons(CFCs): A M y of inat, nontoxic, environment that adversely affects the usefulness of a resource
and easily liquefied chemicals used in refrigcrntiora, air or the health ofhumans, animals, or ecosystems.
conditioning, packagfng, insulation, or as solvents r ~ d ~ m o e o ~
Smog: A combination of smoke and other particulates, ozone,
prupellants. C F G are not destroyed in the l m e r atmosphere
and just drift into the upper atmosphcfe wbae their chIorine hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and o&w th.amlcilIy reaotivt
components destroy theozone. compounds which, under certain cotlditiw ofweather m d
sunlight, may result in a murky brown haze t h ' c m adverse
~
Climate change (also referred to as global climate change): health effects.
Used to imply a sigiftcant change fiom one climatic canditioo
to andher. In some cases, 'climate c h g e ' fins been used Stationary sour*: N o d k s o u r e e s such a s . p m p p l l b ~
rynonymousty witb the term, globd warming; scientists s emit ai&Jlutants.
refineries, and m a m 4 c ~ f a d l i t i ethat
however, tend to use the term in the wider s e a t ~ talso
o include Total suspended partlmlnw PSP): Fine l-lqphl~rso118
natural changes in climate.
particles such as 4##,1&mi@$me6~ or m o ~ l b u n in
d
Emission stmulard: ~ m l l x i m u m ~ t o f ~ p o l l u tthat
ant or emissions. l % & o i ~ ~ , m d ~ ~ , , .
is dlowed to be discharged from a polluting source such as an
putomobileor smoke stack.
Exceedance: A measured level of an air pollutant higher than Source: Adaptedfrom variousair qualityglossaries.
the national or state ambient air quality standards.
 Organization Website address Description & contents

Department of Environment and Provides comprehensive overview of the programs and

www.denr.gov.phl projects that help protect,preserve, and enhance the natural
Natural Resources (DENR) resourcesof the Philippines.

I EnvironmentalManagement
Bureau (EMB)
Focuses on the laws and decrees for varlous aspects of the
environment, e.g.,air, hazardous waste, water, etc.

Features comprehensive information on the laws, pollution

facts, and latest news related to pollution. It also gives an
Partnership for Clean Air (PCA) www.hangin.orglhomelindex.html overview of ongoing projects and provides to various
organizations, and environment-related NGOs in the
Philippines.

Manila Observatory One of the objectives of this institution is to help measure

pollutants but the site is currently under construction.

Resource Center for Provides links to Philippine civil society groups and
Environment and Sustainable www.philngo.com/rcesdl .htm international institutions that implement sustainable
Development development.

Philippine Business for Social ~.uwint.orglphilippineslphilippinespbsp. Provides information to promote business sector commit-
Progress hlml ment tosocial development.
t

lncludes a mprehensbe U of all the pnc6tibners I

The Environmental Broadcast www.sdvillage.phlebc/ and eduudm who provide the public with informationon the
. environmentand sustainable devdopment.
,.'I-,- -

".- ,~cial Weather Station www.sws.org.phl Provide8 survey information based on social monitoring.
r I
Provldes a very c a n p r e h d v e crwriew of environment
ABien Devdopmenl Bank (ADB) but focuses more cxl transport-relatedpollution.
I I
Provides information on all toplcs under air quality
an!!! Air in~tiatke(The World management and also the linkages to various ongoing
www.worMbank.orglcleanairlca~as~al environment activities in the region. It has discussion space
Bank, ADB, and others)
aimed to exchange ideas on various topics affecting the
region.

Firefly Brigade www.fireflybrigade.org/ Provides extensive infomation on the use of bicycles as an

alternative mode of transport to protectthe environment

I United NationsDevelopment
Programme (UNDP) www.undp.orglenergyfindex.htm1 I Provides information on energy and environment In relation
to sustainable development.

-.-,.__
I
I US-Asia Environmental
Partnership (US-AEP)
I
I Provides links to recent devdqment iri en'&nm&ni
ownprqects in the region. -
and its
I
US-EnvironmentalProtection Provides extensive informationavailableon ail technical and
Agency (USEPA) www.ga .govl legalaspectsof env'mment indudingair pollution.,

I Industrial Initiatives for

Sustainable Development (IISE)
I I
w\~w.iise.orgliilindex.hM
Focuses an cleaner prodtrctlon practices with special
emphasison the coastd areas. I
World Health Organization Provides extensive information on all technical sspects of
' 0 0 environmental healthhchdinp air pollution and WHO
(WHO)
 This Monitor is a joint effort of several government agencies, private sector, and civil society organizations at both the
national and local levels. The valuable contributions of people who provided assistance in the preparation of this Monitor
are acknowledged. The contribution, cooperation, and participation ofthe following are appreciated.

Government Agencies: Civil Society:

Department of Energy ABS-CBN Bantay Kalikasan
Letty Abella, Ricardo Infante, Joannie Feliciano, Charles Feliz Simbillo,
Zenaida Monsada Jane Foronda
Department of Environment and Natural Resources Federation of Jeepney Operators and Drivers
Jose Locarta, Jr, Marissa Cruz Association of the Philippines
Department of Health Jose Velasco
Dr. Cristina Galang, Desiree Narvaez, Green Forum
Dr. Mario Yillaverde, Dr. Ferdinand Salcedo Sam Ferrrer
Environmental Management Bureau Manila Observatory
Julian Amador; Erlinda Gonzales, Cesar Siador; Khervin Cheng Chua, Jose Villarin
Jannet Yanto, Elenida Basug, Winnie Passe, Miriam Public Education and Awareness Campaign I
Joy Goco, Adelaida B. Roman for the Environment
Metropolitan Manila Development Authority Ma. Teresa Oliva, Yolanda Princesa
Ramon Santiago, Donato de la Cruz, Mother Earth Ltd.
Rogelio Uranza Sonia S. Medoza . I

Antipolo City Hall Partnership for Clean Air d L . . .- ..-

Anna Marie Aquino Jojie Manalaysay, Brian Gonzafes

-
1
, ,
I;.
Local Government of Sorsogon LI$'-%-
.* M y o r Sally Lee
;?; ,
I
#'hilippine Greens
Roberto Verzola-. %-
-
P National Center for Transport Studies -
b- I
r
Private Sector: I

Air & Waste Manag ero Waste Recycling Movement of the Philippines
Cesar Pacheco I

Motorcycle Development Program Participants Gloria Asper

Associations Inc. I

Mat Ocenar
Pennoni Phils. Inc. I
Cynthia Nazario
%lippine Chsmber of Commerce md Industry
Grace Mowlla
VMS TecbnoIogies, Inc.
Krgilio Lava, JK

Donors:
Asian Development Bank
Anabel Abuzo, Warren Evans, Yue-Lung Feng,
Charles Melhuish, Elly Owano
International Council for Local Environmental
Initiatives-Cities for Climate Protection Campaign
Mahallah Adalia
Swisscontact
Archimedes Dim, Ernesto Ellis, JI:
 PHILIPPINES AT A GLANCE '
I Society Economy
b
Capital ............................................................................
Mania GDP-real growth rate .................................................3.9%
b
Population ......................................................................
76.5 M GDP ........................................................................
a
3,322.6B
ch GDP-COMPOSITION BY SECTOR
Population growth rate................................................. 2.32%
Birth rate ...................................... . . births/l,000 populationci Agriculture...................................................... 16%
Death rate ................................... 6 5 deaths11 , 0 0 0 ~ o ~ u l a t i o n ~ ' Industry ......... ......................................31%
Net migration rate ..................I .03 migrants11, 0 0 0 ~ o ~ u l a t i o n ~ ' Services .............. . . ....................................... .53%
Sex ratio ............................................... Orna~e/female~ percap capita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0'
~~~~lfertility rate ........................... 3.6 childrenbor&womanc GNP-real growth rate ................................ .. .
( ~ b ~ ~ 3~7 , 5~ % G
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t y ................................... ~ N P~...............................................................
~ ~ ~ t y ~ i ~ PhP3,302,6B ~ ) b

ercent) b
Urban population (% oftotal population) ....................56.9%cJ (In p
l n f a n t m o r t a l i ~rate .............32 deaths/l ,000 live birthsc(1998) Gross domestic investment1GDP ............... . ...........18.8

-
under-five m o r t a l i ~ rate..44 deaths/l ,000 live birthsc( 1 998) Exports ofgoods and services1GDP.............................5 1.3
if^ expectancyat birth (both sexes) ......................68.3 yearsch Gross domestic savings1GDP.......................................14.6
child malnutrition (% ofchildren below 5) ....................28%ck Gross national savings1GDP.......................................20.7
d
Access to safe water (% of p o p u l a t h ) ..............................3 % Inflation rate(consumer~rices)................................4.4%
d
Adult literacy rate (% of papuiatlon age I§+) ... 04.80/rCJ Labor force...............................................................48.4 M
d
Participation rate ......................................................64.3'?40
1
Geography 1 Employment by sector (In % total employmentf
Agriculture........................................................... 40. 1%
Location: Southeastern n s l a , archipelago between the
Governmentand social services...........................19.5%
Philippinesea a-ndtheSouth China Sea, east of Vietnam
Services........................................................... ..44.2%
Area Total ........................................ 3 0 0 O s q krn
Manufacturing....................................................... .9.5%
Land ......................................... 298,170sq

3'
Construction........ . . . . ........................................5.3%
Water ........................................... 1,830sq
Land bapndaries .................................................. 0 km
Uncmp~oyrnent.......................................................... LO. IMJ
d
Unempleyment €ate.................................................. 11.1 ?4
Carntline ..................................................... 36,289 km
Budget'
CEimah:Tropical marine;northeast monsoan (November to
Programmed public expenditure(2001). ...........PhP700B
April); sonthw~stmonsacm(Mayto October)
Local government programmed expenditure......PhP128B
&levatlon extremes
Lowestpamt: ...................Philippine Sca:Om Industries: Textiles, pharmaceuticals,chemicals, wood
Hdcstpoint: ................. Mount Apo: 2,954m products, food processing,electronics assembly,
N a t u d resources: timber, petroleum, nickel, cobalt, siiver, Petroleum refining,fishing
gold, d t , copptr Industrip1 production growth rate ......................... ...
5%
b
,(I.
Laad me Agriculture-products: Rice, coconuts, corn, supwane,
Arable M: ............................................ .19% bananas, piacsapples,mmgwr;
F m e n t mps: ..................................... 12%

-
patLeg~beef,fish
Pcmentpumres: ..-....,.-.. ...,. 4% Espe!Wsfgiw& amctmWieU..................... ..PUI ,648-2~'
Fomsta zrnd mcmdIa.nd: ....... .,. ... ,-.-. w p mefmdsaduwicu.....,..... .......PhP I 3 Q d B b
msr:...................... -& ..-... a--. 19%' ~ r r v e r r i o a ~..,...,...
r a U~ S 1=PW.@%B~
w...
- . ........
.
8
.. .-.-....-..,... ........US$52#33 b
,,,...........u, I w ~ . p ~ ( P w ) = l ~ * m