Thermal Efficiency Guidelines For Boilers1

Guidelines on Best
Available Technologies
for Thermal Energy
Efficiency of Boilers in
Malaysia
Featuring best practices from the Food and Beverage sector
November, 2022
INTRODUCTION
Reducing energy use makes perfect business sense; it saves money, enhances corporate reputation and
helps everyone in the fight against climate change.
This document provides simple, effective advice to help businesses take action to reduce carbon
emissions, and the simplest way to do this is to use energy more efficiently. We introduce the main energy
savings opportunities for steam and high temperature hot water boilers, and demonstrate how simple
actions save energy, cut costs and increase profit margins.
Acknowledgments
The Carbon Trust and Cofreth wrote these guidelines based on an impartial analysis of primary and
secondary sources. The Carbon Trust and Cofreth would like to thank everyone that has contributed their
time and expertise during the preparation and completion of this report. Special thanks goes to:
This report was sponsored by the UK Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, under the UK-ASEAN
Low Carbon Energy Programme (LCEP). For the avoidance of doubt, this report expresses independent
views of the authors.
Who we are
We are a trusted, expert guide to Net Zero, bringing purpose led, vital expertise from the climate change
frontline. We have been pioneering decarbonisation for more than 20 years for businesses, governments
and organisations around the world.
We draw on the experience of over 300 experts internationally, accelerating progress and providing
solutions to this existential crisis. We have supported over 3,000 organisations in 50 countries with their
climate action planning, collaborating with 150+ partners in setting science-based targets, and supporting
cities across 5 continents on the journey to Net Zero.
The Carbon Trust’s mission is to

accelerate the move to a decarbonised future.
1
Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
1. Objectives of the Guidelines ............................................................................................ 4
1.1. Purpose of the Guidelines ....................................................................................5

1.2. Scope of the guidelines: why boilers? ................................................................5
1.3. Intended use of the guidelines .............................................................................6
1.4. Limitations of the guidelines ................................................................................6
2. Characteristics of Boilers................................................................................................. 7
2.1. Steam boilers .........................................................................................................8

2.2. Hot water boilers ....................................................................................................8
2.3. Sector relevance of boilers ...................................................................................9
2.4. Types of fuel used in boilers ................................................................................9
2.5. Low(er) carbon alternatives ................................................................................10
3. International best practice for boilers and heat generation processes ..................... 15
3.1. Boiler replacement ..............................................................................................16

3.2. Optimisation measures for boiler efficiency .....................................................17
3.3. Boiler efficiency benchmarks .............................................................................19
3.4. Energy savings opportunities in boilers and heat distribution ....................... 20
4. Best Available Energy Saving Technologies ............................................................... 23
4.1. Technology Assessment Methodology .............................................................24

4.2. BATs in Heat Generation Process......................................................................24
4.2.1. Heat Recovery Economiser ................................................................................24

4.2.2. Air Preheater .......................................................................................................26
4.2.3. Automated Blowdown Control System................................................................27
4.2.4. Oxygen Trim Control System ..............................................................................29
4.2.5. Deaerator for Feedwater .....................................................................................30
4.3. Heat Use Process.................................................................................................31
4.3.1. Condensate Recovery ........................................................................................31

4.3.2. Insulation of Flanges or Valves ...........................................................................32
4.3.3. Management of Steam Leak ...............................................................................34
4.3.4. Management of Steam Trap ...............................................................................35
4.3.5. Flash Steam Recovery........................................................................................38
4.4. Transformative low carbon solutions ................................................................39
4.4.1. Solar Thermal System ........................................................................................41

4.4.2. Electric Boiler ......................................................................................................41
5. Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 43
2
Abbreviations
BAT Best available technologies
COP Coefficient of performance
CHP Combined heat and power
EECA Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act
F&B Food and beverage
NG Natural gas
PPB Part per billion
PPM Part per million
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
3
INSERT SECTION HEADING/ TITLE
SECTION 1
Objectives of
the Guidelines
/ Title 3
1.1. Purpose of the Guidelines
As Malaysia seeks to regulate thermal energy consumption in industrial facilities through the Energy
Efficiency and Conservation Act (EECA), it is vital that companies begin to adopt best available
technologies that reduce their energy consumption and improve process efficiencies.
Boiler use is a significant contributor to total thermal energy consumption as they are commonly used in
industrial sectors where there is a continual demand for steam or hot water. Many boilers and their
distribution systems have been in place for years, even decades in facilities. Developments in modern
steam boiler technology mean that efficiencies are now significantly improved when compared to older
technologies.
This document seeks to support industrial facility managers to identify best practices in thermal energy
efficiency, specifically focusing on boilers, so that they are well-placed to adapt to changing energy
regulations in Malaysia.
1.2. Scope of the guidelines: why boilers?

Fossil fuel constituted 64.3% (12,173 ktoe) of Malaysia’s total energy consumption in 2019, while
electricity comprised 35.7% (6,748 ktoe). Figure 1 also illustrates the industry sector’s reliance on fossil
fuels to support production compared to electricity use. Realising the significance of thermal energy
management to national energy reduction and decarbonization initiatives, Malaysia is drafting the Energy
Efficiency and Conservation Act (EECA) to regulate energy users who consume 21,600 GJ/year and above
of combined electrical and thermal energy.
Figure 1: Final Energy Use in Industrial Sub-Sectors, 2016
3500
3000
2500
2000
ktoe
1500
1000
500
0
Iron & Steel Food, Beverages Chemical Pulp & Paper Textile and
& Tobacco Leather
Natural Gas Oil LPG Electricity
Boilers are a focus of this document as they represent a substantial amount of thermal energy
consumption in industry, and there is significant room to improve the average efficiency levels of boilers
currently in use. For example, energy audit data from a sample of 9 energy-intensive F&B facilities in 2021-
2022 noted that boiler efficiency ranges between 55% to 70%, which is the typical efficiency of the industry
without adoption of best available technologies (BAT).
5
1.3. Intended use of the guidelines
The guidelines have been prepared for energy managers and sustainability professionals at industrial
facilities, specifically those in the F&B industry, to use as a basis to identify the best available technologies
available for boilers and heat distribution systems that are well-placed to decarbonise production, while
providing energy and cost savings. It is intended that the recommendations and best practices on thermal
energy efficiency are adopted by industrial facilities so that they are better positioned to meet the
regulatory requirements of the upcoming EECA.
1.4. Limitations of the guidelines

The guidelines are based on findings from energy audits completed in 2021-2022 across 9 energy-
intensive facilities in the F&B sector, complemented with international best practices on industrial thermal
energy efficiency. It is important to note that metrics used to calculate the efficiency improvement
potential from adopting BATs is taken from the energy audit data collected from energy-intensive F&B
facilities only. Therefore, while the exact improvement potential from the adoption of BATs is expected to
vary for non-F&B sectors, the efficiencies of the BATs identified in the document should be a useful gauge
for facilities in any sector to use to inform energy efficiency related CAPEX decisions.
6
SECTION 2
Characteristics
of Boilers
/ Title 4
2.1. Steam boilers
There are many different types of boiler design and construction, but all boilers are derivatives of two
main types:
Shell type
Where the hot combustion gases pass down a tube and into subsequent bundles of tubes immersed
below water level. The heat from these gases is then transferred to heat the water to produce steam. Most
industrial steam and hot water boilers only require saturated steam for their process heating, and are
derivatives of the shell type, which are also referred to as ‘fire tube’ boilers. These shell type boilers are
popular in the food and beverage sector.
Water tube type
Where the water is contained in tubes and the hot combustion gases pass around them to heat the water
to produce steam. In either case, the heat must transfer across the surface of the tubes containing the
water or combustion gases.
Therefore, these tubes are made of materials with good heat-transfer properties. After use, the
combustion gases exit the boiler via a chimney known as flue. The output steam will be fed out of the
boiler into a steam header before distributing to various distribution system and finally to the point of use.
Pipes and fittings are well insulated to ensure personal safety and maintain efficiency. There are two types
of water tube boiler, one with higher pressure and steaming capacity steam used in large palm oil mills
while the other with lower pressure and small steaming capacity such as “once through water tube boiler”
are used in food industry.
Overall thermal efficiency will vary according to system configuration and the nature of the heat using
processes, however a combustion efficiency of ~84% is typically deemed good for a natural-gas
fuelled boiler.
2.2. Hot water boilers

There are three main types of hot water boiler: conventional, high-efficiency and condensing. These can
be used separately or combined together within systems.
Conventional
These are often cast iron and larger than other hot water boilers. Most use atmospheric burners, where
the air required for combustion is drawn from around the boiler through natural convection. Seasonal
energy efficiency levels are generally poor at <70%.
High-efficiency
These boilers have a low water content, a large heat exchanger surface area and increased insulation to
the boiler shell. They tend to be smaller than conventional hot water boilers and operate at efficiency
levels of up to ~82%.
Condensing
Even in modern high-efficiency hot water boilers, waste heat in the exhaust gases is lost to the
atmosphere via the boiler flue. Water vapour makes up some of these exhaust gases. In condensing
8
boilers, a second heat exchanger is used to extract much of the waste heat and return it to the system
allowing efficiencies of up to ~90% to be achieved for some low temperature systems.
The controls on hot water boilers set the required flow temperature of the water. If the return water is at
a lower temperature than required, the boiler must ‘fire’ to produce heat, i.e. it must burn fuel. The hot
combustion gases pass over the heat exchanger to heat the circulating water within and the resultant
hot water is distributed to the heating system via a circulating pump with the exhaust gases discharged
to the atmosphere via a flue.
2.3. Sector relevance of boilers

The sector and end-use relevance of steam and hot water boilers are illustrated in Table 1 and Table 2 1.
Hot water boilers are not as widely used as steam boilers as noted below.
Table 1: Sector relevance for steam and hot water boilers
Food, Cement and

Boiler Commodity Metals, machinery &
Temperature beverages non-metallic Chemical
Type production electronics
and tobacco mineral
Steam Medium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
boiler High ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Hot Medium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
water
boiler
High X X X X X
Table 2: End-use relevance for steam and hot water boilers
Other Other
Heating Firing / Melting /
Drying Evaporation Distillation processes processes
/ Boiling Sintering Casting
< 150C >150C
Steam
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓
boiler
Hot
water ✓ ✓ X ✓ X X ✓ X
boiler
Hot water boilers are seldom applicable for evaporation processes as this often utilizes properties of
steam, e.g. pressure control in injector. Hot water boilers will only be able to cover an insignificant share
of Other processes > 150 °C and is therefore not included as end-use relevancy.
2.4. Types of fuel used in boilers

There are a wide range of fuels used. Boilers commonly burn standard hydrocarbon fuels, such as natural-
gas, LPG, oil and coal, but some burn tallow or waste materials. Some boilers, known as dual-fuel boilers,
1 https://ens.dk/sites/ens.dk/files/Analyser/technology_data_catalogue_for_industrial_process_heat.pdf
9
can burn gas or oil which is useful in instances where an interruptible gas supply contract is held. Coal
burners can be a variety of designs mainly centring on how the coal is fed to the boiler and burnt.
Biomass boilers are becoming more popular. Biomass is any solid non-fossil-based organic fuel and
includes wood (either grown specifically as a fuel or as waste material), straw, types of grass and many
other organic by-products. The mechanisms for handling and burning fuel differ markedly for solid, liquid
and gaseous fuels, and the design of a boiler depends on the intended fuel type(s). However, as many of
the general principles for saving energy are the same, this guide does not distinguish between fuel types.
2.5. Low(er) carbon alternatives

In response to rising fuel costs and environmental concerns, an increasing number of companies are
seeking to incorporate and integrate a range of low and zero carbon technologies into their facilities in
order to reduce the thermal load and fuel usage by their boilers including those outlined below.
Solar thermal
Solar thermal systems use solar collectors to absorb energy from the sun and transfer it, using heat
exchangers, to heat water. For industrial process heating applications, solar thermal systems can be
used to provide hot water at temperatures of between 30°C and 300°C. Although a relatively mature
technology with enormous technical potential, it is massively under-exploited.
There are two main types of solar heating collector that are particularly suited to the 30°- 150°C hot
water temperatures commonly demanded in industry:
• Flat-plate collectors: These are relatively low cost and low maintenance and are suitable for
delivering thermal energy at between 30°C to 80°C. Construction typically comprises absorber
plates, insulation layers, recuperating tubes filled with a heat transfer medium, such as water or
water/glycol mixture, encased with glazing covers. The operation of the flat plate collector is
simple: when the solar irradiation hit the surface of the collector, the radiation passes through
the transparent glazing cover and reaches the absorber plate. The radiation is then absorbed by
the plate and converted into thermal energy which is then transferred to the heat transfer fluid.
Thermal efficiency of flat-plate collectors range from 50-60% 2.
• Evacuated tube collectors: This is the predominant solar thermal collector technology
worldwide with a market share >65 % chiefly due to their largescale manufacture and
deployment in China which accounts for more than 70% of global installed solar thermal
capacity. Evacuated tube collectors are designed to operate at higher temperature than flat plate
collector commonly ranging from 50°C to 130°C. The manufacturing process, mechanical
complexity and material selection of evacuated tube collectors make them more expensive than
for flat plate collectors. For example, the design of collectors’ housing is made of a vacuum
glass tubes to reduce and eliminate convection and conduction thermal losses. However,
evacuated tubes are more efficient at around 60-75% 3,
2 Solar Keymark
3
Solar Keymark
10
Solar thermal systems can displace fossil fuel use by, for example, heating or pre-heating steam
boiler feedwater or make-up water and/or increasing the return temperature of closed loop hot water
systems serving drying, washing or heat treatment processes.
Combined heat and power (CHP)
Also referred to as co-generation, CHP systems capture usable waste heat that is produced in the
process of generating electricity. By doing so, CHP plants can achieve higher system energy efficiency
levels in excess of 80% through waste heat recovery from the exhaust of the primer movers or production
waste heat , reducing carbon emissions and energy costs. As most industries have significant
simultaneous demands for electricity and thermal energy (heating and cooling), CHP is commonly
deployed.
CHP systems can use either gas turbines or reciprocating engines, according to power demands and
heat-to- power ratios, with reciprocating engine-based prime movers generally best suited to
applications below 5MW of electricity generation capacity.
How it works
Typically, the engine directly drives a generator to produce electrical power and heat is recovered
from the engine jacket, the oil cooler and the exhaust gases and, if the heat required is at low enough
temperature, from the intercooler. This type of CHP was developed in the 1980s and is usually
supplied as a fully packaged unit. Turbines have higher capital cost and have lower electrical
efficiency, but have a smaller physical footprint, can provide higher temperature heat and can have
greater reliability.
A CHP unit typically operates in parallel with the public supply with additional electricity imported as
required. The heat output is commonly supplemented with boiler plant to ensure delivery of required
service temperatures and at times of peak demand. A thermal store can be included to smoothen the
heat demand, reduce the need for peak boiler use and maximise electricity production at times of
higher electricity prices. It is also possible to use heat from a CHP system to generate cooling via
absorption chillers to deliver a tri-generation solution i.e. electricity, heating and cooling.
For facilities with limited year- round heat requirements but with large year-round cooling needs, this
option would lower the site’s electrical load by displacing the electrical demand of conventional
chiller plants.
An innovative energy solution that adds further benefits to the traditional CHP process is called quad-
generation which is increasingly used by the F&B sector to deliver heat, power, cooling and carbon
dioxide capture via one process. Through this process, carbon dioxide is recovered from the plant
exhaust gas and scrubbed so that it can be used in the industrial process by manufacturers (e.g. for
carbonated drinks, keeping packaged food fresh, supporting the brewing fermentation process etc).
It is important that other energy savings measures are fully considered before the viability of a CHP
scheme is evaluated. Failure to do so may result in the benefit of the CHP scheme being undermined by
the later application of other energy efficiency measures.
As an energy generation process, CHP is ‘fuel neutral’. This means that a CHP process can be applied to
both renewables like biomass and biogas and fossil fuels like natural gas and oil. For example, in certain
11
F&B sub-sectors, where there is a significant quantity of unavoidable organic ‘waste’ co-product, such
as fruit and vegetable peelings, the deployment of an anaerobic digester to breakdown the organic
matter into a methane-rich biogas, can provide a sustainable, low carbon fuel supply to the CHP system
(and/or boilers).
Heat pumps
A heat pump may be thought of as a refrigerator designed to work in reverse i.e. to effectively upgrade a
low temperature waste heat stream to a useful high temperature heat stream. The mechanical heat
pump is the most widely used in industry and has just four main components: evaporator, compressor,
condenser and expansion device.
The refrigerant is the working fluid that passes through all these components in a closed circuit. In the
evaporator heat is extracted from a waste heat source e.g. the humid waste air stream from a dryer,
causing the refrigerant to evaporate from a liquid state to a gas. Following compression to a higher
temperature and pressure, the recovered heat along with the electrical energy input to the compressor
can be exchanged in the condenser and delivered to the consumer. Giving up its energy causes the
refrigerant to condense. By passing through an expansion device the refrigerant changes back to a low-
pressure liquid state then circulates to the evaporator allowing the cycle to repeat.
The efficiency of the heat pump is denoted by its coefficient of performance (COP), defined as the ratio
of total heat delivered by the heat pump to the amount of electricity needed to drive the heat pump. Heat
pumps operating in the F&B sector routinely achieve COPs of >5 i.e. every one unit of electricity used by
the compressor delivers >5 kWh of useful heat. Potential waste heat streams include condenser heat
from refrigeration systems, dryers and waste water streams.
As for solar thermal and CHP systems, heat pumps can be integrated with existing systems and services
to operate in series or parallel to provide part of the thermal loads with boiler (or other systems) providing
the remainder.
Community Boilers
A community boiler for steam generation is a concept common in developed industrialised economies.
In this model, large sized boiler is located strategically and supplies steam through pipeline to the
surrounding industrial facilities eliminating the need to install small industrial boilers. Presently, most
small boilers are operating at low efficiency to meet steam demand of the respective industry. Community
boilers can operate above 82% efficiency and reduce fuel consumption compared to the cumulative fuel
used across several industries. Further, power can also be generated from the flow of steam through back
pressure steam turbine without burning additional fuel. This model, if adopted also has the potential to
eliminate industrial air pollution.
Use cases from similar models tested in India show reduction fuel consumption (coal) by 16%, air
pollutants like PM, SO2, NOx by 70-80%, wastewater generation by 40%, space saving of 18% and cost of
steam production by 33%. An ideal approach to pilot / demonstrate this model would be identify industrial
clusters which has a potential of more than 10 boilers and conduct feasibility studies on the design of this
system. However, given the limited the use cases of such systems there are inherent challenges such
reticulation of pipes, leakage in the return line buried underground or above ground, higher capex due to
technology and infrastructure costs that needs to be evaluated prior to implementation.
12
Industrial Waste Heat Recovery
Heat recovery is a method of reducing the overall energy consumption of your site and therefore reducing
the running costs. Recovered heat can help you reduce energy consumption or provide useful heat for
other purposes. Waste heat is a by-product of a process or operation which is not captured or recovered
and is therefore not re-used in a secondary system.
Sources of waste heat
The following common sources of waste heat often present opportunities for cost-effective heat recovery:
• Ventilation system extracts

• Boiler flue gases
• Boiler blowdown
• Air compressors
• Refrigeration plant
• High temperature exhaust gas streams from furnaces, kilns, ovens and dryers
• Hot liquid effluents
• Power generation plant
• Process plant cooling systems
Uses for recovered heat
The most cost-effective use of waste heat is to improve the energy efficiency of the heat generating
process itself. Common uses for recovered heat include:
• Pre-heating of combustion air for boilers, ovens, furnaces

• Pre-heating fresh air used to ventilate the building
• Hot water generation, including pre-heating of boiler feed water
• Space heating
• Drying
• Other industrial process heating/pre-heating
• Power generation
Heat recovery applications
Installing boiler heat recovery systems is a good way to reduce energy costs and carbon emissions. Key
things you should look at before you implement heat recovery are:
• Controls: Make sure the boiler controls are set correctly. Running the boiler when it isn’t needed
or heating to overly high temperatures are common problems leading to inefficiency.
• Insulate: Make sure the boiler, pipework and any storage vessels are properly insulated as this
can be a major source of wasted heat.
• Maintain: Ensure you have a regular and thorough maintenance programme. If your equipment is
running optimally, this will always help increase efficiency.
Other energy saving techniques, such as the use of variable speed pumps, should also be investigated
alongside heat recovery techniques.
Thermal Oil Boilers
In today’s industry, there are several processes where direct heat input is not possible and requires
thermal oil heating systems. This is the case when the material to be heated is flammable, causes
decomposition or requires uniform heating at a high temperature. Oil is an ideal heat carrier which can
13
meet these requirements as it has a good thermal stability, low volatility, good heat transfer properties,
low freezing point amongst others. It is possible for this system to operate with very low pressure and up
to a temperature range of 350ºC.
Although oil is a fossil fuel, these systems are designed as a closed circuit with 90% of the fuel consumed
in the heating process with minimal leaks and thus offering up to 20% fuel savings compared to steam
boilers. Additional energy savings is possible by integrating variable frequency drive to adjust the speed
of the motor as this is the major energy consuming component in a thermal oil system. Further, digital
modulating burners which can regulate fuel and air for combustion could also provide additional 2%
efficiency improvement.
14
SECTION 3
International
best practice
for boilers and
heat generation
processes
/ Title 5
3.1. Boiler replacement
If a boiler is more than 15 years old, it is likely to be a conventional type of standard boiler, designed to
operate with an average water temperature of 60 to 70oC. These often have a cast iron heat exchanger
and atmospheric burners, which draw the air required for combustion from around the boiler by natural
convection. They produce water or steam at high temperatures. Standard boilers which do not meet
minimum efficiency requirements as noted in Table 3, should be replaced by high-efficiency boilers.
Table 3: Typical Boiler Efficiency
Energy input rate required to

Boiler type Typical Efficiency
meet 100kW heating demand
Standard, old, poor condition 45% 222kW
Standard, good condition 70% 143kW

High-efficiency 82% 122kW
High efficiency boilers: These boilers have lower water contents, larger heat exchanger surface areas and
greater insulation of the boiler shell compared to conventional designs. High efficiency boilers can work
with all types of heating systems. They are particularly suited to applications where a higher water
temperature is required, such as space heating systems using radiators designed to operate at typical
flow temperatures of 70-80oC or some process heating applications.
Electric boilers: As the name implies, steam is generated by electricity instead of through the conventional
combustion technology. Electricity can be procured from renewable energy sources to power these
boilers to experience the greatest benefits of decarbonisation. The benefits of electric boilers are
essentially centred on increased efficiency and better environmental sustainability in the context of the
absence of flue gases from combustion including carbon monoxide. However, the extent of the benefits
depend on the grid emissions unless electricity is generated from a renewable source. It also provides
better control over steam generation.
Boiler replacement process

Where boilers are coming up for major refurbishment or replacement, it is worth undertaking a detailed
appraisal of current and planned thermal requirements to ensure replacement boilers are properly sized and
to consider the merits of incorporating low and zero carbon technologies into the design e.g. solar thermal,
CHP and heat pumps.
Condensing boilers are more expensive than non-condensing designs and if you have a number of boilers,
it can often be more cost-effective to install just one or two condensing boilers to act as the lead boilers.
The rest can be non-condensing types for back-up and peak load top-up.
All steam boilers and hot water boilers over 500 kW should be professionally commissioned by the
manufacturer or their approved agent. They should:
• Confirm steam/water flow rates
• Measure combustion efficiency across the full range of firing and give you a copy of the results
• Give you the commissioning certificate and warranty forms
• Provide training to the facilities staff during handover.
In installations with more than one boiler, it’s also important to commission the sequence or step controls
to make sure the number of boilers operating match the heat load. This is particularly important when one
or more is a condensing boiler. In these cases, the sequence controller needs to make sure the condensing
boiler always operates as the lead.
16
3.2. Optimisation measures for boiler efficiency4
The key issues for energy efficiency relate to the optimisation of boiler efficiency and the control of heat
delivery systems as noted below.
Figure 2: Best practices to optimise boiler use
Best Practice
Fuel Fuel preparation is particularly important for coal and oil, less so for gas. For coal, choice
of fuel is critical since grates are often designed for quite a narrow selection.
preparation Characteristics such as size range, ash content, dryness and therefore fuel storage are
important.
For oil, viscosity is the key characteristic to be controlled. Check on the correct
temperature needed to optimise oil atomisation with oil supply companies and monitor
the burner oil temperature on a regular basis. Clean oil filters each shift.
Fuel Fuel combustion is dependent on both fuel and air provision, and contributes significantly
combustion to system efficiency. Keeping an even spread of coal on the grate, ash removal, under and
over-bed combustion, air pressure and coal height are all critical for optimising coal
combustion air pre-heat systems.
For heavier oils, cleanliness of the rotary cup, pressure jets etc. is essential. The pressure
of fuel and air is critical, particularly at low turndowns when mixing is poor. Poorly
maintained burner systems require higher excess air levels giving lower efficiencies. For
fluid systems, oxygen trim systems have wide application, although maintenance is an
important cost factor. Ask the manufacturers of any burner equipment about the optimum
appearance of the flame.
Heat Heat exchanger performance requires a check on flue gas exit temperature. For steam or
hot water boilers a good figure is one which is 30 - 55°C above the highest steam/water
Exchanger temperature with the boiler at full load. As the thermal load reduces, this temperature
difference should decrease since the heat exchange surface area remains unchanged. If
this temperature is seen to increase, this indicates that air flow rates are too high and the
heat exchanger is operating too far outside its design parameters.
Both fireside and waterside heat transfer surfaces must be kept clean. Fireside with gas
firing does not usually present a problem, but oil and coal-fired boilers may need their
tubes cleaned on a 12-week and 6-week schedule respectively. In particular, tube cleaning
should be carried out when the flue gas working fluid temperature difference increases to
750°C due to fouling. For oil-fired boilers, water injection may help to keep the fireside
tubes significantly cleaner.
Gas-fired boilers tend to scale on the waterside, but the timing of cleaning will still be
governed by the degree of efficiency loss and its value compared with the cost of de-
scaling.
4
Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme, UK. Good Practice Guide – Practical tips for energy saving in the rubber processing
industry.
17
Steam For steam generation, steam and hot water lines should be insulated and steam leakage
should be minimised. Lost condensate and flash steam are responsible for significant
generation energy losses.
Isolate heat supplies that are no longer needed with automatic valves, and also sections
where significant losses occur when there is no demand. Checking that steam traps are
operating correctly should be part of your regular maintenance schedule. As required,
failed or mechanical type traps should be changed to modern thermodynamic/orifice
plate type traps. Steam should be generated at the pressure necessary to meet the
maximum required by the equipment in the system. Control process and space heating
systems to optimum operating times and temperatures. For hot water generation systems,
minimise supply temperatures and match pump operation to demand.
Distribute steam at a pressure higher than that required by any user to ensure that the final
required pressure is provided. The steam pipe should be sized against permissible velocity
and the allowable pressure loss. Losses are due to heat emission from pipework and
leakage. Heat loss from the boiler casing represents between 2 - 5% of boiler steam output
in well-designed and operated systems.
Condensate Condensed steam under pressure flashes when reduced to atmospheric pressure
conditions in collection tanks. This flash is usually lost and accounts for 43% of the heat in
Return the condensate. As a condensate at 7 bar pressure carries 26% of the heat in the delivered
steam, then the flash represents 11.2% of this figure. If the condensate (now at atmospheric
pressure) is lost to drain, this is another 14.8% of input steam heat content lost. Therefore,
in sites where all flash steam is lost and only 50% of condensate returned, the overall loss is
18.6%. Heat is also lost from condensate lines.
As such, condensate return should be maximised as it is usually always cost effective to do
so.
Flue Gas Heat Even in larger well-controlled gas boilers ~17% or more of the energy in the fuel can be
wasted (see chart below for the breakdown of losses). The largest component of that
Recovery wasted energy is the heat of the water vapour present in the exhaust gas. Condensing boilers
and economisers can often be configured to recover that energy be it as an addition to a
new build or a retrofit.
18
3.3. Boiler efficiency benchmarks
Facilities should make consistent and regular efforts to reduce the air ratio for boilers as per Table 4.
Table 4: Air ratios for boilers 5
Air Ratio 6
Boiler Load
Coal
Parameter capacity factor Biomass Liquid
Pulverised Fluidized Others Gas fuel
(tph) (%) fuel fuel
fuel bed
> 100 50-100 1.16-1.20 1.15 –1.18 - - - -
51 – 100 50-100 - 1.15 – 1.18 1.20-1.25 - - -
Standard 7 1.47- 1.18 - 1.12-

11-50 50-100 - 1.18 – 1.24 1.24-1.30
1.55 1.25 1.15
1.49- 1.26 - 1.15-
Up to 10 50-100 - 1.20 – 1.25 1.35-1.40
1.56 1.33 1.18
> 100 50-100 1.12-1.17 1.10 – 1.16 - - - -
51 – 100 50-100 - 1.12 – 1.17 1.17-1.20 - - -
1.32- 1.13- 1.10-
Target 8 11-50 50-100 - 1.14 – 1.18 1.22 -1.26
1.39 1.18 1.14
1.32- 1.18- 1.12-
Up to 10 50-100 - 1.15 – 1.20 1.32-1.38
1.39 1.24 1.15
Source: Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Power, Government of India (2018). Energy Conservation Guidelines for Industries
The flue gas temperature of the boiler should be reduced by recovering sensible heat in the exhaust
gases by considering reference value noted in Table 5.
Table 5: Flue gas temperature of boilers
Flue gas temperature 9

Boiler Load
Coal
Parameter capacity factor Biomass Liquid
Pulverised Fluidized Others Gas fuel
(tph) (%) fuel fuel
fuel bed
> 100 50-100 140 140 - - - -
51 – 100 50-100 - 140 140 - - -
Standard 10
11-50 50-100 - 140 140 180 190 140
Up to 10 50-100 - 220 220 220 220 220
> 100 50-100 130 130 - - - -
51 – 100 50-100 - 130 130 - - -

Target 11
11-50 50-100 - 130 130 160 180 130
Up to 10 50-100 - 200 200 200 200 180
5 Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Power, Government of India (2018). Energy Conservation Guidelines for Industries.
https://www.beeindia.gov.in/sites/default/files/Energy%20conservation%20guidelines%20for%20industries.pdf
6 Air ratio= 21/(21-% oxygen in flue gases)
7 Standards are optimum performance values achieved by an energy consuming equipment in daily operation.
8 Targets are equal to the best achievable values of an energy consuming equipment in daily operation.
9 Average temperature at the outlet of the final stage of heat recovery from flue gas or chimney base.
10 Standards are optimum performance values achieved by an energy consuming equipment in daily operation.
11 Targets are equal to the best achievable values of an energy consuming equipment in daily operation.
19
Source: Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Power, Government of India (2018). Energy Conservation Guidelines for Industries
3.4. Energy savings opportunities in boilers and heat distribution

By ensuring efficient steam generation and distribution, energy costs can be reduced by up to 50%. It may
not be cost-effective to replace boilers that are relatively new. However, there are still opportunities to
make substantial savings through improvements to other items of the boiler plant. Many of these
measures will need specialist help. If in doubt, always consult a thermal energy expert or boiler
manufacturer.
Inspect and maintain boilers
A poorly maintained industrial boiler can consume 10% more energy than one that has
been well maintained.
• Make sure that boilers are formally checked at least weekly between services.
Common signs of boiler inefficiency are warning lights, pressure drops, and damage,
such as burn marks and increased noise levels. Every time a warning sign is ignored,
energy is being wasted.
• Gas leaks are a serious safety issue and should be reported immediately.
• Boilers should be serviced at least once a year by a qualified technician. If in heavy use
then servicing should be carried out more often, for example, boilers used to provide a
base heat load on a continuous basis.
Match boiler outputs to process and/or site requirements

A 2% reduction in flue gas level will give a fuel saving of 1.2%
• Before product changeover or scheduled stoppage, make sure that the boiler
operatives know about the step changes in output capacity of steam or hot water.
Matching supply to demands will help to save boiler fuel.
• The engineer should replace worn parts and clean the burners and any heat
exchangers to remove the build-up of deposits. The service should also include a
combustion and/or flue gas test and an adjustment to the fuel/air mix so that the
boiler burns fuel efficiently.
Fit insulation and inspect it regularly

Around 10% of the heat produced in steam boilers can be lost through insufficient or
ineffective insulation on the distribution system.
• Make sure that all distribution networks (such as pipes, valves, flanges, manhole
openings) are suitably insulated and that the insulation is in good condition. Extra
inspection to be carried out in areas that have been serviced previously. Reducing
heat loss will cut running costs.
Do not lose heat on standby

Installing an isolation damper can eliminate this heat loss and fuel savings of up to 12%
are possible.
• When a boiler is on standby, the heat loss through the flue can be significant. An
isolation damper can also reduce harmful emissions.
20
Look at water quality
An automatic water treatment system can save 2% of the fuel requirement.
• Poor water quality can lead to scale, deposition and corrosion, which all reduce heat
transfer and eventually lowers boiler efficiency. Consider using automatic water
treatment and analysis. Generally treatment consists of adding chemicals to the
water.
Investigate the potential for recovering waste heat
These measures can save between 2 and 5% of fuel in sectors like F&B.
• Waste heat from boiler flue gases can be used to preheat the combustion air for
boilers or the boiler feedwater, therefore reducing the overall amount of energy
required in the process.
Investigate installing automatic controls and use isolation procedures
Boilers are at their most efficient at the maximum firing rate.

• If a site needs varying rates of heat for different processes, it might be worth
considering having several smaller boilers to cover the site load and utilising
sequencing controls to ensure the varying requirements are met using the most
efficient configuration.
21
Checklist for efficient operation of steam thermal systems
This checklist summarises the key criteria and characteristics of energy efficient steam thermal systems.
If the current system cannot meet any of the criteria, it is likely that the efficiency of the system could be
improved, resulting in emissions reduction and cost savings.
Best practice criteria Impact
Retrofitting modern, modulating burners with exhaust gas trim control

Do burners operate with trim control to
typically reduces fuel consumption by 10-15% and burner electricity
keep excess O2 levels <3% across
consumption by >30%. Simple payback commonly achieved in <2
combustion air pre-heat firing range?
years.
‘On/off' control systems can lead to unstable boiler operation as

pressures can quickly fall and rapidly recover during periods of light-
Is the boiler water level controlled by a
loading. The installation of full feedwater modulation control can
modulating feedwater control system?
reduce short cycling and improve efficiency. Fuel savings >5% and
paybacks of ~3-years are common.
Installing closed-loop automatic controls can provide closer control of

Are boilers fitted with automatic TDS
TDS levels at reduced blowdown rates. Fuel savings of >1% and
controls?
paybacks <3-years are common.
If flue gas temperatures are >200°C, an economiser can be fitted to
Are flue gas discharge temperatures extract energy from the hot flue gases and use it to preheat boiler
<200°C? feedwater. Fuel savings of 4-6% are commonly achieved with a
payback of ~4-years.
Are boilers operated at their design If not, the diminished 'store' of energy within the boiler water risks short
pressure (as opposed to a lesser cycling which can reduce effective boiler efficiency levels to below
required system pressure)? 50%. With no CAPEX necessary, 'payback' is instant!
Is the flash steam from TDS blowdown Doing so can recover 10-15% of blowdown water (saving water and
being recovered to the feedwater tank chemical costs) and >40% of blowdown energy content. Simple
via a deaerator head? payback commonly achieved in <3-years.
Using a plate heat exchanger to pre-heat cold boiler make-up water can
Is energy recovered from residual
extract a further 40-50% of total available blowdown energy. Simple
blowdown effluent?
payback commonly achieved in <3-years.
Supplying water to a boiler at a high temperature of >85°C not only

Is the feedwater tank maintained at a reduces thermal stresses on the boiler and helps maintain its output it
temperature >85°C? also significantly reduces the amount of oxygen scavenging chemicals
required.
A well design and operated steam and condensate system should

enable >85% of condensate to be returned to the feedwater tank,
Is at least 85% of condensate being
thereby saving on water, chemicals and fuel costs. Each 6°C rise in
recovered and returned to the
feedwater temperature achieved from improved condensate return
feedwater tank?
rates will deliver a 1% improvement in system efficiency. Simple
payback commonly achieved in <1-year.
Are all sections of steam and Ensuring that all hot surfaces are properly insulated to keep surface
condensate pipework, valves, vessels temperatures below 40°C is highly cost effective. Fitting flexible,
and fittings effectively insulated? removable covers to valves typically paybacks in under 2-years.
22
SECTION 4
Best Available
Energy Saving
Technologies
/ Title 6
4.1. Technology Assessment Methodology
The BATs in heat generation and heat-use processes were identified based on their typical potential
impact on energy and carbon efficiency in engineering units of GJNG/GJS. and kgCO2/GJS respectively. The
data was extracted from the energy saving measures identified during the audits of energy-intensive F&B
facilities. Where data was not available primarily due to absence of steam flow meters, some numbers
were extrapolated from the existing metrics of similar operating parameters. It is to be noted that the
operating parameters of most boilers such as the operating pressure, temperature, boiler efficiency,
operating hours and conditions differ from each other, making it challenging to present BAT metrics for
all boilers and heat use processes.
Two sets of BAT metrics were compiled for operating pressure and temperature of 10 bar, 180 oC and 15
bar, 200 oC respectively. These operating parameters are more common among all heat generators and
they can best represent the typical performance of the boilers and heat-use processes. Considerable care
was taken to validate the energy and carbon efficiency data in GJNG/GJS and kgCO2/ GJS to support the
benchmarking of BATs.
The energy efficiency and carbon efficiency improvement related to BATs were calculated using the
following baseline parameters. Unless stated otherwise, the following parameters are extracted from
outputs of data analysis from one audited factory:
a. Boiler Plant efficiency is 72.7% (main operating boiler)
b. Weighted average price of Natural Gas is MYR 34.52 per GJ at Q4 2021
c. Energy content of annual natural gas consumption of 4,322 GJ/month or 51,864 GJ/year
d. Energy content of generated steam is 3,142 GJ/month or 37,704 GJ/year
e. Carbon emission factor of Natural Gas is 56 kgCO2 per GJ (source: MGTC)
f. Annual operating hours of boiler plant taken as 4,320 hours/year
4.2. BATs in Heat Generation Process

This section describes the energy efficiency improvement potential of best available technologies and
energy saving techniques that can be applied to the installation and operation of technologies in heat
generation processes.
4.2.1. Heat Recovery Economiser
Description
This BAT involves installing a flue gas economiser with the objective of recovering waste heat from the
flue gas for pre-heating of feedwater temperature prior to entering the boiler. It is a heat exchanger
mechanism which reduces boiler fuel consumption by transferring heat from the hot flue gas to the
incoming feed water.
The adoption of an economiser is very common and a standard solution due to its substantial energy
saving potential. There are two types of economisers: standard and condensing. A standard economiser
captures the heat from the hot flue gas heat above the condensation temperature of the vapour (sensible
heat), whereas a condensing economiser extracts heat from hot flue gas below the condensation
temperature of the vapour (recovering the latent heat). This condensed vapour mixes with sulphur and
NOX from the combustion and it becomes acidic and thus corrosive. As such condensing economisers
are less in demand despite the ability to recover higher energy as it is more expensive due to the
requirement of acid-proof materials such as stainless steel.
24
Efficiency Benefits
This BAT improves efficiency by between 4-7% . The associated energy and carbon savings are as
outlined in the table below.
Table 6: Heat Recovery Economiser Efficiency Benefits
Without BAT With BAT

BAT potential
Typical efficiency BAT
Typical energy BAT carbon
carbon improvement energy Remarks
efficiency efficiency
efficiency efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.390 77.8 6.0 1.307 73.2 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 5.0 1.397 78.2 15 bar, 200°C
Economic Considerations
The BAT considers the use of a high efficiency plate-to-shell economiser, as opposed to the conventional
shell-and-tube type. The proposed location of installation would be at the boiler flue gas exhaust before
the exhaust stack.
In calculating the savings, the following parameters are used:

i. Boiler operating load is 4 tons per hour
ii. Feedwater temperatures before and after the economiser is respectively 45oC and 85oC.
The boiler being audited operates at 80% of the annual operation hours of 4,230 hours and that equates
to 3,384 hours. The computation of energy and carbon efficiency improvements is as tabulated below.
Table 7: Analysis of Savings - Heat Recovery Economiser
No. Parameter Unit Value
1 Boiler Operating Load ton/hour 4

2 Boiler 2 efficiency % 73.3%
3 Feedwater before economiser °C 45
4 Feedwater after economiser °C 85
5 Specific Heat of Water kJ/kg°C 4.19
6 Annual Operation Hour hours/year 3,384
7 Heat transfer kJ/hr 670,400
8 Annual Energy Saving MJ 2,268,634
GJ 2,269
9 Annual Energy Saving Input (NG) GJ 3,095
10 Cost of NG MYR/GJ 34.52
11 Annual NG Cost Saving MYR 106,839
12 CAPEX MYR 450,000
13 Simple Payback Period Years 4.21
Among the heat recovery technologies, an economiser which can recover an average of 4 to 7% of input
energy was not well adopted by the factories being audited. There were only 10 out of the 23 boilers
25
installed with economisers, or 43% of the total. Based on detailed analysis of the existing plant efficiency,
operating hours, boiler operating load level and flue temperature, it is confirmed that input energy can be
saved between 3.5% to 6% when an economiser is being installed.
4.2.2. Air Preheater
Description
An air preheater heats the air used by the burner of a boiler. A higher air temperature improves
combustion efficiency resulting in increased plant efficiency.
Efficiency Benefits
This BAT improves efficiency by an average of 1-2%. The corresponding metrics on energy and carbon
efficiency before and after adoption of the BAT are as shown in the table below.
Table 8: Air Preheater Efficiency Benefits

BAT potential
Typical efficiency BAT BAT
Typical energy
carbon improvement energy carbon Remarks
efficiency
efficiency efficiency efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.390 77.8 1.0 1.376 77.0 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 1.0 1.455 81.5 15 bar, 200°C
As a rule of thumb, every 30 °C increase in intake air temperature will result in a 1% improvement in boiler
efficiency. This is used as the basis for calculation of savings potential for this BAT. The installation of an
air preheater is in general cost effective for a new boiler. Based on audits of a typical boiler plant, the
energy and carbon efficiency improvements are outlined below.
The energy saving of this BAT ranges between 1% to 2% based on the assumption that the air temperature
is raised from 30 oC to 60 oC. The long-term impact of this BAT on financial savings is significant when
the price of NG increases.
26
Table 9: Analysis of Savings - Air Preheater
Parameter Unit Value

No.
1 Average monthly Natural Gas Input Energy GJ 6,026
2 Average monthly Steam Output Energy GJ 3,309
3 Average Boiler Efficiency % 54.8
4 Supply Air Before °C 30
5 Supply Air After °C 60
6 Boiler efficiency after % 0.558
7 Input Energy after 1% increase GJ 5,930
8 Saving NG per month GJ 96
9 Annual NG Saving GJ 1,151
12 CAPEX MYR 75,000
13 Simple Payback Period Year 2.95
4.2.3. Automated Blowdown Control System

Description
In order to reduce the levels of suspended and total dissolved solids (TDS) in a boiler, water is periodically
discharged or blown down. High dissolved solids concentrations can lead to foaming and carryover of
boiler water into the steam. This could lead to the occurrence of water hammer which may damage piping,
steam traps, or process equipment. Surface blowdown removes dissolved solids that accumulate near
the boiler liquid surface, and is often a continuous process. Suspended and dissolved solids can also form
sludge. Sludge must therefore be removed as it reduces the heat transfer capabilities of the boiler,
resulting in poor fuel-to-steam efficiency and possible pressure vessel damage. Sludge is removed by mid
blowdown.
In order to reduce heat loss caused by frequent blow-down due to the poor quality of feed-water, all
audited factories have religiously implemented chemical treatment to control the level of total dissolved
and undissolved solids. Manual blowdown is the norm when TDS reaches the range of 2000 to 2500ppm.
Due to good water quality, manual blowdown was infrequent and most of the boilermen carried out
manual blowdown either once or twice per day.
In the event that a fixed rate of blowdown regime is being implemented, operators will not know the
changes in makeup and feedwater conditions, or variations in steam demand or condensate return. An
automatic blowdown-control system optimizes surface-blowdown rates by regulating the volume of water
discharged from the boiler in relation to the concentration of dissolved solids present. Automatic surface-
blowdown control systems maintain water chemistry within acceptable limits, while minimizing blowdown
and reducing energy losses. Cost savings come from the significant reduction in the consumption,
disposal, treatment, and heating of water.
While all steam boilers need to be blown down to control the level of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the
boiler water, energy and water treatment efficiency can be significantly improved by recovering flash
steam and the residual heat from this boiler blowdown. A blowdown heat recovery system is made up
from a flash vessel and a heat exchanger. The flash vessel lowers the high-pressure blowdown stream to
27
atmospheric pressure, generating flash steam and a flow of 100oC water. The flash steam is collected
and used to provide heating typically by injecting it into the hotwell. The hot water is discharged to the
heat exchanger from where its heat can be transferred to process, e.g. boiler makeup water.
Efficiency Benefits
This BAT improves efficiency by an average of 0.1%. The associated energy and carbon savings are as
Table 10: Automated Blowdown Control System Efficiency Benefits

BAT potential
Typical energy
efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.390 77.8 0.1 1.388 77.7 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 0.1 1.468 82.2 15 bar, 200°C
This investment measure involves installing an automatic blowdown system for 2 boilers of a factory
being audited. Current practice of the boilerman (or boiler operator) is to conduct manual blowdown hourly
regardless of the value of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in water of the boiler even though the TDS setpoint
is 2,500ppm. The automatic blowdown system will perform blowdown when the setpoint of 2,500ppm is
triggered. It is estimated that the automatic blowdown system can conservatively, reduce the frequency
of blowdown from being hourly to once in every 3 hours.
In calculating the savings, the following additional parameters are used:

i) Blowdown pipe flow rate at 2.5kg/s at a pressure of 15 bar.
ii) Annual operation day of boiler plant is 284 days (based on 6,816 hours).
Based on a typical audit of a boiler plant, the computation of energy and carbon efficiency improvements
is as tabulated below.
Table 11: Analysis of Savings - Automated Blowdown Control System

1 Blowdown flow kg/s 2.5
2 Blowdown frequency before nos/day 24
3 Blowdown frequency after nos/day 8
4 Blowdown duration s 60
5 Boiler plant efficiency % 75.0%
6 Steam Enthalpy @ 15bar, hf kJ/kg 844
7 Feedwater Enthalpy @ 100C, hf kJ/kg 419.2
8 Annual Operation Day day 284
9 Heat transfer, Q = mCpΔT kJ 289,543,680
Annual Energy Saving MJ 289,544
28
10 GJ 290
mmBTU 274
11 Annual Energy Saving Input (NG) GJ 386
14 Total Annual Cost Saving MYR 13,327
15 CAPEX MYR 50,000.00
Significant savings in energy, chemicals, feed-water and cooling can be achieved from this BAT. The
investment cost of the automatic blowdown system is dependent upon the system operating pressure
and the design and performance options specified. An automatic blowdown-control system can cost from
RM 50,000.
This BAT will reduce 386 GJ/year of energy even if the blowdown is assumed to happen at 8 cycles per
day instead of 2 being the norm. Financially, the saving is RM 13,327 per annum and the corresponding
carbon emission reduction is 22 tCO2/year.
4.2.4. Oxygen Trim Control System
Description
While some degree of excess air is needed for complete combustion excessive air results in heat losses
and drop in efficiency. Therefore, it is crucial to know if the excess air is at an optimal level by measuring
the amount of oxygen or CO2 at the exhaust using a combustion analyser.
Excess air can be minimised by adjusting the air flowrate in proportion to the fuel flowrate. This is greatly
assisted by automating the measurement of oxygen content in the flue-gases. For safety reasons, there
should always be some excess air present (typically 1 – 2 % for gas and 10 % for liquid fuels).
Efficiency Benefits
This BAT improves efficiency by an average of 1.5-3%. The associated energy and carbon savings are
as outlined in the table below.
Table 12: Oxygen Trim Control System Efficiency Benefits
BAT
potential
Typical efficiency
Typical energy BAT energy BAT carbon
carbon improvem Remarks
efficiency ent
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.390 77.8 1.5 1.369 76.7 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 1.5 1.448 81.1 15 bar, 200°C
29
Assumptions made for computation of potential impact of this BAT is that for every 5% reduction in
excess air, boiler efficiency increases by 1%. It is further assumed that 20% to 30% of excess air (1.20 to
1.30) is a norm in most factories that do not practise thermal energy management.
Base air ratio of a NG-fuelled boiler having a capacity between 10 to less than 30 tons/hr is 1.15 to 1.30.
When the base air is optimised to 1.15 operation-wise, a maximum reduction of 15% of excess air is
attained which will improve boiler efficiency by 3%. For the calculation of efficiency benefits of the above
table, only 1.5% improvement was considered after taking safety into account.
4.2.5. Deaerator for Feedwater

Description
The presence of oxygen in the boiler water can be a significant problem due to the corrosion that can
occur at high temperatures. To overcome this, a deaerator is used. Deaerators use heat, typically steam
to reduce the oxygen content in water and they are typically pressurized tanks that raise the water
temperature to the point of saturation. They also break the feed water into fine droplets to facilitate the
removal of oxygen and other non-condensable gases. Depending on the design, the feedwater oxygen
content can be reduced to levels ranging from 7 to 40 parts per billion (ppb).
Atmospheric deaerators are typically found in smaller, lower-pressure boiler systems. They operate at
atmospheric pressure and the maximum operating temperature is 100 °C. However, most of the
deaerators operate at temperatures lower than this. Atmospheric deaerators normally cannot achieve the
same level of oxygen removal as that of pressurised deaerators when typically water with oxygen levels
of 5 to 10 part per million (ppm) is supplied. In applications that require lower oxygen levels than
achievable with a pressurised deaerator, oxygen scavenger can be used to remove most residual oxygen.
In most systems, an oxygen scavenger is part of the system’s water treatment program.
Efficiency Benefits
This BAT improves water quality by virtually eliminating the amount of dissolved oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the feed water. Efficiency is typically around 0.5%. The associated savings are outlined in the
table below.
Table 13: Feedwater Deaerator Efficiency Benefits

BAT potential
Typical energy
efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.390 77.8 0.5 1.383 77.5 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 0.5 1.463 81.9 15 bar, 200°C
This BAT helps lower operating costs and improve steam quality. Indirectly, it lowers the frequency of
blowdown besides saving cost to repair and /or replacement of the boiler water tubes.
30
4.3. Heat Use Process
This section describes the energy efficiency improvement potential associated with the application of
best available technologies and the energy saving techniques that can be applied to the installation and
operation of technologies in heat use processes.
4.3.1. Condensate Recovery

Description
Condensate recovery is a very effective heat recovery mechanism and also a common energy saving
measure. Condensate maintains a substantial thermal energy. The amount of energy in a condensate
varies from 18% at 1 barg to 30% at 14 barg. Therefore it is crucial that the condensate is recovered either
back to the boiler system or in some cases, recovered via heat exchanger for other requirements.
Condensate that returns to the boiler will reduce the fuel consumed for the combustion in the boiler. It is
estimated that every 60oC rise in feedwater temperature will save 1% of fuel for boiler and other
associated steam raising costs
Any unrecovered hot condensate will be replaced with cold makeup water. This will incur additional cost
of water treatment and fuel to raise the temperature of water at colder temperatures, and hence reduce
the steaming rate.
Efficiency Benefits
This BAT improves efficiency by an average of 9.0%. The associated energy and carbon savings are as
Table 14: Condensate Recovery Efficiency Benefits

BAT potential
Typical energy
efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.390 77.8 9.0 1.265 70.8 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 9.0 1.338 74.9 15 bar, 200°C
Reusing hot condensate can lead to significant savings in terms of energy, carbon savings and water
resources, as well as improving working conditions.
The following actions will help release the maximise the associated energy savings and financial benefits:
• Regularly monitor and repair any leaks in the steam distribution and condensate return system.
• Insulate condensate return system piping to prevent heat loss and protect personnel against
burns
As outlined above maximising condensate recovery can offer significant savings,
In calculating the savings, the following additional data has been used:
31
i. Condensate recovery rate is 3.36 m3/hour (based on 70% recovery rate)
ii. City water and recovered condensate water temperatures are respectively 30oC and 80oC
iii. Water tariff rate of RM2.28 per cubic meter in the Klang Valley region
Typical energy and carbon efficiency improvement based on site audit data is outlined below.
Table 15: Analysis of Savings: Condensate Recovery

1 Condensate Recovery m3/h 3.36
2 Density of water at 80oC kg/m3 971.76
3 Boiler efficiency % 76.3%
4 Feedwater Temperature °C 30
5 Condensate Water Temperature °C 80
7 Annual Operation Hour hr 8,160
8 Heat transfer, Q = mCpΔT kJ/hr 684,041
GJ 5,582
11 Annual Water Saving m 3
27,418
13 Cost of Water in Klang Valley MYR/m 3
2.28
15 Annual Water Cost Saving MYR 62,512
16 Total Annual Cost Saving MYR 224,186
4.3.2. Insulation of Flanges or Valves
Description
Steam pipes, condensate return pipes, flanges and valves that are not insulated are a constant source of
heat loss through radiation which is easy to remedy. Insulating all heat surfaces is, in most cases, an easy
measure to implement and it is a low-cost measure. In addition, localised damage to insulation can be
readily repaired. It is quite a common sight to find insulation which has been removed or not being
replaced during operation, maintenance or repairs.
Any wet or hardened insulation needs to be replaced. The cause of wet insulation can often be found in
leaking pipes or tubes. The leaks should be repaired before the insulation is replaced. The table below
shows heat losses from uninsulated steam lines at different steam pressures.
32
Table 16: Approximate heat loss per 30 m of uninsulated steam line
Approximate Heat Loss Per 30 m of

Uninsulated Steam Line (GJ/yr)
Distribution Line Diameter (mm)

Steam Pressure (barg)
1 10 20 40
25 148 301 396 522
50 248 506 665 886
100 438 897 1,182 1,583
200 781 1,625 2,142 2,875
300 1,113 2,321 3,070 4,136
Efficiency Benefits
This BAT improves efficiency by an average of 0.1%.
The associated energy and carbon savings are as outlined in the table below.
Table 17: Insulation of Flanges or Valves Efficiency Benefits

BAT potential
Typical energy
efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.390 77.8 0.1 1.389 77.8 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 0.1 1.469 82.2 15 bar, 200°C
As a baseline, all piping operating at temperatures above ambient temperature should be insulated to
prevent heat loss and safety risk. This is especially the case for steam above 180 °C where it needs to be
distributed it in pipes of diameters of more than 200 mm. Insulation must be checked periodically to
ensure it is always in good condition. Infra-thermography is a very effective measure to check the integrity
of insulation.
Infra-thermography taken during site audits have demonstrated that surface temperature of flanges and
valves were as high as 100oC. When compared to the ambient temperature of around 30oC, this equates
to a convective heat loss with temperature differential of 70oC.
33
In calculating the savings, the following additional basis for calculation were used:
i. Flanges and/or valves are assumed to be cylindrical in shape and having a surface area of (“Pi”
x Pipe Diameter x Length of section)
ii. Pipe Diameter and Section length are taken as 6” (150mm) and 600mm respectively
A total of five (5) flanges and valves are observed to be uninsulated.
Table 18: Analysis of Savings: Insulation of Flanges or Valves

1 Ambient Temperature °C 30
2 Steam Pipe Temperature °C 100
3 Temperature Difference °C 70
4 Boiler efficiency % 54.8
5 Heat Loss rate @ delta 70C kJ/m h 2
3,298
6 Flanges/Valves area m 2
0.283
7 Quantity of Flanges/Valves Uninsulated nos 5
10 Annual Energy Saving MJ 36,925
GJ 37
14 CAPEX MYR 4,000
4.3.3. Management of Steam Leak
Description
Steam leaks are inevitable as the entire steam distribution is subject to thermal stress which causes joints
to be loosened or fracture. Steam leak at valves, bends and tees is commonly visible and should be
rectified quickly to limit energy and water loss. The rate of energy loss increases exponentially with the
diameter of the hole.
Efficiency Benefits
34
Table 19: Management of Steam Leak Efficiency Benefits

BAT potential
Typical energy
efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.390 77.8 0.4 1.384 77.5 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 0.4 1.464 82.0 15 bar, 200°C
The potential savings outlined are calculated using the following parameters:
i) Nominal leak diameter of 3mm

ii) Steam leakage rate is approximately 15 kg/hr at the given leak diameter and steam pressure
Table 20: Analysis of Savings: Management of Steam Leak

1 Steam Pipe Leak Diameter mm 3
2 Steam Pressure bar 6
3 Steam Leakage rate kg/hr 15
4 Boiler efficiency % 54.8
5 Steam Enthalpy @ 6bar kJ/kg 2,652.9
6 Feedwater Enthalpy @ 102C kJ/kg 420
GJ 265
13 CAPEX MYR 1,000
14 Simple Payback Period Years 0.09
4.3.4. Management of Steam Trap
Description
Steam traps are used to remove water, air and non-condensable gases from the steam distribution pipe
work to help maintain system efficiency. The primary functions of steam traps are to discharge the
condensate without allowing steam to escape. Condensate usually contains around 25% of the usable
energy of the live steam. As previous outlined every effort should be made to recover condensate to
maximise system efficiency.
35
Condensate removed from the steam system and returned to the feed tank also reduces the need for
boiler blowdown, which is used to regulate the concentration of dissolved solids in the boiler. This
therefore reduces the energy lost from the boiler during the blowdown process.
Removing the unwanted condensate from the system ensures there is less chance of damage from
issues like water hammer and corrosion. Steam traps remove the condensate as it forms, keeping better
quality steam in the system and protecting pipework and equipment from erosion and corrosion.
There are a few types of steam traps and in general, they are: 1) the thermostatic traps which is operated
by changes in fluid temperature, e.g. bellows, bimetallic; 2) the thermodynamics traps which is operated
by changes in fluid dynamics, e.g. disc; 3) the mechanical traps which is operated by changes in fluid
density, e.g. ball float, inverted bucket, float & thermostatic.
Steam trap failure allows live steam to escape resulting in considerable energy loss. . Steam traps can
fail to function when they cannot open or close or are partially leaking or partially closed. The condition
of steam traps can be checked via visual inspection, and conventional acoustic methods where sound is
transmitted through screwdriver, stethoscope and other acoustic devices. The most accurate method is
by thermography camera which is now a common place and accessible technology.
Proper Good maintenance practice can reduce these losses in a cost-efficient manner. In steam systems
where the steam traps have not been inspected in the last three to five years, up to about 30 % of them
may have failed. In systems with a regularly scheduled maintenance programme, less than 5 % of the
total number of traps should be leaking.
There are many different types of steam traps and each type has its own characteristics and
preconditions. Checks for escaping steam are based on acoustic, visual, electrical conductivity or thermal
checks.
The table below shows the approximate steam losses caused by leaks of several diameters.
Table 21: Leaking steam trap discharge rate
Approximate steam loss (kg/h)

Approximate trap orifice
diameter (mm) Approximate steam pressure (barg)
1 7 10 20
1 0.4 1.5 2.1 -
2 1.5 6.0 8.6 16.4
3 6.2 24.0 34.4 65.8
4 13.9 54.0 77.0 148.0
6 24.8 96.0 137.0 263.0
8 55.8 215.0 309.0 591.0
Efficiency Benefits
This BAT improves efficiency between 0.4% and 1.0%.
Table 22: Management of Steam Trap Efficiency Benefits

BAT potential
Typical energy
efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
36
1.390 77.8 0.4 1.384 77.5 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 1.0 1.455 81.5 15 bar, 200°C
Many problems with steam traps are caused by poor installation. As such drain points should be installed
in such a manner that condensate can be easily channelled into the steam trap. As best practice, in a
150mm steam distribution main, a drain pot of 100mm diameter should be provided at the lowest part of
the pipe
1. Pipe should be adequately sized particularly for pipe leading to and away from steam trap. Avoid
having valves, bends and tees too close to the trap as these may cause excessive back pressure.
2. Selection of group trapping or individual trapping: group trapping is considered when there is a need
to counter water logging and loss of output while individual steam trap for each process connected
to a common condensate return piping is a more satisfactory arrangement.
3. Provision of strainers before the steam traps and a sight glass after the trap to observe proper
functionality of traps is also best practice.
4. Regular scheduled testing and maintenance are crucial to the effective working of steam traps and
thus preventing any unnecessary energy loss
Recommended Steam Trap Testing Intervals
• High-Pressure (150 psig and above): Weekly to Monthly

• Medium-Pressure (30 to 150 psig): Monthly to Quarterly
• Low-Pressure (below 30 psig): Annually
Economic considerations
Assuming a malfunctioned steam trap leaks steam, this BAT will result in 488 GJ/year of energy savings
and financial saving of RM 14,261 per year. Carbon emission reduction is 27 tCO2/year.
Table 23: Analysis of Savings: Management of Steam Trap

1 Steam Trap Leakage rate kg/hr 36
3 Steam Enthalpy @ 15bar kJ/kg 2,790.0
4 Feedwater Enthalpy @ 102C kJ/kg 420
6 Heat transfer Q = mΔh kJ/hr 85,320
GJ 366
11 CAPEX MYR 10,000
13 NG CO2 emission rate tCO2/GJ 0.056
14 Annual CO2 Emission Reduction tCO2/year 27
37
4.3.5. Flash Steam Recovery
Description
Flash steam is formed when condensate at high pressure is discharged to a lower pressure source and
the steam can be used for heating at a lower pressure. The reduction of pressure is achieved by a pressure
reducing valve or as an example, exiting through a steam trap.
Energy recovery can be achieved through heat exchange with boiler make-up water. If the blowdown water
is brought to a lower pressure in a flash tank beforehand, then steam will be formed at a lower pressure.
This flash steam can be moved directly to the degasser and can thus be mixed with the fresh make-up
water. The flash steam does not contain any dissolved salts and the steam represents a large portion of
the energy in the blowdown.
Flash steam does, however, occupy a much larger volume than condensate. The return pipes must be able
to deal with this without pressure increases. Otherwise, the resulting backpressure may hamper the proper
functioning of steam traps and other components upstream.
In the boiler plant, the flash steam, like the condensate, can be used to heat the feed-water in the degasser.
Other possibilities include the use of the flash steam for air heating. Besides the boiler plant, flash steam
can be used to heat products up to 100 °C. Where steam uses are at a pressure of 1 barg The flash steam
can be directly injected into these pipes.
Heat-use processes at low pressure are usually met by throttling high pressure steam. But a portion of
the process requirements can be achieved at low cost by flashing high pressure condensate.
Efficiency Benefits
Table 24: Flash Steam Recovery Efficiency Benefits

BAT potential
Typical energy
efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.470 82.3 1.0 1.455 81.5 15 bar, 200°C
This BAT is applicable when the factory has steam distribution with pressures lower than the pressure
at which steam is generated. Re-use of flash steam is more efficient than utilising the heat in the
blowdown via a heat exchanger.
In theory, any energy use at a lower temperature can be a possible use for flash steam instead of fresh
steam although implementation is not always easy. It is widely used in the petrochemical industry. The
BAT potential saving from flash steam recovery is about 1.0 to 2.0% for steam pressure of 15 bar at 200°C
and the metrics before and after adoption of BAT are tabulated above.
Economic considerations
The recovery of flash steam can provide greater energy savings than from condensate return. Flashing
is particularly attractive when it is not economically feasible to return the high-pressure condensate to
the boiler. This BAT will save 1,915 GJ/year of energy and a financial saving of RM 59,328 per year.
Carbon emission reduction is 107.4 tCO2/year
38
Table 25: Analysis of Savings: Flash Steam Recovery

1 City Water make up flow rate m3/h 2.0
2 Density of water at 50oC kg/m3 988
3 Boiler plant efficiency % 71.6%
4 City water Temperature °C 30
5 Preheated City Water Temperature by Flash Steam Recovery °C 50
GJ 1,371
15 NG CO2 Emission Rate tCO2/GJ 0.056
16 Annual CO2 Emission Reduction tCO2/year 107
4.4. Transformative low carbon solutions
4.4.1. Solar Thermal System

Description
Solar thermal systems use solar collectors to absorb energy from the sun and thereafter transfer the heat
energy using heat exchangers to heat water.
Figure 3: Present boiler make-up water tank configuration
39
Figure 4: Proposed boiler make-up water tank configuration
Technology Maturity and Commercial Readiness
Solar thermal is a mature technology however the need for a large footprint restricts its wider adoption. It
is ideally installed on rooftop if space is not a limitation but structural integrity needs to be to be taken
into account.
Efficiency Benefits
Solar thermal systems can improve boiler thermal efficiency by an average of 0.7% and is restricted by
short operating hours of the system. - The associated energy and carbon savings are as outlined in the
table below.
Table 26: Solar Thermal System Efficiency Benefits

BAT potential
Typical energy
efficiency
kgCO2/ kgCO2/
GJNG/GJS % GJNG/GJS
GJNG GJNG
1.390 77.8 0.7 1.380 77.3 10 bar, 180°C
1.470 82.3 0.7 1.460 81.7 15 bar, 200°C
In analysing the savings, the following additional data was used:

i) City water flowrate of 1 m3/hour (estimation based on solar thermal capacity of 1 m3/hr)
ii) Annual operation hours of the Solar Thermal System taken as 2,190 hours per year. The low
hours quoted accounts for the fact that the solar heat recovery is only effective between 10am
and 4pm in the day. Before and after day light hours, the recovery is considered negligible
iii) Price estimate of flat plate solar collector
40
Table 27: Analysis of Savings: Solar Thermal System
1 Water Flow Rate m3/hr 1
2 Density of water at 80 C
o
kg/m3 971.76
3 Water Mass Flow Rate kg/hr 971.76
5 City Water Temperature °C 30
6 After Solar Thermal Temperature °C 80
GJ 446
14 CAPEX MYR 60,000
4.4.2. Electric Boiler
As the name implies, steam is generated by electricity instead of through the conventional combustion
technology. Electricity can be procured from renewable energy sources which is made available by TNB
in 2022 under the Green Electricity Tariff. The benefits of electric boilers are essentially centred on
increased efficiency and better environmental sustainability in the context of the absence of flue gases
from combustion including carbon monoxide. However, the extent of the benefits depend on the grid
emissions unless electricity is generated from a renewable source. It also provides better control over
steam generation.
If renewable energy is not available throughout the entire process of steam generation, the benefits of
electric boilers being a low carbon technology is highly debatable. It is to be noted that the fuel mix for
electricity generation in Malaysia is highly dependable on fossil fuel, the resultant CO2 emission factor of
electricity is 192.78 kgCO2/GJ. This is 3.4 times more than the emission factor of NG which is at 56.1
kgCO2/GJ. Even if electric boilers use renewable energy for 50% of steam generation and the remaining
electricity from the power plants, it does not qualify as a low carbon system.
41
SECTION 5
Recommendations
/ Title 7
5. Recommendations
Technology will drive a successful transition to secure, more affordable energy and reduced emissions.
Deploying the appropriate technology when and where it is needed will allow Malaysian industry to capture
new opportunities from increasing global demand for reducing emissions across products and services.
The solutions identified for thermal energy management require implementation through demonstration
across industries before being recommended for wider adoption across sectors. While there is no perfect
way to implement this, some processes could be adopted through collaboration with stakeholders. A
summary of the key steps that could be taken are provided below:
Bridging the gap

The gap between government and investments in fundamental research (concentrated at new
technologies with low readiness) and private sector investments in commercialisation (concentrated at
technologies with high readiness) needs to be bridged. KeTSA could consider establishing ‘Clean
Manufacturing Innovation Institutes’ to demonstrate advanced technologies and processes, leading to
commercialisation. These centres could be a part of a strategy that addresses the gap in funding which
will be critical to the maturity of new technologies.
Increased research & development on deployment

This is important to push some technologies into the mainstream and the emphasis on deployment will
help industries in Malaysia gain a competitive advantage through low emissions operations. Additionally,
working in close partnership with industry to deploy technologies would give researchers and solution
providers a sense of the practical challenges and opportunities within the industry, which could improve
the research in the future. An example of this approach is the Malaysian Green Technology and Climate
Change Corporation (MGTC) which is tasked with the objective of promoting green growth by providing
access to technology, financing and creating advocacy for scaling up energy efficiency and renewable
energy across sectors. Another example could be to replicate the demand side management plan
developed on the premise of the study conducted for the F&B sector to other energy-intensive sectors. A
final example would be support for joint industry-academic technology demonstrations.
International collaboration
Collaborate internationally on research & development in some of these technologies. Certain
technologies identified show large potential to improve energy efficiency and are being increasingly
deployed globally. For such technologies collaborative research efforts should be developed to advance
these mutually beneficial goals. One example of an area of important international focus would be
community boilers demonstration in the F&B sector. Given the scale of the global F&B industry, Malaysia
should align its programmes with international efforts.
Invest in best available technologies

Despite the energy savings opportunity available for industry, the lack of investment into best available
technologies is a key barrier limiting the amount of energy and carbon efficiency that can be achieved,
and the subsequent cost savings being realised. Some barriers can be easily overcome with minimal
capital expenditure but require commitment, awareness, and willingness of the top management to
implement energy saving measures. There is a strong business case to be made for adopting best
available technologies since the return on investment is significant and is especially attractive when
energy prices are high.
Further, the uptake of these technologies could be fuelled through a structured demand-side management
plan by setting targets and implementing robust activities through a structured process. Such a plan may
also help the government in budgeting for energy saving opportunities upfront and could become a long-
term strategy for the transformation of the energy-intensive industries in Malaysia.
43

Thermal Efficiency Guidelines For Boilers1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thermal Efficiency Guidelines For Boilers1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thermal Efficiency Guidelines For Boilers1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Guidelines on Best

The Carbon Trust’s mission is to

1. Objectives of the Guidelines ............................................................................................ 4

1.1. Purpose of the Guidelines ....................................................................................5

2.1. Steam boilers .........................................................................................................8

3.1. Boiler replacement ..............................................................................................16

4. Best Available Energy Saving Technologies ............................................................... 23

4.1. Technology Assessment Methodology .............................................................24

4.2.1. Heat Recovery Economiser ................................................................................24

4.3. Heat Use Process.................................................................................................31

4.3.1. Condensate Recovery ........................................................................................31

4.4. Transformative low carbon solutions ................................................................39

4.4.1. Solar Thermal System ........................................................................................41

COP Coefficient of performance

CHP Combined heat and power

EECA Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act

F&B Food and beverage

PPB Part per billion

PPM Part per million

TDS Total Dissolved Solids

1.2. Scope of the guidelines: why boilers?

Figure 1: Final Energy Use in Industrial Sub-Sectors, 2016

Natural Gas Oil LPG Electricity

1.4. Limitations of the guidelines

Water tube type

2.2. Hot water boilers

2.3. Sector relevance of boilers

Table 1: Sector relevance for steam and hot water boilers

Food, Cement and

Table 2: End-use relevance for steam and hot water boilers

2.4. Types of fuel used in boilers

2.5. Low(er) carbon alternatives

Combined heat and power (CHP)

Sources of waste heat

• Ventilation system extracts

Uses for recovered heat

• Pre-heating of combustion air for boilers, ovens, furnaces

Heat recovery applications

Thermal Oil Boilers

Table 3: Typical Boiler Efficiency

Energy input rate required to

Standard, good condition 70% 143kW

Boiler replacement process

Figure 2: Best practices to optimise boiler use

Table 4: Air ratios for boilers 5

Standard 7 1.47- 1.18 - 1.12-

Table 5: Flue gas temperature of boilers

Flue gas temperature 9

Up to 10 50-100 - 220 220 220 220 220

> 100 50-100 130 130 - - - -

51 – 100 50-100 - 130 130 - - -

3.4. Energy savings opportunities in boilers and heat distribution

Inspect and maintain boilers

Match boiler outputs to process and/or site requirements

Fit insulation and inspect it regularly

Do not lose heat on standby

An automatic water treatment system can save 2% of the fuel requirement.

Investigate the potential for recovering waste heat

Investigate installing automatic controls and use isolation procedures