SUPERPOWER

RELATIONS AND
THE COLD WAR,
1941-1991

1
 CONTENTS
Quizzes & Completed
Flowchart
exam qu. quizzes

1: The origins of the Cold War, 1941-58

1.1a The Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam conferences 4 21 65

1.1b The creation of the Soviet sphere of influence 5 24 67

1.2a The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan 6 26 68

1.2b The Berlin Crisis, 1948-49 7 29 70

1.3a The development of the nuclear arms race 8 32 72

1.3b Peaceful coexistence in the 1950s 9 34 73

1.3c The Hungarian Uprising, 1956 10 36 74

2: Cold War crises, 1958-70

2.1 The Berlin Crisis, 1958-63 11 39 76

2.2a The Bay of Pigs invasion, 1961 13 42 78

2.2b The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 14 45 80

2.3 The Prague Spring, 1968 15 48 82

3: The end of the Cold War, 1970-91

3.1 Détente 16 51 84

3.2a The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 17 54 86

3.2b Ronald Reagan and the ‘second’ Cold War 18 57 88

3.3a Gorbachev’s ‘New Thinking’ 19 59 89

3.3b The end of Soviet control over Eastern Europe 20 62 91

Practice 8-mark exam questions 93

2
Every week, you need to complete your History homework:

MUST
Test yourself on the week’s quiz questions by:
• Writing the answers from memory in the ‘Attempt 1’ column
• Checking the correct answer, and marking/correcting your answer in red
pen
SHOULD
Answer the practice exam question for the week’s topics.
COULD
1. Revise previous week’s quiz questions.
2. Practice answering one of the exam questions at the back of this booklet.
3. Ask for additional reading from your teacher on a recent topic.

3
 THE CONFERENCES DECISIONS MADE
1.1a: THE GRAND
1. The USA and Britain agreed to open a ‘second front’ by launching an
ALLIANCE, 1941- The Tehran Conference attack against Nazi Germany in Western Europe. This forced the
45 (November 1943) Germans to move troops from Eastern Europe, which helped the USSR.

The Grand Alliance met in Tehran to plan a strategy 2. Stalin agreed to help the USA fight Japan by supplying Soviet soldiers,
to win the Second World War and defeat Nazi but only once Nazi Germany was defeated and the war in Europe over.
Germany and its allies. Stalin was concerned that
CAUSES Britain and America were delaying opening a 3. Agreed their aim was to ensure that Nazi Germany was defeated, and
‘second front’ against Nazi Germany in Western the country should remain weak after the war.
The Second World Europe. He was currently suffering heavy losses
War (1939-41) fighting the Nazis in Eastern Europe and wanted to 4. Agreed that an international organisation should be set up to use
relieve the pressure on his army (4 million German negotiations and discussions to settle disputes, instead of war.
The war broke out in
soldiers had invaded the USSR in June 1941).
September 1939. In 1941, 5. Agreed Poland would receive land from Germany after the war, and
America and the USSR the USSR could keep land it had seized from Poland.
entered the war on the
side of Britain. They The Yalta Conference 1. Germany’s division into four zones of occupation after the war, each run
formed the Grand (February 1945) by either the USA, USSR, Britain or France, was discussed
Alliance against Nazi
Germany and its allies The ‘Big Three’ held a second conference in Yalta.
2. Germany would pay reparations totalling £20 billion – half of this would
(e.g. Japan). Franklin D. By this time, it was clear that Germany was losing the
go to the USSR. The Nazi Party would be abolished.
Roosevelt (USA), Winston war. The aim of the meeting was to decide how
Churchill (GB) and Josef Europe would be governed after the war. While 3. Stalin agreed that the future governments of countries in Eastern
Stalin (USSR) came to be many agreements were made, some Europe would be decided in free, democratic elections.
known as the “Big disagreements arose:
Three”. A series of • Poland: Stalin expected elections to a pro-communist 4. The borders of Poland would be returned to their 1921 position in 1921,
Polish government, but Churchill supported the non-
conferences took place giving the Soviet Union more territory.
communist London Poles politicians (exiled in London
between the allies.
from 1939).
• UN: Not all 16 Soviet republics could join the UN, only 5. The United Nations would be set up as a peace-making organisation.
The Potsdam Conference
Russia, Belarus and Ukraine.
6. Stalin would support the US against Japan 3 months after Germany’s defeat.
(July-August 1945)
The situation had changed dramatically by the time the Potsdam Conference was held:
Agreement (Germany): Germany and Berlin were divided into four
• Roosevelt died in April 1945 and was replaced by President Harry S. Truman.
zones of occupation (even though Berlin was in the Soviet zone). The
• Churchill had lost the general election in 1945 and was replaced by Prime Minister
Clement Attlee. economy was run as a whole.
• Germany had completely surrendered in May 1945.
• The USA had developed, and tested, an atomic bomb. Disagreement (Poland): Truman did not agree with the changes to
• Soviet soldiers were occupying large areas of Eastern Europe, which they had freed Disagreement
Poland’s border(Reparations):
and giving theTruman
USSR did
morenotterritory
want to(agreed
weakenat
Germany,
Yalta).
from Nazi rule. whereas Stalin wanted to place heavy reparations on the country. It
While agreements were made, further disagreements arose between the Grand Alliance, was agreed that each occupier would take reparations from its own
increasing tensions between them. Truman was suspicious of Stalin’s aims for Eastern zone. As the USSR was in charge of the poorest zone, they could take a
Europe, and he thought the atom bomb could be used as leverage. quarter of the industrial equipment from the other zones.

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 CONSEQUENCES
1.1b: THE SOVIET ‘SPHERE OF INFLUENCE’ (1945-48)
EVENTS
The Novikov Telegram

CAUSES THE CREATION OF THE (September 1946)

Nikolai Novikov was a Soviet
SOVIET ‘SPHERE OF politician working in Washington.
America as a nuclear In September 1946, he sent a
power (1945) INFLUENCE’ Kennan’s ‘long telegram’ telegram to Stalin saying that:
On 6th and 9th August 1945, the
(1945-48) (February 1946) • The USA wanted to use their
military power to control the
USA exploded atom bombs over Stalin’s main aim after the Second World War George Kennan was America’s
world.
the Japanese cities of Hiroshima was to ensure the USSR was secure ambassador in Moscow. As Stalin
• Americans no longer wanted
and Nagasaki, which killed (protected). He was determined to create a was setting up communist
to cooperate with the Soviet
120,000 Japanese civilians. “buffer zone” of communist countries governments in Eastern Europe,
Union.
America was the only country between Germany and the Soviet Union. As Kennan sent a telegram to
with nuclear weapons and they a result, the Eastern European counties freed President Truman in February
had shown how powerful these from the Nazis by the Soviets were turned into 1946 giving his views about Soviet Increased tensions
were. This made Stalin feel satellite states which had communist actions. He reported that:
threatened and more governments and were controlled by Stalin • Stalin wanted to destroy Stalin and Truman became more
determined to ensure the security and the USSR. The methods used to do so capitalism. suspicious of one another. It was
(protection) of the USSR. were undemocratic. By 1948 all countries in • The Soviet Union would back clear that both the USA and the
Eastern Europe, except Greece, were down if America put up strong USSR had different aims for
communist and in the Soviet ‘sphere of resistance. Europe after the war. Neither side
influence’. trusted what the other was
aiming to do.
The impact of the Second • Czechoslovakia: In February 1948, non- Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’
World War communists were removed from power speech
and a communist government was set up (March 1946) The Truman Doctrine
• The USSR suffered severe losses
that was loyal to the USSR. Other political (March 1947)
during the Second World War Churchill visited the USA and
parties were banned.
(27 million deaths). The war was gave a speech in Fulton, Missouri. Truman eventually committed
• Poland: After rigged elections in 1947, non-
the second time Russia had He was no longer prime minister, the US to ‘containment’ –
communist politicians were forced to flee
been invaded by Germany in but was still a respected preventing the spread of
Poland or face imprisonment. Poland too
the early-20th century. politician. In response to the communism (see next page).
became a communist country.
• In 1944 and 1945, the Soviet
• Bulgaria: Communists won the 1945 expansion of communism in The USSR was more
Red Army freed many countries Eastern Europe, he accused determined
elections. They then executed leaders of
in Eastern Europe from the Stalin of threatening world peace
the other parties, turning Bulgaria into a The Soviet Union became even
Nazis, as it advanced towards and freedom and causing
completely communist state. more determined to establish a
Germany. Stalin was therefore Europe to be divided.
in a position to keep control of ‘sphere of influence’, following
these countries after the war. the increased tensions with the
West. Stalin felt even more that
he needed security from the
West.

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 CAUSES 1.2a: THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE AND MARSHALL PLAN CONSEQUENCES
The Soviet takeover of Stalin’s reaction to the
Eastern Europe Why did President Truman begin a policy of containment in 1947? Marshall Plan
By 1947, the USSR had • Truman was suspicious of Stain’s aims. Countries in Eastern Europe had already fallen Stalin believed the Truman
created a sphere of to communism, and Truman feared that Stalin would continue to spread
Doctrine and Marshall Plan
influence in Eastern Europe communism beyond Eastern Europe. This would threaten the interests of the West,
who believed in democracy and capitalism. Therefore, he took a stand against the showed how the USA was
by setting up communist
USSR, and committed America to containment (preventing the spread of trying to gain influence in
governments in many
Eastern European countries.
communism). Europe and divide Europe in
• Truman came under pressure from politicians in the West (e.g. Kennan) to take a two. The Plan meant that
This included Poland, strong stand against the USSR.
Hungary and Bulgaria. • The USA was the only country in the West that was in a position to give aid and
Western European countries
support to countries (e.g. Greece) to prevent communism from spreading. depended on the USA for aid
and so they had to support
Kennan’s Long America. Stalin called this
Telegram (Feb 1946) THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE THE MARSHALL PLAN ‘dollar imperialism’.
This said to Truman that the (12th March 1947) (1948-52)
USSR intended to spread Truman made a speech in which he said that:
America provided economic aid to
The creation of Cominform
communism throughout • Communism should not be allowed to spread (September 1947)
help war-torn countries in Europe in
Europe, but would back further – the USA would give military and This was a political organisation
order to stop communism from
down if they faced strong economic aid to countries at risk of turning created by Stalin. Its members
taking over. Between 1948 and 1952,
resistance. communist. were the communist
the USA gave $12.7 billion of aid to
• The US would send money and soldiers to governments of Eastern Europe.
countries in Europe.
Greece. This gave Stalin a way of
The Greek Civil War • Choosing democracy over communism was Only countries in Western Europe controlling these governments
The British had been giving like choosing good over evil. This was received this money because Stalin (e.g. he encouraged them not to
money and military support Truman’s first public attack on the way of life banned communist countries from contact non-communist
to the Greek government to of the USSR. accepting it. countries).
This began a new policy that
help them fight against The creation of Comecon
communists. However, by became known as containment
(preventing the spread of
(January 1949)
1947 Britain said it could no This was an economic
longer afford to do this. communism).
organisation made up of
Why did the USA believe the Marshall Plan would stop the spread of
communist countries of Eastern
The state of the communism? Europe. It aimed to support the
European economy Lots of counties in Europe were damaged by the war. The USA believed that economic growth of these
As a result of World Wqr Two, communism was more likely to spread in countries where people were countries (e.g. by arranging and
many European countries experiencing poverty and hardship. They believed that communist ideas (e.g. encouraging trade with each
were in ruins with homes, more equality) would be more appealing than capitalist ideas in these other). For instance, Bulgaria’s
factories, roads and railways circumstances. Therefore, the USA wanted to help develop the economies of trade with other Comecon
destroyed. Britain was almost damaged countries in Europe in order to stop people from turning towards members increased from 10% in
bankrupt. communism. the 1930s to over 90% by 1951.

6
 CONSEQUENCES
CAUSES
1.2b: THE BERLIN CRISIS (1948-49) Damage to Stalin’s reputation
No agreement was made The Berlin Airlift showed how the West was not
going to give up West Berlin. Stalin was forced to
over the future of Germany
After the war, the West and the
EVENTS remove the blockade on 9th May 1949 – his plan
had failed. Stalin was seen as an aggressive
USSR disagreed over the future of leader who had threatened the lives of millions of
Germany. Stalin wanted to weaken
Germany, protect the USSR, and THE BERLIN West Berliners.

take as much as they could from its

zone to help the USSR recover from AIRLIFT Permanent division of Germany (1949)
the war. In contrast, the West (24th June 1948 - 9th The events of the Berlin blockade showed the
West how they were not going to come to an
wanted to rebuild Germany’s
economy. This increased tensions THE BERLIN May 1949)
agreement with the USSR over Germany and
The West responded to the Berlin. Therefore, they set up the Federal Republic
between the West and USSR. Talks
broke down in December 1947. BLOCKADE Berlin blockade by of Germany (West Germany) just 3 days after the
(24th June 1948 - 9th introducing the Berlin Airlift. blockade. In response, the USSR created the
May 1949) They flew supplies into West German Democratic Republic (East German) in
The merging of the Western Berlin. They did this September 1949. As a result, Germany was
zones of Germany On 24th June 1948, Stalin because: permanently divided.
blockaded all transport, • Truman wanted to show
Because talks had broken down, communication links and that he was committee
the USA and Britain decided to join supply lines into West to containment. The creation of NATO (April 1949)
their zones in Germany in January Berlin. This stopped the • They believed Stalin The Berlin blockade helped to persuade the West
1947. This created ‘Bizonia’. In West from accessing the would not shoot down that a military alliance was needed to protect
March 1948, the French zone also city and giving essential the planes and provoke the West against the Soviet Union. In April 1949,
joined ‘Bizonia’, which made supplies to the 2 million war. they formed the North Atlantic Treaty
‘Trizonia’. They began to re- West Berliners. • They needed to protect Organisation (NATO). All members of NATO
develop the German economy, the West Berliners. agreed to protect one another if threatened by
and introduced a new currency In January 1949, 170,000 the Soviet Union.
called the Deutschemark.
Stalin’s concerns tonnes of supplies were
flown into West Berlin.
Stalin did not want Germany to be
divided or economically strong. He
Planes landed every 3 to 4 The creation of the Warsaw Pact (1955)
minutes.
worried that: In 1955, West Germany joined NATO. Stalin felt
• People in the Soviet zone would particularly vulnerable, as West Germany was
try to move west if it became now armed and powerful. Therefore, Stalin
richer. This would make formed an equivalent military alliance of
communism look bad. communist countries, called the Warsaw Pact,
• A strong Germany could which was directly controlled by the USSR.
threaten the security of the Members included Poland, Czechoslovakia and
USSR. Hungary.

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 CAUSES 1.3a: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
CONSEQUENCES
America’s development of
NUCLEAR ARMS RACE (1945-57)
Nuclear destruction
the atom bomb (1945)
Both the USA and the USSR had the nuclear
• In July 1945, the USA power capable of destroying the world a number
successfully tested the atomic EVENTS of times over.
bomb.
• On 6th and 9th August 1945,
the USA exploded atom
bombs over the Japanese
THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE Mutually assured destruction (M.A.D.)
Nuclear weapons became deterrents, rather
cities of Hiroshima and (1949-1958) than weapons used in wars. It was believed that
Nagasaki, which killed 120,000
The USA’s development of the atomic bomb having nuclear weapons would stop a rival from
Japanese civilians. America
made Stalin feel threatened. He was going to war, as it would risk the outbreak of a
was the only country with
determined to match the USA’s nuclear power, nuclear war and complete annihilation. Nuclear
nuclear weapons and they
and exceed it. After 1945, Soviet scientists weapons therefore discouraged the US and USSR
had shown how powerful
worked to develop their own atom bomb, from declaring war on each another.
these were.
which they successfully tested on 22nd August
1949. This led to the rise of the nuclear arms race
– the competition between the USA and the Cost of the arms race
USSR to have the most powerful nuclear The USA and the USSR were spending huge
weapons and technology. amounts of money on the nuclear arms race.
Timeline of the nuclear arms race: Because of this, they began to see the benefits of
Increased tensions after • 1952: The USA tested the hydrogen bomb – improving relations with each other, so they
1945 1000x more powerful than the atom bomb. could free up money to invest in their own
• 1953: The USSR also tested the hydrogen economies.
The different aims of the USA and
bomb.
the USSR (e.g. Stalin’s want to
• 1957: The USA developed Intercontinental
create a ‘sphere of influence’)
ballistic missiles (ICBMs), which could hit a
led to increased suspicion and Meetings between the USA and the USSR
target more than 4500km away. A few
tensions between the two
months later, the USSR also began testing
countries. The Berlin Blockade In 1953, President Eisenhower and Nikita
ICBMs.
had also shown Stalin’s willingness Khrushchev became leaders of the USA and the
to take aggressive action. This USSR. They both recognised the dangers posed
made both countries want to by nuclear weapons, and the significant cost of
protect themselves and therefore the arms race. Both leaders therefore made
be superior in the nuclear arms efforts to improve relations and reduce tensions:
race. • 1955: An agreement was made over Austria.
• 1955: A meeting took place in Geneva for the
first time in 10 years (although no agreements
were made).

8
 CAUSES 1.3b: THE ERA OF ‘PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE’ IN THE 1950s
The cost of the nuclear arms
race EVENTS CONSEQUENCES
• Both the USA and the USSR were
spending huge amounts of money ‘PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE’ Improved relations between the
on the nuclear arms race. (1953-1956) USA and the USSR
• Both sides knew that reducing their For the first time since the start of the Cold
spending on the military would be The rise of Eisenhower: In 1953, President Eisenhower became leader of War, both the USA and the USSR took
good for their economy. the USA. He was strongly anti-communist and was also determined to significant steps to improve relations
• Eastern European countries in prevent the spread of communism. However, he recognised the threat between the two countries. Both showed
particular were experiencing posed by nuclear weapons and the importance of reducing tensions their willingness to negotiate with each
shortages, and the USSR wanted to between the two countries. other in order to reduce the likelihood of
free up money to improve the living The rise of Khrushchev: In 1953, Josef Stalin died and Nikita Khrushchev a nuclear war.
standards of people living in soon rose as the new leader of the USSR. Khrushchev strongly criticised
communist countries. Stalin’s policies and introduced a new policy of “de-Stalinisation”
(removing Stalin’s legacy). He believed that East-West relations needed Continuing tensions between the
to improve and introduced a policy of ‘peaceful coexistence’ – USA and the USSR
The prospect of nuclear war allowing both East and West to exist peacefully.
Despite taking steps to improve their
The arms race had escalated from Therefore, both leaders were committed to improving relations relations, a number of events took place
1949. Both the USA and the USSR between their two countries. This resulted in a number of agreements in the 1950s that showed that tensions still
recognised the dangers posed by made in 1955: existed between the USA and the USSR:
nuclear weapons, and the
• 1955: An agreement to unite Austria and make it an independent • The creation of the Warsaw Pact (1955):
destruction that a nuclear war would
country. Like Germany, Austria had been divided into four zones In May 1955, the Federal Republic of
cause. They therefore believed that
after the Second World War. Germany (West Germany) joined
steps needed to be taken to improve
• The Geneva Summit (July 1955): For the first time in 10 years, the NATO. This made the USSR feel
US-Soviet relations, in order to reduce
leaders of the USA and the USSR met in Geneva to discuss key issues. threatened, as it meant that West
the possibility of a nuclear war
Although, no agreements were made. Germany was now armed and
breaking out.
powerful. In response, the USSR
The Korean War (1950-53)
created Warsaw Pact, which was a
In 1950, communist North Korea military alliance made up of
invaded South Korea (who was allied communist countries in Eastern Europe.
to the USA). Both the USA and the This meant that the USSR had huge
USSR supported their allies in the war, amounts of influence over the armies
but did not fight each other directly. of countries in Eastern Europe.
The war finally ended in 1953. Both the
• The Hungarian Uprising (1956): The USA
USA and USSR recognised how easy it
condemned the Soviet response to the
was for them both to become
Hungarian Uprising in 1956.
involved in a conflict, and wanted to
prevent this from happening again.

9
 CAUSES 1.3c: THE HUNGARIAN UPRISING (1956) CONSEQUENCES

Protest in Hungary Why could Khrushchev not allow Hungary to leave the Warsaw Pact? Khrushchev strengthened
The people of Hungary The Hungarian Uprising made
began to protest about:
The USSR wanted a buffer zone of pro-communist countries around it to
provide security / protection. If Hungry broke away from the Warsaw Khrushchev’s position in the
• Lack of political freedom Pact, other eastern European countries might do the same. That would Soviet Union and in the
• Fuel shortages reduce the buffer zone and therefore the USSR’s security. Warsaw Pact stronger. Other
• Poor harvests member countries knew they
In October 1956, there were EVENTS must do as they were told. If
riots in the capital, Budapest, they rebelled, they knew they
which led to clashes with the
police.
THE HUNGARIAN The Soviet Union re-established would face a Soviet invasion,
and could not expect military
control
UPRISING support from the USA.
(November 1956) The invading Soviet army acted with great
brutality and killed an estimated 20,000 Khrushchev also became
New prime minister more confident in dealing with
On 1 November 1956, Nagy announced Hungarians as they re-established control. A
Soviet troops restored order, that Hungary would leave the Warsaw new pro-communist government was set up the USA because he knew
and Khrushchev put in place Pact. Khrushchev could not allow this to under Janos Kadar. they were unlikely to risk taking
a new prime minister, Imre happen, so ordered a Soviet invasion of military action.
Nagy. Nagy and his supporters sought safety. They
Hungary
were promised a safe journey out of the
Nagy believed that even in a On 4 November 1956, 1,000 Soviet tanks country, but when they came out of hiding The West appeared weak
communist country, people rolled into Budapest. they were kidnapped by Soviet agents and
should have some personal Nagy was executed. The USA and its allies had
freedoms. Khrushchev Nagy’s supporters put up a fight in what encouraged communist
hoped that making Nagy has become known as the Hungarian countries to stand up to the USSR.
prime minister would end the Uprising. They begged the West for E.g. Radio Free Europe was a US-
protests. support, but no support came. funded radio station that
broadcast messages to the
Nagy’s reforms people of Eastern Europe
Nagy included members of Some NATO countries took in encouraging them to rise up.
Khrushchev described Nagy’s However, in Hungary, they had
non-communist parties in the Hungarian refugees, but no military
death as a ‘lesson to the leaders not backed up their words with
Hungarian government, support was given to Nagy. Why do Increasing tension between
ending the one-party state.
of all Socialist [communist] military support.
you think this was the case?
He also released many countries’. Why was this? the USA and the USSR
political prisoners and The USA had a policy of containment. Even though the USA did not take
He was warning eastern European
persuaded Khrushchev to They would use military action to military action to support Nagy
countries to do as they were told
withdraw Soviet troops. prevent the USSR from spreading against the USSR, America had
by Moscow, and remain part of
Khrushchev was prepared to communism, but would not interfere in strongly opposed the Soviet
accept these reforms if they
the Warsaw Pact. If not, they
an existing communist country. A invasion of Hungary. This
ended the protests in would be treated in the same way
military attack on a Soviet satellite increased tension between the
Hungary. as Nagy. two superpowers.
state could trigger a nuclear war.

10
 CAUSES CONSEQUENCES
2.1: THE BERLIN CRISIS (1958-63)
Economic differences THE BERLIN WALL (1961)
West
EVENTS OF THE BERLIN CRISIS, 1958-63
Germany received Increasing tensions at the talks
Marshall Aid and so became meant that more East Germans
Summit meetings of 1959-61
THE BERLIN ULTIMATUM
a prosperous country during decided to cross to the West, just
the 1950s, with a high 1. Geneva (May 1959): No agreement in case Khrushchev decided to
(November 1958)
standard of living. was reached about how Berlin close the border. On one day
should be governed. alone, 40,000 East Germans
East Germany
Khrushchev received less the answer
decided crossed to the West.
aid from the USSR
was for the whole and theof Berlin to 2. Camp David (September 1959):
government’s economic
become part of the surrounding Eisenhower and Khrushchev met On the night of 12 August 1961,
policies wereofunsuccessful.
territory East Germany. This would face-to-face. There was no East German soldiers built a
As a make
result,it East
harderGermans
the East Germans to agreement, but the USSR did agree barbed wire fence around Berlin
suffered
get into West standard
from a low Germany. to withdraw the Ultimatum. The and between East and West
of living and shortages of meeting began to establish better Berlin.
basic goods.
Khrushchev therefore issued an relations. By Reaction
the end offromthe the Westthis
summer,
ultimatum to try to force the West to 3. Paris (May 1960): Before the had been turned into a 165km
The West criticised the building of
leave Berlin. Khrushchev meeting, the USSR announced that concrete wall, dividing East Berlin
Political differences the wall, but there was no direct
demanded that: they had shot down an American U- from West Berlin and preventing
action to stop its construction.
• Berlin should
The Communist regimebe indemilitarised 2 spy plane. Eisenhower refused to refugees from crossing from East
East Migration
and Western
Germany troops
was withdrawn apologise, saying spying missions However, theBerlin.
Berlin to West wall showed that
• Berlin should become a free city were unavoidable. Khrushchev Khrushchev had been forced to
unpopular
Many as there
East Germans chosewere
to
walked out of the meeting. accept western control in West
many home
leave restrictions
and on
move what
to
Thepeople
West had six months to make Berlin. This increased Kennedy’s
ordinary
West Germany, could
as they say
knew 4. Vienna (June 1961): Khrushchev took
the changes or Khrushchev would reputation, and he was praised
and do. They
the quality were
of life also
in West a tougher stance, as America had a
hand over control of all routes into for standing firm and allowing
constantly
Germany monitored
was much by the
higher. new, inexperienced president (John
Berlin to East Germany. This would West Berlin to remain a symbol of
secret police. F. Kennedy). The USSR renewed the
force the
By 1958, 3 Western
million powers
East to talk to freedom and defiance against
Ultimatum, but Kennedy refused to
Germansthe (over
East a sixth
German of thegovernment, communism. This was celebrated
give in as he did not want to seem
recognising
population) it as antoindependent
had crossed when thousands of West Berliners
weak. The meeting again ended
country.
the West. Many of them were turned out to see Kennedy give
with no final decision.
skilled workers, needed in his famous speech, saying ‘Ich
East Germany to help rebuild bin ein Berliner’ (‘I am a citizen of
the economy. Berlin’).

11
12
13
 CAUSES 2.2a: THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION (1961) CONSEQUENCES
Cuban Revolution American humiliation
In January 1959, Fidel Castro Background: US-Cuba relations before 1959
America had significant influence over Cuba before 1959. It became obvious that America
overthrew Batista and took
• Cuba was ruled by Fulgencio Batista, who was supported by the USA. had been involved in the Bay of
control of Cuba. Castro was
• American businesses had invested lots of money in Cuba, and owned much of the land. Pugs invasion, so it became a
a nationalist who did not
• Cuba’s oil, electricity and phone networks and railways were controlled by Americans. humiliating failure for the USA.
want his country’s economy • America bought lots of Cuba’s main export, sugar.
to be under American America also appeared
control. hypocritical. They had accused
EVENTS: THE ‘BAY OF PIGS’ INVASION the USSR of trying to spread their
influence in Eastern Europe. Now it
Nationalisation (April 1961) looked like the Americans were
acting in exactly the same way:
In May 1959, the Cuban When Kennedy became president, he wanted to take action to prevent the
supporting armed uprisings in order
government took over all the USSR having a Communist ally so close to the USA. He approved a CIA plan to
to restore their influence in an
land in Cuba owned by train Cuban exiles to launch an invasion and overthrow Castro.
independent country.
foreign nationals. The US On 17 April 1961, 1,400 Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. The
government refused to attempted coup was a complete failure:
recognise the scheme, but i. The Cuban exiles had little military experience.
Castro took the land ii. The US could not use American soldiers or air attacks to support the
anyway. attack, as they wanted the invasion to look like a Cuban effort.
Communism looked better
iii. Castro’s government found out about the invasion plans. There were The Soviet Union was quick to point
20,000 Cuban soldiers waiting to fight the exiles when they landed. out that the people of Cuba were
Communism iv. The USA wrongly thought most Cuban would support the invasion. But happy under the leadership of the
Castro began appointing many Cubans were happy with Castro. pro-communist Castro, and they
communists to his had shown little support for the
government. In February Why did the USA take action against Why did the CIA use Cuban exiles, Cuban exiles’ attempt to restore
1960, he made an Castro’s reforms? rather than US soldiers, in the American influence. Khrushchev
agreement with the USSR: The USA was very concerned about a pro- invasion? said this clearly showed that
Khrushchev agreed to buy Soviet regime being established so close to Sending Cuban exiles made the attack communism was popular.
Cuban sugar and provide America (Cuba was just 145km from the look like Cuban people rising up against
economic aid. There was American mainland) and in America’s Castro. This made Castro, and therefore Stronger relations between
also a secret clause saying sphere of influence. Communism spreading communism, look unpopular.
so close to America weakened their global
Cuba and the USSR
Cuba would receive arms Using Cuban exiles meant that the USA
image. could claim not to have been involved. Castro declared himself a
from the USSR.
American response The USA took action in an attempt to America didn’t want other countries to communist and asked Khrushchev
pressure Cuba into ending their relationship know that they were trying to control to help him defend Cuba against
In October 1960, Eisenhower
with the USSR and accept American and influence the way an independent any future attack from the USA.
banned all trade with Cuba. influence again. country was ruled.
In January 1961, the USA In September 1961, Khrushchev
broke off diplomatic relations publicly announced that he would
with Cuba. provide arms to Cuba.

14
 CAUSES CONSEQUENCES
2.2b: THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
Bay of Pigs (1961) (1962)
Why was it so important for the USSR to keep Cuba communist?
Reduced tension
America had shown that they wanted to Four steps were taken to prevent
If the Americans overthrew Castro and gained influence once again in Cuba, future misunderstandings leading to
overthrow Castro. Khrushchev didn’t
it would be another defeat for communism. This would undermine the USSR’s war:
want to let this happen, as it would be global reputation and image, making them appear weaker.
another defeat for communism. i. In June 1963, a direct
Khrushchev was particularly keen to avoid this after an apparent defeat for
communications line was set up
communism in Berlin: he had needed to build the Berlin wall in 1961 to prevent
Therefore, the USSR put missiles on Cuba between Washington and
migration from East to West. He had accepted western influence in West
to protect Cuba from another American Berlin. Moscow.
attack and keep it communist. ii. In August 1963, a Test Ban Treaty
was signed. The US, USSR and GB
agreed to ban the testing of
Berlin
EVENTS: THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS nuclear weapons in outer space,
The building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 was the atmosphere, or underwater.
(16-28 October 1962) iii. In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty
seen by many as a failure for
Khrushchev, as he had had to accept 16 October: Kennedy called together an Executive Committee was signed. The USA and USSR
that West Germany would keep control (ExComm) to discuss how the USA should react. They met every day agreed not to use space for
of West Berlin. Therefore, Khrushchev for thirteen days. military purposes.
wanted to gain a victory in Cuba to 22 October: Kennedy decided not to launch an attack. Instead, he iv. In 1968, the Nuclear Non-
improve his reputation. set up a naval blockade around Cuba. No ships could pass through Proliferation Treaty was signed to
without US permission. Many expected the Soviet ships to ignore the stop the spread of nuclear
Missiles in Turkey blockade – the USA would sink the ships, leading to war. Kennedy weapons. Countries agreed not
prepared 54 bombers each with four nuclear warheads in case. to share their nuclear technology
NATO had placed missiles in Turkey, a with other countries.
short distance from the USSR. Therefore, 24 October: the Soviet ships reached the blockade, and turned
Khrushchev placed missiles in Cuba so around.
America felt as threatened as the USSR 26 October: Khrushchev sent Kennedy a telegram offering to remove Kennedy strengthened
felt. Khrushchev also possibly hoped to the missiles if America didn’t invade.
Kennedy had shown himself to be a
use Missiles discovered
the missiles in Cuba
as a bargaining tool to 27 October: Khrushchev sent a second telegram saying he would strong leader, standing up to
pressure America into removing missiles remove the missiles only if US missiles in Turkey were also removed.
On 14 October 1962, an American U-2 Why couldn't Kennedy allow the Soviet Khrushchev and getting the missile
from Turkey. Kennedy ignored the second telegram and agreed to the terms in the
spy-plane took pictures of what seemed Union to place nuclear missiles on Cuba? sites removed from Cuba. His
to be launch pads for medium-range first telegram. Khrushchev accepted Kennedy’s reply on 28 October. Khrushchev
popularity weakened
increased, helped by the
Cuba was only 93 miles from America.
ballistic missiles, which could carry Therefore, nuclear missiles on Cuba meant that fact the removal
Khrushchev claimed heof missiles
had from
won
nuclear warheads capable of doing most major US cities were within range. This Turkey had not been made public.
the crisis, as he had guaranteed
huge damage to American cities. threatened the USA. Having missiles on Cuba Cuba’s security and kept it
would also strengthen the Soviet Union’s communist. However, the Soviet
President Kennedy was informed that position in the nuclear arms race. Kennedy
military felt they had been forced
Soviet ships ware sailing to Cuba, needed to avoid this at all costs in order to
make sure America remained superior.
into a humiliating withdrawal.
presumably carrying the missiles.
Khrushchev was dismissed in 1964.

15
16
 CAUSES CONSEQUENCES
2.3: THE PRAGUE SPRING (1968)
Lack of political freedom The Brezhnev Doctrine
In effect, Czechoslovakia was
EVENTS OF THE THE SOVIET INVASION Brezhnev set out a new doctrine
ruled by the Soviet Union, PRAGUE SPRING (August 1968) which emphasised that members of
the Warsaw Pact were under the
which used the secret police to
(from April 1968) After the reforms, Brezhnev close control of the Soviet Union. He
maintain control. There was no
remained in contact with said that:
freedom of speech and radio, In January 1968, Alexander Dubcek was
Dubcek, warning him not to
newspapers and television elected as leader of the Czech • All communist countries would
endanger communism by going
were censored. government. The Soviets trusted him to be stopped from introducing
too far. However, when Dubeck
make the government more popular, reforms to make their country
invited the leader of Romania to
whilst staying loyal to the USSR. more liberal (free) or to gain
Prague for talks, Brezhnev
Economic problems independence from Moscow.
Dubeck was a committed communist, decided to take action.
• This was because the actions of
The Czech economy was run but believed it should not make
On 20th August 1968, 500,000 one communist country
for the benefit of the Soviet people’s lives miserable. He therefore
Warsaw Pact troops, from East affected all communist
Union, so there were few introduced a series of reforms from April
Germany, Hungary and the USSR, countries, so any action that was
consumer goods for the Czech 1968, known as the ‘Prague Spring’.
invaded Czechoslovakia and a threat would have to be
people. This meant that living These reforms included:
ended the Prague Spring. stopped by all the Warsaw Pact
standards were very low. • Reducing censorship and allowing countries (not just the USSR).
Brezhnev ordered the Czech
criticism of government action.
army not to fight back, so there This was welcomed by many
• Greater trade with the West.
Stalin’s purges was little opposition to the communist governments, such as
• Making it easier for Czechs to travel
invasion. East Germany and Poland, as it
Between 1949 and 1954, Stalin abroad.
made them feel more sure that
forced the Czech government • Discussing the possibility of Dubeck was arrested and sent to
they would not be challenged by
to carry out purges in democratic elections. Moscow. In 1969, Dubcek was
reformers in their own countries.
Czechoslovakia. The victims replaced by Gustav Husak as
These reforms were very popular with USA’s reputation weakened
included politicians leader of Czechoslovakia, who
the Czech people, but the Soviet Union Why was loyal
Brezhnev so worried
(democratic and communist), was very to Moscow. The USA was outraged by the
was concerned, even though Dubcek about the Prague Spring?
military leaders, Catholics, Jews reassured Brezhnev that invasion of Czechoslovakia and
and people with connections Czechoslovakia would remain in the Firstly, Brezhnev was concerned that protested strongly to the USSR. They
to the West. Warsaw Pact. other Warsaw Pact countries would even tried to get the United Nations
The rise of protests want similar reforms to those to formally criticise the invasion, but
introduced by Dubeck in the USSR was able to veto (block)
Protests against the low Czechoslovakia. Secondly, at the this. However, the USA did not take
standard of living and lack of same time, Romania was refusing to direct action to oppose the
freedom in Czechoslovakia attend Warsaw Pact meetings. invasion. Therefore, other countries
grew. In 1966, student Brezhnev was worried Dubcek saw that whilst the USA was keen to
demonstrations showed just would be influenced by Romania criticise the USSR, they were not
how unpopular the communist and would also consider leaving the prepared to take action against
government was. Warsaw Pact. them in Europe.

17
18
 CAUSES
3.1: THE DÉTENTE OF THE 1970S
Arms Race
CONSEQUENCES
Both the USA and the USSR had During the 1970s, both the USA and the USSR
enough nuclear weapons to made a genuine attempt to have a more co-
completely destroy their enemy. operative and stable relationship. This relaxation
Reduction in tension (SALT 1)
Moreover, the Cuban Missile Crisis • It showed that both the USA and the USSR wanted to
of tension was known as détente. This was shown
had shown that they could easily reach agreement and wanted to demonstrate
by various agreements and treaties, including: publicly their better relations.
lose control of events and end up
• After SALT 1, Nixon visited Brezhnev in Moscow, and
on the edge of nuclear war. SALT 1: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1 the next year Brezhnev went to Washington.
Therefore, by the 1970s both sides
(May 1972) Continuing tension (SALT 1)
wanted to take steps to avoid a
nuclear war. • Anti-Ballistic Missiles were only allowed at two sites • Both countries still owned more than enough nuclear
• Restrictions on the number of ICBMs and SLBMs each weapon to destroy each other.
country could have: • If nuclear war looked likely, it was unlikely that a piece
Vietnam War
o USA: 1,054 ICBMs of paper would prevent it.
America was fighting communists o USSR: 1,618 ICBMs • It did not cover the developments in nuclear
in Vietnam. This was very o 740 SLBMs each technology.
expensive and lead to the deaths • They agreed to make every effort to avoid nuclear
of many American soldiers. There war.
were protests against the war in
America, with many people
Helsinki Accords Reduction in tension (Helsinki)
wanting America to play a less (August 1975) • It was the first time that the border between East and
active role in international events. West Germany was formally accepted.
33 nations from NATO and the Warsaw Pact reached
• There was a joint USA-Soviet space mission in 1975,
an agreement in three areas:
which showed how much relations had improved.
Social problems 1. European borders could not be changed by force.
2. Western and Soviet-controlled countries would Continuing tension (Helsinki)
Many Americans wanted the cooperate in trade and on a joint space mission • Some American politicians were unhappy about
government to spend money on 3. Respect for human rights and individual freedoms in recognising European borders.
solving problems in America, such all countries. • The Soviets were concerned that organisations would
as inequality between rich and be setup to monitor human rights in communist
poor and white and black SALT 2: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 2 countries.
Americans. A policy of détente (June 1979)
would allow the government to
spend less on weapons and more The USA and the USSR signed an agreement that
on solving these problems. restricted missile launchers and strategic bombers, and Reduction in tension (SALT 2)
Weak Soviet economy banned the testing of new types of ICBMs. • SALT 2 showed that the two superpowers were willing
The USSR was facing economic to negotiate on critical issues.
problems and so wanted to Continuing tension (SALT 2)
reduce spending on weapons, so • SALT 2 was never formally approved (ratified) by the
it could put more resources into America, so it never became official US policy. This
improving living standards. was because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

19
 CONSEQUENCES OF INVASION

The Iranian Revolution

3.2: SOVIET INVASION OF THE CARTER DOCTRINE
(January 1980)
(April 1979) AFGHANISTAN (1979) The USA saw the invasion as the USSR’s
The Iranian Revolution led to attempt to try to spread communism.
the Shah (King or Emperor) President Jimmy Carter announced his
being overthrown from power “Doctrine” and stated that the USA would use
and replaced by an Islamic force, if necessary, to ensure that American
fundamentalist government.
Iran was next to the USSR, so
EVENTS OF THE SOVIET interests were not threatened in the Middle
East. Carter placed economic sanctions on
Brezhnev was concerned that INVASION OF the USSR and the USA began to send
weapons and money to the mujahideen to
Islamic fundamentalism could
spread into the USSR and AFGHANISTAN overthrow Babrak Kamal.
influence their Muslim (24th December 1979)
population. He believed this THE END OF DÉTENTE
could weaken the strength of • On 24th December 1979, Soviet forces
The invasion ended the period of Détente.
communism. Due to invaded Afghanistan. They claimed they
Carter ended SALT 2 negotiations. Tensions
Afghanistan’s location, the had been invited by Amin to help fight the
between the USA and USSR increased again.
USSR wanted to use it as a extremist groups who were challenging his
“buffer zone” to stop this from rule.
happening. • Three days later, Amin was assassinated. This THE ELECTION OF RONALD
Collapse of the pro- was almost certainly by the Soviets.
REAGAN
Soviet government in • Babrak Kamal was appointed the new
leader of Afghanistan. He was a supporter of (January 1981)
Afghanistan (Sep. 1979)
the USSR. Ronald Reagan was strongly anti-communist.
The pro-Soviet government in • Soviet forces remained in Afghanistan for In his presidential campaign he criticised
Afghanistan was overthrown. almost ten years. They helped to fight the Carter for responding in a weak way to the
Hafizullah Amin became the opponents of Babrak Kamal in order to Soviet invasion. Unlike Carter, Reagan said he
new leader. At first, the USSR ensure that a pro-Soviet government was committed to standing up to
supported him. However, he remained in power. communism. Reagan won a huge victory in
grew more and more the election. He became president in
unpopular and extremist OLYMPIC BOYCOTTS
January 1981.
Muslim groups (such as the
(Moscow 1980; Los Angeles 1984)
mujahideen) began to try to
In protest against the invasion, the USA led a
overthrow him. This put the
boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympic games.
USSR’s “buffer zone” between
If US athletes travelled to Moscow, they would
itself and Iran at risk. Brezhnev
have their passports taken away. Over 60
also began to hear rumours
countries supported them. Four years later in
that Amin was in talks with the
1984, the USSR led a boycott of the games in
USA about getting American
America. 15 communist countries joined
support.
them.

20
 3.2b: THE ‘SECOND’ COLD WAR CONSEQUENCES
CAUSES
The Soviet invasion of INCREASED SPENDING ON
Afghanistan ARMS
On 24th December 1979,
THE ELECTION OF Reagan increased America’s
Soviet forces invaded RONALD REAGAN spending on weapons. In 1982, 13%
Afghanistan to support the more money was spent, some of
(January 1981)
new leader, Babrak Kamal, which went into developing Trident
against his opponents. Soviet Ronal Reagan was the USA’s nuclear submarines.
forces remained in most anti-communist president,
Afghanistan for 10 years to and said during the election
ensure that a pro-Soviet that, unlike Carter, he was STRATEGIC DEFENCE
government remained in committed to standing up to INITIATIVE (SDI) – THE ‘STAR
power. communism. He won a huge
victory in the election.
WARS’ PROGRAMME
Reagan introduced a new policy
Carter’s response to the
REAGAN’S POLICY OF called SDI. The policy said that
Soviet invasion of ROLLBACK America would place satellites into
Reagan wanted to stand up to orbit that had lasers that could shoot
Afghanistan down Soviet missiles and prevent
communism, which he
Carter stated that the USA described as an “evil empire”. them from hitting the USA. This went
would use force to ensure that He wanted to roll back directly against the Outer Space
American interests were not communism in Asia, Africa and Treaty, which had been signed in
threatened in the Middle East. South America, rather than just 1967 to limit the nuclear arms race.
Carter placed economic contain communism.
sanctions on the USSR and the
USA began to send weapons He said that the USA would THE END OF DÉTENTE
and money to the mujahideen support anti-communist groups Reagan’s strongly anti-communist
to overthrow Babrak Kamal. in defeating communism stance helped to bring an end to
around the world, including in détente. Tensions between the USA
However, Ronald Reagan Grenada (a Caribbean island). and USSR increased again, partly as
criticised Carter for a result of his challenge to
responding weakly to the Gorbachev to ‘tear down this [Berlin]
Soviet invasion. Wall’.

21
 CONSEQUENCES
CAUSES 3.3a: GORBACHEV’S
IMPROVED RELATIONS BETWEEN THE USA AND USSR
‘NEW THINKING’ (1985-1989)
Spending on the arms
Gorbachev was determined to work with the USA to allow him to focus on reforms
race in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Reagan responded positively to this, seeing
a real opportunity to end the Cold War. As a result, there were a number of
The USSR had been
spending huge amounts of EVENTS OF meetings and agreements between both countries in the years 1985 to 1989. These
money on developing
arms. However, they still
GORBACHEV’S ‘NEW included:
Washington Summit (1987): Led to the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force (INF)
could not keep up with THINKING’ treaty. They agreed to abolish land-based missiles with a range of 500-5500km.
new American technology
(such as the Strategic
(from 1985) Visit to the United Nations in America (December 1988): In his speech, Gorbachev
Defence Initiative). Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of announced the reduction of Warsaw Pact troops and that Soviet forces would
the USSR in 1985. He introduced series leave Afghanistan.
of policies that aimed to strengthen
communist governments in Eastern
Weak Soviet Europe by making them more END OF SOVIET CONTROL OVER EASTERN EUROPE
popular. These included: Communist countries in Eastern Europe began to introduce changes that would
economy improve the standard of living and increase freedom. This was because they knew
By 1985, the Soviet • Perestroika (‘reconstruction’): the USSR would no longer try to stop them. There were also successful protests
economy was incredibly Reforming the Soviet economy against communist rule, which the USSR did not stop. For example:
weak, industry was not and introducing some practices • Hungary: Free elections were held in October 1989.
growing and living that made capitalism successful. • East Germany: The government announced that the border crossing to West
standards were very low. • Glasnost (‘openness’): Gorbachev Berlin would be opened. The Berlin Wall (a symbol of the division of East and West
believed people should not fear since 1961) was pulled down in November 1989.
expressing their opinions and so • Czechoslovakia: The communist government was overthrown in Nov. 1989.
Unrest in Eastern allowed opposition to the
government.
Europe
• Ending of the Brezhnev Doctrine: EUROPE WAS NO LONGER DIVIDED
Low living standards and This meant the Soviet Union would Since 1955, Europe had been divided into two armed camps – NATO and the
the lack of human rights no longer get involved in the affairs Warsaw Pact. As communist governments across Eastern Europe began to
meant some people of other communist countries. collapse, it became impossible for the Warsaw Pact to survive, which formally
turned against • The Soviet Union would reduce ended in 1991. This allowed many Eastern European countries to govern
communism in the satellite spending on arms and defence. themselves for the first time in decades, and they all eventually abandoned
states of Eastern Europe communism.
(e.g. Poland). Uprisings THE COLLAPSE OF THE USSR
were only stopped through
Gorbachev was blamed for losing control over Eastern Europe, and threatening
the use of secret police
Soviet security. His position became weaker when parts of the Soviet Union
forces, such as the Stasi in
declared themselves independent (e.g. the Baltic states). Although Gorbachev
East Germany.
survived an attempt to overthrow him, he eventually had to resign on 25 th
December 1991. This immediately led to the breakup of the Soviet Union.

22
 CAUSES CONSEQUENCES
3.3b: END OF SOVIET CONTROL
Unrest in Eastern
Europe
OVER EASTERN EUROPE (1989-91) IMPROVED RELATIONS BETWEEN THE USA AND
USSR
Low living standards and
the lack of human rights THE END OF SOVIET CONTROL Following the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the
end of Soviet control over the satellite states, Gorbachev met
meant some people
turned against OVER EASTERN EUROPE with the President George Bush at the Malta Summit (1989). Both
leaders committed to long-lasting peace, marking the end of
communism in the satellite (1989-91)
states of Eastern Europe the Cold War.
(e.g. Poland). Some The end of the Brezhnev Doctrine meant that Soviet
satellite countries were free to choose how they
dissidents were
would be governed. Communist governments in EUROPE WAS NO LONGER DIVIDED
encouraged by Reagan’s Since 1955, Europe had been divided into two armed camps –
stronger stance against Eastern Europe began to introduce changes that
would improve the standard of living and increase NATO and the Warsaw Pact. As communist governments across
communism and the Eastern Europe began to collapse, it became impossible for the
increased support the USA freedom. This was because they knew the USSR
would no longer try to stop them. There were also Warsaw Pact to survive, and it formally ended in 1991. This
sent to the mujahideen allowed many Eastern European countries to govern themselves
against the USSR in successful protests against communist rule, which
the USSR did not stop. For example: for the first time in decades, and they all eventually abandoned
Afghanistan. communism.
• Hungary: Free elections were held in October 1989.
• Czechoslovakia: The communist government was
Gorbachev’s ‘New overthrown in Nov. 1989. THE COLLAPSE OF THE USSR
Thinking’ Gorbachev was blamed for losing control over Eastern Europe,
and threatening Soviet security. His position became weaker
Gorbachev recognised THE FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL when parts of the Soviet Union declared themselves
that the USSR had a weak By early 1989, the tide of anti-communist feeling in independent (e.g. the Baltic states). Although Gorbachev
economy and could not Eastern Europe had reached East Germany. survived an attempt to overthrow him, he eventually had to
keep up with the USA’s Following rigged elections in May 1989, there were resign on 25th December 1991. This immediately led to the
arms spending. He growing protests demanding an end to the Berlin breakup of the Soviet Union.
therefore introduced a Wall and the ability to move out of East Berlin and SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FALL OF THE BERLIN
series of policies in an East Germany.
attempt to make
WALL
The government agreed to allow this to happen, but There were emotional scenes as people realised that the
communist governments in
on 9th November 1989, days before this came into restrictions that had prevented them from crossing the border
Eastern Europe more
effect people on both sides started attacking and into West Berlin were gone. Many took hammers and chipped
popular. These included:
destroying the Berlin Wall and thousands of East away at the wall to break off their own souvenir piece to take
• Perestroika
Germans streamed across the border. home. Western leaders across the world described it as a victory
• Glasnost
for freedom.
• Ending of the Brezhnev
Doctrine The Berlin Wall had been a symbol of the division of Europe and
• Reduced spending on Soviet control. Its destruction, and the fact that the USSR showed
arms no intention to stop it, became a symbol of the end of Soviet
control and an end to the Cold War. It also allowed the
reunification of Germany.

23
 KEY TOPIC 1: The origins of the Cold War, 1941-58
TOPIC 1.1a: The Grand Alliance and the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam
conferences

The Grand Alliance and the outcomes of the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam conferences
Question Homework Revision
Which three countries were in
the Grand Alliance against Nazi
Germany during WWII?
Who were the three leaders in
the Grand Alliance, known as
the ‘Big Three’?
When was the Tehran
Conference?

What was the aim of the Tehran

Conference?
What was Stalin concerned
about before the Tehran
Conference?
Why was the Soviet Army
suffering heavy losses?
What did USA and Britain agree
to do in Western Europe during
the Tehran Conference?
What did Stalin agree to do
once Nazi Germany was
defeated at the Tehran
Conference?
What was agreed about
Germany after the war at the
Tehran Conference?
What was agreed would be set
up after the war at the Tehran
Conference?
What agreement was made
about and in Eastern Europe at
the Tehran Conference?
When was the Yalta
Conference?

What was the aim of the Yalta

Conference?
What was agreed about
Germany at the Yalta
Conference?
What did Stalin accept about
the governments of countries in
Eastern Europe at the Yalta
Conference?
24
What was agreed about the war
in Japan at the Yalta
Conference?
How did the ‘Big Three’ disagree
about Poland at the Yalta
Conference?
What disagreement arose
about the UN at the Yalta
Conference?
When was the Potsdam
Conference?

Who were the three leaders at

the Potsdam Conference?

What was the situation in Europe

by the Potsdam Conference?
What had the USA developed
by the time of the Potsdam
Conference?
Why was Truman suspicious of
Stalin?
What was agreed about
Germany and Berlin at the
Potsdam Conference?
How did the ‘Big Three’ disagree
about Poland at the Potsdam
Conference?
Why did the ‘Big Three’ disagree
about reparations at the
Potsdam Conference?
What was agreed about
reparations at the Potsdam
Conference?

25
Explain the importance of the Potsdam Conference (1945) for the development of the
Cold War. (8)
___________________________________________________
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26
TOPIC 1.1b: The creation of the Soviet sphere of influence
The Soviet sphere of influence and developments in US-Soviet relations
Question Homework Revision
Where did the USA drop
atom bombs in August
1945?
How many Japanese
civilians were killed by the
American atom bombs?
How did America’s use of
the atom bomb affect
Stalin’s attitude?
Why did the USSR fear
Germany?
What had the Soviet Army
done in Eastern Europe as it
defeated Nazi Germany?
What did Stalin want to
create after WWII?

How did Stalin a buffer zone

to protect the USSR?
What had Stalin achieved
by 1948?
How was a communist
government established in
Czechoslovakia?
How was a communist
government established in
Poland?
How was a communist
government established in
Bulgaria?
Who sent a telegram to
Truman in February 1946

What did Kennan’s

telegram say to Truman?
What did Churchill accuse
Stalin of in his ‘iron curtain’
speech of March 1946?
Who sent a telegram to
Stalin in September 1946?

What did Novikov’s

telegram say to Stalin?
How did the creation of a
Soviet sphere of influence
change America’s policy?
What impact did the events
of 1946 have on US-Soviet
relations?
27
Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Soviet expansion in Eastern
Europe in the years 1945-48. (8)
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28
TOPIC 1.2a: The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

Question Homework Revision
What broke out in Greece
after the Second World War?
Who helped the Greek
government fight against
communist forces?
What did the British announce
in early-1947?

When did Truman make a

speech announcing the
Truman Doctrine?

What did the Truman Doctrine

state?

Why did Truman introduce

the Truman Doctrine in March
1947?

Why was the Truman Doctrine

significant?

How did Stalin react to the

Truman Doctrine?

What was Cominform?

What was the economic

situation in Europe after the
war?
Why did the USA believe that
giving countries economic
aid would prevent
communism from spreading?
What economic programme
did America introduce in 1948
in order to contain
communism?
What was the aim of the
Marshall Plan?

How much aid was giving to

Western European countries
from 1948 to 1952?
Why did communist countries
in Eastern Europe not receive
this aid?
How did Stalin react to the
introduction of the Marshall
Plan?
29
What organisation did Stalin
set up after the Marshall Plan
to aid communist countries?

What was Comecon?

How did Comecon influence

trade amongst communist
countries?

30
Explain two consequences of the Marshall Plan. (8)
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31
TOPIC 1.2b: The Berlin Crisis (1948-49)

The Berlin Crisis (1948-49): The Berlin blockade and airlift

Question Homework Revision
How did the West and Stalin’s aims
for Germany differ after the war?

Why did Stalin want to weaken

Germany after the war?
What did Britain, America and
France do with their zones in
Germany?
Therefore, what happened to
discussions between the West and
the USSR over the future of
Germany?
What did the West decide to
introduce to ‘Trizonia’, and why?
How did Stalin feel about the
creation of ‘Trizonia’ and
introduction of the new currency?
Why did Stalin take the decision to
blockade West Berlin? (Three
reasons)
Why was Stalin able to blockade
West Berlin?

When did Stalin introduce the Berlin

blockade?

What happened to West Berlin as a

result of the blockade?

How many West Berliners’ lives

were put at risk after the blockade?

How did the West respond to the

blockade?
How many tonnes of supplies were
flown into West Berlin in January
1949?
How frequently did planes land in
West Berlin during the airlift?
Why did the West believe the Berlin
Airlift was the best response to the
blockade? (Three reasons)
When did Stalin lift the blockade of
West Berlin?
What impact did the Berlin
blockade have on Stalin’s
reputation?
Why was the Berlin blockade a
failure for Stalin?

32
What did the West decide to do
three days after the blockade?

How did the USSR respond to the

creation of the Federal Republic of
Germany?
When was the German
Democratic Republic created?
As a result of the blockade, what
did the West believe was
necessary?
What military alliance did the West
form in April 1949?

What did all NATO members agree

to do?
What later encouraged the USSR to
create a military alliance of
communist countries?
What military alliance did
communist countries form in May
1955, which was directly controlled
by the USSR?
Name three countries that joined
the Warsaw Pact.

33
Explain two consequences of the Berlin Crisis of 1948-49. (8)
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34
TOPIC 1.3a: The nuclear arms race (1949-58)

The significance of the nuclear arms race (1949-58)

Question Homework Revision
What was the nuclear arms
race?

When did the USA successfully

test their atomic bomb?

When did the USA first use

their atomic bomb?

Where did the USA drop

atomic bombs?
How many Japanese civilians
were killed by the USA’s
atomic bombs?
Why did both the USA and the
USSR want to protect
themselves (by being ahead
in the nuclear arms race?
When did the USSR
successfully test their atomic
bomb?
When did the USA develop
and test the hydrogen
bomb?
When did the USSR develop
and test the hydrogen
bomb?
What did the USA and the
USSR develop in 1957?

Why were ICBMs developed?

Why were nuclear weapons

not used by the USA and the
USSR?

What was M.A.D?

35
Explain the importance of the arms race for the development of the Cold War. (8)
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36
TOPIC 1.3b: The era of ‘peaceful coexistence in the 1950s

The era of ‘peaceful coexistence’ in the 1950s

Question Homework Revision
Why did people in the USA and the
USSR begin to resent the arms
race?
Why did both the USA and the USSR
want to reduce spending on the
arms race?
What economic problems was the
USSR experiencing in the early-
1950s?
Why did the USA and USSR believe
it was necessary to improve their
relations in the 1950s?
What did the Korean War (1950-53)
show both the USA and the USSR?
Who became leader of the USA in
1953?
What was Eisenhower’s attitude
towards the USSR and
communism?
When did Josef Stalin die, and who
replaced him as leader by 1956?
What policy did Khrushchev
introduce in the USSR?
What was Khrushchev’s attitude
towards the USSR and
communism?
What agreement was made
between the USA and the USSR in
1955?
What took place in July 1955?
Why was the Geneva Summit
significant?
What was the outcome of the
Geneva Summit?

Why was the period of ‘peaceful

coexistence’ significant?
What evidence is there that tension
remained between the two
superpowers in the mid-1950s?
Why was Stalin so concerned that
Federal Republic of Germany had
been allowed to join NATO?

What was the Warsaw Pact?

37
Write a narrative account analysing the key events in the Cold War in the years 1949 to
1956. (8)
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38
TOPIC 1.3c: The Hungarian Uprising, 1956

The Hungarian Uprising, 1956

Question Homework Revision
What were people in Hungary
protesting about?
When did riots in Budapest cause
clashes with the police?
Who helped to restore order after
the first protest in Budapest?
Who did Khrushchev put in place
as the new prime minister of
Hungary?
What did Nagy believe people
should have even in a communist
country?
Why did Khrushchev make Nagy
prime minister?

What reforms (changes) did Nagy

introduce?

What did Nagy announce on 1

November 1956?
Why could Khrushchev not allow
Hungary to leave the Warsaw
Pact?
How did Khrushchev respond to
Nagy’s announcement that
Hungary would leave the Warsaw
Pact?
What happened on 4 November
1956?

How did Nagy’s supporters

respond to the Soviet invasion?

How many Hungarians were killed

by the invading Soviet army?
Who did the USSR put in place as
leader of Hungary after defeating
Nagy and his supporters?

What happened to Nagy?

How did the West respond to the

Soviet invasion of Hungary?
Why did NATO not provide military
support to Nagy and his
supporters?
Why did the West appear weak
following the Hungarian Uprising?

39
How had the USA encouraged
uprisings in communist countries?

What impact did the Hungarian

Uprising have on Khrushchev?
Why was Khrushchev
strengthened by the Hungarian
Uprising?
Why was Khrushchev more
confident in dealing with the
USA?
What impact did the Hungarian
Uprising have on tension between
the USA and the USSR?
Why did tension increase after the
Hungarian Uprising?

40
Explain two consequences of the Hungarian crisis of 1956. (8)
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41
 KEY TOPIC 2: Cold War crises, 1958-70
TOPIC 2.1: The Berlin Crisis, 1958-63

The Berlin Crisis, 1958-63

Question Homework Revision
Why did West Germany
become prosperous during the
1950s?
Why was the economy in East
Germany weak?

Where in Germany was the

standard of living higher?

What made the standard of

living lower in East Germany?

Why was the communist regime

unpopular in East Germany?

Why did many East Germans

move to West Germany?
By 1958, how many East
Germans had crossed to the
West?
Why did the migration of people
from East to West Germany
weaken the East German
economy?
How did Khrushchev want to
make it harder for East Germans
to get into West Germany?
When did Khrushchev deliver his
Berlin ultimatum?
What did Khrushchev’s Berlin
ultimatum demand to happen
within 6 months?
What did Khrushchev say would
happen if the demands weren’t
met?
Why did the West not want East
Germany to control routes into
Berlin?
When and where were the four
summit meetings held about
Berlin?
What was the outcome of the
Geneva summit?

Why was the Camp David

summit significant?

Why were there tensions during

the Paris summit?
42
Why did Khrushchev renew the
Berlin ultimatum at the Vienna
summit?
What was the outcome of the
Vienna summit?
What happened to the number
of East Germans crossing to the
West during the talks?
What did East German soldiers
do on 12 August 1961?

What had been built by the end

of the summer, 1961?

How did the West respond to the

building of the Berlin Wall?

Why was Kennedy’s reputation

strengthened by the Berlin Wall?
What point did Kennedy
celebrate in his ‘Ich bin ein
Berliner’ speech (‘I am a citizen
of Berlin)?
Why did the building of the Berlin
Wall weaken Khrushchev’s
reputation?
What positive impacts did the
Berlin Wall have on the USSR?
Why did the building of the Berlin
Wall increase tension between
the USA and USSR?
How did the building of the Berlin
Wall reduce tension between
the USA and USSR?

43
Explain two consequences of the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961. (8)
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44
TOPIC 2.2a: The Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961

The Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961

Question Homework Revision
In what ways did the USA
have influence of Cuba
before 1959?
What significant event took
place in Cuba in January
1959?
Why was America
concerned with events
that took place in Cuba?
What was Castro’s attitude
towards American
influence in Cuba?
How did Castro try to
remove American
economic influence in
Cuba?
What happened to
Cuban-Soviet relations
under Castro?
Who did Castro begin to
appoint to his
government?
How did the USA respond
to the strengthening of
Cuban-Soviet relations?
Who became president of
the USA in 1961?
What did Kennedy want to
achieve in Cuba?
With Kennedy’s backing,
what did the CIA begin to
do?
What was the name given
to invasion launched by
the Cuban exiles in 1961?
When did the Bay of Pigs
invasion take place?
How many Cuban exiles
attempted to invade
Cuba and overthrow
Castro?
Why did the Bay of Pigs
invasion fail?
How was America
affected by the Bay of Pigs
invasion?
How was the USSR affected
by the Bay of Pigs invasion?

45
What impact did the Bay
of Pigs invasion on Cuban-
Soviet relations?
What did Khrushchev
publicly announce he was
going to do in September
1961?

46
Explain the importance of the Bay of Pigs incident for relations between the USA and the
Soviet Union. (8)
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47
TOPIC 2.2b: The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

Question Homework Revision
What did Khrushchev decide to
put nuclear missiles on Cuba in
early-1962?
Why did Khrushchev believe
that Cuba needed protecting?
Why did Khrushchev believe it
was so important for Castro to
remain in power?
What did Khrushchev believe
placing missiles on Cuba would
encourage the USA to do?
When did the USA discover
Khrushchev’s intention to place
missiles on Cuba?
How did the USA discover
Khrushchev’s intention to place
missiles on Cuba?
Why couldn’t Kennedy allow the
USSR to have nuclear missiles on
Cuba?
What did Kennedy organise on
16th October 1962?
How did Kennedy decide to act
on 22nd October 1962?
What action did Kennedy take
that showed he believed
nuclear war was imminent
(about to happen)?
What did the Soviet ships do that
reached the blockade on 24th
October 1962?

What did Khrushchev send to

Kennedy on 26th October 1962?

What did Khrushchev send to

Kennedy on 27th October 1962?

How did Kennedy respond to

Khrushchev’s two telegrams?

How long did the Cuban Missile

Crisis go on for altogether?

How did the Cuban Missile Crisis

affect Kennedy’s position?

How did the Cuban Missile Crisis

affect Khrushchev’s position?

48
What did Khrushchev achieve
as a result of the Cuban Missile
Crisis?
Why was the Cuban Missile Crisis
so significant?
What was introduced after the
crisis to ensure that both nations
could resolve situations more
easily?
What impact did the Cuban
Missile Crisis have on the nuclear
arms race?
Name three treaties signed by
the USA and the USSR after the
crisis, which helped to reduce
the arms race.
What did the Test Ban Treaty
(August 1963) state?

What did the Outer Space

Treaty (1967) state?

What did the Nuclear Non-

Proliferation Treaty (1968) state?
Despite signing treaties to
reduce the nuclear arms race,
what could the USA and the
USSR still do?

49
Write a narrative account analysing the main events in the superpower rivalry in Cuba
in the years 1959 to 1962. (8)
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50
TOPIC 2.3: The Prague Spring, 1968

The Prague Spring, 1968

Question Homework Revision
How was freedom of speech
limited in Czechoslovakia?

Why were living standards low

in Czechoslovakia?
What had Stalin forced the
Czech government to do
between 1949 and 1954?
Who began to protest against
the communist government
in 1966?
Who was elected as leader of
the Czech government in
January 1968?
What did the USSR trust
Dubcek to do?

What was the Prague Spring?

When did the Prague Spring

start?
What reforms were
introduced during the Prague
Spring?
Why was Brezhnev worried
about the Prague Spring?
What was the Romanian
government doing during the
Prague Spring?
What did Dubcek reassure
Brezhnev?

Who did Dubcek invite to

Prague for talks?
Why was Brezhnev worried
about Dubcek meeting the
Romanian leader?
Who invaded
Czechoslovakia?
When did Warsaw Pact
troops invade
Czechoslovakia?
What happened to Dubcek
during the invasion of
Czechoslovakia?
Who replaced Dubcek as
leader of Czechoslovakia?

51
What policy did the USSR
introduce following the
Prague Spring?
What did the Brezhnev
Doctrine state?
How did Brezhnev justify
interfering in communist
countries?
According to the Brezhnev
Doctrine, who was
responsible for intervening if a
communist country tried to
introduce reforms?
Why was the Brezhnev
Doctrine welcomed by many
communist governments?
What did the USA do in
response to the Soviet
invasion of Czechoslovakia?
Why did the United Nations
not criticise the USSR’s
invasion?
Why was the USA’s reputation
weakened following events in
Czechoslovakia?

52
Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Soviet invasion of
Czechoslovakia in 1968. (8)
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53
 KEY TOPIC 3: The end of the Cold War, 1970-91
TOPIC 3.1: The détente of the 1970s

The détente of the 1970s

Question Homework Revision
What word means a
relaxation of tension?
Why, by the 1970s did the
USA and the USSR want to
take steps to avoid a
nuclear war?
Why did the Vietnam War
lead to many American
people wanting America
to play a less active role in
international events?
Why did social problems in
America contribute to
many Americans wanting
the USA to adopt a policy
of détente?
Why did the weak Soviet
economy contribute to
many people in the USSR
wanting it to adopt a
policy of détente?
What does SALT 1 stand for
and when was it signed?

What were the three key

agreements of SALT1?

How did SALT 1 contribute

to a reduction in tension?

Why was there still

continuing tension despite
SALT 1?

Who signed the Helsinki

Accords in August 1975?

What were the three key

agreements of the Helsinki
Accords?
How did the Helsinki
Accords contribute to a
reduction in tension?
Why was there still
continuing tension despite
the Helsinki Accords?

54
What does SALT 2 stand for
and when was it signed?

What were the two key

agreements of SALT 2?

How did SALT 2 contribute

to a reduction in tension?

Why was there still

continuing tension despite
SALT 2?

55
Explain the importance of the Helsinki Agreements (1975) for superpower relations. (8)
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56
TOPIC 3.2a: The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979

Question Homework Revision
When was the Iranian
revolution?

What happened during

the Iranian revolution?
Why was Brezhnev
concerned about the
Iranian revolution?
Why did the USSR want a
pro-Soviet government in
power in Afghanistan?
What happened in
Afghanistan in
September 1979?
Who became the new
leader of Afghanistan?
What happened when
Amin became
unpopular?
What did Brezhnev hear
rumours about?

When did Soviet forced

invade Afghanistan?
What was the USSR’s
justification for their
invasion of Afghanistan?
What happened to Amin
three days after the
invasion?
Who replaced Amin as
the leader of
Afghanistan?
How long did Soviet
forces remain in
Afghanistan?
What did the USA believe
the USSR were trying to do
in Afghanistan?
What did Carter state in
his doctrine (introduced
in January 1980)?
How did the USA
intervene in Afghanistan?

What did the Soviet

invasion bring to an end?
Who became President
of the USA in January
1981?

57
What was Reagan’s
attitude towards
communism?
What did Reagan say
during the election that
contributed to his
election victory?
What did the USA boycott
in 1980?
What was the
consequence for US
athletes if they travelled
to Moscow?
How many countries
supported the USA’s
boycott of the Moscow
Olympics?
What did the USSR do in
1984?
How many communist
countries supported the
USSR’s boycott of the Los
Angeles Olympics?

58
Explain the importance of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) for the development
of the Cold War. (8)
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59
TOPIC 3.2b: Ronald Reagan and the ‘Second’ Cold War

Ronald Reagan and the ‘Second’ Cold War

Question Homework Revision
When did Soviet forced invade
Afghanistan?

What was the USSR’s aim in

Afghanistan?

Why did the USSR want a pro-Soviet

government in Afghanistan?
What did Carter state in his
doctrine (introduced in January
1980)?
How did the USA intervene in
Afghanistan?

Why did Carter criticise Carter?

Who became President of the USA

in January 1981?

What was Reagan’s attitude

towards communism?
What did Reagan say during the
election that contributed to his
election victory?
How did Reagan describe
communism?

What was Reagan’s policy towards

communism?

Who did Reagan say the USA

would support?
What impact did Reagan’s policies
have on arms spending?
How much more money was spent
by the USA on arms in 1982?
What new method of firing nuclear
weapons was developed under
Reagan?
What was the formal name for the
‘Star Wars’ programme introduced
by Reagan?

What was the SDI?

Which treaty did the SDI break?

What did Reagan’s strong anti-
communist stance bring to an
end?
What did Reagan challenge
Gorbachev to do?

60
Explain two consequences of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) for the
development of the Cold War. (8)
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61
TOPIC 3.3a: Gorbachev’s ‘New Thinking’

Gorbachev’s ‘New Thinking’

Question Homework Revision
By the 1980s, which country
was struggling to keep up in
the arms race with its rival’s
new technology?
What was the condition of the
Soviet economy by 1985?
Causes

By the 1980s, why had some

people turned against
communism in the satellite
states of Eastern Europe e.g.
Poland?
How were uprisings against
communism stopped from
escalating in the satellite
states?
Who became leader of the
USSR in 1985?
What was Gorbachev’s aim
when he became leader of
the USSR?
What was the name of
Gorbachev’s policy of
reforming the Soviet economy
and introducing some
practices that made
capitalism successful?
Events

What was the name of

Gorbachev’s policy of
allowing people to express
their opinions, including
opposition to the government?
What did Gorbachev’s
decision to end the Brezhnev
Doctrine mean for the USSR’s
involvement in the affairs of
other communist country?
How did Gorbachev change
spending on arms and
defence?
What was Gorbachev’s
attitude towards working with
the USA?
Consequences

How did Reagan respond to

Gorbachev’s desire to work
with the USA?
What were the two main
agreements made at the
Washington Summit (1987)
between Reagan and
Gorbachev?

62
What two things did
Gorbachev announce in his
visit to the United Nations in
America in December 1988?
Why were communist countries
in Eastern Europe able to begin
to introduce changes that
would improve the standard of
living and increase freedom in
the late 1980s?
Give three examples of
successful protests against
communist rule, which the
USSR did not stop?
From 1955, Europe has been
divided into two armed
camps. What were these
called?
As communist governments
across Eastern Europe began to
collapse, it became impossible for
the Warsaw Pact to survive. When
did it formally end?
In the USSR who was blamed
for losing control over Eastern
Europe and threatening Soviet
security?
Which parts of the Soviet Union
declared themselves
independent, further
weakening Gorbachev?
Gorbachev survived an
attempt to overthrow him but
eventually had to resign. When
did he resign?
What did Gorbachev’s
resignation immediately lead
to?

63
Explain two consequences of Gorbachev’s ‘new thinking’ on eastern Europe. (8)
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64
TOPIC 3.3b: The end of Soviet control over Eastern Europe

The end of Soviet control over Eastern Europe

Question Homework Revision
By the 1980s, why had some
people turned against
communism in the satellite
states of Eastern Europe e.g.
Poland?
Causes

What encouraged some

dissidents in Eastern Europe
to oppose communism?
What were the four main
policies of Gorbachev’s
New Thinking?
Why were communist
countries in Eastern Europe
able to begin to introduce
changes that would
improve the standard of
living and increase freedom
in the late 1980s?
What happened in
successful protests against
communist rule in Hungary?
What happened in
successful protests against
communist rule in
Czechoslovakia??
Events

What triggered growing

protests demanding an end
to the Berlin Wall and the
ability to move out of East Berlin
and East Germany?
How did the East German
government respond to
growing protests demanding
an end to the Berlin Wall and
the ability to move out of East
Berlin and East Germany?
What happened in East
Berlin on 9th November 1989,
days before the East
German government’s new
policy came into force?
What did Mikhail
Gorbachev and President
George Bush agree at the
Consequences

Malta Summit (1989)?

When did the Warsaw Pact
formally end?
What did the end of the
Warsaw Pact allow many
Eastern European countries to
do for the first time in decade?

65
In the USSR who was blamed
for losing control over
Eastern Europe and
threatening Soviet security?
Which parts of the USSR
declared themselves
independent, further
weakening Gorbachev?
Gorbachev survived an
attempt to overthrow him
but eventually had to resign.
When did he resign?
What did Gorbachev’s
resignation immediately
lead to?
What did many people do in
the emotional scenes as
people realised that the
restrictions that had prevented
them from crossing the border
into West Berlin were gone?
How did many Western
leaders describe the fall of
the Berlin Wall?

What had the Berlin Wall

been a symbol of?

What did the destruction of

the Berlin Wall symbolise?

What did the fall of the Berlin

Wall allow?

66
Write a narrative account analysing the main developments in the collapse of the Berlin
Wall during 1989. (8)
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