Book FrictionStir Welding

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A Hand Book on Friction Stir Welding
Book · June 2012

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.5088.6244
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Dedicated to
My eldest brother
Late Shri Ram Yagya Singh,
who was most loving, caring and guiding personality for my
achievements
ii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India
This handbook is written according to the latest requirement of advance
techniques being adopted in 21st Century developments e.g., consider what
Luciano De Crescendo wrote "We are all angles with only one wing; we can
only fly while embracing each other."
The main objective of this book is to provide detailed information on the
subject from the view point of research scholar. It will be very useful for
postgraduate students, pursuing PhDs and research scholars. A Handbook on
Friction Stir Welding has been written with focus on the researchers and
entrepreneur as a whole for the ultimate benefits leading to the development
of the welding area.
In this book the subject matter has been presented in a very systematic and
logical manner. This handbook will satisfy both average and brilliant
students, and research scholars. It has been found that no complete and
elaborate text is available on the advanced welding subject and the
compilation of all relevant matter has been done in the form of Handbook on
Friction Stir Welding.
An honest and in depth attempt has been made to place the topics in
sequential and easy manner and to strive on appropriate balance between
breadth and depth of coverage of various topics.
In this Handbook following chapters are covered:
Chapter 1 : contains historical development of friction stir welding in

innovative way.
Chapter 2 : deals with basic principle of welding and its various types of
welding processes.
Chapter 3 : presents a welding process on Aluminium material and its
alloys used, which will benefit the research scholar at large and
utility to the entrepreneur for future developments as whole.
Chapter 4 : deals with working principles and processes of friction stir
welding.
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (iii)

Chapter 5 : covers developments and used tool materials e.g. tool steel, tool
geometry, pin size, tool cost, deformation and failures in
accordance to current requirement of research.
Chapter 6 : represents different types of case study on friction stir welding
with experimental setup and its results.
Chapter 7 : deals with the future applications of stir welding in accordance
with space shuttle, nuclear plant, aerospace industry and
automobile transparent system.
Chapter 8 : especial focus on worldwide going on projects and also as to
what researchers say about FSW? This dedication is for the
view point of future research.
Here as an author, I have tried my best to incorporate all possible stir
welding and other welding techniques in this text to view as reference.
This exhaustive and meticulous handbook would have not been completed
without the guidance and supports of my research guide and colleagues.
I am highly thankful to Prof. (Dr.) Onkar Singh, Head, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, HBTI, Kanpur, whose incredible suggestions and
encouragements have given me strength to document this handbook. I would
also like to extend my gratitude to Er. Rakesh Mittal, Retd. I.A.S., and
Prof. D.S. Chauhan, Vice Chancellor, Uttaranchal Technical University,
Dehradoon, India, who have inculcated in me to do research and serve the
society at large.
I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Ms. Alina Covali,
Acquisition Editor, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing GmbH & Co. KG,
Germany, in publishing this handbook in a very short time.
Any advice and suggestions of our esteemed readers to improve the
Handbook are most welcome and will be highly appreciated.
Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh
iv) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

The author deeply expresses his heartfelt respect and gratitude to Prof. Durga
Singh Chauhan, Vice Chancellor, Uttaranchal Technical University, India and
Prof. Onkar Singh, Head-Department of Mechanical Engineering, Harcourt
Butler Technological Institute, Kanpur, who have always been encouraging
factor about this new area of Friction Stir Welding pertaining to working
process, shape of tools and its applications. Without their guidance and
technical supports, the author could have not accepted the challenge for
documenting this work into a Handbook.
The author would also like to deeply appreciate and express thanks to
all the colleagues especially: Mr. Manoj Kumar Singh, Reader, Mr. Saurabh
Shukla and Mr. Dharmesh Srivastava; Lecturers, School of Management
Sciences, Lucknow, who have always been helpful to the author directly and
indirectly for documenting this work.
The author cannot forget to mention the moral support of his mother
Smt. Jagpatti Singh Devi, and brothers: Shri Dashrath Singh and Paras Nath
Singh, and his wife Mrs. Malti Singh, children: Nidhi-Rahul Singh, Saurabh-
Deepika Singh and Gaurav Singh; and grand children-Navditya, Nandika and
Jayani who have always been encouraging and motivating tools to get the
work in a book shape for the benefit of post graduate students and
researchers.
The author would also like to express thanks to Mr. Sharad Singh,
CEO, SMS Group of Institutions, Lucknow for his encouragement and
support of library and labs.
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (v)

vi) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a simple, clean and innovative joining
technology for light metals invented by The Welding Institute (TWI),
England, U.K. in 1991. Due to the high strength of FSW joints, it allows
considerable weight savings in lightweight construction compared to
conventional joining technologies. The friction stir welding works on the
principle of a rotating pin emerging from a cylindrical shoulder which is
plunged between two pieces of sheet and moved forward along the joint line.
The material is heated by friction between the rotating shoulder and the
workpiece surface and simultaneously stirred by the profiled pin leaving a
solid phase bond between the two pieces to be joined. Special preparation of
the weld seam and filler wires is not required.
The process of friction stir welding has numerous advantages over the
conventional welding technologies. FSW process can take place in the solid
phase below the melting point of the metals to be joined and is able to weld
numerous materials including, but not limited to aluminum, bronze, copper,
titanium, steel, magnesium, and plastic. It also yields significantly less
distortion than the fusion welding processes, allowing for dramatic cost
reductions in many applications.
Thus, all the problems related to the solidification of a fused material are
avoided. Materials classified as difficult to fusion weld like the high strength
aluminium alloys used in the aerospace industry could be joined with a minor
loss in strength. The small-scale industry can especially benefit from the low
investment costs of the mechanical equipment required for Friction Stir
Welding. The ability to join different aluminium and magnesium alloys offers
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (vii)
a great variety of new products. The process of FSW has numerous
advantages such as:
Temperatures well below the melting point

Excellent tensile and fatigue strength
No splatter, no fume
Low energy consumption
Low shrinkage
No filler wire
Simple preparation of the weld seam
Good mechanical reproducibility
No welder certification required
Friction Stir Welding is a new process, but has been used in production
applications since 1995 in Europe. The first applications involved welding of
extrusions to form paneling for marine applications.
In 1997 the Institute of Materials Research of the German Aerospace
Center, DLR, was the first non-industrial research institute in Germany
working in the field of friction stir welding of aluminium alloys and one of
the first TWI licensees in Germany. The FSW is performed on a very stiff,
numerically controlled bedplate milling machine. The process is checked by
online temperature, displacement and force measurement. Besides
manufacturing of FSW specimens and components with optimised process
parameters, DLR also offers the complete characterisation of the weld seam
or joints such as: Microstructure, Tensile strength (local strain of different
weld regions), Fatigue strength, Fracture mechanical investigations, damage
tolerance, Corrosion properties, Residual stresses, Non destructive testing
(ultrasonic).
viii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

Now, the process has been commercialized in many other applications,
including rail car, automotive, aerospace, heavy truck, medical applications,
etc. Today, the process is being transitioned into fabrication of complex
assemblies, yielding significant quality and cost improvements. As the
process is maturing, designers are taking advantage of the process, by
designing the product specifically for the FSW process.
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (ix)

x) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India
Details Page No.
Dedication i
Preface iii-iv
Acknowledgement v
An Overview vii-ix
List of Tables xix-xx
List of Figures xxi-xxviii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-12

1.1 Historical Development of Friction Stir 3-7
Welding
1.2 History of Aluminum Welding 8-12
1.2.1 Heliarc welding 8
1.2.2 Gas welding 9
1.2.3 Stick Electrode Welding 11
1.3 Some Applications 12
Chapter 2 Types of Welding Processes 13-30

2.1 History of Welding Process 15
2.2 Basic Principle of Welding 17
2.3 Definition of Weld and Weldability 21
2.4 Types of Welding Processes 21
2.4.1 Diffusion Welding 22
2.4.2 Fusion Welding 22
2.5 Descriptions of Diffusion and Fusion 22
Welding
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xi)

2.5.1 Cold Welding 22
2.5.2 Diffusion Welding 23
2.5.3 Explosive Welding 23
2.5.4 Forge Welding 24
2.5.5 Friction Welding 24
2.5.6 Ultrasonic Welding 25
2.5.7 Gas Welding 25
2.5.8 Arc Welding 25
2.5.9 Metal Arc Gas Shielded Welding 26
(MAGSW)
2.5.10 Tungsten Arc Gas Shielded 26
Welding (TAGW)
2.5.11 Submerged Arc Welding 26
2.5.12 Laser Welding 26
2.5.13 Plasma Arc Welding 27
2.5.14 Thermo-Chemical Processes 27
2.5.15 Resistance Welding 28
2.5.16 Electron Beam Welding 29
Chapter 3 Welding Processes on Aluminium 31-60

3.1 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) 35
3.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 36
3.3 Plasma Arc Welding 38
3.3.1 What is Plasma? 38
3.3.2 How it Works 39
3.3.3 Electrode 41
3.4 Plasma and Shielding Gases 41
3.4.1 Applications 41
xii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

3.4.2 Keyhole Welding 42
3.5 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding 43
3.5.2 Advantages 45
3.5.3 Applications 46
3.6 Laser Welding 46
3.6.2 Industries Served 51
3.6.3 Advantages 52
3.7 Electron Beam Welding 52
3.7.2 Beam Formation: Upper Column 55
3.7.3 Beam Delivery: Lower Column 56
3.7.4 Beam Interaction in Chamber 57
Cavity
3.7.5 Advantages 59
Chapter 4 Working Principles of Friction Stir 61-86

Welding
4.1 Principle of Operation 64
4.2 Theory of FSW 66
4.3 Material Flow and Mechanism of Joining 67
4.4 Tool Rotation and Traverse Speeds 69
4.5 Tool Tilt and Plunge Depth 71
4.6 The Force Analysis of FSW 71
4.6.1 Type of Forces 72
i). The longitudinal force (X-force) 73
ii). The vertical force (Y-force) 73
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xiii)

iii). The lateral force (Z-axis) 74
4.6.2 Generation and Flow of Heat 74
4.7 Multi-Stir, Simultaneous Double Side 76
Stir and Twinstir ™ Techniques
4.7.1 Multi-Head Friction Welding 77
Machine
4.7.2 Parallel Twin-stir 78
4.7.3 Tandem Twin-stir 79
4.7.4 Staggered Twin-stir 80
4.8 Traditional Weld and FSW Weld 81
4.9 Advantages and Disadvantages 83
4.9.1 Advantages 84
4.9.2 Disadvantages 85
Chapter 5 FSW Tools and its Design Features 87-114

5.1 FSW Tools 90
5.2 Tool Pin 91
5.3 Tool Shoulder 91
5.4 Commonly Used Tool Materials 95
5.4.1 Tool Steel 95
5.4.2 Tool Geometry 97
5.4.3 Shoulder Diameter 98
5.4.4 Shoulder Surface 100
5.4.5 Pin (Probe) Geometry 101
5.4.6 Load Bearing Ability 104
5.5 Tool Wear, Deformation and Failure 108
5.6 Tool Cost 111
xiv) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

5.7 Research for Cost Effective and Durable 112
Tools
Chapter 6 Friction Stir Welding Processes on 115-148

Aluminium Alloys
6.1 Experimental Test Results of 117
Commercial Alloy AA6082 T6
6.1.1Mechanical properties of 117
commercial Aluminium alloy AA6082 T6
6.1.2Welding Parameters 118
6.1.3 Test Results 118
6.2 Case Study-I (The development 120
microstructure of an Al-4Mg-1Zr alloy
with enhanced Superplastic properties
for automotive applications)
6.2.1 Experimental 121
6.2.2 As-Extruded Al-4Mg-0.75Zr and 121
Al-5Mg-1Zr Material
6.2.3 Effect of Friction Stir Welding 123
6.2.4 Superplastic Performance after 125
Rolling
6.2.5 Microstructural Characterization 127
after Rolling
6.2.6 Superplastic Performance of 133
Friction Stir Welded Material
6.3 Case Study-II (Mechanical Properties of 134
Friction Stir Welded Aluminium
AA2014-T6 Alloy)
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xv)

6.3.1 Experimental Work 136
6.3.2 Results and Discussion 140
6.3.3 Concluding Remarks 146
Chapter 7 Applications of FSW in Various 149-164
Industries
7.1 Shipbuilding and marine industries 152
7.2 Space Shuttle 153
7.3 Nuclear plant 156
7.4 Aerospace Industry 157
7.5 Commercial Car Panel Forming 159
7.6 Automobile and Land Transportation 160
7.7 Railway Rolling Stock 162
Chapter 8 What Our Researchers says about 165-186

FSW?
8.1 Mr. Satoshi Hirano a Specialist of 167
Joining Technology says:
8.1.1 What sort of joining technology is 167
FSW?
8.1.2 What products do you use FSW 168
for?
8.1.3 What is the difference between 169
FSW and conventional welding?
8.2 Dr. Rajiv Mishra, Associate Professor 170
of Metallurgical Engineering and
Director of the Center for Friction
Stir Processing, University of
Missouri-Rolla Says:
xvi) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

8.3 Steve Hensley, Modern Machine Shop, 172
says:
8.3.1 What’s “Wrong” With Welding 175
8.3.2 What’s “Right” About the 177
Alternative
8.3.3 Stirring Up New Interest 178
8.4 An Official of Naval Research 180

announced:
8.4.1 What it means for the Navy 180
8.4.2 How it was accomplished 182
8.4.3 Computational Assessment of 182
Build Strategies for A Titanium Mid-
Ship
Section
8.5 Todd May, Space Launch System 183
Program Manager Says:
9 References 187-206
10 Index 207-209
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xvii)

xviii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India
Table 3.1 Designation System for wrought 34
Aluminium Alloys
Table 3.2 Designation System for Cast Aluminium 34

Alloys
Table 5.1 Effect of Travel Speed and Rotational 106

Speed on Moment and Forces
Table 6.1
Welding Parameters 118
Table 6.2 Summary of the test results on 5 mm 118

AA6082 T6
Table 6.3 Processing Parameters and Rolling 121

Schedule of the as Extruded Al-4Mg-
0.75Zr and Al-5Mg-1Zr.
Table 6.4 Chemical Composition of AA2014 T6 137
Table 6.5 Mechanical Properties of AA2014 T6 137
Table 6.6 Chemical Composition EN-8 137
Table 6.7 DOE-Experimental Levels and Factors 139
Table 6.8 Tensile Strength, Nugget Hardness and % 141

elongation Result Data
Table 6.9 ANOVA for Tensile Strength of 144

Weldment

Weldment

Weldment
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xix)

xx) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India
Figure 1.1 Mechanism of Friction Stir Welding 5
Figure 1.2 Process of Friction Stir Welding 6
Figure 1.3 Joint configurations of FSW 7
Figure 1.4 USA Army water canteen welded with the 10
OFW process
Figure 2.1 Molten pool of metal 17
Figure 2.2 Crystallizations of Weld pool (a) Deep 20
penetration and (b) Low penetration
Figure 3.1 Weldability of Various Aluminium Alloys 33
Figure 3.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 36
Figure 3.3 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 37
Process
Figure 3.4 Shielded Metal Arc welding (a) 37
Schematic Diagram, and (b) Diagram
Showing
Polarity
Figure 3.5 Working Diagram of Plasma Arc Welding 39
Figure 3.6 Plasma Arc for Keyhole Effect Showing 40
Current, Voltage and Temperature
Figure 3.7 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) 42
Figure 3.8 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding Process 44
Figure 3.9 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding 45
Figure 3.10 Laser Beam Welding Device (Ruby Rod) 47
Figure 3.11 Schematic Diagram of Laser Beam 48
Welding
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xxi)

Figure 3.12 Working Diagram of Laser Welding 49
Machine
Figure 3.13 Nd: YAG Solid State Laser 51
Figure 3.14 Schematic Diagram for Electron Beam 53
Welding
Figure 3.15 Working Diagram for Electron Beam 54
Welding
Figure 4.1 Schematic Diagram of FSW 63
Figure 4.2 Working Diagram of FSW 64
Figure 4.3 (a) Working Arrangement and (b) Heat 65
Transfer in Tool and Workpiece in
Friction
Stir Welding
Figure 4.4 Schematic Drawing for Working 66
Processes: (a). Start of joining, (b). Insert
joining
tool, (c). Joining and (d). Pull away
joining tool (end)
Figure 4.5 Stream traces on different horizontal 68
planes (a) 0.35 mm, (b) 1.59 mm and (c)
2.28
mm below the top surface
Figure 4.6 (a) Tool Rotation and (b) Transverse 70
Speed
Figure 4.7 Relation between Process Input and 72
Measured Output
Figure 4.8 Three – axes force on the tool 72
xxii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

Figure 4.9 Simultaneous Double Side Stir 77
Techniques with Contra-Rotating Probes
Figure 4.10 Multi-head Frictional Welding Machine 78
Figure 4.11 Parallel Side-by-Side Transverse to the 79
Welding Direction
Figure 4.12 Tandem in-line with the welding direction 80
Figure 4.13 Twin-Stir TM Variants-Staggered to 81
Ensure the Edges of the Weld Regions
Partially
Overlap
Figure 4.14 (a) Traditional Weld and (b) FSW weld 82
Figure 4.15 Micro-Structure of (a) Traditional Fusion 83
Weld and (b) Friction Stir Weld
Figure 5.1 Pin and Shoulder of FSW 90
Figure 5.2 Tool Pin Geometries for FSW Tools 91
Figure 5.3 Basic variants on the Tool Shoulder 92
Figure 5.4 Different Type MX-Triflute Probes 92
Figure 5.5 A Typical MX-Triflute™ probe 93
Figure 5.6 Basic Variants of the Flared-Triflute ™ 93
Type Probes
Figure 5.7 Details of Prototype A-Skew™ Probe (a) 94
Side view (b) Front view, showing tip
profile and (c) Swept region encompassed
by skew action
Figure 5.8 Ellingham diagram for some of metals 98
used in FSW tools
Figure 5.9 Variation of Sliding Torque, Sticking 99
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xxiii)

Torque and Total Torque With Shoulder
Diameter
Figure 5.10 Commonly used tool pin geometries- 101
(a) cylindrical threaded; (b) three flat
threaded; (c) triangular; (d) trivex; (e)
threaded conical; (f ) schematic of a
triflute
Figure 5.11 Total longitudinal force on pin as 107
function of pin length
Figure 5.12 Evolution of Tool Shape 110
Figure 6.1 (a) Bright field TEM micrograph of the as 122
extruded Al-4Mg-0.75Zr (section parallel
to the extrusion direction); (b) EBSD
map of the as extruded Al-4Mg-0.75Zr
(all sections) with {111} pole Figure;
(c) Bright field micrograph of the
Al3Zr fan-shaped arrangements in the
extruded Al-4Mg- .75Zr; and (d) Bright
field micrograph, showing Al3Zr
coarsening and needle shaped precipitates
at grain boundaries after 100hrs at 360oC.
Figure 6.2 (a) Low and (b) Higher magnification 124
bright field micrograph of the as
extruded and FSW‘ed Al-4Mg-0.75Zr,
showing also the Al3Zr distribution
Figure 6.3 (a) Superplastic ductility tests 126
performed at the optimum SPF
xxiv) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

conditions (500oC-10
-2s-1) for parent metal and FSW from
cold rolled Al-4Mg-0.75Zr and cold and
hot rolled Al-5Mg-1Zr, (b) Comparison of
the superplastic performance in
transition from
the parent metal to the FSW for the cold
rolled Al-4Mg-0.75Zr
Figure 6.4 a) Bright field micrograph and b) 127
corresponding EBSD map with {111}
pole figure of the parent metal (Al-4Mg-
0.75Zr) after rolling and annealing for
15min at 500oC, c) Bright field
micrograph of the interface of the
parent metal and the weld and d)
Bright field micrograph and e)
corresponding EBSD map with {111}
pole figure of the weld (Al-4Mg-
0.75Zr) after rolling and annealing for
15min at 500oC.
Figure 6.5 a) Distribution and average size of cubic 130
Al3Zr measured using quantitative TEM
in
the Al-4Mg-0.75Zr alloy and b)
Comparison of average cubic Al3Zr as
calculated from the two methods
(Quantitative TEM – Fig.5a and XRD
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xxv)

analysis) in the Al-4Mg-0.75Zr alloy
Figure 6.6 a) Bright field TEM micrograph of the 132
Al-4Mg-0.75Zr parent metal after cold
rolling and annealing, b) Dark field
micrograph of the Al-4Mg-0.75Zr Weld
after cold rolling and annealing, c)
Bright field micrograph of the Al-
5Mg-1Zr parent metal after hot rolling
at 500oC and annealing and d) Bright
field micrograph of the Al-5Mg-1Zr weld
after hot rolling at
500oC and annealing
Figure 6.7 Tool Design I, II, III and drawing of FSW 138
tools
Figure 6.8 Schematic for Sampling of Tensile Test 140
Specimens
Figure 6.9 Tensile Specimen Drawing 140
Figure 6.10 Photo of Machined Tensile Specimen 140
Figure 6.11 Main effect plots for tensile strength and 142
% elongation
Figure 6.12 Main effect plot for Nugget hardness 143
Figure 6.13 Brinell Hardness Number at Different 145
Location in Transverse Direction
Figure 7.1 (a) FSW Application in Ships and (b) 153
Over 12 miles of FSW used to Fabricate
the Littoral Combat Ship and
Commissioned in September of 2006.
xxvi) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

Figure 7.2 FSW Application in Space Shuttle NASA 154
Figure 7.3 FSW Application in Nuclear Plants (a) 156
Stainless Steel Water Storage Tanks and
(b) Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
problems
Figure 7.4 FSW application in Aerospace Industry 158
Figure 7.5 FSW Applications in Aircraft 158
Figure 7.6 FSW Super-Plastic Application in 159
automotive
Figure 7.7 FSW Super-Plastic application for the 160
Forming of Commercial Car pane
Figure 7.8 FSW Application in Transport Industry 161
Figure 7.9 Hitachi's A-Train British Rail Class 395 - 162
High-Strength Low-Distortion Body
Welded by Friction Stir from
Longitudinal Aluminium Extrusions
Figure 8.1 FSW Tool Working 167
Figure 8.2 FSW Application in Hitachi Group 168
Figure 8.3 Difference Between FSW and 169
Conventional Welding
Figure 8.4 Stainless Steel Plate size 3/8 inch (10mm) 173
Permanently Joined with Friction Stir
Welding in one Pass
Figure 8.5 The Modular Design of the Legio friction 175
stir welding machine - the process to a
broader base of materials, applications
and users.
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xxvii)

Figure 8.6 Friction at the Shoulder of the Tool 176
Creates Heat to Soften the Material
without Melting and the Profiled pin
Buries Itself in the Softened Material,
Stirring it as it Moves Forward.
Figure 8.7 Friction Stir Welding Process Shoulder 181
and Pin
xxviii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

2 Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India
1.
Introduction
1.1 Historical Development of Friction Stir Welding
The friction stir welding (FSW) process was invented in 1991 by The
Welding Institute (TWI) at Cambridge, in United Kingdom. It was further
developed and was got patented by The Welding Institute. The first built and
commercially available friction stir welding machines were produced by
ESAB1 Welding and Cutting Products at their equipment manufacturing plant
in Laxa, Sweden. The development of this process was a significant change
from the conventional rotary motion and linear reciprocating friction welding
processes. It provided a great deal of flexibility within the friction welding
process group.
In 1993, NASA challenged Lockheed Martin Laboratories in Baltimore,
Maryland, to develop a high-strength, low-density, lighter-weight
replacement for aluminum alloy Al 2219–used on the original Space Shuttle
External Tank. Lockheed Martin, Reynolds Aluminum and the labs at
Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, were successful in
developing a new alloy known as Aluminum Lithium (Al-Li 2195), which
reduced the weight of the External Tank by 7,500 pounds (3,402 kilograms).
Today, the External Tank project uses the new alloy to build the Shuttle’s
Super Lightweight Tanks.
Since 1995 in Europe, Friction Stir Welding has been used in production
applications. The first applications involved welding of extrusions to form
1
ESAB a world leader in welding products and advanced cutting systems.
A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding 3
paneling for marine applications. Since then, the process has been
commercialized in many other applications, including rail car, automotive,
aerospace, heavy truck, medical applications, etc. Today, the process is being
transitioned into fabrication of complex assemblies, yielding significant
quality and cost improvements. As the process is maturing, designers are
taking advantage of the process, by designing the product specifically for the
FSW process.
In 1997 the Institute of Materials Research of the German Aerospace
Center (DLR), was the first non-industrial research institute in Germany
working in the field of friction stir welding of aluminium alloys and one of
the first TWI licensees in Germany. The FSW is performed on a very stiff,
numerically controlled bedplate milling machine. The process is checked by
online temperature, displacement and force measurement. Besides
manufacturing of FSW specimens and components with optimised process
parameters, German Aerospace Center also offers the complete
characterisation of the weld seam or joints such as: Microstructure, Tensile
strength (local strain of different weld regions), Fatigue strength, Fracture
mechanical investigations, damage tolerance, Corrosion properties, Residual
stresses, Non destructive testing (ultrasonic).
The Friction Stir Welding is apparently quite new welding process as
shown in Fig. 1.1 and is a good process for particularly welding aluminum
parts. The conventional rotary friction welding process requires at least one of
the parts being joined to be rotated and has the practical limitation of joining
regular shaped components, preferably circular in cross-section and limited in
their length. Short tubes or round bars of the same diameter are a good
example.

Figure 1.1: Mechanism of Friction Stir Welding
The linear reciprocating process also requires movement of the parts being
joined. This process uses a straight-line back and forth motion between the
two parts to generate the friction. Regularity of the parts being joined is not
as necessary with this process; however, movement of the part during welding
is essential.
The obvious limitation of both these processes is the joint design and
component geometry restriction. At least one of the parts being joined must
have an axis of symmetry and be capable of being rotated or moved about that
axis.
Friction stir welding (FSW) is capable of fabricating either butt or lap
joints, in a wide range of materials thickness and lengths. During FSW, heat
is generated by rubbing a non-consumable tool on the substrate intended for
joining and by the deformation produced by passing a tool through the
material being joined. The rotating tool creates volumetric heating, so as the
tool is progressed, a continuous joint is created. FSW, like other types of
friction welds, is largely solid state in nature. As a result, friction stir welds
are not susceptible to solidification related defects that may hinder other
fusion welding processes. The FSW process is shown in Fig 1.2. The parts
intended for joining are usually arranged in a butt configuration. The rotating
tool is then brought into contact with the work pieces. The tool has two basic
components: the probe, which protrudes from the lower surface of the tool,
and the shoulder, which is relatively large diameter. The length of the probe is
typically designed to match closely the thickness of the work pieces. Welding
is initiated by first plunging the rotating probe into the work pieces until the
shoulder is in close contact with the component top surface. Friction heat is
generated as the rotating shoulder rubs on the top surface under an applied
force. Once sufficient heat is generated and conducted into the work piece,
the rotating tool is propelled forward. Material is softened by the heating
action of the shoulder, and transported by the probe across the bondline,
facilitating the joint.
Figure 1.2: Process of Friction Stir Welding
One limitation of the FSW process is mechanical stability of the tool at

operating temperature. During FSW, the tool is responsible for not only
heating the substrate material to forging temperatures, but also providing the
mechanical action of forging. Therefore, tool material must be capable of

sustaining high forging loads and temperatures in contact with the deforming
substrate material without either excessive wear or deformation. As a result,
the bulk of the FSW applications have involved low forging temperature
materials. Of these, the most important class of materials has been
aluminum. A range of virtually all classes of aluminum alloys have been
successfully friction stir welded. These include the 1xxx, 2xx, 3xxx, 4xxx,
5xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx alloys, as well as the newer Al-Li alloys. Each alloy
system is metallurgically distinct. Furthermore, different alloys within the
given class may have different forging characteristics. As a result, processing
for each alloy may vary. However, high-integrity joints can be obtained in all
classes.
Friction Stir Welding can be used in a variety of joint configurations,
including butt welds, dissimilar thickness butt welds, lap penetration, and lap
fillet configurations as shown in Fig. 1.3 of joint configurations. However, it
cannot be used for the traditional tee fillet joint configuration that is
commonly used in many fusion welding applications. This can often require
redesign of the product, to take full advantage of the FSW process.
Figure 1.3: Joint configurations of FSW

1.2 History of Aluminum Welding
While addressing the short history of welding aluminum, some of the terms
and definitions used here are being clarified as under:
1.2.1 Heliarc Welding

This is an old traditional name, sometimes still used today, for the Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding Process (GTAW). This same welding process is often
referred to, particularly in Europe, as the Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
process.
The GTAW process is quite often a viable option for welding aluminum.
It was developed in 1944 and is still extensively used to successfully weld
aluminum alloys today. Some of the highest quality welds used in critical
applications, such as full penetration pipe welds on cryogenic pressure
vessels, are almost exclusively made with this welding process. Alternating
current (AC) is used for most applications, but direct current (DC) power is
employed for some specialized applications. The GTAW process was
developed earlier than the Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) process, and for
a time was used to weld aluminum of all metal thicknesses and joint types.
The GTAW process has since been replaced by the gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) process for many aluminum welding applications, primarily
because of the increased speed of the GMAW process to weld thicker
sections.
However, GTAW still has an important place in the aluminum welding
industry. GTAW, with alternating current (AC) and pure argon shielding gas,
is now most often used to weld thinner gauges of aluminum (up to ¼ inch)
and also for applications where aesthetics are most important. Alternating
current (AC) is the most popular method of gas tungsten arc welding

aluminum. A balanced wave AC arc provides cleaning action for most
applications and divides the arc heat about evenly between electrode and base
material. GTAW power sources for AC welding, which allow for adjustment
of the balance between polarities, enable the user to choose either enhanced
arc cleaning or greater penetration capabilities. For more specialized
applications, we can find GTAW used in the direct current electrode negative
mode (DCEN). This method provides arc concentration of about 80% of the
heat at the base material and about 20% at the electrode. This results in
relatively deep and narrow weld penetration, and very little, if any, significant
arc cleaning during the welding operation. Typically used with pure helium
shielding gas, this method of welding is capable of welding much greater
thicknesses of material (up to 1 inch) and is most often used in automatic
seam welding applications. The third mode of GTAW is the direct current
electrode positive (DCEP). With this method, we have about 20% of the heat
generated at the base plate and 80% at the electrode. We create excellent
cleaning action but very shallow penetration. This is probably the least used
method of GTAW.
1.2.2 Gas Welding

This is a nonstandard term for the oxyfuel gas welding process (OFW). This
was one of the earliest welding processes used for welding aluminum. Figure
1.4 shows a USA Army water canteen. Welded by the OFW process and
dated 1918, this canteen was probably used in the “Great War” (1st World
War) and welded around 25 years prior to the development of the GMAW /
MIG and GTAW / TIG inert gas welding processes.

Figure 1.4: USA Army water canteen welded with the OFW process
Oxyfuel gas welding is a gas welding process. It achieves coalescence by

using the heat from an oxygen-fuel gas flame and, for aluminum, an active
flux to remove the oxide and shield the weld pool. Very thick joints have
been welded in the past with this process, but the most common applications
have been for sheet metal. One of the problems with this welding process is
that the flux used during the process is hydroscopic, meaning it absorbs
moisture from the surrounding atmosphere. When moist, the flux becomes
corrosive to aluminum. Therefore, after welding, the flux must be removed to
minimize the chance for corrosion. Because it can be difficult to be certain
that all traces of flux have been removed, it was often necessary to finish the
operation with an acid dip, to neutralize any flux residue. Other
disadvantages of using this process for welding aluminum are, mechanical
strengths tend to be lower and heat affected zones wider than with arc
welding. Welding is only practical in the flat and vertical positions, and
distortion can tend to be extreme. Most of the problems are caused by
corrosive flux and excessive heat input associated with this process. The
oxyfuel gas welding process was widely used for welding aluminum prior to
the development of the inert gas welding process, but has limited use today.

1.2.3 Stick Electrode Welding
This is a nonstandard term for Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). Prior to
the development of the inert gas welding process GTAW and GMAW; the arc
welding of aluminum was mainly restricted to the Shielded Metal Arc
Welding process sometimes referred to as the Manual Metal Arc Process
(MMA). This welding process uses a flux-coated welding electrode. The
electrodes are straight lengths of aluminum rod, coated with flux. The flux
acts to dissolve the aluminum oxide on both the base alloy and the rod during
welding, which is necessary if coalescence is to occur. Some of the flux
components vaporize in the arc to form shielding gases that help to stabilize
the arc and shield both it and the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.
One of the main problems with this welding process was corrosion caused by
flux entrapment, particularly in fillet welds where the flux could be trapped
behind the weld and promotes corrosion from the back of the weld. Other
problems were that welds from this process are prone to gross porosity.
There are no electrodes available for the high magnesium content base alloys
and electrodes, once exposed to the air, begin to absorb moisture into the flux,
which eventually corrodes the aluminum core and produces excessive
porosity problems. It was soon found that this process was not the most suited
for welding aluminum. Current welding codes and standards for aluminum
structures do not recognize this welding process as being suitable for
production welding applications.
Without a doubt, the breakthrough for aluminum as a welded structural
material occurred with the introduction in 1940s of the inert gas welding
processes. With the introduction of a welding process that used an inert gas
to protect the molten aluminum during welding, it became possible to make
high quality and high strength welds at high speeds and in all positions,
without corrosive fluxes.

1.3 Some Applications
Because of the potential of advantages over arc welding in some applications

associated with this processes, FSW has received interest from many areas of
industry working with aluminum. The advantages include the ability to
produce long lengths of welds in aluminum without any melting of the base
material. This provides important metallurgical advantages when compared
to conventional arc welding. Melting of the base material does not occur with
FSW and this eliminates the possibility of solidification cracking which is
often a problem when arc welding some aluminum alloys. Other advantages
may include: low distortion associated with lower heating during the welding
process; elimination of porosity problems that are challenging when arc
welding aluminum; minimum edge preparation, as butt joints are typically
performed with a square-butt preparation; and, the absence of welding
consumables such as shielding gas or filler material.
The friction stir welding process is being used and/or evaluated for use
within the aerospace, military vehicle, aircraft, automotive, shipbuilding,
railway rolling stock industries and most likely others.

2.
Types of Welding Process
2.1 History of Welding Process
Historians say the earliest examples of joining metals took place in Europe
and the Middle East during the Bronze Age and Iron Age. The Middle Ages
and Renaissance brought advances in forge welding, and the industry
continued to grow in the following centuries. The discovery of the electric arc
in 1800 by Sir Humphry Davy led to many more advances in welding,
including the invention of metal and carbon electrodes later in the 19th
century. The inventions of resistance welding, thermite welding and oxyfuel
welding all brought more possibilities to the industry, and in the 1920s,
alternating current welding became popular.
World War-I led to a surge in the use of welding processes, as various
countries began manufacturing more and more metal goods. Throughout the
following decades, the industry continued to advance as the introduction of
new fuels and shielding gases continued to expand the applications and
practicality of welding. Continued innovation and technological
breakthroughs have helped the industry continue to evolve to what is now a
thriving global industry.
Welding is a technique used for joining metallic parts usually through the
application of heat. This technique was discovered during efforts to
manipulate iron into useful shapes. Welded blades were developed in the first
millennium ad, the most famous being those produced by Arab armourers at
Damascus, Syria. The process of carburization of iron to produce hard steel
was known at this time, but the resultant steel was very brittle. The welding
technique which involved interlayering relatively soft and tough iron with
high-carbon material, followed by hammer forging produced a strong, tough
blade.
In modern times the improvement in iron-making techniques, especially
the introduction of cast iron, restricted welding to the blacksmith and the
jeweler. Other joining techniques, such as fastening by bolts or rivets, were
widely applied to new products, from bridges and railway engines to kitchen
utensils.
Modern fusion welding processes are an outgrowth of the need to obtain a
continuous joint on large steel plates. Rivetting had been shown to have
disadvantages, especially for an enclosed container such as a boiler. Various
types of welding processes such as: Gas welding, arc welding, and resistance
welding all appeared at the end of the 19th century. The first real attempt to
adopt welding processes on a wide scale was made during World War I. By
1916 the oxyacetylene process was well developed, and the welding
techniques employed then are still used. The main improvements since then
have been in equipment and safety. Arc welding, using a consumable
electrode, was also introduced in this period, but the bare wires initially used
produced brittle welds. A solution was found by wrapping the bare wire with
asbestos and an entwined aluminum wire. The modern electrode, introduced
in 1907, consists of a bare wire with a complex coating of minerals and
metals. Arc welding was not universally used until World War II, when the
urgent need for rapid means of construction for shipping, power plants,
transportation, and structures spurred the necessary development work.
Resistance welding, invented in 1877 by Elihu Thomson, was accepted
long before arc welding for spot and seam joining of sheet. Butt welding for
chain making and joining bars and rods was developed during the 1920s. In

the 1940s the tungsten-inert gas process, using a nonconsumable tungsten
electrode to perform fusion welds, was introduced. In 1948 a new gas-
shielded process utilized a wire electrode that was consumed in the weld.
More recently, electron-beam welding, laser welding, and several solid-phase
processes such as: diffusion bonding, friction welding, and ultrasonic joining
have been developed.
2.2 Basic Principles of Welding
A weld is process which develops a coalescence of metals by heating to a

suitable temperature with or without the application of pressure, and with or
without the use of a filler material. In fusion welding a heat source generates
sufficient heat to create and maintain a molten pool of metal of the required
size as shown in Fig. 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Molten pool of metal

The heat may be supplied by electricity or by a gas flame. Electric resistance
welding can be considered fusion welding because some molten metal is
formed. Solid-phase processes produce welds without melting the base
material and without the addition of a filler metal. Pressure is always
employed, and generally some heat is provided. Frictional heat is developed
in ultrasonic and friction joining, and furnace heating is usually employed in
diffusion bonding.
The electric arc used in welding is a high-current, low-voltage discharge
generally in the range 10–2,000 amperes at 10–50 volts. An arc column is
complex but, broadly speaking, consists of a cathode that emits electrons, a
gas plasma for current conduction, and an anode region that becomes
comparatively hotter than the cathode due to electron bombardment.
Therefore, the electrode, if consumable, is made positive and, if
nonconsumable, is made negative. A direct current (dc) arc is usually used,
but alternating current (ac) arcs can be employed.
Total energy input in all welding processes exceeds that which is required
to produce a joint, because not all the heat generated can be effectively
utilized. Efficiencies vary from 60 to 90 percent, depending on the process;
some special processes it deviates widely. Heat is lost by conduction through
the base metal and by radiation to the surroundings.
Mechanism of joining welding by heating as shown in Fig. 5 has three phases:
(a) Formation of liquid pool,
(b) Interface between liquid and solid, and
(c) Solidification.
Most metals, when heated, react with the atmosphere or other nearby
metals. These reactions can be extremely detrimental to the properties of a
welded joint. Most metals, for example, rapidly oxidize when molten. A layer
of oxide can prevent proper bonding of the metal. Molten-metal droplets

coated with oxide become entrapped in the weld and make the joint brittle.
Some valuable materials added for specific properties react so quickly on
exposure to the air that the metal deposited does not have the same
composition as it had initially. These problems have led to the use of fluxes
and inert atmospheres.
In fusion welding the flux has a protective role in facilitating a controlled
reaction of the metal and then preventing oxidation by forming a blanket over
the molten material. Fluxes can be active and help in the process or inactive
and simply protect the surfaces during joining.
Inert atmospheres play a protective role similar to that of fluxes. In gas-
shielded metal-arc (GSMA) and gas-shielded tungsten-arc (GSTA) welding
an inert gas, usually argon, flows from an annulus surrounding the torch in a
continuous stream, displacing the air from around the arc. The gas does not
chemically react with the metal but simply protects it from contact with the
oxygen in the air.
The metallurgy of metal joining is important to the functional capabilities
of the joint. The arc weld illustrates all the basic features of a joint. Three
zones result from the passage of a welding arc:
(i) the weld metal, or fusion zone,
(ii) the heat-affected zone, and
(iii) the unaffected zone
The weld metal is that portion of the joint that has been melted during
welding. The heat-affected zone is a region adjacent to the weld metal that
has not been welded but has undergone a change in microstructure or
mechanical properties due to the heat of welding. The unaffected material is
that which was not heated sufficiently to alter its properties.

Figure 2.2: Crystallizations of Weld pool (a) Deep penetration and (b) Low
penetration
(Source: University of Melbourne, Australia-Mechanical Engg-Lecture)
Weld-metal composition and the conditions under which it freezes

(solidifies) significantly affect the ability of the joint to meet service
requirements. In arc welding, the weld metal comprises filler material plus the
base metal that has melted. After the arc passes, rapid cooling of the weld
metal occurs. A one-pass weld has a cast structure with columnar grains
extending from the edge of the molten pool to the centre of the weld as shown
in Figs.2.2a and 2.2b. In a multipass weld, this cast structure may be
modified, depending on the particular metal that is being welded.
The base metal adjacent to the weld, or the heat-affected zone, is subjected
to a range of temperature cycles, and its change in structure is directly related
to the peak temperature at any given point, the time of exposure, and the
cooling rates. The types of base metal are too numerous to discuss here, but
they can be grouped in three classes:
(i) materials unaffected by welding heat,
(ii) materials hardened by structural change, and
(iii) materials hardened by precipitation processes.
Welding produces stresses in materials. These forces are induced by
contraction of the weld metal and by expansion and then contraction of the
heat-affected zone. The unheated metal imposes a restraint on the above, and
as contraction predominates, the weld metal cannot contract freely, and a
stress is built up in the joint. This is generally known as residual stress, and
for some critical applications must be removed by heat treatment of the whole
fabrication. Residual stress is unavoidable in all welded structures, and if it is
not controlled bowing or distortion of the weldment will take place. Control is
exercised by welding
2.3 Definition of Welds and Weldability
It is described in several ways such as: A mix of metals that joins at least two
separate parts, such welds can be produced by applying heat, or pressure, or
both heat and pressure, and they may or may not use an additional filler
metal. The term weldability is defined as a measure of how easy it is to make
a weld with a particular material without cracks.
2.4 Types of Welding Processes
The welding processes fall in to mainly two categories: one is diffusion

welding and other one is fusion welding. The diffusion welding is a group of
welding processes which produces coalescence at temperatures essentially
below the melting point of the base materials being joined, without the
addition of brazing filler metal where as fusion welding is a group in which
parts to be joined are melted locally and fused into one piece with a different
heat sources. These two categories are further divided in to sub-categories as
follows:

2.4.1 Diffusion welding
Cold Welding
Diffusion Welding
Explosion Welding
Forge Welding
Friction Welding
Hot Pressure Welding
Frictions Stir Welding
Ultrasonic Welding
2.4.2 Fusion Welding

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Tungsten Arc Gas Shielded (TAGS) Welding
Submerged-Arc Welding
Metal Arc Gas Shielded (MAGS) Welding
Laser Beam Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
2.5 Descriptions of Diffusion and Fusion Welding
Brief descriptions of various Diffusion and Fusion welding processes are

given below:
2.5.1 Cold Welding

Cold welding, the joining of materials without the use of heat, can be
accomplished simply by pressing them together. Surfaces have to be well

prepared, and pressure sufficient to produce 35 to 90 percent deformation at
the joint is necessary, depending on the material. Lapped joints in sheets and
cold-butt welding of wires constitute the major applications of this technique.
Pressure can be applied by punch presses, rolling stands, or pneumatic
tooling. Pressures of 1,400,000 to 2,800,000 kilopascals (200,000 to 400,000
pounds per square inch) are needed to produce a joint in aluminum; almost all
other metals need higher pressures.
2.5.2 Diffusion Welding

This type of bonding relies on the effect of applied pressure at an elevated
temperature for an appreciable period of time. Generally, the pressure applied
must be less than that necessary to cause 5 percent deformation so that the
process can be applied to finished machine parts. The process has been used
most extensively in the aerospace industries for joining materials and shapes
that otherwise could not be made-for example, multiple finned channels and
honeycomb construction. Steel can be diffusion bonded at above 1,000° C
(1,800° F) in a few minutes.
2.5.3 Explosive Welding

Explosive welding takes place when two plates are impacted together under
an explosive force at high velocity. The lower plate is laid on a firm surface,
such as a heavier steel plate. The upper plate is placed carefully at an angle of
approximately 5° to the lower plate with a sheet of explosive material on top.
The charge is detonated from the hinge of the two plates, and a weld takes
place in microseconds by very rapid plastic deformation of the material at the
interface. A completed weld has the appearance of waves at the joint caused
by a jetting action of metal between the plates.

2.5.4 Forge Welding
This original fusion technique dates from the earliest uses of iron. The process
was first employed to make small pieces of iron into larger useful pieces by
joining them. The parts to be joined were first shaped, then heated to welding
temperature in a forge and finally hammered or pressed together. The
Damascus sword, for example, consisted of wrought-iron bars hammered
until thin, doubled back on themselves, and then rehammered to produce a
forged weld. The larger the number of times this process was repeated, the
tougher the sword that was obtained. In the middle Ages cannons were made
by welding together several iron bands, and bolts tipped with steel fired from
crossbows were fabricated by forge welding. Forge welding has mainly
survived as a blacksmith’s craft and is still used to some extent in chain
making.
2.5.5 Friction Welding

In friction welding two work pieces are brought together under load with one
part rapidly revolving. Frictional heat is developed at the interface until the
material becomes plastic, at which time the rotation is stopped and the load is
increased to consolidate the joint. A strong joint result with the plastic
deformation and in this sense the process may be considered a variation of
pressure welding. The process is self-regulating, for, as the temperature at the
joint rises, the friction coefficient is reduced and overheating cannot occur.
The machines are almost like lathes in appearance. Speed, force, and time are
the main variables. The process has been automated for the production of axle
casings in the automotive industry.

2.5.6 Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic joining is achieved by clamping the two pieces to be welded
between an anvil and a vibrating probe or sonotrode. The vibration raises the
temperature at the interface and produces the weld. The main variables are the
clamping force, power input, and welding time. A weld can be made in 0.005
second on thin wires and up to 1 second with material 1.3 mm (0.05 inch)
thick. Spot welds and continuous seam welds are made with good reliability.
Applications include extensive use on lead bonding to integrated circuitry,
transistor canning, and aluminum can bodies.
2.5.7 Gas Welding

Gas welding is ranked as equal in importance to the metal-arc welding
processes but is now confined to a specialized area of sheet fabrication and is
probably used as much by artists as in industry. Gas welding is a fusion
process with heat supplied by burning acetylene in oxygen to provide an
intense, closely controlled flame. Metal is added to the joint in the form of a
cold filler wire. A neutral or reducing flame is generally desirable to prevent
base-metal oxidation. By deft craftsmanship very good welds can be
produced, but welding speeds are very low. Fluxes aid in preventing oxide
contamination of the joint.
2.5.8 Arc Welding

In this process an electric arc is struck between the metallic electrode and the
workpiece. Tiny globules of molten metal are transferred from the metal
electrode to the weld joint. Since arc welding can be done with either
alternating or direct current, some welding units accommodate both for wider
application. A holder or clamping device with an insulated handle is used to

conduct the welding current to the electrode. A return circuit to the power
source is made by means of a clamp to the workpiece.
2.5.9 Metal Arc Gas Shielded Welding

Shielded metal arc welding refers for the largest total volume of welding
today. Gas-shielded arc welding, in which the arc is shielded from the air by
an inert gas such as argon or helium, has become increasingly important
because it can deposit more material at a higher efficiency and can be readily
automated.
2.5.10 Tungsten Arc Gas Shielded Welding

The tungsten electrode version finds its major applications in highly alloyed
sheet materials. Either direct or alternating current is used, and filler metal is
added either hot or cold into the arc. Consumable electrode gas-metal arc
welding with a carbon dioxide shielding gas is widely used for steel welding.
Two processes known as spray arc and short-circuiting arc are utilized. Metal
transfer is rapid, and the gas protection ensures a tough weld deposit.
2.5.11 Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged arc welding is similar to the above except that the gas shield is
replaced with a granulated mineral material as a flux, which is mounded
around the electrode so that no arc is visible.
2.5.12 Laser Welding

Laser welding is accomplished when the light energy emitted from a laser
source is focused upon a workpiece to fuse materials together. The limited
availability of lasers of sufficient power for most welding purposes has so far
restricted its use in this area. Another difficulty is that the speed and the

thickness that can be welded are controlled not so much by power but by the
thermal conductivity of the metals and by the avoidance of metal vaporization
at the surface. Particular applications of the process with very thin materials
up to 0.5 mm (0.02 inch) have, however, been very successful. The process is
useful in the joining of miniaturized electrical circuitry.
2.5.13 Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma welding is an arc process in which a hot plasma is the source of heat.
It has some similarity to gas-shielded tungsten-arc welding, the main
advantages being greater energy concentration, improved arc stability, and
easier operator control. Better arc stability means less sensitivity to joint
alignment and arc length variation. In most plasma welding equipment, a
secondary arc must first be struck to create an ionized gas stream and permit
the main arc to be started. This secondary arc may utilize either a high-
frequency or a direct contact start. Water cooling is used because of the high
energies forced through a small orifice. The process is amenable to
mechanization, and rapid production rates are possible.
2.5.14 Thermo-Chemical Processes

Another thermo-chemical process is aluminothermic (thermite) joining. It has
been successfully used for both ferrous and nonferrous metals but is more
frequently used for the former. A mixture of finely divided aluminum and
iron oxide is ignited to produce a superheated liquid metal at about 2,800° C
(5,000° F). The reaction is completed in 30 seconds to 2 minutes regardless of
the size of the charge. The process is suited to joining sections with large,
compact cross sections, such as rectangles and rounds. A mold is used to
contain the liquid metal.

2.5.15 Resistance Welding
Spot, seam, and projection welding are resistance welding processes in which
the required heat for joining is generated at the interface by the electrical
resistance of the joint. Welds are made in a relatively short time (typically 0.2
seconds) using a low-voltage, high-current power source with force applied to
the joint through two electrodes, one on each side. Spot welds are made at
regular intervals on sheet metal that has an overlap. Joint strength depends on
the number and size of the welds. Seam welding is a continuous process
wherein the electric current is successively pulsed into the joint to form a
series of overlapping spots or a continuous seam. This process is used to weld
containers or structures where spot welding is insufficient. A projection weld
is formed when one of the parts to be welded in the resistance machine has
been dimpled or pressed to form a protuberance that is melted down during
the weld cycle. The process allows a number of predetermined spots to be
welded at one time. All of these processes are capable of very high rates of
production with continuous quality control. The most modern equipment in
resistance welding includes complete feedback control systems to self-correct
any weld that does not meet the desired specifications.
Flash welding is a resistance welding process where parts to be joined are
clamped, the ends brought together slowly and then drawn apart to cause an
arc or flash. Flashing or arcing is continued until the entire area of the joint is
heated; the parts are then forced together and pressure maintained until the
joint is formed and cooled.
Low and high frequency resistance welding is used for the manufacture of
tubing. The longitudinal joint in a tube is formed from metal squeezed into
shape with edges abutted. Welding heat is governed by the current passing
through the work and the speed at which the tube goes through the rolls.
Welding speeds of 60 m (200 feet) per minute are possible in this process.

2.5.16 Electron-Beam Welding
In electron-beam welding, the workpiece is bombarded with a dense stream of
high-velocity electrons. The energy of these electrons is converted to heat
upon impact. A beam-focusing device is included, and the workpiece is
usually placed in an evacuated chamber to allow uninterrupted electron travel.
Heating is so intense that the beam almost instantaneously vaporizes a hole
through the joint. Extremely narrow deep-penetration welds can be produced
using very high voltages—up to 150 kilovolts. Workpiece are positioned
accurately by an automatic traverse device; for example, a weld in material 13
mm (0.5 inch) thick would only be 1 mm (0.04 inch) wide. Typical welding
speeds are 125 to 250 cm (50 to 100 inches) per minute.

3.
Welding Processes on Aluminium
A brief description of the most common aluminium alloys and type of

welding processes applied, are given in the following chart Fig.3.1.
Figure 3.1: Weldability of Various Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium alloys are designated in two categories. First category falls under
wrought aluminium alloys (e.g., 1xxx, 2xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx,
8xxx and 9xxx) other category falls under cast aluminium alloys (e.g., 1xx.x,
2xx.x, 3xx.x, 4xx.x, 5xx.x, 6xx.x, 7xx.x, 8xx.x and 9xx.x). The list of
principle alloys given in following Table 3.1 and Table 3.2.

Table 3.1: Designation System for wrought Aluminium Alloys
Table 3.2: Designation System for Cast Aluminium Alloys
It is known that aluminium alloys are welded with special type of welding
processes. Some of the important welding processes, other than Friction Stir

Welding process, are described below with their applications and limitations
on aluminum alloys:
3.1 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
In gas tungsten arc welding process the heat generated by an arc, which is
maintained between the workpiece and non-consumable tungsten, electrode is
used to fuse the joint area. The arc is sustained in an inert gas, which serves to
protect the weld pool and the electrode from atmospheric contamination as
shown in Figure 3.2.
The process has the following features:
• It is conducted in a chemically inert atmosphere

• The arc energy density is relatively high
• The process is very controllable
• Joint quality is usually high
• Deposition rates and joint completion rates are low
The process may be applied to the joining of a wide range of engineering

materials including stainless steel, aluminum alloys and reactive metals such
as titanium. These features of the process lead to its widespread application in
aerospace, nuclear reprocessing and power generation industries as well as in
the fabrication of chemical process plant, food processing and brewing
equipment.

Figure 3.2: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
3.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding has for many years been one of the most common
techniques applied to the fabrication of steels. The process uses an arc as the
heat source but shielding is provided by gases generated by the decomposition
of the electrode coating material and by the slag produced by the melting of
mineral constituents of the coating. In addition to heating and melting the
parent material the arc also melts the core of the electrode and thereby
provides filler material for the joint. The electrode coating may also be used
as source of alloying elements and additional filler material. The flux and
electrode chemistry may be formulated to deposit wear- and corrosion-
resistant layers for surface protection as shown in Fig. 3.3 and Fig. 3.4.

Figure 3.3: Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Process
Significant features of the process are:

• Equipment requirement are simple
• A large range of consumables are available
• The process is extremely portable
• The operating efficiency is low
• It is labor intensive
(a) (b)
Figure 3.4: Shielded Metal Arc welding (a) Schematic Diagram, and (b) Diagram
Showing Polarity

For these reasons the process has been traditionally used in structural steel
fabrication, shipbuilding and heavy engineering as well as for small batch
production and maintenance.
3.3 Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma welding is a modern high quality welding process which is very

similar to tungsten inert gas (TIG) as the arc is formed between a pointed
tungsten electrode and the work piece. Plasma welding has greater energy
concentration and can permit higher welding speeds or less distortion.
Additionally plasma welding greater torch standoff. Plasma welding also has
improved arc stability. Out of position welding is simpler with plasma
welding.
Plasma welding uses the heat generated by a constricted arc to fuse the
joint area; the arc is formed between the tip of a non-consumable electrode
and either the work piece or the constricting nozzle as shown in Fig. 6. A
wide range of shielding and cutting gases is used depending on the mode of
operation and the application. In the normal transferred arc mode the arc is
maintained between the electrode and the work piece; the electrode is usually
the cathode and the work piece is connected to the positive side of the power
supply. In this mode a high energy density is achieved and the process may be
used effectively for welding and cutting.
3.3.1 What is Plasma?

Plasma is commonly known as fourth state of matter after solid, liquid and
gas. This is an extremely hot substance which consists of free electrons,
positive ions, atoms and molecules. It conducts electricity.

Figure 3.5: Working Diagram of Plasma Arc Welding
3.3.2 How it Works

By positioning the electrode within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can
be separated from the shielding gas envelope. Plasma is then forced through a
fine-bore copper nozzle which constricts the arc as shown in Fig. 3.5. There
are three operating modes which can be produced by varying bore diameter
and plasma gas flow rate:
Micro-plasma: 0.1 to 15A

Medium current: 15 to 200A
Keyhole plasma: over 100A
The plasma arc is usually operated with a DC, drooping characteristic power
source. Because its unique operating features are results of the special torch
arrangement and separate plasma and shielding gas flows, a plasma control
console can be added on to a normal tungsten inert gas (TIG) power source.

Full plasma systems are also available. The plasma arc is not stabilized with
sine wave alternative current (AC). Arc re-ignition is difficult when there is a
long electrode to work-piece distance and the plasma is constricted, extreme
heating of the electrode during the positive half-cycle causes balling of the tip
which can disturb arc stability. Special-purpose switched direct current (DC)
power sources are available. By misbalancing the waveform to reduce the
duration of electrode positive polarity, the electrode is kept passably cool to
maintain a pointed tip and achieve arc stability.
Although the arc is initiated using high frequency (HF), it is first formed
between the electrode and plasma nozzle. This 'pilot' arc is held within the
body of the torch until required for welding then it is transferred to the work-
piece. The pilot arc system ensures dependable arc starting and, as the pilot
arc is maintained between welds, it obtains the need for HF which may cause
electrical interference.
Figure 3.6: Plasma Arc for Keyhole Effect Showing Current, Voltage and Temperature

3.3.3 Electrode
The electrode used for the plasma process is tungsten-2%thoria and the
plasma nozzle is copper. The electrode tip diameter is not as critical as for
TIG and should be maintained at around 30-60 degrees. The plasma nozzle
bore diameter is critical and too small a bore diameter for the current level
and plasma gas flow rate will lead to excessive nozzle erosion or even
melting. Large bore diameter should be carefully used for the operating
current level. Because of too large a bore diameter, may give problems with
arc stability and maintaining a keyhole as shown in Fig. 3.6.
3.4 Plasma and Shielding Gases
The normal combination of gases is argon for the plasma gas, with argon plus
2 to 5% hydrogen for the shielding gas. Helium can be used for plasma gas
but because it is hotter this reduces the current rating of the nozzle. Helium's
lower mass can also make the keyhole mode more difficult.
3.4.1 Applications
i). Micro-plasma welding: Micro-plasma was traditionally used for welding
thin sheets (down to 0.1 mm thickness), and wire and mesh sections. The
needle-like stiff arc minimises arc wander and distortion. Although alike the
TIG arc is widely used as shown in Fig. 3.7, the newer transistorised tungsten
inert gas (TIG) power sources can produce a very stable arc at low current
levels.
ii). Medium current welding: When used in the melt mode this is a substitute
to normal TIG.

Figure 3.7: Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
The advantages are:

deeper penetration (from higher plasma gas flow), and
greater tolerance to surface contamination including coatings (the
electrode is within the body of the torch)
The major disadvantage lies in the bulkiness of the torch, making manual
welding more difficult. In mechanised welding, greater attention must be paid
to maintenance of the torch to ensure consistent performance.
3.4.2 Keyhole Welding

This has several advantages which can be exploited: deep penetration and
high welding speeds. Compared with the TIG arc, it can penetrate plate
thicknesses up to l0mm, but when welding using a single pass technique, it is
more usual to limit the thickness to 6mm. The normal methods are to use the
keyhole mode with filler to ensure smooth weld bead profile (with no
undercut). For thicknesses up to 15mm, a vee joint preparation is used with a
6mm root face. A two-pass technique is employed and here, the first pass is
autogenously with the second pass being made in melt mode with filler wire
addition.
As the welding parameters, plasma gas flow rate and filler wire addition
(into the keyhole) must be carefully balanced to maintain the keyhole and
weld pool stability, this technique is only suitable for mechanised welding.
Although it can be used for positional welding, usually with current pulsing, it
is normally applied in high speed welding of thicker sheet material (over 3
mm) in the flat position. For the pipe welding, the slope-out of current and
plasma gas flow must be carefully controlled to close the keyhole without
leaving a hole.
The features of the process depend on the operating mode and the current,
but in summary the plasma process has the following characteristics:
• Good low-current arc stability
• Improved directionality compared with GTAW
• Improved melting efficiency compared with GTAW
• Possibility of keyhole welding
The keyhole technique is the high heat concentration can penetrate
completely through the joint. These features of the process make it suitable
for a range of applications including the joining of very thin materials, the
encapsulation of electronic components and sensors, and high speed
longitudinal welds on strip and pipe.
3.5 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
When one thinks of welding, MIG welding is probably what comes to mind.
MIG stands for metal inert gas. It’s also referred to GMAW or gas metal arc
welding. It consists of a spool of wire that is fed, along with an inert gas,

through a nozzle to the weld area. With a mere squeeze of a trigger, an inert
gas flow is started along with electric current and wire feed. An arc forms
between the wire and the base material; the wire melts but is continuously fed
through the nozzle adding to the base material, while the inert gas protects the
molten puddle from atmospheric impurities. MIG welding can also be used
without the shielding gas if you have a flux-cored wire; flux in the wire burns
as the weld progresses, creating a gas shield around the molten weld puddle.
Figure 3.8: Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding Process

(Source: www.advantagefabricatedmetals.com)
The ease of MIG welding allows for quicker and longer welds. The only
thing that really limits how long a weld can be is the duty cycle of the
machine and the endurance of the welder either human or robot.
3.5.1 How it Works

The MIG welding machine is a relatively simple one, requiring a power
supply, either gas cylinder or flux cored wire, spool of filler wire, and

welding gun connected by various tubes and hoses. The gun consists of a
trigger to start everything, a gas diffuser that helps direct the gas to the weld
area, a contact tip that the wire and electric current run through, all
surrounded by a copper nozzle that protects everything as shown in Fig. 3.8.
The complicated sounding welding gun is supplied by the welding
machine by a bundle of three things: a hose for the gas, a cable for the power,
and a hose through which wire is fed. It’s important to keep the supply lines
as straight as possible because the wire can get stuck in the feeder tube.
3.5.2 Advantages
i) Constant voltage power supply: Unlike TIG, MIG welding uses a
constant voltage power supply. This means that the current can vary
with the arc length. The shorter the arc, the hotter it is, which melts the
wire faster but since the feed is constant it forces the arc to lengthen.
This is true for the opposite as well, longer arcs will eventually
shorten. The whole point is to keep the arc at a very specific length so
that the weld is more uniform (see Fig. 3.9).
Figure 3.9: Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

ii) Constant current power supply: Constant current power supplies can be
used but they’re usually coupled with a device that regulates the speed
of the wire feed to control the arc length. Other various machines exist
that allow for greater control when welding more difficult projects.
One of the machines for general MIG welding called Millermatic. In
particular the Millermatic 211 is a popular one for around the shop welding.
It has the capacity to plug into either 115, or 220V, which is great for
portability. The specs reveal that it can weld material from 0.8mm to 3/4
inch, or 9.5mm. It works with solid steel wires from .023 - .035 in, stainless
steel in the same size, and flux cored wire from .030 -.045 inches. Another
cool feature is called “Tip Saver”, which shuts down the output if the tip is
shorted to the work. This saves destruction of both tip, and delicate internal
components.
3.5.3 Applications
Because of its simplicity MIG welding is used in almost every industry.
Almost anything you can think of from cars and trucks, to farm equipment
and pipelines, uses MIG welding. It’s also incredibly easy to automate,
making it perfect for repetitive, assembly line jobs.
3.6 Laser Welding
Laser is an outgrowth of a suggestion made by Albert Einstein in 1916 that

under the proper circumstances atoms could release excess energy as light
either spontaneously or when stimulated by light. German physicist Rudolf
Walther Ladenburg first observed stimulated emission in 1928, although at
the time it seemed to have no practical use.

In 1951 Charles H. Townes, then at Columbia University in New York
City, thought of a way to generate stimulated emission at microwave
frequencies. At the end of 1953, he demonstrated a working device that
focused “excited” (Energy levels and stimulated emissions) ammonia
molecules in a resonant microwave cavity, where they emitted a pure
microwave frequency. Townes named the device a maser, for “microwave
amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation.”
Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Prokhorov and Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov of
the P.N. Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow independently described the
theory of maser operation. For their work all three shared the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1964.
Figure 3.10: Laser Beam Welding Device (Ruby Rod)

Laser Beam Welding (LBW) is a modern welding process; it is a high
energy beam process that continues to expand into modern industries and new
applications because of its many advantages like deep weld penetration and
minimizing heat inputs (see Fig. 3.10).
The turn by the manufacturers to automate the welding processes has also
caused to the expansion in using high technology like the use of laser and
computer to improve the product quality through more accurate control of
welding processes. The laser may be used as an alternative heat source for
fusion welding. The focused power density of the laser can reach 1010 or
1012 Wm-2 and welding is often carried out using the keyhole technique as
shown in Fig. 3.11.
Figure 3.11: Schematic Diagram of Laser Beam Welding

Significant features of laser welding are:
• Very confined heat source at low power
• Deep penetration at high power
• Reduced distortion and thermal damage
• Out-of-vacuum technique
• High equipment cost
3.6.1 How it Works

The focal spot is targeted on the work piece surface which will be welded. At
the surface the large concentration of light energy is converted into thermal
energy (see actual machine in Fig. 3.12). The surface of the work piece starts
melting and progresses through it by surface conductance. For welding, the
beam energy is maintained below the vaporization temperature of the work
piece material, because hole drilling or cutting vaporization is required.
Figure 3.12: Working Diagram of Laser Welding Machine

Because the penetration of the work piece depends on conducted heat, the
thickness of the materials to be welded is generally less than 0.80 inches if the
ideal metallurgical and physical characteristics of laser welding must be
realized.
Concentrated energy produces melting and coalescence before a heat
affected zone is developed and when the materials to be welded are thick and
have high thermal conductivity like for example aluminum the advantage of
having a minimal heat affected zone can be seriously affected.
Because the heat source in this type of welding process is the energy of
light, the work piece will be welded purely which means the fatigue strength
of the welded joint will be excellent.
Energy distribution across the beam is generated by the design of the
resonant cavity, including mirror curvatures or shape and their relative
arrangement. This combination results in photon oscillation within the cavity
specific output beam energy patterns, these patterns are called Transverse
Energy Modes (TEMs).
The function of all laser beam welding processes whether they be gas
(carbon dioxide, helium, neo, etc.) or other lasing sources is based on the
principles of the excitation of atoms using intense light, electricity, electron
beams, chemicals, etc., and the spontaneous and stimulated release of
photons. The role of focusing lenses in this process is really important
because it concentrates the beam energy into a focal spot as small as 0.005 in
diameters or even less.
Like mentioned above there are many types of Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
but the most popular types in the industry are:

i) Nd: YAG (neodymium-yttrium aluminum garnet) Laser: The Nd:
YAG laser uses a man-made crystal as its active medium and
produces light with a 1.06-micron wavelength (see Fig. 3.13).
ii) Carbon Dioxide Lasers: The CO2 laser uses a mixture of gases
including CO2 as the active medium and produces light with a 10.6-
micron wavelength.
iii) The Diode Laser: The diode laser uses a semi-conductor diode material
as its active medium can be manufactured to produce one of several
wavelengths.
Figure 3.13: Nd: YAG Solid State Laser
3.6.2 Industries Served

The laser beam welding is widely used in the following industries:
Aerospace
Defense / military
Electronics
Research and development
Medical
Sensors and instrumentation
Petrochemical refining.
Communications and energy
3.6.3 Advantages
Deep and narrow welds can be done

Absence of distortion in welds created
Minimal heat affected zones in welds created
Excellent metallurgical quality will be established in welds
Ability to weld smaller, thinner components
Increased travel speeds
Non-contact welding
3.7 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a unique way of delivering large amounts

of concentrated thermal energy to materials being welded. It became viable,
as a production process, in the late 1950s. At that time, it was used mainly in
the aerospace and nuclear industries. Since then, it has become the welding
technique with the widest range of applications. This has resulted from the
ability to use the very high energy density of the beam to weld parts ranging

in sizes from very delicate small components using just a few watts of power,
to welding steel at a thickness of 10 to 12 inches with 100 Kilowatts or more.
However, even today most of the applications are less than 1/2" in thickness,
and cover a wide variety of metals and even dissimilar metal joints.
Figure 3.14: Schematic Diagram for Electron Beam Welding

3.7.1 How it Works
The most common Electron Beam systems used in manufacturing today are of
the high vacuum design as shown in Fig. 3.14.
The other machine types are:
i) Partial vacuum equipment.
ii) Non-vacuum equipment
These two types are used in mass production where high output is important.
Figure 3.15: Working Diagram for Electron Beam Welding
The diagram shown in Fig. 3.15, shows the classic triode gun and column
assembly. The triode gun design consists of the cathode (Filament), Bias cup

(Grid) and Anode. Other sub-assembly components that contribute to the
triode are: High voltage insulator Feed-through, high voltage cable and
deflection coils. All these components are housed in a vacuum vessel called
the upper column. The column assembly is held under a high vacuum by an
isolation valve positioned below the anode assembly.
The vacuum environment provides several benefits:

Removes the bulk gas molecules necessary for a stable triode.
Provides protection for the incandescent filament against
oxidization.
Provides a controlled environment to protect the gun against welding
byproduct.
3.7.2 Beam Formation: Upper Column

The beam formatting begins with the emission of electrons from the
incandescently heated tungsten filament. During this process the filament is
saturated by a determined amount of the electrical current. Electrons boil off
the filament tip as it reaches operating temperatures and gathers in the grid
cup assembly. A negative high voltage potential (acceleration voltage) is
applied to the filament cathode assembly, with the cathode assembly charged
at 150 kV the only force preventing the electron beam from propagating is a
secondary negatively charged voltage that resides on the grid cup or bias
assembly. This voltage is respectively lower than the accelerating voltage,
acts as a valve that controls the volume of electron energy which can flow
from the cathode emitter to its attracting target. The anode at a positive
potential is one of the attracting targets in the triode but its role is more of a
beam formation device rather than a collector of electrons. The secondary
target is the workpiece which is usually metallic and offers a conductive path
to the earth to complete the circuit. The electron gun assembly design is a
result of some extensive engineering studies and experimentation. Some of
the early triode designs were mathematically modeled and their designs still
produced today.
3.7.3 Beam Delivery: Lower Column

Other important components of the beam delivery column are the focus and
deflection coils and isolation valve. The magnetic focus coil located beneath
the anode assembly provides the means for squeezing the beam into a tightly
focused stream of energy or can be used to widely dispersed energy resource.
The deflection coil is another very important component that will contribute
to the latter discussion of beam control parameters but for now we will simply
say that it is a steering device. The focus coil is circular in design and is
concentric with the column. An electrical current is passed through the coil
which produces the resultant magnetic fluxes that act to converse the electron
beam. The deflection coil is configured with four separately wound coils
positioned at right angles to the column. The four coils are segmented as sets
(x and y) each axis becomes a separate control allowing the energizing of
each axis on command, thus steering the beam. Many industrial applications
require the precise manipulation of the beam energy so as to provide a pattern
for processing. This is usually accomplished by superimposing an AC signal
onto the four coils simultaneously therefore creating a specific pattern. The
isolation valve serves to isolate the vacuum environment in the upper column
from the lower. After the electron beam has passed through the lower column,
it enters the chamber cavity. Another important part of the lower column of
the electron beam welding (EBW) machine is the viewing optics, the optics
are arranged in the lower column in such a manner that when viewing the
beam energy through a video camera or magnified optics it gives the view

from a parallel plane, giving the viewer the perception of looking down the
column.
3.7.4 Beam Interaction in Chamber Cavity

As the beam enters the chamber cavity it is aimed onto a target material placed
at a determined height representative of the actual work-piece. This procedure
is typical in most pre-weld set-up requirements. The welding technician
would then follow a process of beam alignment and beam parameter
calibration. Unlike laser, the preparation is quite different in the fact that the
technician must view the actual beam through the optical system in order to
verify the beam alignment and focus. With a laser beam, the technician could
not view the beam quality and therefore must rely on instrumentation to
profile the beam energy. Once the beam has been tuned and calibrated the
equipment is now ready for part processing.
The focused beam of electrons is impinged at a targeted location on the
weld joint at which point the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted to
thermal energy. The work piece can either be stationary with deflected beam
energy or can be traversed along a desired axis of motion. This motion can be
computer controlled such as a Computer Numerical Control (CNC) table or
simply a rotating mechanism can be employed. As the beam energy is applied
to the moving part several physical transformations take place. The material
instantly begins to melt at the surface, and then a rapid vaporization occurs
followed by the resultant coalescence.
Two welding modes used in the (EBW)

i) Conductance mode: Mainly applicable to thin materials, heating of
the weld joint to melting temperature is quickly generated at or
below the materials surface followed by thermal conductance

throughout the joint for complete or partial penetration. The
resulting weld is very narrow for two reasons:
It is produced by a focused beam spot with energy densities

concentrated into a .010 to.030 area.
The high energy density allows for quick travel speeds allowing
the weld to occur so fast that the adjacent base metal does not
absorb the excess heat therefore giving the electron beam (EB)
process, it’s distinct minimal heat affected zone.
ii) Keyhole mode: It is employed when deep penetration is a
requirement. This is possible since the concentrated energy and
velocity of the electrons of the focused beam are capable of
subsurface penetration. The subsurface penetration causes the rapid
vaporization of the material thus causing a hole to be drilled through
the material. In the whole cavity the rapid vaporization and
sputtering causes a pressure to develop thereby suspending the
liquidus material against the cavity walls. As the hole is advanced
along the weld joint by motion of the workpiece, the molten layer
flows around the beam energy to fill the hole and coalesce to
produce a fusion weld. The hole and trailing solidifying metal
resemble the shape of an old fashion keyhole.
Both the conductance and keyhole welding modes share physical features
such as narrow welds and minimal heat affected zone .The basic difference is
that a keyhole weld is a full penetration weld whereas a conductance weld
usually carries a molten puddle and penetrates by virtue of conduction of
thermal energy.

3.7.5 Advantages
Deeper and narrower: Ability to achieve a high depth-to-width ratio
liminating multiple-pass weld.
Low heat input: Minimal shrinkage and distortion as well as ability to
weld in close proximity to heat sensitive components.
Superior strength: Vacuum melt quality can yield 95% strength of base
material.
Versatility: From .001" to 3" deep penetration welds, each performed
with exceptional control and repeatability.
High purity: Vacuum environment eliminates impurities such as oxides
and nitrides.
Superior process: Permits welding of refractory metals and
combinations of many dissimilar metals not easily weld with
conventional welding processes.

4.
Working Principles
of Friction Stir Welding
Friction Stir Welding features have led to the application of leaders for micro
joining of electronic components, but the process is also being applied to the
fabrication of automotive components and precision machine tool parts in
heavy section steel.
Figure 4.1: Schematic Diagram of FSW

Figure 4.2: Working Diagram of FSW
4.1 Principle of Operation
It is schematically represented in Fig. 4.1 and actual working diagram in Fig.

4.2. At first, the sheets or plates are abutted along edge to be welded and the
rotating pin is sunken into the sheets/plates until the tool shoulder is in full
contact with the sheets or plates surface. Once the pin is completely inserted,
it is moved with a small nutating angle in the welding direction. Due to the
advancing and rotating effect of the pin and shoulder of the tool along the
seam, an advancing side and a retreating side are formed and the softened and
heated material flows around the pin to its backside where the material is
consolidated to create a high-quality, solid-state weld as shown in Figs. 4.3a
and 4.3b.

(a)
(b)
Figure 4.3: (a) Working Arrangement and (b) Heat Transfer in Tool and Workpiece in
Friction Stir Welding (One-half of the tool model is shown due to symmetry)

4. 2 Theory of FSW
In Friction Stir Welding, a cylindrical shouldered tool with a profiled probe is

rotated and slowly plunged into the joint line between two pieces of sheet or
plate material, which are butted together. The parts have to be firmly clamped
onto the worktable in a manner that prevents the joint faces from being forced
apart. Frictional heat is generated between the wear resistant welding tool and
the material of the work piece as shown in Fig. 4.4(b). This heat causes the
latter to soften without reaching the melting point and allows passing of the
tool along the weld line as shown in Fig. 4.4(c). The plasticized material is
transferred from the leading edge of the tool to the trailing edge of the tool
probe and is forged by the intimate contact of the tool shoulder and the pin
profile. It leaves a solid phase bond between the two pieces.
Figure 4.4: Schematic Drawing for Working Processes: (a). Start of joining, (b). Insert
joining tool, (c). Joining and (d). Pull away joining tool (end)
A significant benefit of Friction Stir Welding is that it has significantly

fewer process elements to control. In a Fusion weld, there are many process
factors that must be controlled–such as purge gas, voltage and amperage, wire
feed, travel speed, shield gas, arc gap. However, in Friction Stir Weld there
are only three process variables to control: rotation speed, travel speed and
pressure, all of which are easily controlled. The increase in joint strength
combined with the reduction in process variability provides for an increased
safety margin and high degree of reliability for the External Tank.
Friction Stir Welding works as; first a dowel is rotated between 180 to 300
revolutions per minute, depending on the thickness of the material. The pin
tip of the dowel is forced into the material under 5,000 to 10,000 pounds per
square inch (775 to 1550 pounds per square centimeter) of force. The pin
continues rotating and moves forward at a rate of 3.5 to 5 inches per minute
(8.89 to 12.7 centimeters per minute). As the pin rotates, friction heats the
surrounding material and rapidly produces a softened "plasticized" area
around the pin. As the pin travels forward, the material behind the pin is
forged under pressure from the dowel and consolidates to form a bond. Unlike
fusion welding, no actual melting occurs in this process and the weld is left in
the same fine grained condition as the parent metal.
4.3 Material Flow and Mechanism of Joining
The rotating tool provides a continual hot working action that moves material
around a pin at temperatures well below the melting point of the materials to
be processed, plasticizing metal within a narrow zone, while transporting
metal from the leading face of the pin to its trailing edge.

Figure 4.5: Stream traces on different horizontal planes (a) 0.35 mm, (b) 1.59 mm and (c)
2.28 mm below the top surface
The current understanding is that FSW is a process that moves material

around a pin at temperatures well below the melting point of the materials to
be welded. The material is thought to be in a plastic state and therefore can be
pushed around. The pin pressure and torque provide the energy to create a
material with an apparent viscosity, allowing it to flow around the pin. Since
the fluidic layer acts as a boundary layer between the solid parent material
and the pin, one can visualize that this boundary layer is pushed away, or
reduced in thickness at the leading edge of the pin. If the traverse speed is too
high, this viscous layer will be pushed away completely, and the pin will
contact the parent material, which leads to excessive pin force and tool
failure.
Viscous State of the Material may be considered as a Layer Surrounding
the Pin Boundary Layer is pushed away, or Reduced in thickness at the
Leading Edge of the Pin Frictional heat is generated between the wear-
resistant welding tool shoulder and nib, and the material of the work pieces.
This heat, along with the heat generated by the mechanical mixing process
and the adiabatic heat within the material, cause the stirred materials to soften
without reaching the melting point (hence cited a solid-state process),
allowing the traversing of the tool along the weld line in a plasticized tubular
shaft of metal. As the pin is moved in the direction of welding, the leading
face of the pin, assisted by a special pin profile, forces plasticized material to
the back of the pin while applying a substantial forging force to consolidate
the weld metal. The welding of the material is facilitated by severe plastic
deformation in the solid state, involving dynamic recrystallization of the base
material (see Fig. 4.5) for different thickness.
4.4 Tool Rotation and Traverse Speeds
There are two tool speeds to be considered in friction-stir welding; how fast
the tool rotates and how quickly it traverses the interface. These two
parameters have considerable importance and must be chosen with care to
ensure a successful and efficient welding cycle. The relationship between the
welding speeds and the heat input during welding is complex but, in general,
it can be said that increasing the rotation speed or decreasing the traverse
speed will result in a hotter weld as shown in Figs. 4.6a and 4.6b. In order to
produce a successful weld it is necessary that the material surrounding the

tool is hot enough to enable the extensive plastic flow required and minimize
the forces acting on the tool. If the material is too cool then voids or other
flaws may be present in the stir zone and in extreme cases the tool may break.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.6: (a) Tool Rotation and (b) Transverse Speed
At the other end of the scale excessively high heat input may be
detrimental to the final properties of the weld. Theoretically, this could even
result in defects due to the liquation of low-melting-point phases (similar to
liquation cracking in fusion welds). These competing demands lead onto the
concept of a processing window: the range of processing parameters that will
produce a good quality weld. Within this window the resulting weld will have
a sufficiently high heat input to ensure adequate material plasticity but not so
high that the weld properties are excessively reduced.

4.5 Tool Tilt and Plunge Depth
The plunge depth is defined as the depth of the lowest point of the shoulder
below the surface of the welded plate and has been found to be a critical
parameter for ensuring weld quality. Plunging the shoulder below the plate
surface increases the pressure below the tool and helps ensure adequate
forging of the material at the rear of the tool. Tilting the tool by 2-4 degrees,
such that the rear of the tool is lower than the front, has been found to assist
this forging process. The plunge depth needs to be correctly set, both to
ensure the necessary downward pressure is achieved and to ensure that the
tool fully penetrates the weld. Given the high loads required the welding
machine may deflect and so reduce the plunge depth compared to the nominal
setting, which may result in flaws in the weld. On the other hand an excessive
plunge depth may result in the pin rubbing on the backing plate surface or a
significant under match of the weld thickness compared to the base material.
Variable load welders have been developed to automatically compensate for
changes in the tool displacement while The Welding Institute (TWI) has
demonstrated a roller system that maintains the tool position above the weld
plate.
4.6 The Force Analysis of FSW
During friction stir welding, there are different parameters effects on the
process and on the forces on the pin as shown in Fig. 4.7. These parameters
are:
o Material Alloy
o Grain Direction
o Rotation Velocity of Shoulder and Pin (rpm)

o Pin Dwell Time
o Pilot hole
o Traverse Rate (mm/min)
o Pins designs
Figure 4.7: Relation between Process Input and Measured Output
These parameters affect on the micro structural changes, resultant mechanical

properties and on the forces that effect on the FSW tool.
4.6.1 Type of Forces

During friction stir welding, there are three types of force act on the tool.
They are written as shown in Fig. 4.8:
Figure 4.8: Three – axes force on the tool

o The longitudinal force (X – force)
o The vertical force (Y- force)
o The lateral force (Z-axis)
i). The Longitudinal Force (X-force)

The traverse force acts parallel to the tool motion and is positive in the
traverse direction. Since this force arises as a result of the resistance of
the material to the motion of the tool it might be expected that this
force will decrease as the temperature of the material around the tool is
increased. The lack of parameters except for two in affecting the
traverse was surprising. Only the material (78%) and grain direction
(2%) contributed, and the unexplained factors were 20%. The result
indicates that if we know the material, the x-force necessary in the
machine design can be determined.
ii). The Vertical Force (Y-force)

A downwards force is necessary to maintain the position of the tool at
or below the material surface. Some friction stir welding machines
operate under load control but in many cases the vertical position of the
tool is preset and so the load will vary during welding. The pin thrust is
determined as expected primarily by the material being processed
(57%). The traverse rate contributes 18%. Other contributing
parameters are grain direction, RPM and dwell time. The unexplained
factors are only 15%.The traverse rate it is believe causes a downward
and then upward material flow which pushes against the pin. There is
no significant interaction of the factors.

iii). The Lateral Force (Z-axis)
The lateral force may act perpendicular to the tool traverse direction
and is defined here as positive towards the advancing side of the
process. A torque is required to rotate the tool, the value of which will
depend on the down force and friction coefficient (sliding friction)
and/or the flow strength of the material in the surrounding region
(sticking friction). These forces combined with the thermal impact
effect may induce the deformation of the fixture and the processed
plates and affect the wear of the tool. These effects will subsequently
complicate the formation of the residual stresses in the welding and the
prediction of tool life.
4.6.2 Generation and Flow of Heat

For any welding process it is, in general, desirable to increase the travel speed
and minimise the heat input as this will increase productivity and possibly
reduce the impact of welding on the mechanical properties of the weld. At the
same time it is necessary to ensure that the temperature around the tool is
sufficiently high to permit adequate material flow and prevent flaws or tool
fracture.
When the traverse speed is increased, for a given heat input, there is less
time for heat to conduct ahead of the tool and the thermal gradients are larger.
At some point the speed will be so high that the material ahead of the tool will
be too cold and the flow stress too high, to permit adequate material
movement, resulting in flaws or tool fracture. If the "hot zone" is too large
then there is scope to increase the traverse speed and hence productivity.
The welding cycle can be split into several stages during which the heat flow
and thermal profile will be different:

Dwell: The material is preheated by a stationary, rotating tool in order
to achieve a sufficient temperature ahead of the tool to allow the
traverse. This period may also include the plunge of the tool into the
workpiece.
Transient heating: When the tool begins to move there will be a
transient period where the heat production and temperature around the
tool will alter in a complex manner until an essentially steady-state is
reached.
Pseudo steady-state: Although fluctuations in heat generation will
occur the thermal field around the tool remains effectively constant, at
least on the macroscopic scale.
Post steady-state: Near the end of the weld heat may "reflect" from the
end of the plate leading to additional heating around the tool.
Heat generation during friction-stir welding arises from two main sources:
friction at the surface of the tool and the deformation of the material around
the tool. The heat generation is often assumed to occur predominantly under
the shoulder, due to its greater surface area, and to be equal to the power
required to overcome the contact forces between the tool and the workpiece.
The contact condition under the shoulder can be described by sliding friction,
using a friction coefficient and interfacial pressure P, or sticking friction,
based on the interfacial shear strength and tor; at an appropriate temperature
and strain rate. Mathematical approximations for the total heat generated by
the tool shoulder Qtotal have been developed using both sliding and sticking
friction models:

(Sliding)
(Sticking)
where is the angular velocity of the tool, Rshoulder is the radius of the tool
shoulder and Rpin that of the pin. Several other equations have been proposed
to account for factors such as the pin but the general approach remains the
same.
A major difficulty in applying these equations is determining suitable
values for the friction coefficient or the interfacial shear stress. The conditions
under the tool are both extreme and very difficult to measure. To date, these
parameters have been used as "fitting parameters" where the model works
back from measured thermal data to obtain a reasonable simulated thermal
field. While this approach is useful for creating process models to predict, for
example, residual stresses it is less useful for providing insights into the
process itself.
4.7 Multi-Stir, Simultaneous Double Side Stir and Twinstir ™

Techniques
The concept involved a pair of tools applied on opposite sides of the work
piece slightly displaced in the direction of travel. The contra-rotating
simultaneous double-sided operation with combined weld passes has certain
advantages such as a reduction in reactive torque and a more symmetrical
weld and heat input through the thickness as shown in Fig. 4.9. The probes
need not touch together but should be positioned sufficiently close that the

softened material around the two probes overlaps near the probe tips to
generate a full through thickness weld.
Figure 4.9: Simultaneous Double Side Stir Techniques with Contra-Rotating Probes
To avoid any problems associated with a zero velocity zone in mid-thickness,

the probes can be displaced slightly along the direction of travel Common to
all such simultaneous contra-rotating techniques is a reduction in the reactive
forces on the work holding fixtures owing to the education or elimination of
reactive torque. Moreover, for certain applications, the use of purpose
designed multi-headed friction stir welding machines can increase
productivity, reduce side force asymmetry, and reduce or minimize reactive
torque
4.7.1 Multi-Head Friction Welding Machine

The use of a preceding friction pre-heating tool followed in line by a friction
stir welding tool for welding as shown in Fig. 4.10. The three versions of
Twin-stir welding techniques:

Figure 4.10: Multi-head Frictional Welding Machine
a) Parallel side-by-side transverse to the welding direction

b) Tandem in-line with the welding direction
c) Staggered to ensure the edges of the weld regions partially overlap
4.7.2 Parallel Twin-Stir

The Twin-stir parallel contra-rotating variant enables defects associated with
lap welding to be positioned on the inside between the two welds. For low
dynamic volume to static volume ratio probes using conventional rotary
motion, a possible detrimental feature will be plate thinning’ on the retreating
side. With tool designs and motions designed to minimize plate thinning, so
called hooks may be the most significant possible detrimental feature. This
feature can be avoided using Twin-stir technology. The Twin-stir method may
also allow a reduction in welding time for parallel overlap welding. Owing to

the additional heat available, increased travel speed or lower rotation process
parameters will be possible as seen in Fig. 4.11.
Figure 4.11: Parallel Side-by-Side Transverse to the Welding Direction
4.7.3 Tandem Twin-stir

The Twin-stir tandem contra-rotating variant can be applied to all
conventional FSW joints and reduces significantly reactive torque as shown
in Fig. 4.12. More importantly, the tandem technique will help improve the
weld integrity by disruption and fragmentation of any residual oxide layer
remaining within the first weld region by the following tool. Welds have
already been produced by conventional rotary FSW, whereby a second weld
is made over a previous weld in the reverse direction with no mechanical
property loss. The preliminary evidence suggests that further breakup and
dispersal of oxides is achieved within the weld region. The Twin-stir tandem
variant will provide a similar effect during the welding operation.
Furthermore, because the tool orientation means that one tool follows the
other, the second tool travels through already softened material. This means
that the second tool need not be as robust. It is noted that under certain
circumstances these tools need not always be used in the contra-rotation mode
and their rotational speed can also be varied.
Figure 4.12: Tandem in-line with the welding direction
4.7.4 Staggered Twin-stir

The staggered arrangement for Twin-stir means that an exceptionally wide
common weld region’ can be created. Essentially, the tools are positioned
with one in front and slightly to the side of the other, so that the second probe
partially overlaps the previous weld region as shown in Fig. 4.13. This
arrangement will be especially useful for lap welds, as the wide weld region
produced will provide greater strength than a single pass weld, given that the
detail at the extremes of the weld region are similar. Residual oxides within
the overlapping region of the two welds will be further fragmented, broken up
and dispersed. One particularly important advantage of the staggered variant

is that the second tool can be set to overlap the previous weld region and
eliminate any plate thinning that may have occurred in the first weld. This
will be achieved by locating the retreating side of both welds on the inside.
Figure 4.13: Twin-StirTM Variants-Staggered to Ensure the Edges of the Weld Regions
Partially Overlap
4.8 Traditional Weld and FSW Weld
In traditional or fusion welding the material get joint in molten state and
resolidify, and in FSW, the joint is made in solid state; it never gets in molten
stage as shown in Fig. 4.14a and 4.14b. Instead, the joint is created under
conditions of severe plastic deformation.

The process is also very robust.
Not being sensitive to environmental conditions, unlike many
traditional welding processes.
It is especially true for welding of lower melting point materials such as
aluminum, magnesium, bronze, and copper.
It also yields significantly less distortion than the fusion welding
processes.
The big difference between FSW and fusion welding (other than the
lack of melting) is the ability to manipulate peak temperatures by
choice of different welding parameters.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.14: (a) Traditional Weld and (b) FSW weld
FSW gives you the ability to manipulate the properties of the metal and tailor
them for different applications. And it might be possible to optimize tensile
strength, fracture toughness, or fatigue resistance based on the particular
application.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.15: Micro-Structure of (a) Traditional Fusion Weld and (b) Friction Stir Weld
The precipitation structures of in MIG weld and in a FSW are compared with
50µm, and it is found that FSW is much superior to MIG weld as seen in Fig.
4.15.
4.9 Advantages and Disadvantages
The solid-state nature of FSW immediately leads to several advantages over

fusion welding methods since any problems associated with cooling from the
liquid phase is immediately avoided. Problem such as porosity, salute
redistribution, solidification cracking is not a problem during FSW. In
general, FSW has been found to produce a low concentration of defects and is
very tolerant to variations in parameters and materials Nevertheless, FSW is
associated with a number of unique defects. Insufficient weld temperatures,
due to low rotational speeds or high traverse speeds, for example, mean that
the weld material is unable to accommodate the extensive deformation during
welding. This may result in long, tunnel defects running along the weld which
may be surface or subsurface. Low temperatures may also limit the forging
action of the tool and so reduce the continuity of the bond between the

materials from each side of the weld. The light contact between the materials
has given rise to the name 'kissing-bond'. This defect is particularly worrying
since it is very difficult to detect using non-destructive methods such as X-ray
or ultrasonic testing. If the pin is not long enough or the tool rises out the
plate then, the interface at the bottom of the weld may not be disrupted and
forged by the tool, resulting in a lack-of-penetration defect. This is essentially
a notch in the material which can be a potent source of fatigue cracks.
4.9.1 Advantages
Good mechanical properties in the as welded condition
we could weld metal without melting it, maintaining its original
properties despite the joining process
we could weld together metals those previously could not be joined
we could eliminate the rivets in airframe structures and make better use
of metal products in all forms by simplifying the manufacturing
process, lowering its cost, and reducing component inventory by
eliminating parts
Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes or the spatter of
molten material.
No consumables - conventional steel tools can weld over 1000m of
aluminum and no filler or gas shield is required for aluminum.
Easily automated on simple milling machines - lower setup costs and
less training.
Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc), as there is no
weld pool.

Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickness under/over-
matching, thus reducing the need for expensive machining after
welding.
Welding Preparation not usually required
Low environmental impact ( no fumes ) .
Low heat distortion
No filler wire required
4.9.2 Disadvantages
Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn.
Large down forces required with heavy-duty clamping necessary to
hold the plates together.
Less flexible than manual and arc processes (difficulties with thickness
variations and non-linear welds).
Often slower traverse rate than some fusion welding techniques
although this may be offset if fewer welding passes are required.
Critical tolerances.
High investment.

5.
FSW Tools and Its Design
Features
A friction stir welding (FSW) tool is obviously a critical component to the

success of the process. The tool typically consists of a rotating round shoulder
and a threaded cylindrical pin that heats the workpiece, mostly by friction,
and moves the softened alloy around it to form the joint. Since there is no
bulk melting of the workpiece, the common problems of fusion
welding such as the solidification and liquation cracking, porosity and the
loss of volatile alloying elements are avoided in FSW. These advantages
are the main reasons for its widespread commercial success for the
welding of aluminium and other soft alloys. However, the FSW tool is
subjected to severe stress and high temperatures particularly for the welding
of hard alloys such as steels and titanium alloys and the commercial
application of FSW to these alloys is now limited by the high cost and short
life of FSW tools.
Although significant efforts have been made in the recent past to
develop cost effective and reusable tools, most of the efforts have been
empirical in nature and further work is needed for improvement in tool
design to advance the practice of FSW to hard alloys. This paper critically
reviews recent work on several important aspects of FSW tools such as
the tool geometry, issues of material selection, microstructure, load bearing
ability, failure mechanisms and process economics.

5.1 FSW Tools
Tools consist of a shoulder and a pin which can be integral with the shoulder
or as a separate insert possibly of a different material as shown in Fig. 5.1.
The design of the shoulder and of the pin is very important for the quality of
the weld. The pin of the tool generates the heat and stirs the material being
welded but the shoulder also plays an important part by providing additional
frictional treatment as well as preventing the plasticized material from
escaping from the weld region. The plasticized material is extruded from the
leading to the trailing side of the tool but is trapped by the shoulder which
moves along the weld to produce a smooth surface finish. Clearly, different
materials and different thicknesses will require different profile probes and
welds can be produced from just one side or by welding half the thickness
then turning over to complete the other side.
Figure 5.1: Pin and Shoulder of FSW

5.2 Tool Pin
As shown the pin is cylindrical. The pin diameter is usually taken to be equal
to the thickness of the plates to be welded. This satisfies the requirement that
the head pin is small enough to penetrate the two plates. The length of the tool
pin must be slightly less (by a fraction of a mm) than the thickness of the
plates, so the pin penetrates the surface from one side only and at the same
time forces the material to flow around it. The geometry of tool pin for FSW
tools is shown in Fig. 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Tool Pin Geometries for FSW Tools
5.3 Tool Shoulder
The tool shoulder is also cylindrical in shape as shown in Figs. 5.3 and 5.4.
Due to the heat dissipation from the friction between the shoulder and the
surface of the plates (in addition to the pin action), the material undergoes
plastic deformation and the two plates are joined together. The tool shoulder
length is irrelevant, but it must be long enough to allow its fixation in the

rotating machine tool holder. The shoulder diameter must be not too large in
order to minimize the width of the welding zone line. In other words, if the
shoulder diameter is too large, it will cause a wide section of the plate to be
plasticized. The shoulder diameter is usually taken as double the pin diameter
(see Fig. 5.5).
Figure 5.3: Basic variants on the Tool Shoulder
Figure 5.4: Different Type MX-Triflute Probes

Figure 5.5: A Typical MX-Triflute™ probe
Figure 5.6: Basic Variants of the Flared-Triflute ™ Type Probes

The fluted tool can have flutes neutral (a), left (b) right (c) handed as
illustrated or a combination of all three at 120º intervals one neutral, one left
and one right on an individual probe (d) as shown in Fig. 5.6. The pitch of the
ridges is also important in determining the properties of the tool. The ridges
enable plasticised material to be deflected in the direction required especially
to deflect oxide from the centre of the weld to the surface.
Figure 5.7: Details of Prototype A-Skew™ Probe (a) Side view (b) Front view, showing
tip profile and (c) Swept region encompassed by skew action
Basic Principle of Skew-Stir™ Showing Different Focal Points:

To increase the spread in lap welds still further the probe was angled with
respect to the tool axis in a variant of FSW known as Skew-Stir™ and
illustrated in Fig. 5.7. It will be seen that the swept region is much larger
than with conventional tooling.

5.4 Commonly Used Tool Materials2
5.4.1 Tool Steel

Materials such as aluminium or magnesium alloys, and aluminium matrix
composites (AMCs) are commonly welded using steel tools. Steel tools have
also been used for the joining of dissimilar materials in both lap and butt
configurations. Lee et al. welded Al–Mg alloy with low carbon steel in lap
joint configuration using tool steel as tool material without its excessive
wear by placing the softer Al–Mg alloy on top of the steel plate and
avoiding direct contact of the tool with the steel plate. In butt joint
configuration, the harder workpiece is often placed on the advancing side and
the tool is slightly offset from the butt interface towards the softer workpiece.
Cold worked X155CrMoV12-1 tool steel was used by Meran and Kovan for
welding of 99.5% pure Cu with CuZn30 brass in butt joint configuration. Oil
hardened (62 HRC) steel tool has been used to successfully weld Al
6061z20 vol.-%Al2O3 AMC9 and Al 359+20 vol.-%SiC AMC. Tool wear
during welding of metal matrix composites is greater when compared with
welding of soft alloys due to the presence of hard, abrasive phases in the
composites. For FSW of AMCs, some studies have shown that the tool
wears initially and obtains a self-optimised shape after which wear
becomes much less pronounced. This self-optimised final shape, which
depends on the process parameters and is generally smooth with no threads,
can reduce wear when used as the initial tool shape. Total wear was found
to increase with rotational speed and decrease at lower traverse speed,
which suggests that process parameters can be adjusted to increase tool
life. Prado et al., argued against the need for threads in the tools because the
tools continued to produce good quality welds even after the threading had
2
Source: T. DebRoy et al., Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2011, 16(4), pp325-342.
worn out and tool had obtained a smooth shape. Polycrystalline cubic boron
nitride (pcBN) tools Owing to high strength and hardness at elevated
temperatures along with high temperature stability pcBN is a preferred
tool material for FSW of hard alloys such as steels and Ti alloys.
Furthermore, the low coefficient of friction for pcBN results in smooth weld
surface. However, due to high temperatures and pressures required in the
manufacturing of pcBN, the tool costs are very high. Owing to its low
fracture toughness, pcBN also has a tendency to fail during the initial plunge
stage. Maximum weld depths with pcBN tools are currently limited to 10 mm
for welding of steels and Ti alloys.
Boron nitride has two crystal structures, the hexagonal and cubic varieties.
The hexagonal form has a layered structure and hence is more suited as a
lubricant. The cubic (zinc blended structure) form is usually prepared by
subjecting the hexagonal version to high temperatures and pressures,
similar to what is followed in producing diamond from graphite. The
cubic form is second in hardness only to diamond and has greater
thermal and chemical stability than carbon. The phase is also chemically inert
to iron, reportedly even up to 1573 K. Like diamond, pcBN has a high
thermal conductivity which helps avoid the development of hot spots on tools.
A high thermal conductivity also helps in the design of liquid cooled tools.
The best properties are obtained with single phase cubic boron nitride
(cBN), produced without using any binder. Such a material can be
prepared by sintering commercially pure hexagonal boron nitride at high
pressures (6–8 GPa) and temperatures (1773–2673 K). The fracture
toughness for pcBN with a grain size in the range 2–12 mm is found
to be y7 MPa m1/2 at ambient temperature. Mixtures of cBN with
binders exhibit a ductile to brittle transition temperature in the range
1323–1423 K depending on the fraction of the nitride relative to the other

phases. Research on the wear properties of pcBN as a cutting tool material for
hardened steels and super alloys has shown that abrasion and diffusion are the
wear mechanisms.
Tool erosion under FSW conditions is often worsened by reactions of the
tool with the workpiece or oxygen in the atmosphere. Oxidation of the tool
may occur both during the plunge stage and after a welding operation when
the hot tool is exposed to the environment. Metals such as chromium and
titanium form a tenacious and coherent oxide layer that protects the surface
from further oxidation. On the other hand, WO3 on tungsten vaporises as a
gas, leaving the surface unprotected. If the oxide layer is not tenacious
enough and breaks down under the severe thermomechanical conditions in
FSW, the reactivity of the tool will be an important consideration in the
selection of tool material. The tendency of a pure metal to react with oxygen
is given by the standard Gibbs energy of oxidation for 1 mole of oxygen.
Figure 30 shows the Ellingham diagram for some of the metals used for FSW
tools. Metals higher up in the ﬁgure are less likely to oxidize compared with
those below them. The high hardness, low reactivity with oxygen and high
temperature strength of metals such as tungsten, molybdenum and iridium
make them good choices as tool materials. These tool properties can be
enhanced further by the addition of alloying elements or coating the tool with
a hard, wear resistant material.
5.4.2 Tool Geometry

Tool geometry affects the heat generation rate, traverse force, torque and the
thermo-mechanical environment experienced by the tool. The flow of
plasticised material in the workpiece is affected by the tool geometry as well
as the linear and rotational motion of the tool. Important factors
are shoulder diameter, shoulder surface angle, pin geometry including its

shape and size and the nature of tool surfaces. These features are discussed
here in Fig. 5.8.
Figure 5.8: Ellingham diagram for some of metals used in FSW tools
5.4.3 Shoulder Diameter

The diameter of the tool shoulder is important because the shoulder generates
most of the heat, and its grip on the plasticised materials largely establishes
the material flow field. Both sliding and sticking generate heat whereas
material flow is caused only from sticking. For a good FSW practice,
the material should be adequately softened for flow, the tool should
have adequate grip on the plasticised material and the total torque and
traverse force should not be excessive. Experimental investigations have
shown that only a tool with an optimal shoulder diameter results in the
highest strength of the AA 6061 FSW joints. Although the need to
determine an optimum shoulder diameter has been recognised in the
literature, the search for an appropriate principle for the determination
of an optimum shoulder diameter is just a beginning.

Figure 5.9: Variation of Sliding Torque, Sticking Torque and Total Torque With
Shoulder Diameter
Figure 5.9 shows that for the welding of AA 6061, the sliding torque
continuously increases with shoulder diameter because of the larger
tool/workpiece interfacial area. However, the sticking torque increases,
reaches a maximum and then decreases. This shows two important factors
that affect the sticking torque. First, with increase in temperature, the
flow stress‘t’ decreases and at the same time the area increases with
shoulder diameter. The product of these two opposing factors leads to a
maximum in the sticking torque versus shoulder diameter plot which
indicates the maximum grip of the shoulder on the plasticised material.
Any further increase in the shoulder diameter results in decreased grip of
the tool on the material, higher total torque and higher power
requirement. For these reasons Arora et al., suggested that the optimum
shoulder diameter should correspond to the maximum sticking torque for a
given set of welding parameters and workpiece material.

5.4.4 Shoulder Surface
The nature of the tool shoulder surface is an important aspect of tool design.
Hirasawa et al. studied flat, convex and concave tool shoulders, and
cylindrical, tapered, inverse tapered and triangular pin geometries. They
found that triangular pins with concave shoulders resulted in high strength
spot welds. Sorensen and Nielsen examined the role of geometric
parameters of convex shoulder step spiral (CS4) tools and identified the
radius of curvature of the tool shoulder and pitch of the step spiral as
important geometric parameters. Microstructure, geometry and failure mode
of a weld may be significantly altered if the tool shoulder chosen is concave
rather than flat. The finite element modelling results of Li et al., showed
that the shoulder surface angle affected the axial force depending on the
tool pin radius. A convex shoulder with scrolls was shown to improve
FSW process stability. It was argued that when a convex scroll
shoulder is used in constant axial force mode, any increase in plunge depth
from its normal value results in greater contact area between the shoulder
and the workpiece. As a result, the axial pressure is reduced and the plunge
depth decreases to its original value. Similarly, any decrease in the plunge
depth lowers the shoulder/workpiece contact area resulting in higher axial
pressure and a consequent return of the plunge depth to its normal
value. Therefore, the FSW process with convex scroll shoulder tends to be
stable with a nearly constant plunge depth. The conventional rotating shoulder
tools can result in high thermal gradients and high surface temperatures
during FSW of low thermal conductivity alloys leading to deterioration of
weld quality. A stationary shoulder friction stir welding process has been
developed by The Welding Institute in which the non-rotating shoulder
slides on the workpiece surface as the rotating pin moves forward.

5.4.5 Pin (Probe) Geometry
The shape of the tool pin (or probe) influences the flow of
plasticised material and affects weld properties. Kumar and Kailas
suggested that while the tool shoulder facilitated bulk material flow the
pin aided a layer by layer material flow.
Figure 5.10: Commonly used tool pin geometries- (a) cylindrical threaded;(b)
three flat threaded; ( c) triangular; (d) trivex; (e) threaded conical; (f )
schematic of a triflute
Figure 5.10 shows the shapes of some of the commonly used tool pins. A
triangular or ‘trifluted’ tool pin increases the material flow compared with a
cylindrical pin. The axial force on the workpiece material and the flow of
material near the tool are affected by the orientation of threads on the pin
surface. Fujii et al. achieved defect free welds in softer alloys such as AA
1050 using a columnar tool pin without any thread. They suggested that a
triangular prism shaped tool pin would be suitable for harder alloys such as
AA 5083. Zhao et al., used columnar and tapered pins, both with and
without threads, and observed that the tapered pin profile with screw

thread produced welds with the minimum defects in AA 2014. Hattingh et
al. observed that a trifluted tapered pin with a thread pitch of around 10% of
the pin diameter and 15% of plate thickness produced defect free welds.
Colegrove and Shercliff compared the computed material flow fields resulting
from the use of a triangular tool with convex surfaces (Trivex) and a Triflute
tool and suggested that the latter increased the downward force due to its
strong augering action. Features such as threads and flutes on the pin are
believed to increase heat generation rate due to larger interfacial area,
improve material flow and affect the axial and transverse forces. Mahmoud
et al. studied the friction stir processing of SiC reinforced aluminium
composite using four tool shapes – circular without thread, circular with
thread, triangular and square. The square probe resulted in more
homogeneous distribution of SiC particles than the other tools whereas
circular tool experienced much less wear than the flat faced tools. Elangovan
et al. studied five tool profiles – straight cylindrical, threaded cylindrical,
tapered cylindrical, square and triangular – for the welding of AA 6061
aluminium alloy and found that the square pin profiled tools produced defect
free welds for all the axial forces used. Lammlein et al. observed significant
reduction in process forces with a conical shoulderless tool that could also be
used to weld plates of variable thicknesses. However, process stability, weld
line alignment and weld root defects were important issues.
Insufficient material flow on the advancing side, particularly at low
processing temperatures, often results in formation of defects such as
wormholes. The ‘restir’ tool, which periodically reverses its direction of
rotation, was devised by The Welding Institute to address this issue.
An increase in the angle between the conical surface of the pin and its axis
leads to a more uniform temperature distribution along the vertical direction
and helps in reducing distortion. Buffa et al. showed that an increase

in the pin angle increased peak temperature. Furthermore, it has been
suggested that the helical motion of a conical pin pushes the material
downwards in the front and upwards in the rear. The improved material
flow results in more uniform properties across the workpiece thickness. As a
result, tapered tools are preferred when welding thick sheets.
Tools used for friction stir spot welding (FSSW) experience only torsion
due to rotational motion as opposed to tools used for FSW that
experience both bending moment and torsion due to linear and
rotational motion respectively. Despite the differences between FSSW and
FSW, the tools used for the two processes are similar. Tozaki et al. used tools
with cylindrical pins with three different pin lengths to understand
the effect of tool geometry on microstructure and static strength in friction stir
spot welded aluminium alloys. They showed that the tensile shear strength of
the welds increased when longer tool pins were used. Yang et al. used tool
pins with circular and triangular cross- sections for welding of AZ31 Mg
sheets in lap joint configuration and used Cu as tracer material to study
material flow. Hirasawa et al., used the particle method to analyse
material flow in lap joints, for various shoulder and pin geometries,
by tracking the position of reference particles originally located at a
fixed distance from the top surface. For cylindrical pin tool, material flow is
upwards near the pin periphery whereas the material beneath the shoulder is
pushed downwards due to the axial force from the shoulder. Thus, moving
away from the pin periphery, the reference line of particles curves
upwards and then bends down resulting in a ‘hook’ formation.
Characteristics of hook regions have been found to be related to mechanical
properties of lap joints. Hirasawa et al. found that the nature of hook
formation was influenced by the pin and shoulder geometries. Choi et al.
used cylindrical pin tools made of two different materials to evaluate the

frictional wear during FSSW of low carbon steel. Tozaki et al. proposed a
tool without a pin in order to avoid the hole commonly left behind at
the centre of an FSSW. When this tool was used for lap joints in 2 mm thick
sheets of AA 6061-T4, welds with shear strength comparable with those made
with a conventional tool were obtained. The shoulder plunge was an
important parameter as the stirring action was achieved by scrolls on the tool
shoulder.
5.4.6 Load Bearing Ability
In an FSW process, the commonly used tool experiences axial, longitudinal

and lateral forces due to viscous and inertial effects. As the tool rotates inside
the workpiece, it experiences an axial force that tends to lift the tool and is
countered by the applied axial force through the tool shoulder. The
longitudinal forces on the FSW tool result from the linear motion of the tool
through the workpiece. The rotation of the tool combined with the linear
motion results in an asymmetric flow field around the tool leading also to a
lateral force on the tool in the direction perpendicular to that of the linear
motion due to Magnus effect. As the workpiece comes in contact with
first the pin, and then the shoulder during the initial plunge, the forces acting
on the tool vary significantly due to the combination of work hardening
(under axial compression and shear) and softening due to heat generation.
After the plunge, as the tool traverses some distance in the workpiece, the
forces on tool stabilise at a value which is generally lower than the peak
forces during the plunge state. Therefore, tools are subjected to more
severe stresses during the initial plunge compared with the linear
traverse stage. Tools, especially those made of brittle materials such as
pcBN, are more likely to fail in the initial plunge stage than later in the

welding process. Preheating of the workpiece is sometimes used to lower the
tool stresses during the initial plunge.
The forces and torques acting on the tool are important for
several reasons. First, a larger torque corresponds to a greater power
requirement for the FSW process. Second, tool deformation and wear are
enhanced with increasing load on the tool leading to greater processing cost
due to more frequent tool replacement. Third, tool wear may lead to
contamination of the weld and deterioration of the joint properties. Atharifar
et al. modelled FSW process with a threaded tool pin and calculated
the axial, longitudinal and lateral forces on the pin and the shoulder.
Both experimental and calculated results showed that the axial forces
increased with increasing rotational speed and decreasing tool travel speed.
However, the computed results of axial force were not in good agreement
with the corresponding measured values except for a small range of angular
velocities. Increase in rotational speed and decrease in tool travel speed
resulted in decrease in the calculated longitudinal forces on both the tool pin
and the tool shoulder. The decrease in the longitudinal force with increasing
rotational speed was attributed to the higher heat generation rate and,
consequently, lower flow stress. The effect of travel speed on the longitudinal
force was attributed to the variation in the dynamic pressure distribution along
the welding direction. Both the lateral and the axial forces were
influenced much more significantly by the rotational speed compared with
the travel speed. The axial, longitudinal and lateral forces acting on the tool
shoulder were found to be much larger than the corresponding forces on the
tool pin. The calculated moments were high at low rotational and high travel
speeds.

Table 5.1: Effect of Travel Speed and Rotational Speed on Moment and Forces
Travel Speed Rotational

Speed
On pin Longitudinal force + -
Axial force ~ +
Lateral force ~ +
Moment about tool axis ~ -
On shoulder Longitudinal force + -
Axial force - +
Lateral force ~ +
Moment about tool axis ~ -
Total Longitudinal force + -
Axial force - +
Lateral force ~ +
Moment about tool axis + -
*Symbols + (-) indicates that an increase in the welding parameter results in larger or
smaller values of the corresponding force or moment Symbol ~ signifies weak or no effect.
The effects of travel and rotational speeds on the forces experienced by FSW
tool are compiled in Table 5.1. The legend +/- in a cell signifies that increase
in the column parameter results in an increase/decrease in the corresponding
row parameter, and (~) signifies weak or no effect. The power requirement,
calculated as angular velocity times the total torque on the tool, increases
significantly with increasing rotational speed. The effect of travel speed is
significant only at high rotational speed, where the increase in travel
speed requires increased power.
Sorensen and Stahl measured the longitudinal forces on the tool
for varying pin lengths at constant pin diameter and vice versa. The

longitudinal force on the tool was found to decrease with decreasing pin
length and reach a limiting value for a very small pin length ( see Fig.
5.11). The limiting longitudinal force was taken as the force experienced by
the tool shoulder. Assuming that the longitudinal force on the tool shoulder
was independent of the pin length, the force on tool pin was calculated as the
difference between the total longitudinal force and the limiting force on the
tool shoulder.
Figure 5.11: Total longitudinal force on pin as function of pin length
For pin lengths smaller than 5.6 mm, the total longitudinal force on
the tool pin varied as the quadratic power of the pin length, and the pin
force increased linearly along its length with distance from the tool shoulder.
However, no specific influence of pin diameter on longitudinal pin forces.

5.5 Tool Wear, Deformation and Failure
The rotation and translation of tool through the workpiece result in its
wear. The FSW tool may also deform plastically due to a reduction in yield
strength at elevated temperatures in an environment of high loads. Therefore,
FSW tools for welding of high strength materials such as steels are often
liquid cooled. When the stresses are higher than the load bearing ability of
the tool, failure may occur.
Not many detailed studies have been done on the tool wear in FSW but
diffusion and abrasion are the expected wear mechanisms. Reaction
of the tool material with its environment, including both the workpiece and
the surrounding gases, is also expected to contribute to the tool wear.
Ellingham diagrams for oxide formation, shown in Fig. 5.8, indicate the
relative propensity of oxidation of several pure metals from a
thermodynamic point of view and similar diagrams may be constructed for
nitride formation. Furthermore, there is a need to identify the possibility of
interaction of the tool material with the workpiece by diffusion and
chemical reaction in model tests and actual FSW processes.
Depending on the results, a particular tool material may be a good
choice for one workpiece material but not for another of similar physical
properties. Some such studies for wear in cutting operations have been
done for the interaction of pcBN with steels. Wear through abrasion
is particularly significant in the presence of a harder second phase such as in
AMCs. Figure 5.10 shows severe initial wear of a threaded 01 AISI
oil-hardened steel tool during FSW of Al6061+20 vol.-%Al2O3 AMC.
However, it has been reported that the wear rates decrease considerably

after the initial wear and the smoothed (or self-optimized) tools, similar
to those shown in Fig. 5.10, can continue producing good quality welds.
A high strength material, such as W or pcBN, is chosen to reduce
the plastic deformation of tool. Strength may be further increased through
micro-structural changes such as restricting the grain size in tungsten
through addition of lanthanum or lanthanum oxide. Alloying with Re
increases the yield strength and decreases the ductile to brittle transition
temperature of tungsten. High fracture toughness is important to reduce
the likelihood of sudden brittle failure. Some work has been done to
develop new grades of pcBN with higher fracture toughness and greater
tool life.
Compared with the tool shoulder, the tool pin suffers much more severe
wear and deformation, and the tool failures almost always occur in the pin.
This is expected due to several reasons. First, the tool pin is completely
immersed in the workpiece and, therefore, has to face more resistance to
its motion compared with the tool shoulder, only a small part of which
is inside the workpiece. Second, since most of the heat is generated near
the shoulder/workpiece interface, resistance to the motion of the shoulder
is much smaller than that to the pin. Consequently, a pin profile that
enhances downward flow of the hotter and softer material from the top should
decrease the forces on the pin. Third, the pin has much lower load bearing
capabilities than the shoulder due to the high stresses resulting in the former
from a combination of torsion and bending stresses in its typically slender
shape. One consequence of the above observation is that composite tools
with harder, wear resistant material (e.g. pcBN or WC) for pin and
relatively softer material (e.g. W–Re alloy) for shoulder may be an attractive
option for enhancing tool life and reducing tool costs.

In some cases, special techniques have been used to reduce tool wear.
For example, in lap joints of dissimilar materials, the tool is placed
in the softer material and contact between the tool and the harder material is
avoided to reduce the tool wear. Welding of dissimilar metals in butt joint
configuration by offsetting the tool towards the softer alloy side needs to be
more thoroughly tested. Some of the other strategies to reduce tool wear
are to weld at lower welding speeds, preheat the workpiece to reduce
its mechanical resistance, preheat the tool above the ductile to brittle
transition temperature and use sufficient inert gas cover. However, the
commercial applicability of these techniques remains to be tested.
Figure 5.12: Evolution of To ol Shape
Due to wear in FSW of Al 6061+20 vol.-%Al2O3 metal matrix

composite with 01 AISI oil hardened steel tool at 1000 rev/min and
travel speeds of a 3 mm/s and b 9 mm/s: distances traversed by tool in
metres are indicated in the Fig. 5.12.

5.6 Tool Cost
While the energy cost for the FSW of aluminium alloys is significantly lower
than that for the fusion welding processes, the process is not cost
effective for the FSW of hard alloys. Tools made of pcBN are often
used for the welding of hard materials. However, pcBN is expensive
due to high temperatures and pressures required in its manufacture.
Santella et al. did an approximate cost benefit analysis for FSSW with a
pcBN tool versus resistance spot welding (RSW) of DP 780 steel. The
equipment and utility costs for FSSW were assumed to be 90 and 30%
respectively of the costs in RSW; however, they did not report the dollar
amounts of these costs. They further assumed that a typical RSW tool tip lasts
5000 welds and costs $0.65 per tip. Considering the costs involved with
equipment, utility and the tool, they estimated that in order for the FSSW
to be cost competitive with respect to RSW, each FSSW tool, costing
approximately $100, needs to make 26 000 spot welds. Since the cost of each
pcBN tool was significantly greater than $100 and typical tool life was
between 500 and 1000 welds, they suggested lowering tool costs as an
important need. Feng et al., produced over 100 friction stir spot welds
on dual phase steel (ultimate tensile strength 600 MPa) and martenstic
steel (ultimate tensile strength 1310 MPa) without noticeable
degradation of the pcBN tool. Several FSSW tools have been developed with
Si3N4, TiB2 and pcBN. The costs of Si3N4 and TiB2 tools were less than
25% of the cost of pcBN tools. Machine loads for Si3N4 tools were
approximately 75% of that for pcBN tools and the two tools resulted in
similar joint strengths. Tools of W–Re or W–La alloys are relatively
less expensive than that of pcBN tool but suffer considerably more wear

compared with super- abrasives due to their relatively lower high temperature
strength and hardness.
5.7 Research for Cost Effective and Durable Tools
Cost effective and long life tools are available for the FSW of
aluminium and other soft alloys. They are needed but not currently
available for the commercial application of FSW to high strength materials.
Tool material properties such as strength, fracture toughness, hardness,
thermal conductivity and thermal expansion coefficient affect the weld
quality, tool wear and performance. Reactivity of tool material with oxygen
from the atmosphere and with the workpiece is also an important
consideration. pcBN and W based alloys are important candidate materials
for the FSW of high strength materials. High strength, hardness and high
temperature stability of pcBN allow much smaller wear compared with other
tools. Low fracture toughness and high cost of pcBN are issues that need
attention. W based alloys, although not as hard and wear resistant, are
more affordable options and have been used to weld steels and Ti alloys in a
limited scale. There is also an interest in Si3N4 as a prospective tool material
because it had produced welds comparable with pcBN tools at a much lower
cost. Further developments in FSW tool materials are required to address
the problem of high tool cost with low tool life during welding of
harder alloys.
Heat generation rate and plastic flow in the workpiece are affected by the
shape and size of the tool shoulder and pin. Although the tool design affects
weld properties, defects and the forces on the tool, they are currently
designed empirically by trial and error. Work on the systematic design of
tools using scientific principles is just beginning. Examples of recent studies

include calculation of flow fields for different tool geometries and the
calculation of tool shoulder dimensions based on the tool’s grip of the
plasticised material. The pin cross-sectional geometry and surface features
such as threads influence the heat generation rates, axial forces on the tool
and material flow. Tool wear, deformation and failure are also much more
prominent in the tool pin compared with the tool shoulder. The axial,
longitudinal and lateral forces on the tool can be calculated as functions of
process parameters, or evaluated from the measured data. Estimation of the
load bearing ability of the tool pin is needed considering the maximum
stresses in the tool pin due to combined effects of bending and torsion. There
is a need for concerted research efforts towards development of cost
effective durable tools for commercial application of FSW to hard
engineering alloys.

6.
Friction Stir Welding
Processes on Aluminium Alloys
It is known fact that Aluminium alloys cannot be welded by gas welding

techniques due to poor weldability. Welding of Aluminium alloy by Arc and
Resistance welding require special techniques and hence costly. The most
suitable method for welding of Aluminium alloy is Friction Stir Welding
Process. Friction stir processing (FSP) can dramatically reduce grain size
conferring excellent superplastic behaviour in certain aluminium alloys.
Friction Stir Process of thick plate followed by rolling to sheet could
potentially be used as a method to improve performance of established
superplastic alloys or to induce superplastic behaviour in alloys not
normally associated with this phenomenon. An experimental test has been
carried out on commercial alloy and its results are evaluated as under:
6.1 Experimental Test Results of Commercial Alloy AA6082 T6
6.1.1 Mechanical properties of commercial Aluminium alloy AA6082 T6

For experimental purposes following parameters have been considered:
i) Alloy is AA6082 T6, AlSi1MgMn
ii) Yield Strength (R o,2) is 260 MPa
iii) Ultimate Tensile Strength (Rm) is 310 MPa
iv) Hardness (HV) is 95 and v) Elongation is 9% (A5)

6.1.2 Welding Parameters
The welding parameters are considered is shown in following Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Welding Parameters

Tool Modified Tri-flute MXTM
Forward movement 2.5 mm/rev
(Travel speed/tool rpm)
Down force Sufficient
Preparation Degreasing with Alcohol
Welding Speeds 1.0 m/min, 3.0 m/min and
6.0 m/min
6.1.3 Test Results

The summary of test results is listed in the following Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Summary of the test results on 5 mm AA6082 T6

Welding Rp0.2[MPa] Dev. Rm Dev. Bend test A25 Dev.
Speed [MPa] [0*]
1 m/min 155.9 0.56 256.2 0.04 180 10.76 2.72

3 m/min 171.1 1.71 268.5 0.24 180 11.46 0.75
6 m/min 173.8 1.66 268.7 1.29 180 9.20 0.46
From the above table it is observed that yield strength as well as ultimate
tensile strength is higher at the welding speed of 6m/min as compared to the
welding speed of 1m/min.

Further Case Studies on mechanical properties of some of commercial
aluminium alloys have been placed for better understanding the Friction Stir
Welding process and its advantages over other welding processes. For this
purpose two case studies are placed here:
i) An extruded Al-Mg-Zr alloy was Friction Stir Processed prior to rolling

to sheet. The development of microstructure and superplastic behaviour
was characterised using a combination of light, scanning, orientation
imaging, and transmission microscopy, coupled with hot uniaxial
tensile testing. FSP transformed the coarse, highly textured extruded,
structure into a very fine (approximately 600nm) randomly orientated,
equiaxed material. The structure of the material after rolling and
thermal treatment was complex and in certain cases significant grain
coarsening resulted.
ii) The effect of Friction Stir Welding process parameters on the
mechanical properties of the AA 2014-T6 alloy joints produced by
friction stir welding have been discussed in this study. Effects of tool
design, tool rotation speed and tool travels speed on mechanical
properties have been analysed using Taguchi orthogonal array design of
experiments technique. There are three different tool rotation speeds
(1000, 1400 and 2000 rpm) and three different tool traverse speeds (14,
20, 28 mm/min). For each combination of tool rotation speeds and tool
traverse speeds three different types of tool pin profiles (Threaded
cylindrical pin, Stepped pin and Threaded cone pin) have been used.
The study indicates that Tool design is the main process parameter that
has the highest statistical influence on mechanical properties. However,
other parameters such as Tool rotation speed and Tool travel speed has
also significant effect on mechanical properties.

6.2 Case Study-I
3
The development microstructure of an Al-4Mg-1Zr alloy with enhanced
superplastic properties for automotive applications
The work towards the development of an Al-4Mg-1Zr alloy with enhanced

superplastic properties for automotive applications has been carried out in the
Imperial College. The alloy is produced with a simple process (particulate
casting-hot extrusion-cold rolling) and the resulting sheet exhibits
elongations >600% at a strain rate of 10-2s-1. However, recognising that
sheet derived from an extrusion by rolling is likely to be narrower than that
required for the forming of a commercial car panel, alternative routes are
being investigated. Recently, it was demonstrated that if the extruded Al-
4Mg-1Zr alloy was friction stir processed, excellent superplastic
performance resulted with ductilities up to 1280% and exhibited superior
performance than sheet rolled from the same extrusion. Based on these
findings, the possibility of employing friction stir welding (FSW) has been
considered for the joining of two or more blanks, which would subsequently
be cold rolled to produce wider sheet required by the industry. To assess the
potential of this route and the superplastic properties of the end product, Al-
4Mg-0.75Zr and Al-5Mg-1Zr alloys (part of the same development
programme with equivalent SPF properties) were friction stir welded
and subsequently rolled. As no previous records of a rolled FSW are
available, the microstructural changes introduced by rolling and the effect
the additional deformation has on the superplastic properties are reported
in this paper.
3
Source: Stavros Katsas et al., TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), 2005
6.2.1 Experimental
The processing parameters of the examined material are summarised in Table

6.3.
Table 6.3: Processing Parameters and Rolling Schedule of the as Extruded

Al-4Mg-0.75Zr and Al-5Mg-1Zr.
Alloy Extrusion Extrusion Heat- Rolling
Temp(oC Size and treatment (Reduction)
) Ratio
Al-4Mg- 550 20mm x part of the Cold (82%)

0.75Zr 10mm alloy for
(5:1) 100 hrs at
360°C
before
rolling
Al-5Mg- 525 40mm x None Partially hot rolled
1Zr 18mm at 500°C to meet
(10:1) welding jig
requirements. Hot
and cold rolled
after welding
(85%)
The microstructure in both the FSW and parent metal was characterised prior
to and post rolling using light, scanning, orientation mapping (EBSD) and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The superplastic performance was
assessed by hot uniaxial tensile testing using conditions determined in
previous work.
6.2.2 As-Extruded Al-4Mg-0.75Zr and Al-5Mg-1Zr Material
Before investigating the friction stir welded microstructure, an

introduction to the as- extruded parent metal alloys is necessary. Using a
commercial particulate casting process, developed by the Aluminium Powder
Company (ALPOCO) and the high solidification rates it employs (102-103
oC/s-1), Zr is largely retained in supersaturated solid solution. The
resultant particles are consolidated using hot extrusion before rolling to sheet.
During earlier phases of this development it had been demonstrated that when
the Zr content was <1%, superplastic performance was improved by heat
treating the extrusion for 100 hours at 360°C before cold rolling. With Zr
contents 1%, provided the extrusion temperature was >500°C, heat treatment
did not improve superplastic performance. Thus, the heat treatment schedule
of 100 hours at 360°C was applied to part of the Al-4Mg-0.75%Zr material
but not the Al-5Mg-1%Zr material.
Figure 6.1: (a) Bright field TEM micrograph of the as extruded Al-4Mg-0.75Zr (section
parallel to the extrusion direction); (b) EBSD map of the as extruded Al-4Mg-0.75Zr (all
sections) with {111} pole Figure; (c) Bright field micrograph of the Al3Zr fan-shaped
arrangements in the extruded Al-4Mg- .75Zr; and (d) Bright field micrograph, showing
Al3Zr coarsening and needle-shaped precipitates at grain boundaries after 100hrs at
360oC.

Extruding at 550°C resulted in a partially recrystallised state; fine
submicron grains and coarser (2-3µm) recrystallised grains coexist with
elongated ones (Figs.6.1a and 6.1b). The average grain size, calculated using
the linear intercept method, was approximately 2µm. Comparing the process
with conventionally cast Zr containing aluminium alloys where the
precipitation of Zr from solid solution is achieved with thermal treatments,
precipitation in this alloy was shown to take place during extrusion.
In the examined samples, two forms of precipitation were observed; (i) rod
semi-coherent fan arrangements of Al3Zr particles, triggered by enhanced
grain boundary migration due to a combination of heat and strain during
extrusion (Fig.6.1c); and (ii) spherical-coherent (5-50nm) particles, as a result
of the elevated extrusion temperature only.
Extensive TEM observations showed the former to be the predominant
precipitation morphology. The coarser particles (>10nm) of the latter
precipitation morphology were generally observed at grain and subgrain
boundaries.
In Figs. 6.1a and 6.1b, apart from the fine submicron grains, coarser grains
were also observed. A TEM study focused on such areas reveals the
presence of larger Al3Zr particles at the expense of the fine-spherical.
Examination of the heat treated microstructure (100hrs at 360°C), illustrated
that further precipitation and dispersion had taken place. Transformation from
(coherent) cubic to (incoherent) tetragonal Al3Zr also occurred, as needle-
shaped precipitates were observed at grain boundaries (Fig. 6.1d).
6.2.3 Effect of Friction Stir Welding
After extrusion two blanks from each alloy were friction stir welded
producing a sample of approximately 40mm width x 10mm thick. The

welding process introduces large amounts of deformation and heat due to
friction between the tool and the workpiece. The resultant microstructure is
shown in Fig. 6.2 and it is clear that dynamic recrystallisation has occurred.
Such observations have been widely reported in the literature for several
conventional aluminium alloys during FSW.
In Fig.6.2a, a grain size of approx. ~1µm is observed coupled with a high
dislocation density. Due to the deformation during friction stirring, the fan
arrangements of Al3Zr particles were broken up into smaller constituents.
One must be careful, however, because as the thermal treatment study
showed (Fig. 6.1d), raising the temperature will unavoidably coarsen and
transform some of the existing Al3Zr to tetragonal. Furthermore, while
examining the as- extruded microstructure with TEM, there was also evidence
that FSW had redistributed the precipitates and contributed towards a more
uniform Al3Zr dispersion (Fig. 6.2b).
Figure 6.2: (a) Low and (b) Higher magnification bright field micrograph of the as
extruded and FSW’ed Al-4Mg-0.75Zr, showing also the Al3Zr distribution.
When the welded material was subjected to the Zr precipitation thermal

treatment that improves the SPF ductility of the parent metal, significant
Al3Zr coarsening occurred, with particles in the range of 300nm being

observed. Taking into account the higher dislocation density seen in the weld
even after the thermal treatment, it is suggested that the more uniform Al3Zr
distribution effectively blocks dislocation movement. However, the particle
coarsening also implies that a high dislocation density in the alloy will offer
paths for the slow diffusing Zr during the thermal treatment.
6.2.4 Superplastic Performance after Rolling
Detailed descriptions of the superplastic capability of the Al-4Mg-1Zr

alloy in both as extruded and rolled variants has been described elsewhere. A
brief reference to these earlier results is, nevertheless, necessary for the
explanation of the performance of the present material after rolling. Ma et al.
reported that the parent metal (Al-4Mg-1Zr) exhibited an optimum SPF
ductility of 1015% at 580oC and at a strain rate of 10-2s-1. After FSW a
ductility of 1280% at higher strain rate (10-1s-1) and lower temperature
(525oC) was achieved. This difference in the optimum conditions probably
derives from the minimum energy requirement (either as temperature or as
dislocations) to initiate dynamic recrystallisation that will refine the grain
size. Referring to Figs. 6.1a and 6.1b, it can be seen that after hot extruding,
the cast structure partially recrystallised and so the stored energy in the form
of dislocations is limited compared to the weld. Therefore to achieve the
parent metal optimum SPF conditions a higher heat input will be required to
initiate dynamic recrystallisation, as opposed to the weld region where the
dislocation density is higher and an equiaxed structure already exists.
Similarly, the rolled Al-4Mg-1Zr has optimum ductility (620%) at
an even lower temperature (500oC) than the friction stir processed
material. In Fig.6.3a, the SPF ductilities of the Al-4Mg-0.75Zr and the Al-
5Mg-1Zr alloys are displayed for both parent and weld metal after rolling.

While, material rolled from the parent metal exhibited superplastic behaviour,
none of the material rolled from the weld region was superplastic. In Fig.
6.3b, the interface ductility for the cold rolled Al-4Mg-0.75Zr is examined,
showing the SPF deterioration during the transition from the parent metal to
the weld.
Figure 6 .3:(a) Superplastic ductility tests performed at the optimum SPF conditions
(500oC-10-2s-1 ) for parent metal and FSW from cold rolled Al-4Mg-0.75Zr and cold
and hot rolled Al-5Mg-1Zr, ( b) Comparison of the superplastic performance in
transition from the parent metal to the FSW for the cold rolled Al-4Mg-0.75Zr.
It is also interesting to note that the hot rolled Al-5Mg-1Zr weld exhibits
better ductility than the cold rolled. According to the above energy
requirement assumptions, it is probable that the hot rolled material would
exhibit better SPF properties under different conditions but lack of material
did not allow further testing. It should be noted that direct comparison
between the ductilities quoted from Ma et al., and Fig. 6.3 is not possible as
these were achieved with significantly different geometry specimens.

6.2.5 Microstructural Characterization after Rolling
To explain the results of Fig. 6.3, orientation mapping and TEM as well as x-
ray diffraction analysis were performed. Samples from rolled parent metal
and weld for all three conditions described in Fig. 6.3a were examined after
simulating the thermal cycle of the SPF test (20 minutes at 500oC + water
quenching).
Examination of the microstructure of the Al-4Mg-0.75Zr alloy after rolling
and annealing at the forming temperature, revealed significant grain growth in
the weld area (elongation 28%) while in the parent metal the
microstructure remained stable (elongation 400%) as seen in Fig. 6.3a.
Figure 6.4: a) Bright field micrograph and b) corresponding EBSD map with {111} pole
figure of the parent metal (Al-4Mg-0.75Zr) after rolling and annealing for 15min at
500oC, c) Bright field micrograph of the interface of the parent metal and the weld and d)
Bright field micrograph and e) corresponding EBSD map with {111} pole figure of the
weld (Al-4Mg-0.75Zr) after rolling and annealing for 15min at 500oC.

In the parent metal regime, the microstructure was similar, in terms of
grain size, to that seen in the friction stir welded material (Figs. 6.2a and
6.4a). The fan-shaped arrangements of Al3Zr are dispersed during rolling into
smaller arrangements. Additionally, despite the high temperature
treatment, a high dislocation density and well defined subgrains could
be observed as shown in Fig. 6.4(a). This can be attributed to the presence of
the cubic Al3Zr particles, which have managed to pin the dislocations and
hinder any changes. Selected area diffraction patterns (SADPs) showed that
the Al3Zr succeeded in the task, even though coarse tetragonal particles
were also present, which could result in particle stimulated nucleation
(PSN). The EBSD map and the corresponding {111} pole Fig. 6.4b shows
that after annealing the parent metal had not fully recrystallised and
maintained the rolled texture, thus consisting of elongated grains with a
cellular substructure.
In Fig. 6.4c, a bright field micrograph taken from the interface of the
parent metal and the weld revealed the significant difference in grain size.
In FSW region (Figs. 6.4d and 6.4e), grain growth has consumed the
dislocations. It seems that a possible explanation for the microstructural
differences between parent metal and weld is that the combination of high
temperature and strain developed during FSW (of the as extruded
material) provide an increased susceptibility to the tetragonal transformation.
A factor contributing towards this may also be that the high dislocation
density offers coarsening paths for the slow diffusing Zr to coalesce into
larger particles during forming.
To quantify the effect of FSW and subsequent rolling on the Al3Zr
morphology, particle analysis was performed by measuring their diameter
from TEM micrographs and also by using x-ray diffraction. The average
particle size derived by measuring the precipitates (Fig. 6.5b) was 12nm and

14nm for the as-extruded parent metal and weld respectively. After cold
rolling and annealing at the forming temperature, this pattern was repeated,
albeit the particle sizes increased to 22nm in the parent metal and 24nm in the
weld. Fig. 6.5a illustrates that subsequent rolling and annealing shifts the
maximum peak in larger particle sizes. Dark field TEM was employed to
determine the transition range to tetragonal phase. This was found to be close
to 100nm. Despite the peak shifting to larger sizes (Fig.6.5a), tetragonal
particles were only found post rolling. The results from the two methods
employed are compared in Fig.6.5b. Despite the differences between the
two, an increasing trend was recorded from the parent metal to the weld
and from the extruded to the rolled-annealed material and in both cases the
particle size doubled after rolling and annealing.
Grain growth phenomena, like those seen in the weld nugget after rolling,
have also been reported for a 7010 aluminium friction stir welded alloy.
There, the available second- phase particles, including the Al3Zr coming from
the minor zirconium additions, were not sufficient to pin the structure during
subsequent solution treatment. The explanation for the growth in the weld
region of the Al-Mg-Zr alloys, despite the high zirconium content, is probably
similar and is a combination of stored energy and Al3Zr coarsening.
Material from the weld region from both alloys subjected to the SPF
thermal cycle prior to rolling exhibited a very fine and stable submicron
grain structure. After rolling, however, and applying the simulation of the
SPF thermal cycle, the grain size increased from approx. ~1µm to 30µm,
obviously rolling will increase the dislocation density and the grain
boundary area. According to Ma et al the difference in the ductility of the as
extruded parent metal and friction stir processed region can be attributed to
the higher percentage of high angle grain boundaries in the FSP
microstructure.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.5: a) Distribution and average size of cubic Al3Zr measured using quantitative
TEM in the Al-4Mg-0.75Zr alloy and b) Comparison of average cubic Al3Zr as calculated
from the two methods (Quantitative TEM – Fig.5a and XRD analysis) in the Al-4Mg-
0.75Zr alloy.
Fig. 6.1b supports this claim but it also shows significant recrystallisation has
occurred in the extrusion. When this material was rolled, the resulting
microstructure consisted of elongated grains and a cellular substructure denser

than that in the extrusion. It is assumed that the combination of high
temperature and strain during superplastic forming in the parent metal
triggers dynamic recrystallisation giving an equiaxed grain structure and good
superplastic properties, nevertheless lower than the as extruded and
friction stir processed region. The implication is that an equiaxed
microstructure, even strain free, will give superior SPF performance
compared with an equiaxed microstructure produced via dynamic
recrystallisation during SPForming. In the latter case low angle grain
boundaries which will not participate in grain boundary sliding (GBS) will
unavoidably be present. Based on this assumption the lower ductility in the as
rolled material might be explained.
The friction stir welded material, prior to rolling, possessed a fine,
equiaxed, high angle grain boundary microstructure. It should be noted that
the FSW grain structure, resulting from dynamic recrystallisation, has a
higher dislocation density than the parent metal (Figs.6.1 and 6.2). After
rolling, the grains will also be elongated but smaller than that of the parent
metal. Taking into account that the dislocation density in the weld area
is greater (FSW+cold rolling) and the grain size is smaller, the subgrain size
should also be smaller. Therefore the superplastic ductility after dynamic
recrystallisation occurs should be improved.
The results of Fig. 6.3 clearly show the opposite. The above hypothesis
would probably apply, had no particle coarsening taken place. Even though
FSW does not result in significant particle coarsening, it appears that the
higher dislocation density has a significant influence on the performance.
After coarsening during annealing at the forming temperature (Fig.6.3), the
Zener pinning capability is reduced and grain coarsening resulted.

Figure 6.6: a) Bright field TEM micrograph of the Al-4Mg-0.75Zr parent metal after cold
rolling and annealing, b) Dark field micrograph of the Al-4Mg-0.75Zr Weld after cold
rolling and annealing, c) Bright field micrograph of the Al-5Mg-1Zr parent metal after hot
rolling at 500oC and annealing and d) Bright field micrograph of the Al-5Mg-1Zr weld
after hot rolling at 500oC and annealing.
In the light of the somewhat surprising obtained after cold rolling the FSW
material, limited tests were performed on hot rolled Al-5Mg-1Zr. In Figs. 6.6a
and 6.6c, grains and their corresponding SADPs are shown from the parent
metal of cold rolled Al-4Mg-0.75Zr and hot rolled Al-5Mg-1Zr. In both
alloys a cellular substructure was preserved after annealing by the fine Al3Zr
even though a small number of tetragonal particles were present. Figs 6.6b
and 6.6d demonstrate that passing from parent metal to weld, the volume
fraction of tetragonal particles increased. The main difference between the
cold rolled Al-4Mg-0.75Zr weld and the hot rolled Al-5Mg-1Zr weld was that
in the former all the grains have grown with a resulting average size of
~30µm, while in the latter the majority of the microstructure was fine apart

from pockets of individual coarse grains (15-20µm) (Fig. 6.6d). The limited
grain growth in the Al-5Mg-1Zr hot rolled at 500oC was probably a
consequence of the lower dislocation density generated by the hot rolling so
that only few grains coarsened. In terms of superplastic ductility, this
translated into an increase from the 80% of the cold rolled to 140% in the hot
rolled.
6.2.6 Superplastic Performance of Friction Stir Welded Material
This chapter describes preliminary investigation of the influence of rolling on

the superplastic performance of friction stir welded material. The
explanations proposed are therefore based on limited data and are tentative.
Nevertheless, the following tentative conclusions are drawn:
• Al-Mg-Zr alloys can exhibit very good superplastic behaviour in the as
extruded condition even with relatively modest extrusion ratios.
• The as-extruded microstructure contained a significant proportion of
recrystallised grains.
• As expected, the microstructure of the friction stir welded region
comprised of dynamically recrystallised equiaxed fine grains.
• In contrast with the extruded parent metal, cold rolling of the friction
stir weld resulted in total loss of the superplastic capability.
• Simulation of the SPF thermal cycle on cold rolled welded material
resulted in major coarsening of the Al3Zr particles but little change in
the cold rolled parent metal.
• Simulation of the SPF thermal cycle on cold rolled welded material
resulted in major grain growth but had very little effect on the cold
rolled grain structure of the parent metal.

• Hot rolling of the welded material greatly reduced grain coarsening
when subjected to the simulated SPF thermal cycle and resulted in
significantly improved ductility on hot tensile testing.
• Hot rolling of the parent metal resulted in greatly reduced ductility on
hot tensile testing compared with the cold rolled parent metal.
• It is suggested that the observed coarsening is the result of a higher
dislocation density in the weld compared with that in the parent metal.
This implies that there is an upper limit to the energy/dislocation
density above which the Al3Zr size and distribution cannot effectively
stabilise the microstructure at SPF temperatures.
6.3 Case Study-II

4
Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Welded Aluminium AA2014-T6
Alloy
The Aluminium AA 2014 Alloy is most widely used in heavy-duty forgings,

plate, extrusions for aircraft fittings, wheels, major structural components,
space booster tankage, truck frame and suspension components. These
applications demands, high strength and hardness as well as good elevated
temperatures properties. Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is an emerging solid
state joining process in which the material is welded without melting of
faying surfaces as mentioned by Thomas W.M., et al. Friction Stir welding is
a continuous, hot shear, autogenous process involving non-consumable
rotating tool of harder material than the work material. Defect free welds with
good mechanical properties can be made in a variety of Aluminium alloys,
including alloys which are not weldable by fusion welding process. Here,
phase transformations which occur during cooling of the weld are of solid
4
Source: A. S. Vagh et al., IJESET, 2012, Volume 2, Issue 1, pp: 51-58.
state nature. Due to the absence of melting of the metal, the Friction Stir
Welding (FSW) process is observed to offer several advantages over fusion
welding. Earlier Threadgill identified four different micro structural zones
observed in a FSW weld such as: (i) Base Metal (BM) (ii) Heat Affected
Zone (HAZ) (iii) Thermo mechanically Affected Zone (TMAZ) and (iv)
Nugget Zone (NZ).
Hakan Aydın et al., have found as welded joint yield strength and tensile
strength of Friction Stir Welded 2024-T4 Alluminum alloy 279 MPa and 389
MPa respectively against 351 MPa and 492 MPa that of unwelded metal.
However, yield and tensile strength of the 2024-T6 (190 oC – 10 h) joint are
found 24% and 11% greater, respectively, than those of the as-welded joint.
Elangovan K. et al., made experiments to know influence of tool pin profile
and welding speed on the formation of friction stir processing (FSP) zone in
AA2219.
The study revealed that out of Straight cylindrical, taper cylindrical,
threaded cylindrical, square, triangular tool pin profile; square tool pin profile
gives the highest tensile strength and yield strength value in FSP zone at 0.76
mm/s welding speed. Bussu G., et al., have illustrated transverse tensile
strength of the welded joint as a function of sheet thickness and FSW process
parameters. For 4 mm thick 2024-T3 Al sheet, the tensile strength ranges has
been obtained in between 408 to 432 MPa against the parent-metal strength of
497 MPa. T. Hashimoto et al., evaluated tensile properties of friction stir
welded 2024-T6 Al alloy and illustrated a post-friction stir weld tensile
strength of 440 MPa. N. Rajamanickam et al., observed the variation of
tensile properties of AA 2014 at various tool traverse speeds and tool
rotational speeds. From the experimental results, it was found that the
ultimate tensile strength increases with increase in weld speed in the test
range. It was also observed that decreasing the parameter of tool rotation

speed increases the tensile strength. M. Strangwood et al. investigated the
mechanical properties of friction stir welded 0.25 inch thick 2014-T6 plate.
Welding was performed at 3.14-4.62 in/min. No other weld parameters or
tooling information were disclosed, and the authors did not indicate the
welding direction was or publish a joint profile. Alloy microstructures were
investigated, using TEM. Madhusudhan G., et al., observed the influence of
tool rotation speed and tool pin profile on defect formation/elimination in AA
2014-T6 weld. Two different types of pin profiles- threaded and threadless
have been used during FSW. Micro structural characterization of Weldments
produced with process parameters has been discussed.
Although these studies have made attempts to assess effects of FSW
process parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties of 2xxx
group wrought Al alloys, there is not any systematic study which directly
compares effect of tool pin profile on mechanical properties of 2014-T6 Al
alloy welds. Taguchi techniques have been widely applied for optimization in
material processing. Recently it has emerged as a proven technique. Hence in
this investigation effect of tool design, tool rotation speed and tool travel
speed on tensile strength and hardness of the friction stir welded AA 2014-T6
joint have been analysed with Taguchi’s robust design concept (L9
orthogonal array). The study indicates that Tool design is the main process
parameter that has the highest statistical influence on mechanical properties.
However, other parameters such as Tool rotation speed and Tool travel speed
has also significant effect on mechanical properties.
6.3.1 Experimental Work
Friction Stir Welding was carried out on AA 2014-T6 plates having

dimensions 180 mm (l) × 90 mm (w) × 5mm (h) in butt joint configuration.

The chemical composition and mechanical properties of base metal are
tabulated in Table 6.4 and 6.5 respectively. For the present work EN-8(BS)
hot worked tool steel has been chosen as tool material. EN-8 is a medium
carbon steel with good tensile strength and wear resistance. Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS) of EN-8 tool steel is 650 N/mm2 [20]. The Chemical
composition of the tool material EN-8 (BS) is given in Table 6.6.
The Design of three newly developed tools which were used in the present
work is illustrated in Fig. 6.7. It should be noted that, in each design shape
and size is same and having shoulder under surface is diamond knurled
concave surface. The shoulder diameter is 25 mm. The shoulder area in
contact with work piece surface is same in all three cases. However, the main
important design parameter which differentiates among these tools is the
shape of the pin.

Three different shapes of the pin which were used include (a) threaded
cylindrical pin (Tool design I), (b) stepped pin (Tool design II) and (c)
threaded cone pin (Tool design III) as shown in Fig. 6.7. It should be noted
that length of the pin is same in each case while surface area of the pin in
contact with abutting base metal plates are different and depends upon pin
shape. For welding purpose BATLIBOI make BVF-5 Vertical Milling
machine was used. Trial runs were conducted prior to conducting actual
experiments. A pilot hole of 8 mm diameter was purposefully machined at the
abutting surface. During the welding Tool tilt angle was kept constant at 20.
FSW welding was carried out with different tool design, tool rotational speed
and tool travel speed using taguchi orthogonal array Design of experiments
technique.
Other process parameters like downward force and heat sink etc. were kept
constant. Weldments prepared by Friction Stir Welding processes were
visually inspected for their soundness.
Figure 6.7: Tool Design I, II, III and drawing of FSW tools

For the present study Taguchi orthogonal array design of experiment with
three factors at three levels was used. Following three variables have been
chosen as independent variables: Tool design, Tool rotation speed and Tool
travel speed. All the factors and their levels are tabulated in Table 6.7.
For obtaining tensile test specimen Friction stir welded plates were sliced
(Fig. 6.8) in traverse direction using a power hacksaw. Tensile test specimens
were prepared as per ASTM E8M-04 using CNC Milling machine (Figs. 6.9
and 6.10). Two tensile specimens were prepared for each combination of
process parameters. Then average values of these two tests have been
reported. Tensile tests have been carried out on 400 kN, electro-mechanical
controlled Universal Testing Machine. The specimen is loaded at the rate of
1.5 kN/min as per ASTM specifications.

6.3.2 Results and Discussion
Design of experiments methodology used is standard taguchi L9 orthogonal

array. Results of Transverse Tensile tests, nugget hardness and % elongation
are tabulated in Table 6.8. It can be seen that Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
values are ranging from 78 MPa to 260 MPa. Against nominal UTS of base
metal 483 MPa, with maximum joint efficiency 54 %. It can be concluded
that there is drastic reduction in ductility of the material due to welding, as
maximum percentage elongation is noted 4.76 % against nominal value of 13
%. Almost all tensile test specimens have been fractured from nugget zone
indicating that weld nugget is the weakest area.

It can be noted that Mean Tensile Strength value for Tool design I
(with cylindrical probe) is the lowest (99.41MPa) among three. On the
other hand for Tool design II (with stepped probe) the same is the Highest
(233.87MPa). In case of Tool design III, mean Tensile strength values are
intermediate between Tool design I and II. The highest Tensile Strength
for Tool design II can be obtained to stepped probe which increases the
volume of material deformation. Because of changing surface area of the
tool (Design-I > Design-III > Design-II) there is a significant difference
in the heat input through friction and material deformation.
The main effect plot for Tensile Strength (Fig.6.11) with respect to
tool rotation speed is very interesting to note. There is an inverse
proportionality between the Tensile Strength and Tool rotation speed.

Increasing the Tool rotation speed resulted into reduced the Tensile Strength.
There is very minor variation is obtained in Tensile Strength with increasing
tool travel speed from 14 mm/min to 28 mm/min. Main effect plots for
percentage elongation (Fig.6.11) indicates that with increment in tool
rotation speed there is drastic decrement in percentage elongation. However
slight decrement can be seen for increased tool traverse speed. It also
indicates decreasing ductility. However obtained percentage elongation is
very less in comparison to percentage elongation of base metal. The highest
percentage elongation is observed with tool rotation speed of 1000 rpm and
Tool design-II i.e. stepped probe.
Figure 6.11: Main effect plots for tensile strength and % elongation
A main effect plot for nugget hardness is shown in Fig. 6.12. Notable
variation in BHN hardness can be seen with change in tool design. Mean
BHN value for Tool design I (with cylindrical probe) is the highest (162.62
BHN) among three. On the other hand for Tool design II (with stepped

probe) the same is the lowest (89.90 BHN). This can be explained on the
basis of higher surface area of tool in contact with deeper areas of weld
nugget in case of Tool design I in comparison to Tool design II
resulting into higher heat input and cooling rate. On the other side, with Tool
design II there is shallow temperature gradient from crown to root due to
steps on the probe. In case of Tool design III, mean BHN values are
intermediate between Tool Design I and II.
Figure 6.12: Main effect plot for Nugget hardness
The main effect plot for BHN with respect to tool rotation speed is very
interesting to note. There is not significant variation in BHN with change in
tool rotation speed from level 1 (113.70 BHN, 1000 rpm) to level 2 (107.50
BHN, 1400 rpm). However, at level 3 (2000 rpm) there is drastic increment of
more than 10% (133.99 BHN). The difference in nugget hardness between
the fast and slow welds can be attributed to higher peak temperature in

the fast weld, resulting in solution heat treatment of the fast weld nugget
and over-aging of the slow weld nugget; additionally, the fast weld nugget
will have experienced a higher cooling rate than the slow weld nugget.

ANOVA results are tabulated in Tables 6.9 to 6.11. It is observed that
the Tool design (P = 74.01%) and Tool rotation speed (P = 19.84%) and
Tool travel speed (P = 6.15%) have statistical significant effect on the tensile
strength obtained. Similarly it can be noted that the Tool design (P = 44.82%)
and Tool rotation speed (P = 54.83%) have statistically significant effects
on the percentage of elongation obtained. The Tool travel speed does not
present percent of statistical significance of contribution on both tensile
strength and percentage elongation. There is very minor variation in BHN
with change in tool travel speed from 14 mm/min to 28 mm/min. From Table
6.10, it can be concluded that tool design is the most affecting (86.75 %)
parameter to hardness of welded joints. The next to it is tool rotation speed
having 10.28 % contribution and Tool travel speed having only 2.97 %
contribution.
Figure 6.13: Brinell Hardness Number at Different Location in Transverse

Direction

It can be seen from plotted hardness variation (BHN) across
transverse direction of welded joint in Fig. 6.13 that Hardness values
have been distributed in typical ‘W’ shape curve in the transverse
direction for all 9 runs. In this way, Hardness results are in accordance
to an Al alloy welded by Friction Stir Welding process. Range of the BHN
value is from 72 BHN to 186 BHN in the transverse direction for Nugget
Zone, HAZ, TMAZ and Base metal, while nominal hardness value for
the base metal is 101 BHN. In each case, there is hardness peak at the weld
centerline. According to prevalent techniques of determining Nugget Zone
described in the literature it can be concluded that nugget zone in each
case is nearly up to 10 mm on both side from weld centerline as there is
observed a local minima. Similarly, Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and
Thermo Mechanically Affected Zone (TMAZ) is from 10 mm to 25
mm on both side while rest is the parent metal. In general, BHN values
at a distance of 10 mm on advancing side (-10 mm on plots) are lower than
those on retreating sides for all runs.
6.3.3 Concluding Remarks
Friction stir welding has been carried out successfully on 2014-T6

aluminium alloy. Taguchi orthogonal DOE technique is used to analyse
effect of major process parameters used to analyse effect of major process
parameters used to analyse effect of major process parameters-Tool rotation
speed, Tool Traverse Speed and Tool Pin Profile on mechanical properties of
weldments. The joint efficiency of the AA 2014- T6 aluminium alloy
joints are obtained up to 55%. The percentage elongations of all the
joints are far lower than those of the base materials. The highest
strength is obtained at Tool Design-II 1400 rpm Tool rotation speed and 20
mm/min Tool travel speed. Highest elongation is obtained at Tool Design-II,

1000 rpm Tool rotation speed and 20 mm/min Tool travel speed. From the
ANOVA, it can be concluded that the Tool Design is the main input
parameter that has the highest statistical influence on Tensile strength
(74.01%) and nugget hardness (86.74%). It is also found that, there is very
minor variation in the mechanical properties by changing the Tool travel
speed.

7.
Applications of FSW in Various
Industries
Because of the potential of advantages over arc welding in some applications

associated with this processes, FSW has received interest from many areas of
industry working with aluminum. The advantages include the ability to
produce long lengths of welds in aluminum without any melting of the base
material. This provides important metallurgical advantages when compared
to conventional arc welding. Melting of the base material does not occur with
FSW and this eliminates the possibility of solidification cracking which is
often a problem when arc welding some aluminum alloys. Other advantages
may include: low distortion associated with lower heating during the welding
process; elimination of porosity problems that are challenging when arc
welding aluminum; minimum edge preparation, as butt joints are typically
performed with a square-butt preparation; and, the absence of welding
consumables such as shielding gas or filler material.
The friction stir welding process is being used and/or evaluated for use
within the within various industry sectors such as: shipbuilding, aerospace,
military vehicle, aircraft, automotive, railway rolling stock industries and
most likely others.

7.1 Ship Building and Marine Industries
The shipbuilding and marine industries are two of the first industry sectors
that have adopted the process for commercial applications as shown in
Fig. 7.1. The process is suitable for the following applications:
Panels for decks, sides, bulkheads and floors

Aluminum extrusions
Hulls and superstructures
Helicopter landing platforms
Marine and transport structures
(a)

(b)
Figure 7.1: (a) FSW Application in Ships and (b) Over 12 miles of FSW used to Fabricate
the Littoral Combat Ship and Commissioned in September of 2006.
7.2 Space Shuttle
Friction Stir Welding is the most recent upgrade to the Space Shuttle‘s
gigantic External Tank, the largest element of the Space Shuttle and the only
element not reusable. The new welding technique being marketed to industry
utilizes frictional heating combined with forging pressure to produce high-
strength bonds virtually free of defects. In 1993, NASA challenged Lockheed
Martin Laboratories in Baltimore, Md., to develop a high strength, low-
density, lighter-weight replacement for aluminum alloy Al 2219 used on the
original Space Shuttle External Tank. Lockheed Martin, Reynolds Aluminum
and the labs at Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala., were

successful in developing a new alloy known as Aluminum Lithium Al-Li
2195, which reduced the weight of the External Tank by 7,500 pounds
(3,402 kilograms). Today, the External Tank project uses the new alloy to
build the Shuttle‘s Super Lightweight Tanks (see Fig. 7.2).
Figure 7.2: FSW Application in Space Shuttle NASA

The lithium in the new lighter-weight material—aluminum lithium alloy Al-
Li 2195-made the initial welds of the External Tank far more complex. The
repair welds were difficult to make and the joint strength of the External Tank
had much lower mechanical properties. This drove up production cost on the
tank. In an effort to mitigate the increased production cost and regain the
mechanical properties of the earlier Al 2219 External Tank the project began
researching alternative welding techniques. Because Friction Stir Welding
produces stronger welds-that are easier to make-the External Tank Project
Managers chose to use the process on its Super Light Weight Tank, which is
made from Al-Li 2195. The Friction Stir Welding process produces a joint
stronger than the fusion arc welded joint, obtained in the earlier Light Weight
Tank program.
One of the early drawbacks to the friction stir process was the fixed pin,
because it limited welding to materials with a constant thickness. The
Shuttle’s External Tank project developed a through-spindle retractable pin
tool that can retract or expand its pin tip within the material. This allows for
changes in thickness such as on the tank’s longitudinal barrel.
The viability of the technology was demonstrated when NASA’s Marshall
Center used the retractable pin tool to weld a full-scale External Tank
hydrogen barrel. The External Tank project did implement the Friction Stir
Welding on the longitudinal barrel welds on both the liquid oxygen and
hydrogen tanks. The External Tank 134 scheduled to fly in January 2005, was
the first tank to incorporate this process.
The Marshall Center is NASA’s lead center for development of space
transportation and propulsion systems, including the development of the
Space Shuttle’s External Tank, Solid Rocket Boosters, Reusable Solid Rocket
Motors and Main Engines.

7.3 Nuclear plant
As nuclear plants around the world grow older there are increasing incidences
of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) problems. In PWRs such cracking is well
known and often associated with reactor pressure vessel parts (eg: primary
water SCC at reactor nozzle locations).
(a) (b)
Figure 7.3: FSW Application in Nuclear Plants (a) Stainless Steel Water Storage Tanks
and (b) Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) problems
However SCC also occurs in the secondary circuit and auxiliary parts of the
plant which are also safety-critical. This repair development is aimed at

relatively thin-walled Type 304 stainless steel water storage tanks which have
experienced SCC cracks at the external surface as shown in Fig. 7.3.
Friction stir welding is a technique which has grown out of TWI's
[Technical Welding Institute] frictions stir welding expertise and essentially
provides a high integrity smooth repair of shallow surface breaking defects.
For this particular application, the utility customer considered it offers
advantages for on-line application particularly in terms of its controllability
and lower risk of through-wall penetration when compared with conventional
weld repair methods.
7.4 Aerospace Industry
Friction stir welding has many potential aerospace applications. Research in

rivet replacement, repair of aging aircraft, fabricated structures, and tooling
for assembled structures is undertaken to support the increased adoption of
FSW by aerospace companies (see Figs. 7.4 and 7.5). Nowadays, the
aerospace industry is welding prototype parts by friction stir welding. This
offers significant advantages compared to riveting and machining from solid,
such as reduced manufacturing costs and weight savings. Longitudinal butt
welds and circumferential lap welds of Aluminum alloy fuel tanks for space
vehicles have been friction stir welded and successfully tested. The process
could also be used to increase the size of commercially available sheets by
welding them before forming.

Figure 7.4: FSW application in Aerospace Industry
The friction stir welding process can therefore be considered for:

Wings, fuselages, empennages
Cryogenic fuel tanks for space vehicles
Aviation fuel tanks
External throw away tanks for military aircraft
Figure 7.5: FSW Applications in Aircraft

7.5 Commercial Car Panel Forming
Friction stir processing (FSP) and subsequent rolling can dramatically reduce
grain size conferring excellent super-plastic behavior in certain aluminium
alloys. FSP of thick plate followed by rolling to sheet could potentially be
used as a method to improve performance of established super-plastic alloys
or to induce super-plastic behavior in alloys not normally associated with this
phenomenon (see Fig. 7.6).
Figure 7.6: FSW Super-Plastic Application in Automotive
Work has been carried out in Imperial College towards the development of an
alloy (Al-4Mg-1Zr) with enhanced super-plastic properties for automotive
applications. The alloy is produced with a simple process (particulate casting-
hot extrusion-cold rolling) and the resulting sheet exhibits elongations >600%
at a strain rate of 10-2s-1. However, recognizing that sheet derived from
an extrusion by rolling is likely to be narrower than that required for the
forming of a commercial car panel, alternative routes are being investigated.
Recently, it was demonstrated that if the extruded (Al-4Mg-1Zr) alloy was
friction stir processed, excellent super-plastic performance resulted with

ductility up to 12.80% and exhibited superior performance than sheet rolled
from the same extrusion (see Fig. 7.7).
Figure 7.7: FSW Super-Plastic application for the Forming of Commercial Car panel
7.6 Automobile and Land Transportation
Friction stir spot welding shows promise as a joining technology for

aluminum sheets used in automotive applications to reduce weight and
increase fuel economy (see Fig. 7.8). Many Research work centers are
aiming for improving the speed of the process while reducing forces and
maintaining high material properties. The friction stir welding process is
currently being experimentally assessed by several automotive companies and
suppliers to this industrial sector for its commercial application. A joint EWI /
TWI Group Sponsored Project are investigating representative joint designs
for automotive lightweight structures.

Figure 7.8: FSW Application in Transport Industry
The potential applications of FSW in automobiles and land transports are as

under:
Engine and chassis cradles
Wheel rims
Truck bodies
Tail lifts for lorries
Mobile cranes
Armor plate vehicles
Fuel tankers
Caravans

7.7 Railway Rolling Stock
Since 1997 roof panels were made from aluminium extrusions at hydro
marine aluminium with a bespoke 25m long FSW machine, e.g. for DSB class
SA-SD trains of Alstom LHB Curved side and roof panels for the Victoria
Line trains of London Underground, side panels for Bombardier's Electrostar
trains at Sapa Group and side panels for Alstom's British Rail Class 390
Pendolino trains are made at Sapa Group Japanese commuter and express A-
trains, and British Rail Class 395 trains are friction stir welded by Hitachi,
while Kawasaki applies friction stir spot welding to roof panels and
Sumitomo Light Metal produces Shinkansen floor panels(see Fig. 7.9).
Figure 7.9: Hitachi's A-Train British Rail Class 395 -High-Strength Low-Distortion Body
Welded by Friction Stir from Longitudinal Aluminium Extrusions
Innovative FSW floor panels are made by Hammerer Aluminium Industries in

Austria for the Stadler KISS double decker rail cars, to obtain an internal
height of 2 m on both floors. Heat sinks for cooling high-power electronics of

locomotives are made at Sykatek, EBG, Austerlitz Electronics, Euro
Composite, Sapaand Rapid Technic, and are the most common application of
FSW due to the excellent heat transfer. The FSW process is also used for
IGBT coolers at Sapa Group.

8.
What Our Researchers Says
About FSW
8.1 Mr. Satoshi Hirano a Specialist of Joining Technology says:
We are carrying out research on a new joining technology called "friction-stir

welding" (FSW)-which is a way of joining materials without melting them.
This joining method has advantages such as the shape of the sections to be
joined changes little after joining (compared to the deformation after
conventional fusion welding) and the strength of the joint is high.
Accordingly, FSW is being used for forming joints that require high
reliability (such as railway vehicles and automotive component).
8.1.1 What sort of joining technology is FSW?
Figure 8.1: FSW Tool Working
A 1: "FSW" is short for friction stir welding. A so-called "joining tool" is

pushed onto the materials to be joined while it is rotated on a cylindrical
member. At the time of contact, frictional heat is generated at the contact
surface between the tool and the materials to be joined. As a result, the
temperature of the materials rises, and the materials thus soften and become
easy to deform. The easily-deformable materials are then joined fused
together by the turning force of the joining tool, thereby joining them (see
Fig. 8.1). And since the materials do not actually melt, there is little
deformation after joining. Moreover, the metal structure of the joined section
forms as a fine, equiaxed grain structure, so it is characterized by excellent
mechanical strength.
8.1.2 What products do you use FSW for?
Figure 8.2: FSW Application in Hitachi Group
A 2: For ten years or so, FSW has been used for a variety of products of
Hitachi Group as shown in Fig. 8.2. As for materials, aluminum alloys (in
which defects are easily generated by fusion welding) and copper alloys
(which are difficult to weld) are two examples. The diagram schematically
shows an example of a "hog-backed member" in which the joining line

follows a curve in three dimensions. As for products, for example, FSW is
being used for components of railway vehicles and sputtering equipment as
well as motorcycle brakes and lithium-ion batteries. In regards to railway
vehicles, FSW is being applied for bullet trains such as the N700 Series.
Please take care to find exactly where the sections are being joined.
8.1.3 What is the difference between FSW and conventional welding?
Figure 8.3: Difference Between FSW and Conventional Welding
A 3: As mentioned in A 1, the key difference is that FSW does not melt the
materials being joined. And since no melting occurs, there is no solidification
shrinkage when the joined sections solidify. In addition, the maximum
temperature during joining is lower than that during fusion welding, so the
drop in temperature down to room temperature after joining is smaller too.
Consequently, the eventual shape deformation is also less. And since no light
is radiated as bright flashes, no sparks fly, and no smoke is emitted, FSW is
considerably more environmentally friendly than conventional "fusion"
welding as seen in Fig. 8.3.

8.2 Dr. Rajiv Mishra, Associate Professor of Metallurgical Engineering
and Director of the Center for Friction Stir Processing, University of
Missouri-Rolla says:
September 5, 2003
Researchers at the University of Missouri-Rolla (UMR) are patenting a

process that makes metal stronger, more efficient and more cost effective --
by making it flow like chewing gum. The result could be manufacturing
improvements for the aircraft industry.
"The materials flow like chewing gum at high temperature and then when
it returns to room temperature it is a very strong metallic component.”- Dr.
Mishra says.
"We are taking metals to high temperatures and changing the
microstructure of the material and after it becomes very superplastic --
stretchy and formable -- we can give it any shape we want to without the
material failing," says Mishra.
Chewing gum does not stretch before it is chewed, but after it has been
chewed for a while, it easily stretches and elongates, Mishra says. In the same
way, metals treated with this process gain new properties.
In collaboration with Boeing, UMR has a patent pending on this process;
known has friction-stir superplasticity (FSS). This process is a variation of
friction-stir welding (FSW), which is a new joining method for aluminum
alloys, Mishra says.
In FSW, aluminum alloys are joined in a way that is energy efficient,

environmentally sound and versatile, Mishra says. A rotating tool is inserted

into the metal to be joined, and moved along the joining area. Localized heat
is generated by friction between the tool and the work piece.
UMR has received $100,000 from the Defense Advanced Research (DAR)
Projects Agency through a subcontract from Rockwell Scientific of Thousand
Oaks, Calif., and more than $500,000 from the National Science Foundation
over two, three-year periods to conduct this research. FSS creates very fine
grain microstructures in the heated area. Boeing researchers are interested in
this process variation because it allows the forming of thicker metal plates
than previously possible, Mishra says. This would enable Boeing to
manufacture complex components needed in fighter jets as well as
commercial planes, using one piece of metal instead of five. "It builds a
unitized structure by reducing the number of components and making it more
cost effective," says Mishra.
Lucie Johannes, a UMR Ph.D. student in metallurgical engineering from

Topeka, Kan., is working with Mishra on this research.
The UMR Center for Friction Stir Processing is investigating several other
variations of friction-stir welding, including friction-stir channeling, which
builds channels for heat exchange in a solid plate; friction-stir microforming,
which makes miniature components that are equal to, or better than existing
components; friction-stir surfacing, which enables the surface to be modified
for different properties; friction-stir casting modification, which reduces
defects by embedding stronger regions into the cast component; and friction-
stir powder processing, which makes the metal's composition more consistent
with fewer flaws. All of these processes are based on the friction-stir welding
principle but altered slightly to obtain a different end result for the
manufacturer.

UMR has filed for patents on friction-stir channeling and microforming. "We
are trying to create, using this principle (FSW), a new set of technologies that
we can market as our capabilities. The basic concept remains the same, but
the way we are applying it is new," says Mishra. "We are coming up with
ways of making components and modifying the micro-structure that has not
been done before."
Mishra hopes manufacturers find these techniques not only less harmful to the
environment, but also more cost effective, resulting in stronger materials.
8.3 Steve Hensley, Modern Machine Shop, says:

Friction stir welding allows tough steel alloys and other metals to be
permanently joined without arc welding
January 7, 2008
Friction stir welding is now a proven process for joining high-carbon steels.
This process does not involve temperatures high enough to melt these
materials and cause unwanted metallurgical changes. Introduced in the early
1990s, friction stir welding found acceptance as a fast, high-quality method to
join aluminum and other non-ferrous metals that are difficult to weld with
traditional arc welding. A new generation of friction stir welding equipment
brings the advantages of this process to a much broader base of applications.
Unlike previous systems that required a substantial investment in a custom-
engineered machine, the new system from ESAB Welding and Cutting
Products (Florence, South Carolina) is based on a modular design. Given the
name Legio by its developers, the new series of friction stir welding machines
is built from standard modules designed to accommodate most applications.
In fact, friction stir welding of high-nickel or other high-strength alloys solves
some of the most difficult problems in joining these materials. According to
the company, the process does so economically, bypassing the problems
usually associated with arc welding of these materials.
Figure 8.4: Stainless Steel Plate size 3/8 inch (10mm) Permanently Joined with Friction
Stir Welding in one Pass
In friction stir welding, a cylindrical shoulder tool with a profiled pin is

rotated and plunged into the joining areas between two pieces of sheet or plate
material. The adjacent surfaces need not be flat, thus making fillet joints and
lap joints as weldable as butt joints. Heat from friction between the wear-
resistant welding tool and the workpiece causes the sheet or plate to soften
without reaching the melting point. The plasticized material is transferred to

the trailing edge of the tool pin as the tool moves along the weld line. The
material is forged by the intimate contact of the tool shoulder and the pin
profile. After cooling, a solid phase bond is created between the pieces of
metal that have been “stirred together.” This process joins materials without
the need for a filler metal or shielding gas (Fig. 8.4).
Until recently, friction stir welding has been associated with “soft” or non-
ferrous materials such as aluminum, magnesium, copper, zinc and lead alloys.
All of these materials become plasticized enough for friction stir welding at
much lower temperatures. However, the use of friction stir welding on carbon
steels has been restricted because few tool materials could withstand the high
temperatures and high pressures required to weld harder alloys. Recently, the
use of tool bodies composed of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN)
with tips made of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) has overcome this
limitation.
This technology is available in many configurations. In addition to joining

sheet and plate, systems can be configured for welding sections of pipe. These
designs involve special spindle heads and pipe clamps to hold the round
workpieces in place and weld together almost any diameter of pipe. With
current technology, the maximum welding depth in pipe applications is about
5/8 inch in a single pass with no joint prep.
At first glance, the typical Legio system might be mistaken for a small
milling machine or a drill press (Fig. 8.5).

Figure 8.5: The Modular Design of the Legio friction stir welding machine - the process to
a broader base of materials, applications and users.
8.3.1 What’s “Wrong” With Welding

Arc welding thick plates requires special preparation of the weld joint. The
steps involved are time-consuming and expensive. For example, the surfaces
must be cleaned adequately and positioned carefully. The sides of adjacent
surfaces must create an appropriate V-shape to allow the weld bead to melt
into the joint in multiple passes. The V-shapes can be added by grinding,
thermally cutting or nibbling with specialized tools. Between passes, any
welding slag must be removed. Typically, hand tools such as wire brushes or
air-powered peening tools are used to clean the joint. Friction stir welding
does not need special cleaning of the surfaces because it welds completely in
one pass. Thus this process is generally faster and cheaper than arc welding
while maintaining good joint quality, developers say.
Experience shows that traditional arc welding of low-density materials
such as castings can lead to unacceptable results. Often, cavities and voids not
visible on the surface can be left in the finished welds. However, joining
metals with friction stir welding can yield welds of excellent quality, even in
cast materials. According to researchers at ESAB, the microstructure and
homogeneity of the cast material actually improves after stir welding. Any
porosity, a typical problem with castings, disappears. The microstructure of
the stirred area is much finer-grained after welding, even in coarsely grained
material as seen in Fig 8.6.
Figure 8.6: Friction at the Shoulder of the Tool Creates Heat to Soften the Material
without Melting and the Profiled pin Buries Itself in the Softened Material, Stirring it as it
Moves Forward.
Arc welding high-nickel alloys such as Inconel, Monel, Waspalloy, and

various stainless steels is typically performed by TIG (tungsten inert gas)
welding processes, which by nature create large amounts of heat. While
sufficient heat is necessary to fuse the parent and filler materials in a molten

state, it can also deform and warp the components being joined. According to
ESAB, correcting these conditions is the most common mode of rework
following welding operations. However, friction stir welding can join plates
as thick as 2.56 inches can be joined in a single pass with no deformation. In
addition, joints can be welded as much as 10 times faster than conventional
arc welding.
8.3.2 What’s “Right” About the Alternative

Likewise, friction stir welding has benefits when used to join high-strength,
low-alloy (HSLA) carbon steels. Applications for these materials have been
growing in the automotive, agriculture, and heavy equipment industries. The
metal inert gas (MIG) welding process most often used to weld these
materials has been somewhat of a challenge because of the high probability
that toe cracks will occur. Toe cracks are caused by poor fusion of the weld
filler material into the parent workpieces.
Such cracks can be remedied only by extensive off-line hand welding.

This rework causes delays and adds to production costs. However, friction stir
welding these materials will not create toe cracks. According to the company,
the ability to weld without using filler materials makes this joining process
attractive for all series of HSLA steels, including HK65, HK80, and HK120.
Another cost advantage of friction stir welding is that a shielding gas is not
needed. During arc welding, shielding gas displaces air near the molten
materials so that they do not oxidize during fusion of the joint. The type of
gas (argon, helium, or carbon dioxide) or gas mixture can vary by application,
but typical costs can be as high as $20 per hour, per torch. Friction stir
welding avoids this cost.

Moreover, friction stir welding is safe for the skin and eyes. The bright
“spark” associated with arc welding is the emission of ultraviolet light
produced by the electrical arc that creates the high temperature necessary for
welding. The exact wavelength is not important, but the light emitted is
almost 100-percent ultraviolet A rays. These rays are similar to those from the
sun, but more intense. While a person might be exposed to sunlight for an
extended period before damage to the skin occurs, welding light can damage
unprotected skin in minutes. Exposure to unprotected eyes can cause
permanent damage in seconds. Industry practice is to cover all exposed
portions of the welder with PPE (personal protective equipment) including a
welding helmet, thick gloves, welding smock, and fire-resistant sleeves. With
friction stir welding, nothing more than typical shop apparel is required,
developers point out. This helps keep supply costs low and operators
comfortable. It also makes the modular approach to friction stir welding a
good fit for machine shops serving automotive and other markets that can
benefit from this technology.
8.3.3 Stirring Up New Interest

It might be said that friction stir welding is more like CNC milling than arc
welding. The machines are similar in appearance and operation to other
machines found in the shop. They have no air collection systems to remove
harmful fumes and no special protective barriers to safely contain welding
light. Friction stir welding equipment such as the Legio machines can be
installed rather easily on the typical shop floor, developers say.
This point raises another attraction to friction stir welding – it can very
likely be performed by existing shop personnel. Because the conventional

rules of arc welding do not apply, special skills or training are not necessary
to learn how to operate these machines. According to ESAB, one of the
hardest positions to fill at present is that of a skilled welder. However, friction
stir welding promises to ease the demand for skilled welders in a number of
applications.
High-level programming skills are not required either. Programming can

be performed off-line as well as at the machine. A program must be prepared
for each part, as it would for a standard VMC or other CNC machine.
Programs can be uploaded and downloaded via standard DNC software and
RS-232 connections. Each part program for a Legio unit controls the
rotational speed of the tool, the tilting angle of the head, welding speed and
down force. Standard welding speed for all models is as high as 79 ipm (2
meters/min). Once the process parameters are determined for a part, they can
be stored and recalled at any time, and the results will be as predictable as
rerunning a program on other CNC equipment.
Legio friction stir welding machines are available in five basic with one or
two heads. They can be configured in seven size ranges to a maximum of 10
meters in length. Other applications and sizes can be accommodated with the
company’s customized platform of friction stir weld machines in the Super
Stir series.
Friction stir welding is already an approved welding process for many

aerospace, automotive and ship-building applications involving titanium,
aluminum, and nickel alloys. ESAB, in a partnership with TWI, leads a
significant effort to certify other materials and applications.

With the addition of friction stir welding to the list of economical and
dependable welding processes, shops can provide high-value welding/joining
without the experience or expense associated with traditional arc welding.
8.4 An Official of Naval Research announced:

A welding innovation that could help bring titanium into future Navy
Ship Construction
April 3, 2012
The contractor team building this section recently completed the industry’s
longest friction-stir titanium alloy welds and aims to complete the ship hull
section this summer. Friction stir welds more than 17 feet long joined the
titanium alloy plates for the section’s deck.
“This fast, effective friction stir weld technique is now an affordable
manufacturing process that takes advantage of titanium’s properties,” said
Kelly Cooper, the program officer managing the project for ONR’s Sea
Warfare and Weapons Department.
8.4.1 What it means for the Navy

Titanium metal and its alloys are desirable materials for ship hulls and other
structures because of their high strength, light weight and corrosion-
resistance. If constructed in titanium, Navy ships would have lighter weight
for the same size—allowing for a bigger payload—and virtually no corrosion.
But because titanium costs up to nine times more than steel and is technically
difficult and expensive to manufacture into marine vessel hulls, it has been
avoided by the shipbuilding industry. But perhaps it is not for much longer.

Researchers at the University of New Orleans School of Naval
Architecture and Textron Marine and Land Systems are demonstrating the
feasibility of manufacturing titanium ship hull structures. Using lower cost
marine grades of titanium, they fabricated a 20-foot-long main deck panel—
composed of six titanium plates, joined together by friction stir welding—as
part of technology studies for an experimental naval vessel called
Transformable Craft, or T-Craft.
Since antiquity, blacksmiths have joined iron or steel parts together by
heating them in a forge, placing them on an anvil and striking the two pieces
repeatedly with a heavy hammer. After several repetitions of heating and
striking, the two pieces were “hammer forged” or “forge welded” together.
Figure 8.7: Friction Stir Welding Process Shoulder and Pin
Friction stir welding joins metals using the heat of friction produced by a
spinning pin tool pressed down on both pieces of metal at their common joint.
Friction heating produced by the high-speed rotation causes both metal pieces
to heat up to a “plastic” condition, but not to melt. As the tool passes down
the common joint line, the heated, plasticized metal from both pieces is
kneaded together in the rotating tool’s wake, forming the weld between them
(Fig.8.7).

8.4.2 How it was accomplished
Friction Stir Welding works well for most aluminum alloys. Titanium,
however, is difficult to join by the same process because of the high
temperatures required, and pin tool materials that erode and react with
titanium, weakening the weld.
The researchers overcame that problem by using new titanium friction stir
welding methods developed by Florida-based Keystone Synergistic
Enterprises Inc. with funding from both ONR and the Air Force.
To fabricate the ship hull structure, more than 70 feet of welded linear
joints were made—the longest known welds in titanium made with the
friction stir process. This friction stir welding achievement showed a
noticeable improvement from previous similar processes. It was made at a
high linear speed—indicating reduced manufacturing time; showed excellent
weld penetration—indicating a secure connection; and had no distortion of
the titanium adjoining the weld.
Experts attribute the success to an effective design of the pin tool, process
parameters that emphasized pin tool life and exact duplication of the process
steps from facility to facility and machine to machine.
8.4.3 Computational Assessment of Build Strategies for A Titanium Mid-

Ship Section
(i)Existing weld sizing criteria are excessively conservative for
construction of lightweight shipboard structures, particularly for
applications in ship hulls made of titanium and its alloys. A set of new
criteria for titanium ship construction is being developed by taking
advantage of recent analytical developments presented in this paper.
Through both experimental testing and analytical based interpretation of

test data, the new weld sizing criteria can be used for sizing welds for
meeting both static and fatigue strength requirements.
(ii) Although residual stresses are of a high magnitude in welded

titanium components, welding-induced distortions may not be of as much
a concern as anticipated. Further investigation is underway on additional
joint types and plate thicknesses.
(iii) The highly localized residual stress features in titanium weldments is

due to titanium material’s low thermal diffusivity. It is seen, on one
hand, as a culprit in slowing down welding speed, and on the other, as
being beneficial for reducing the propensity to developing buckling
distortion in thermal cutting and welding. With this in mind, it now
seems that welding-fabricated structural forms can now be viewed as a
viable alternative to expensive extrusions which have been shown to be
cost-prohibitive for ship hull applications.
8.5 Todd May, Space Launch System Program Manager at the Marshall
Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala says:
May 21, 2012
NASA's next heavy-lift launch vehicle, the Space Launch System, is moving
further in development faster thanks to proven advanced technologies like
friction stir welding.
Friction stir welding uses frictional heating combined with forging

pressure to produce high-strength bonds virtually free of defects. The welding
process transforms metals from a solid state into a "plastic-like" state, and
uses a rotating pin tool to soften, stir and forge a bond between two metal
plates to form a uniform welded joint -- a vital requirement of next-generation
space hardware.
"NASA is leveraging key technologies like friction stir welding from the
Space Shuttle Program to design and manufacture the Space Launch
System(SLS)". NASA's advancements in friction stir welding techniques used
to manufacture the external tanks give SLS a head start in development while
reducing program cost, increasing reliability and creating hardware with
superior mechanical properties. This technology directly supports SLS'
program tenets of safety, reliability and sustainability."
In the mid 1990s, following use of a new lightweight aluminum lithium

alloy created to reduce the weight of the external tanks, Marshall engineers
found the new alloy difficult, complex and costly to weld. Engineers
researched and adapted the innovative friction stir welding process for use on
the 153.8-feet-tall orange space shuttle external tanks used to hold propellant
for the space shuttle main engines. The process reduced manufacturing costs,
increased reliability and significantly lowered the number of defects to yield a
nearly perfect weld.
The Space Shuttle Program implemented the new weld technique in its
manufacturing process of the external tank in 2001. The first friction stir
welded tank flew in 2009. Since then, NASA has developed multiple tools
and advanced processes to enhance its welding capabilities on aerospace
hardware.
"State-of-the-art friction stir welding will continue to be a critical

technology as we continue to learn how to build more efficient space vehicles
with less expensive materials," said Jon Street, welding and manufacturing
lead in the Material and Processes Laboratory at the Marshall Center.
"Friction stir welding yields higher strength metals with higher reliability and
predictability. It also increases efficiency by reducing the number of weld
passes that traditional fusion arc welding requires. In addition, it offers safer,
more environmentally friendly operations than traditional welding by not
creating hazards such as welding fumes, radiation or high voltage. SLS will
benefit from all of these advancements."
Today, the Boeing Company of Huntsville, Ala., is developing the SLS

core and upper stage using the friction stir welding process. The core stage
will tower over 200 feet tall with a diameter of 27.5 feet and store cryogenic
liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen to feed RS-25 engines. The upper stage,
powered by J-2X engines, will be used on the evolved SLS and share
common attributes with the core stage such as its outer diameter, material
composition, subsystem components and tooling. Both stages will be built at
NASA's Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans with state-of-the-art
manufacturing equipment and tooling -- including one of the largest robotic
friction stir welding systems in the world.
"NASA's strategy to affordably achieve a 2017 first flight for its new
launch vehicle depends a great deal on the ability to leverage existing
technologies and expertise, while taking advantage of the new science and
innovations necessary to achieve extended flights of discovery," said Jim
Chilton, Boeing Exploration Launch Systems vice president. "Friction stir
welding technology meets all of those challenges."

9.
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Index
A Commercial Alloy 117 Force Analysis 71

Accomplished 180 Commercial Aluminium Forge Welding 24
Advantages 45, 53, 59, alloy 117 Formation 56
83, 84 Commercial Car 157 Friction Stir Welded
Aerospace Industry 155 Commonly Used 95 Material 133
Alternative 175 Computational 180 Friction Stir Welding 3,
Aluminium 31 Concluding Remarks 61, 115, 123Friction
Aluminium Alloys 115 Cost Effective 112 Welding 24
An Official 178 D Friction Welding
Applications 12, 41, 46, Definition 21 Machine 77
147 Definition of Weld 21 FSW 147, 167
Arc Welding 25 Descriptions 22 FSW Tools 87, 90
As-Extruded Al 121 Design Features 87 Fusion Welding 22
Assessment 180 Diffusion welding 22, 23 G
Automobile 158 Disadvantages 83, 85 Gas Tungsten Arc
B Dr. Rajiv Mishra 168 Welding 35
Basic 17 Durable Tools 112 Gas welding 9, 25
Basic Principle 17 E H
Beam 56, 57 Electrode 41 Heliarc welding 8
Beam Delivery 56 Electron Beam Welding Historical Development
Beam Formation 56 29, 53 3
Beam Interaction 57 Experimental 121 History of Aluminum
Build Strategies 180 Experimental Test 117 Welding 8
C Experimental Work 137 History of Welding
Car Panel 157 Explosive Welding 23 Process 15
Case Study-I 120 Extruded Al Material How it Works 39, 45, 49,
Case Study-II 134 121 53
Chamber Cavity 57 F I
Cold Welding 23 Flow of Heat 74 Industries Served 52

Interaction 57 Modern Machine Shop Results & Discussion
Introduction 1 170 140
J Mr. Satoshi Hirano 165 Right 175
Joint 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, Multi-Head 77 Rolling 125
16, 18, 19, 20, 38 Multi-Stir 76 S
K N Shielded Metal Arc
Keyhole Welding 42 Naval Research 178 Welding 36
L Navy 179 Shipbuilding 150
Land Transportation 158 Nuclear plant 154 Shoulder Diameter 98
Laser Welding 26, 47 O Shoulder Surface 100
Lateral force (Z-axis) 74 Orange 182 Simultaneous Double
Load Bearing Ability P Side Stir 76
104 Panel Forming 157 SMAW 36
Longitudinal force (X- Parallel Twin-stir 78 Space Launch 181
force) 73 Pin (Probe) Geometry Space Shuttle 151
Lower Column 56 101 Specialist 165
M Plasma 38 Staggered Twin-Stir 80
MAGSW 26 Plasma and Shielding Steve Hensley 170
Marine industries 150 Gases 41 Stick Electrode Welding
Material Flow 67 Plasma Arc Welding 27, 11
Mechanical properties 38 Stirring Up 176
117 Principle 17 Submerged Arc Welding
Mechanism of Joining 67 Principle of Operation 64 26
Metal Arc Gas Shielded Q Superplastic 125
Welding 26 Quality 38, 48, 53, 58, Superplastic
Metal Inert Gas Welding 59, 64, 70, 71, 90, 95, Performance 125, 133
44 100, 108, 112, 169, 174, System Program
Microstructural 201 Manager 181
Characterization 127 Quick 19, 44 T
Mid-ship 180 R Tandem Twin-stir 79
Mid-Ship Section 180 Railway Rolling Stock Test Results 117
MIG 44, 45, 46, 47 160 Test Results 117
Resistance Welding 28 Test Results118
Theory of FSW 66 Tool Tilt and Plunge V
Thermo-Chemical Depth 71 Various Industries 147
Processes 27 Tool Wear, Deformation Vertical force (Y-force)
TIG 8, 9, 38, 40, 41, 42, and Failure 71 73
45, 175 Torque 74 W
Titanium 180 Traditional Weld and Weld 21
Todd May 181 FSW Weld 82 Weldability 21
Tool Cost 111 Traverse Speeds 69 Welding 17, 23, 25, 173
Tool Geometry 97 Tungsten Arc Gas Welding Processes 13,
Tool Materials 95 Shielded Welding 26 21, 31, 118
Tool Pin 91 Twinstir ™ Techniques Wrong 173
Tool Rotation 69 76 X
Tool Shoulder 64, 66, Type of Forces 72 X-ray 84, 194
69, 76, 91, 92, 98, 100, Types of Welding Y
101, 104, 105, 107, 109, Processes 13 Yield 4, 82, 108, 118,
112, 172,187, 197 U 135, 138
Tool Steel 95, 137 Ultrasonic 25 Z
Upper Column 56 Zone 146

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A Hand Book on Friction Stir Welding

Book · June 2012

Prof Bharat Raj Singh

High Performance computer View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Late Shri Ram Yagya Singh,

who was most loving, caring and guiding personality for my

Chapter 1 : contains historical development of friction stir welding in

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (iii)

Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh

iv) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (v)

Temperatures well below the melting point

viii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (ix)

Chapter 1 Introduction 1-12

Chapter 2 Types of Welding Processes 13-30

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xi)

Chapter 3 Welding Processes on Aluminium 31-60

xii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

Chapter 4 Working Principles of Friction Stir 61-86

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xiii)

Chapter 5 FSW Tools and its Design Features 87-114

xiv) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

Chapter 6 Friction Stir Welding Processes on 115-148

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xv)

Chapter 8 What Our Researchers says about 165-186

xvi) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

8.4 An Official of Naval Research 180

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xvii)

Table 3.2 Designation System for Cast Aluminium 34

Table 5.1 Effect of Travel Speed and Rotational 106

Table 6.2 Summary of the test results on 5 mm 118

Table 6.3 Processing Parameters and Rolling 121

Table 6.4 Chemical Composition of AA2014 T6 137

Table 6.5 Mechanical Properties of AA2014 T6 137

Table 6.6 Chemical Composition EN-8 137

Table 6.7 DOE-Experimental Levels and Factors 139

Table 6.8 Tensile Strength, Nugget Hardness and % 141

Table 6.9 ANOVA for Tensile Strength of 144

Table 6.10 ANOVA for Tensile Strength of 144

Table 6.11 ANOVA for Tensile Strength of 144

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xix)

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xxi)

xxii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xxiii)

xxiv) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xxv)

xxvi) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding (xxvii)

xxviii) Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

1.1 Historical Development of Friction Stir Welding

4 Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

Figure 1.2: Process of Friction Stir Welding

One limitation of the FSW process is mechanical stability of the tool at

6 Author: Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh, India

Figure 1.3: Joint configurations of FSW

A Handbook on Friction Stir Welding 7

1.2.1 Heliarc Welding