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Course 1 - Hort –Fruit Crops Production and Management
Module 1: Identification of Horticultural Tools, Equipment and Tropical Fruit Crops
Activity 1.1 Horticultural Tools and Equipment
Activity 1.2 Identification of Tropical Fruit Crops
Module 2: Demonstration of Tropical Fruit Crops Propagation
Activity 2.1 Procedure for propagation of selected tropical fruits by seed
Activity 2.2 Procedure for propagation of selected tropical fruits by vegetative means
Activity 2.3 Micropropagation of tropical fruit crops
Module 3: Tropical Fruits Nursery Establishment and Management
Module 4: Orchard Establishment and Management
Activity 4.1 Procedure for site selection
Activity 4.2 Procedure for selection of planting system/layout
Activity 4.3 Procedure for digging holes (pits) for planting of fruit saplings
Activity 4.4 Procedure for planting of fruit saplings
Activity 4.5 Procedure for training and pruning of fruit crops
Activity 4.6 Procedure for fertilizer and water application
Activity 4.7 Procedure for pollination and pollination management
Activity 4.8 Procedure for fruit thinning
Activity 4.9 Procedure for pest management in orchards
Module 5: Maturity Determination, and Harvesting
Activity 5.1 Banana maturity determination
Activity 5.2 Mango maturity determination
Activity 5.3 Papaya maturity determination
Activity 5.4 Pineapple maturity determination
Activity 5.5 Guava maturity determination
Module 6: Field Visit to nearby Fruit Farm, Agricultural Research Center and Agro-industry
Module 1
Identification of Horticultural
Tools, Equipment and Fruit Crops
Activity 1.1: Identification of Horticultural Tools and Equipment
Theory
Major field operations for fruit crops include nursery site preparation, propagation (by seed and
vegetative means), pit digging for planting, intra-and inter-row cultivation, fertilizer application,
irrigation, tree canopy management, plant protection, harvesting, handling, packaging and
transport. Since commercial fruit cultivation is only on a limited scale, the horticultural practices,
followed in nurseries and orchards of different fruit crops, are predominantly dependent upon
human labor.
Having the right tools, knowing how to use them and management decisions relating to the selection
of horticultural tools and equipment, choice of practice, market availability, and availability of
storage facilities among others are essential factors which can affect horticultural operations and
production profits in several ways. To improve productivity and efficiency, it is necessary to have
comprehensive knowledge of horticultural tools and implement performance. Horticultural tools can
be classified into two categories as either handheld tools or power-driven tools.
The main aim of introducing the various horticultural tools and equipment is to enable the students
have deep understanding on different types of tools and equipment used for a variety of
horticultural practices, including nursery establishment and management, grafting/budding, pit
digging and planting, inter-tillage and weed management, training and pruning, fertilizer and
irrigation water application, plant protection, harvesting and handling of fruits.
Objectives
• To acquaint the students with common horticultural tools and equipment used for fruit production
(at nursery as well as farm levels) and their function/uses.
• To help enable the students to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to use a range of
horticultural tools and equipment correctly, being capable of identifying possible hazards and safety
precautions required.
Materials
Equipment Consumables
- Flip chart (color print pictorial display of tools - Water
and equipment), various tools and equipment
Procedure
• Carefully follow the instruction given by your instructor.
• Observe the different horticultural tools and equipment presented pictorially on a flip chart (or
displayed tools available in your area).
• Record your observations (based on the checklist)
Flip Chart 1- Horticultural tools and equipment and their use
Horticultural tools Description and their use
• Long handled with flat and perpendicular blade at the end.

• Used to remove weeds by agitating and grooming the soil surface,
• Used to dig, move and hill soil during preparation for planting
For digging hard soils
is multipurpose cutting tool used for felling and delimbing of trees, split ting of
logs for firewood and dressing of logs for timber conversion.
- A long handled tool traditionally used for

• Digging, shoveling soil and compost,
• Moving shrubs of plants
• All-purpose shovel, rounded, sharp point widely used garden tool.

• Used to dig large holes and transport heavier materials such as wet soil and
rocks
• Its sharp edges can cut the roots and sods as well as break up compacted soil.
• Good for scooping and transferring heavy materials (soil, rock, cement, etc.)
• Used to break up compacted soil, spread fertilizers and compost, remove

shallow rooted weeds without disturbing the roots of surrounding plants
• Used for digging of soils in situations where the use of spade may be difficult
for turning of soils,
• Used to till large areas of soil and break up compacted clods,
• To rake out weeds and stones
• A small hand-held tool used to dig small hole (for planting & transplanting
small
plants/saplings),
• A long-handled tool used to create a fine tilt and level the seedbeds (Short
steel tines ideal for raking soil or moving heavy material),
• Collect plant debris and stones from the seedbed surface,
• Break soil clumps and spread fertilizers or compost
• Long, flexible steel tines for raking leaves
• A portable water container used for watering smaller areas and containers
• Used for securing net, line or fleece to the ground
• Used for lay outing activities and tying plants to stakes

• Available in natural jute and coated
• It is carrier, usually having only one wheel, a tray bolted to two handles and
legs
• Used to transport seedlings soil, com post as well as small loads
• One blade & one flat surface, best for extremely hard wood
• Shears for different purposes (Pruning, Harvesting)
• A small knife designed for delicate bud ding - grafting with a single eye or bud.
• Used for wrapping graft-union point while grafting and/ or budding fruit
species.
• Long handles provide extra leverage for pruning thick branches
• Used to protect hands and fingers from cuts, blisters, calluses, sun damages,
abrasions and dirt.
• Hedge shears are gardening tool used for trimming (cutting, pruning) hedges
or solitary shrubs (bushes).
Machete/bolo • A large, strong blade usually around half a meter long.
• Effective in cutting small branches and heavy underbrush.
• Made from steel or wooden and used for layout of seedbed, plots and plant
spacing
• Short, sharp saw for cutting limbs too thick for hand or lopping shears
• Used to protect feet from stones, falling items or tools.
• Clip and pick fruit picker
• Fruit Tree Picking Pole with Basket
• Hydraulic platform (fruit picking lift) for harvesting, pruning and spraying
operations in orchards
• Different types ladders (that fold out into an A-shape) commonly used in fruit
orchards (tree pruning, harvesting etc.)
• There are also ladders that sit straight against a stabilizing object (used for
pruning and harvesting tree fruits).
Crates Crates (plastic, wooden) used for collecting harvested fruits
Observation and Expression of Results
• Discuss your observations (based on pictorial display chart above, and/or what you would observe
from available tools and equipment at your area).
• Write a complete session report (individually or in group) and submit to you instructor.
Table 1.1 Fill the Table by observing the flip chart (and tools and equipment in your area).
No. Tools/ equipment Functions/uses

1
2
3
Discussions
• Guide the students discuss their observations (based on pictorial display/flip chart, and/or what
they would observe from available tools and equipment at your area).
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion
• Write what you conclude based on your observations.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Recommendations
• Carefully follow instructions given by your instructor for safe and appropriate use of horticultural
tools
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Self-assessment
1. Do I distinguish among the various horticultural tools and equipment based on the observations
(Pictorial display/flip chart, and locally available tools and equipment)?
2. Do I clearly and concisely explain the functions of the observed horticultural tools and equipment
to peer group and instructor?
3. Do I understand safety measures while using different horticultural tools and equipment?
References
Bello R. S. 2012. Horticultural Machinery Operations & Safety.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275642333_Horticultural_Machinery_Equipment_and_s
afety/download
https://www.easyelimu.com/high-school-notes/agriculture/form-1/item/469-farm-toolsand-
equipment-garden-tools-and-equipment
Activity 1.2: Identification of Tropical Fruit Crops
Theory
The tropical zone lays 0-20º north and south from the equator. Tropical fruits do not withstand
freezing temperatures, and many do not grow well if temperatures drop below 10°C. These plants
do not require cold temperature exposure for either vegetative growth or flower initiation (with
some exceptions according to species and individual age). Tropical fruit species are not only sensitive
to temperatures below 20°C but indeed require a climate with average mean temperatures higher
than 10°C for the coldest month. The main feature associated with the tropics is not so much that of
heat but rather steady warm temperatures throughout the year.
Tropical regions, especially those within 10° north or south of the equator, experience small
fluctuations in day length at all elevations and diurnal temperatures in low and mid elevations. Local
climatic conditions vary considerably within the tropical regions based on elevation or proximity to
water or mountain ranges which affect wind patterns and rainfall. Therefore, tropical regions may be
further subdivided into lowland, midland or highland tropics and into wet (humid) or dry (arid or
semiarid) regions. Banana, pineapple, papaya, mango and guava are the major tropical fruit crops
widely grown.
Objective
• To acquaint students on how to distinguish tropical fruits based on their nature (trees, shrubs,
vines or herbs), life span, fruit bearing habit, fruit type etc.
Materials
- Sharp knife, -Fruits (seeds) of selected fruit crops,
- Flip chart (color print pictorial display of -Samplings of selected fruits
tropical fruits) -Check list
Procedure
• Carefully follow the instruction given by your instructor.
• Observe the different tropical fruits based on a pictorial display on a flip chart (or live fruit plants
available in the area).
• Record your observations (based on the checklist) and distinguish among the various tropical fruits
(The plant as well as the edible fruit).
Flip Chart 1. Pictorial description of major tropical fruits
Major Fruits Plant Appearance Flower Fruit Seed/Propagule

Banana
(Musa spp.)
Mango
(Mangifera
indica)
Papaya
(Carica
papaya L.)
• Observe and record the distinguishing characteristics of the selected tropical fruits (The plant as
well as the edible fruit), based on the pictorial display (on a flip chart) and/or the live fruit plants
available in your area,
• Present your observation result to your peer-group and your instructor,
• Write a complete session report (individually or in group) and submit to your instructor.
Table 1.2 Fill the Table (checklist) by observing the flip chart and live fruits (field visit).
No Common Name Botanical Name Brief description*
Brief description* = This includes nature (growth habit, life span, bearing habit, fruit type etc.) of the
selected tropical fruits.
Discussion
• Discuss your observations (based on pictorial display/flip chart, and/or what they would observe
from fruit farm available in vicinity).
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion
Write what you conclude based on your observations or visit
Recommendations
Self-assessment
1. Do I distinguish among the various tropical fruits based on the observations (pictorial display/flip
chart and live fruit plants)?
2. Do I know the differences between climacteric and non-climacteric fruits? Give an example of
each.
3. Do I clearly and concisely explain the observed results to peer group and my instructor?
4. Have I acquired report writing skill based on the observations I made?
References
1. Watson, B. J., and M. Moncur. 1985. Criteria for Determining Survival: Commercial and Best
Minimum July Temperatures for Various Tropical Fruits in Australia (S. Hemisphere). Queensland,
Australia: Wet Tropical Regional Publication.
2. Nakasone, Henry Y., and Robert E. Paull. Tropical Fruits. New York: Cab International, 1998.
3. Samson, J.A.1990.Tropical Fruits Longman group Ltd. London. 3.

Module 2
Demonstration of Tropical
Fruit Crops Propagation
Theory
Fruit plants may be propagated directly from seeds or by vegetative means. Although seed
propagation of fruit plants is the easiest, generally it is not the best, because it scarcely allows for
maintenance of the characters of the original plant. In addition, plants grown directly from seeds are
slow to come into production. Seedlings are normally grown as a rootstock onto which desired fruit
cultivars are budded or grafted.
A vegetative reproduction is the process of multiplication in which a portion of fragment of the plant
body functions as propagules and develops into a new individual plant which involves the production
of new plants without the act of fertilization or sexual union. It is accomplished entirely by mitosis,
the cell division process by which the plant grows. Each daughter cell is an exact replica of its mother
cell.
Several vegetative propagation methods are used to multiply tropical fruit crops. Some of these
include grafting, budding, cutting, layering, micro propagation or tissue culture. Proper polarity is
essential if the graft union is to be permanently successful. In all commercial grafting operations
correct polarity is strictly observed. In top grafting, the proximal end of the scion is attached to the
distal end of the stock. In root grafting, however, the proximal end of the scion is joined to the
proximal end of the stock (Fig. 2.1).
In contrast to grafting, in which the scion consists of a short-detached piece of stem tissue with
several buds, budding utilizes only one bud and a small section of bark, with or without wood.
Budding makes more economical use of propagating wood than grafting, each bud potentially being
capable of producing a new plant. The common budding techniques used to propagate tropical fruits
include T-Budding, Inverted T-Budding, Patch Budding, I-budding and Chip budding.
In propagating by cuttings, a portion of a stem, root, or leaf is cut from the parent plant, after which
this plant part is placed under certain favorable environmental conditions and induced to form roots
and shoots, thus producing a new independent plant which, in most cases, is identical to the parent
plant. Cuttings can be classified according to the parent of the plant from which they are obtained:
Stem cuttings, leaf cuttings, leaf-bud cuttings, and root cuttings. Stem cuttings.
The stem cutting, which is one of the most important types in fruit propagation, can be
divided into three groups, according to the nature of the wood used: hardwood, semi hardwood,
and softwood cuttings.
Layering is a propagation method in which a portion of plant is forced to produce adventitious roots
while it is still attached to the parent plant. It is often used in species that are particularly difficult to
root, as the intact stems allow a continuous supply of water, nutrients and plant hormones to the
place of root development. The rooted, or layered, stem is detached to become a new plant growing
on its own roots. Layering is similar to propagation by cuttings except that, instead of severing the
part to be rooted from the mother plant, it is left attached and receives water and nutrients from
the mother plant. Layering methods commonly used in tropical fruits include: Simple layering,
Mound layering, and Air layering.
2.1 Procedure for propagation of selected tropical fruits by seed
2.1.1 Procedure for seed extraction of selected tropical fruits
Objectives
To acquaint the students with procedures of seed extraction of selected tropical fruit crops,
-To enable the students, understand causes and treatments to overcome seed dormancy of selected
tropical fruits.
Materials
- Sharp knife, -Mature and well ripe healthy fruits
- Small wooden box/tin can, -glove
- Plastic pot, -water
- One-to-two-liter jug, -charcoal
- 100 ml conical flask,
- Juicer,
- Sieve,
-Fine plastic strainer
2.1.2 Procedure for raising seedlings for rootstocks of selected tropical fruits
Seedlings can be raised in the nursery beds or in polythene bags, however raising rootstocks in
polyethylene bags is recommended due to better establishment of plants in the field on account of
undisturbed tap root system.
Moreover, rootstock raising in polyethylene bags is cost effective as it saves labor in weeding,
watering, shifting and lifting of plants.
A. Procedure for propagation of mango by seed
Most mango plants are grafted on to polyembryonic rootstocks in order to obtain plants
that have a uniform root system, since they come from an asexual process and so are clones.
1. Collect mature mango fruits from healthy polyembrionic selected trees, and seeds must
be free of pest and disease. Polyembryonic mango cultivars are theoretically recommended
to be propagated by seeds in order to establish uniform mango rootstock,
2. Fruits and seeds should as much be larger as possible according with the selected cultivar
since germination and vigor are positively related both to seed weight and to the size of the
cotyledons,
3. Wash the pulp, adhering on endocarp of the seeds, immediately after the extraction and
then dry in the shade under good aeration environment for 1-2 days,
4. Remove the endocarp after drying by use of a pruning scissor or a sharpened knife
avoiding injury or wound the cotyledons. The removal of the endocarp promotes a quick
seed germination and also favors the emergence of a larger number of right (erect) seedlings
which improves the graft quality.
5. Execute sowing immediately after pulling out the cotyledons from the endocarp (i.e.,
because viability of mango seeds is short which decreases rapidly after 15 days of the fruit
harvest),
6. Mango cotyledons are kidney-shaped and during sowing, the concave part of the seed
should face down and be buried about 4–5 cm into sand or a sandy mix.
7. The seeds germinate within 20 days after sowing (Fig.-2.2a, Fig.-2.2b). The germinated
seedlings are separated and transplanted singly into polyethylene bags (18 cm (w) × 13 cm
(d) × 30 cm (h)), and bags up to 45 cm in height help to avoid early root deformation.
8. When the color of seedling leaves changes from coppery red (Fig.-2.2c) to green (Fig.-
2.2d), the seedlings are shifted to permanent nursery beds.
9. The seedlings are grown under ~30% shade.
Note: The seeds of polyembryonic cultivars produce several seedlings, some of which
become twisted together and have curved stems and roots, and should be discarded and not
transplanted into nursery bags.
Figure 2.2 Mango seed germination and seedling growth
(The seeds commonly germinate within 20 days after
sowing (Fig.2.2a, Fig.2.2b). When the color of seedling
leaves changes from coppery red
(Fig.2.2c) to green (Fig.2.2d), the seedlings are shifted to
permanent nursery beds).
B. Procedure for propagation of guava by seed
1. Harvest ripe fruits from selected plants,

2. Remove seeds from ripe fruits,
3. Considering the hard coat of the seeds, it is necessary to pour boiling water on the seeds and
allowing them to soak in water for a few days prior to sowing or treating them with strong
sulphuric acid for five minutes facilitates their germination,
4. Wash the treated seeds in running water and dry in the shade for 10 days. Spread the seeds thinly
and evenly on a mat, canvas sheet, light-colored plastic sheet. Stir and turn the seeds 4–5 times a
day for uniform drying. Protect the seeds from rodents and birds during drying.
5. Sow the seeds in nurseries or directly on plastic bags, containing substrate with good drainage.
Germination usually occurs between 15 to 20 days. For propagation by grafting, seedlings need to
have 12-20 mm of diameter to 20 cm.
C. Procedure for propagation of papaya by seed

Papayas are usually grown from seeds. Unlike the seed of many tropical species, papaya
seed is neither recalcitrant nor dormant and are classified as intermediate for desiccation tolerance.
1. To obtain plants of the best quality, papaya seeds should be obtained from vigorous plants that
possess the desired quality,
2. Place seeds in a cup or vessel with clean, room temperature water, and allow seeds to soak for 24
hours. During the soaking phase make sure to use very clean water. If the water has bacteria or is
dirty it can drastically reduce the % of germination,
3. Drain all the water and fill again and let the remaining seeds soak for another 24 hours,
4. Discard damaged seeds, select healthy and mature seeds through floating technique prior to
sowing. Plant the seeds that have sunk and discard the rest,
5. Papaya seeds are usually treated with fungicide and planted in beds 15 cm above ground level
that have been organically enriched and fumigated,
6. Sow the seeds 5 cm apart and 2 - 3 cm deep in rows 15 cm apart, and water them daily,
7. In dioecious papaya (male and female flowers on different trees), plant about five seeds/bag and
leave all the plants. Thinning will be done in the land when the plants start to flower.
8. For hermaphroditic cultivars, plant two seeds /container. The extra plants
should be transplanted into empty containers within two weeks after germination. The plants
should not be transplanted deeper than they were (only the white part of the stem should be
covered by the medium),
9. Provide shade during germination to prevent the seeds from drying out. The shade must be
removed soon after germination (usually at the four-leaf stage) because papaya plants develop
poorly if shaded,
10. Transplant the seedlings (to permanent planting position) in 2 1/2 months when 15 - 20 cm high.
Transplanting is more successful if polyethylene bags of enriched soil are used instead of raised
beds. Two seeds are planted in each bag but only the stronger seedling is maintained.
Transplanting is best done in the evening or on cloudy, damp days. On hot, dry days, each plant
must be protected with a leafy branch or palm leaf stuck in the soil,
11. When growing dioecious papaya, one female or hermaphrodite plant is retained, after flowering,
the rest are removed. But one male is kept for every 10 to 25 females, depending on plant
density,
12. Watering is done every day until the plants are well established, but over watering is detrimental
to young plants.
Write your observations based on the following points:

• Take one or two fruits of any one or more of tropical fruits (available in your area) and
observe number of seeds per fruit.
• Whether the seeds have germination barriers (hard seed coat/testa, gelatinous substance
adhering on seed).
• Physical quality characteristics such as size, seed coat condition (example - absence of
cracks), and absence of pests or diseases that may negatively affect germination of seeds
of tropical fruits available in your area.
• Whether seeds of mango (if available in your area) are monoembryonic or polyembryonic
(record their distinguishing characteristics).
Recommendations
• Fruit seeds need to be dried under shade.
Self-Assessment
1. Do I know seed extraction procedures of tropical fruits available in my area?

2. Do I make a clear distinction between monoembryonic and polyembryonic mango seeds?
3. Why fruit seeds are washed and allowed to dry under shade before sowing?
4. Do I explain why seeds of dioecious papaya are planted up to five seeds per pot/planting position?
5. Do I know quality characteristics (example: physical and physiological) of seeds of tropical fruits
such as mango, papaya and guava?
6. Am I clear whether the growers of tropical fruit crops in my area can obtain quality seeds from
known source?
2.2 Procedure for propagation of selected tropical fruits by vegetative means
Objective
• To acquaint the students with the basic principles and common methods of vegetative propagation
of tropical fruit crops.
Materials
- Grafting/budding knife,
- Hammer (or Mallet),
- Cooler box (to collect
scion -wood, optional),
- Fine tooth saw,
- Pruning shears
A) Procedure for propagation of banana

1. The sucker multiplication plot is established with good quality, pest and disease-free suckers
planted at a high density on quality soils, rich in organic matter.
2. Remove suckers (Fig. 2.3) from the mother plant when they reach a minimum of 15cm diameter
and 50 cm height above the soil.
3. Remove the sucker (cut away and out) from the mother plant using a sharp tool such as a narrow-
bladed, straight-sided shovel, making sure to obtain an appreciable amount of corm with the sucker,
4. At planting cut sword suckers back to about two thirds of their length, while maiden sucker is cut
back just below the crown.
B) Procedure for propagation of pineapple
1. Pineapple is propagated by vegetative means using different propagules (suckers, slips, crowns)
(Fig. 2.4).
C) Procedure for mango wedge grafting:
Use healthy, vigorous and uniform seedlings from polyembryonic seed for rootstocks.
Monoembryonic seeds are not recommended for use because their sexual embryos produce non-
uniform seedlings.
Select the rootstock according to these criteria:
1. Suitable variety; but if not available chose a seedling from a local mango tree that grows well in
the area.
2. Healthy, strong and free of pests.
3. About 6 months old (which should be at least 25 cm tall) with a stem as thick as a pencil.
Scion wood: Collect scion wood when the trees are in active growth. Scions are obtained by
removing the terminal 5 to 7.6 cm of a twig whose terminal bud is beginning to enlarge. Scions are
removed from the tree and for veneer grafts all of the leaves are removed.
To get quality scions follow these steps:

1. Identify a highly productive, healthy mother tree of the desired variety and quality.
2. Select scions from the end of the branches which are as thick as a pencil and have an active,
healthy terminal bud.
3. Cut the scion at 10 cm length with pruning scissor or secateurs or a very sharp knife.
4. Remove the leaves from the scion with clean sharp knife or secateurs.
5. Wrap the fresh cut scions in a wet newspaper and put the package in a plastic bag.
6. Transport your scions to the place of grafting soonest. Store the package at a cool place during
transport and use a cooling box for longer transport if available.
Wedge grafting (Fig. 2.7) procedure:

1. Decapitate the rootstock seedlings leaving 30 cm of stem above ground level,
2. Then split the top with the help of grafting knife to a length of 4.5 cm scion shoot having nearly
same diameter and of about 10 cm length needed to 4.0-
4.5 cm as wedge by removing the bark along with wood from the opposite sides taking care to
retain same bark on the two sides.
Preparing the scion for wedge grafting
1. Cut the scion to a final length of about 10 cm with a pruning scissor or a sharp knife.
2. Use the scalpel or razor blade to sharpen the cut lower end of the scion to a V-shape by removing
the wood on both sides of the scion.
3. Try to make the V-shape as deep (about 2 – 3 cm long is suitable) as possible as this will increase
the survival rate of your grafted scion.
Join rootstock and scion

1. Insert the wedge (sharpened end) of the scion shoot into the split of the stock (align the two
parts) and tie with polythene strip firmly, Important: Make sure the cambium parts (these are the
white greenish layers just under the bark) of the scion and the rootstock are in close contact and
quite firm. It is important that both the scion and rootstock have exactly the same thickness at the
contact location. If this is not the case, it is advisable that you remove the scion and repeat the
sharpening at a thinner end or cut the rootstock at a thicker part of its stem. Then repeat the joining
and check if the two are matching better.
2. Fix both the scion and rootstock in place by covering the point of union until it is healed. To do
this; (a) Hold the union carefully with one hand, (b) With your other hand, wrap the grafting tape or
the polythene strip tightly around the union and knot or inter-loop the two ends of the tape/strip,
(c) Make sure that the wrapping is tight enough and that the scion does not move out of the union
while wrapping.
Source: https://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/default/files/users/admin/mango-
grafting-manual.pdf
4. Keep the grafted saplings in the shade and water them well.
5. After about 14-21 days the scion should have developed new leaves and the wound should have
healed.
6. Remove the grafting tape or polythene strip when the wound is fully healed (when the sprouting
is initiated). Be careful not to injure the stem when removing the tape/strip.
7. Harden your grafted saplings to avoid shock by placing them in a shade house or a shaded area for
6-8 weeks before transplanting.
D) Procedure for propagation of guava by wedge grafting

1. Raise seedling for rootstock in the nursery for approximately 6 to 8 months.
2. When the stem diameter of seedling is of pencil thickness (0.5 - 1.0 cm they are chosen for wedge
grafting.
3. Select scion (15-20 cm long shoots; 3-4 months old) with 3-4 healthy buds and of pencil thickness.
4. Defoliate the selected scion shoots on the mother plant, about a week prior to detaching (as this
will help in forcing the dormant buds to swell, in this way the buds on the scion are ready to start
sprouting at the time of grafting).
5. After selection of the scion, rootstock (seedling) is headed back by retaining 15-20 cm long stem
above the soil level in the polyethelene bag.
6. Split the beheaded rootstock to about 4.0-4.5 cm deep through the center of the stem with
grafting knife.
7. Make a wedge-shaped cut, slanting from both the sides (4.0-4.5 cm long) on the
lower side of the scion shoot.
8. Insert the scion stick into the split of the stock and press properly so that cambium tissues of
rootstock and scion stick should come in contact with each other.
9. Wrap (tie) the union with the help of 150-gauge polyethylene strip, 2 cm in width and 25-30 cm in
length.
10. Immediately after grafting, cover the graft by 2.5x18.0 cm long cap which is tied with rubber
band at lower end.
11. The scion starts sprouting after 10 to 12 days.
12. Remove the cap after 25 days in the evening hours.
13. Transfer the grafts to net house for hardening.
E) Procedure for propagation of guava by shoot (soft wood) cuttings

The guava tree can be propagated by shoot cuttings (example softwood cuttings) (Fig. 2.8).
1. Take the cuttings
• Choose a parent plant with soft healthy stems at the tips of the branches or the new growth of an
herbaceous perennial
• Cut five soft shoots from the parent plant. Each cutting should be 5–8cm long.
2. Prepare your cuttings
• Cut the stem squarely across the stem, just below a node. This is where there is a concentration of
natural hormone (auxin) and stored food.
• Remove the lower leaves. This helps expose the cambium tissue.
• Remove any flowers. You want all the plant’s energy to go into forming roots.
• Trim large leaves in half. This slows water loss from the leaves.
• Remove the tip.
3. Plant your cuttings
• Dip the cuttings in rooting powder or gel and shake off any excess. Too much can cause tissue
damage,
• Fill a container with the basic growing media, and firm it slightly,
• Make holes in the media, and put a cutting in each hole,
• Firm around the stems to stop air pockets,
• Label each pot with the plant’s name and the date,
• Water the containers gently.
4. Create a warm humid environment
• Put the container in the plastic bag,
• Loosely close the top of the bag with a rubber band,
• Put the container in a warm, well-lit place but not in full sun.
• Write your observation based on your activity conducted for different propagation
techniques.
Discussion
• Discuss each method of cutting briefly
Conclusion
• Conclude your findings based on your observation
Recommendation
Self-assessment
Assess yourself answering the following questions:
• Define asexual propagation.
• How does vegetative propagation differ from sexual propagation.
• Distinguish between different propagules used for propagation of banana, pineapple, mango and
guava.
References
1. Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kester, and F.T. Davies. 1990. Plant Propagation: Principles and
Practices. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey. p. 647.
2. Hartmann H.T. and D.E. Kester. 1983. Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices. Hall
Inc., New Jercy.
3. Sharma, R.R. 2002. Propagation of Horticultural Crops (Principles and Practices). Kalyani
Publishers Ludhiana.
4. Mitov P., T. Angelov, N. Dimov, G. Pepeliankov, and D. Diakov. 1990. Fruit Production:
Zemizdat. Sofia, Bulgaria.
5. Ellis, R.H., T.D. Hong and E.H. Roberts. 1991. Effect of storage temperature and moisture
on the germination of papaya seeds. Seed Sci. Res. 1:69-72.
6. Stover, R.H. and N.W. Simmonds. 1987. Bananas. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
7. Ray, P.K. 1996. Pineapple, In: A Textbook on Pomology (Tropical Fruits),

Chattopadhyay, P.K., T.K, Bose (eds.). Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. pp.141-165.
8. Samson, J.A. 1986. Tropical fruits. 2nd ed., Trop. Agr. Ser., Longman Scientific
and Technical, New York.
Source:http://www.ijpab.com/form/2018%20Volume%206,%20issue%203/IJPAB-2018-6-3-575-
586.pdf
2.3 Micropropagation of tropical fruit crops
Theory
Micro propagation is one of the plant cell and tissue culture techniques used to produce a large
number of diseases free and genetically identical plants with their parental lines, as well as to each
other using small pieces of tissues called “explants” collected from a stock plant, within a relatively
very short period of time. It offers several distinctive advantages for fruit crops propagation that are
not possible with the conventional sexual or other asexual propagation techniques.
Among others, it enables multiplication of a single explant into several thousand even sometimes
millions of true-to-type plants in less than a year, without affecting the growth and/or productivity
of the mother plant. Moreover, once established, actively dividing in vitro cultures also serve as a
continuous source of micro-cuttings, thereby facilitating plant production under greenhouse
conditions without any seasonal interruption.
This technology has now been commercialized globally and has contributed a lot towards successful
production of high-quality planting material. Mostly, micro propagation is a 5-stage process viz:
explants establishment, explants collection and surface sterilization, shoot multiplication, root
induction and acclimatization of plantlets.
Objectives
To acquaint students with:
• Micropropagation techniques of tropical fruit crops
• The knowledge of explant establishment, sterilization, shoot multiplication, root induction and
acclimatization activities (Fig. 2.9) in tropical fruit crops micropropagation.
Materials
- Bunssonburner - Cytokinin (BAP, Zeatin,
- Autoclave kinetin)
- Jar - Soap
- Pippet - Explant
- Sensitive balance - Glove
- Refrigerator - Distilled water
- Stove - Almunium foil
- Beaker - Maxing plaster
- Dispenser - Sharpie
- Stir bar - Weighing boat
- Magnetic stirrer - Labeling tape
- Dry oven - Agar/Phythagel
- Laminar flow hood cabinet - Lab coat
- Cylinder - Lab shoe
- MS Media - Notebook
- Sucrose/sugar - pen
- Alcohol - PPE
- Berekina - Timer
- Sodium hypochlorite - Tissue paper
- Auxin (NAA, IAA, IBA) - Cotton
Procedure
1. Establish explants source or take from the existing farm,
2. Prepare the culture media (Table 2.1),
3. Collect the explants from 3–5-week-old seedling and surface sterilize using mercury chloride or
sodium hypochlorite,
4. Culture the explants into the prepared media that contain cytokinin and put in the growth room
for shoot multiplication and subsequent sub culturing,
5. Once the culture explants proliferate, transfer the plantlets into a new media that contain auxin,
6. Transfer the rooted plantlets into planting tray and acclimatize in green house.
Figure. 2.9 Schematic diagram of micropropagation in tropical fruits (example banana)

Source: http://www.krishisewa.com/articles/miscellaneous/856-tissue-cultured-banana.html
Explain results of your observation considering the following issues:
• State the type, concentrations of cytokinin and auxin used
• Show the cytokinin and auxin concentration that gives you the better shoots and roots respectively
• Percentage of infected explants
Infected explant (%) = No. of infected plantlets/total No of explants * 100
• Percentage of field survival
Field survival (%) = No. of survived plantlets/Total No of plantlets taken to field*100
Discussion
• Discuss how the different concentrations of cytokinin and auxin affect the shoot multiplication and
root induction. Reason out why some of the plantlets get infected and some are dried once
transferred to the field.
Conclusion
• Based on your observation give a conclusion about the effect of cytokinin and auxin on the shoot
multiplication and root induction of the attested tropical fruit.
Recommendations
Recommend the type and concentration of cytokinin and auxin you find for micropropagation of the
attested tropical fruit.
Self-assessment
• Do I know the major operational activities in micropropagation?
• Do I distinguish between auxin and cytokinin?
• Can I can prepare the MS, cytokinins and auxins stock solutions independently?
• Why I use gelling agent (agar and/or pythagel)?
• Why I pour the vitamins and the PGR in a brown glass bottle and store in deep freezer?
• Why I need to autoclave the growing media?
• Why I prepare the growing media 3-4 days ahead of the actual explants’ inoculation?
• Do I understand what acclimatization meant?
• Can I manage tropical fruit micropropagation activities independently?
• What additional knowledge/skill I need to take about micropropagation of tropical fruits? If so
what sort of additional input is needed?
References
1. IITA, 2009. Fruit Crops Gene Banking Manual. www.iita.org. (Accessed on February 19,
2010).
2. Zimmermann, T.W., K. Williams, L. Joseph, J. Wiltshire, and J.A. Kowalski, 2009. Rooting
and acclimatization of fruit plantlets ex vitro. A Proceeding organized by ISHS at International
Symposium on Biotechnology of Temperate Fruit Crops and Tropical Species. http://
www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?Booknrarnr =738_97 (Accessed on May 7, 2009)
3. Sigma Aldrich. com., 2010. Plant Tissue culture Protocols. http://www.sigma aldrich.com/
life-science/molecular-biology/plant-biotechnology/tissue-cultureprotocols/ media preparation.html
(Accessed on February 20, 2010).
4. George, E.F., 2008. Plant Tissue culture Procedure. 3: 1-28.In: Plant Propagation by Tissue
culture. In: E.F. George, M.A. Hail, and G. Klerk, (eds.). Springer, Docrdrecht.
5. George, E.F., 1993. Plant Propagation by Tissue culture. Part-I. The Technology. Exegetics
Ltd., Edington, Wilts, England, pp. 89-91
6. Staden, J.V., E. Zazimalova and E.F. George, 2008. Plant Growth Regulators II: Cytokinin,
their Analogues and Antagonists. In: E.E. George, M.A. Hall, and G. De Klerk, (eds.). 3:
205-226.
7. Robert, N., and J. Dennis, 2000. Plant Tissue culture Concepts and Laboratory Exercises.
2nd ed., CRC press. 454p.
8. George, E.F., 2008. Plant Tissue culture Procedure. 3: 1-28.In: Plant Propagation by Tissue
culture. In: E.F. George, M.A. Hail, and G. Klerk, (eds.). Springer, Dordrecht.
9. Murashige T, Skoog F., 1962. A Revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco
tissue culture. J. Plant Physiol. 9: 473-497
Module 3
Tropical Fruits Nursery
Establishment and Management
Theory
Nursery is a location where plants are cared during their early stages of growth to provide optimum
condition for germination and subsequent growth until seedlings are ready for budding and grafting
and strong enough to be planted-out in their permanent field or get sold. Young plants especially
tropical fruit saplings whether produced from seed or through vegetative means, they need a special
care during their early stages of growth. Although their basic requirements remain the same, tropical
fruit saplings differ in their needs for soil type (nursery substrate), light, temperature and moisture
requirements. They also require protection from the sever heat of the Sun, heavy rain, drought and
variety of pests and diseases especially in the tropical conditions.
Thus, raising them in nursery is suggested as a plausible measure to optimize those factors.
Generally, an area to be selected for tropical fruit saplings raising in nursery must have the following
features.
(a) Gently flat surface (an area up to 3% slope can also be selected provided that terraces are
constructed perpendicular to the slope).
(b) Continuous supply of clean water;
(c) Free from any cyclonic and strong winds;
(d) Well drained, fertile and light to medium textured soil;
(e) For the last 3-4 years uncultivated with the same crop or crops belong to the same family to
avoid the build-up of diseases and nematodes;
(f) Should be outside the range of the roots and shade of trees, hedges and buildings;
(g) Should be separated from the production field; (h) Should be near to main field, road and labor
source; and
(i) Should be free from flooding as tropical fruit seedlings cannot tolerate water logging conditions.
Depending on the weather condition and the soil type, tropical fruit seed beds in the nursery could
be made into:
(1) Raised bed- recommended for areas receiving high rain fall or poorly drained soils or during
heavy rainy season.
(2) Flat bed- recommended for areas receiving optimum rain fall or when plating tray are used).
(3) Sunken bed recommended for areas with shortage of optimum rainfall and/or during
precipitation.
The major nursery establishment and management considerations include site selection, clearing,
land and seed bed preparation, determination of seed quality and rate, sowing/planting and post-
planting care such as mulching, watering, shade construction, fertilization, weeding, thinning, pest
management and hardening off.
Objectives
To familiarize students with the knowledge and skill on how to:
• Select an appropriate nursery site for tropical fruits seedling raising.
• Prepare seedling-raising media for beds and containers.
• Prepare seed beds and seed pans for seedling raising.
• Manage various activities of fruit nursery (watering, mulching, thinning, shade construction,
fertilization, acclimatization, plant protection etc.).
Materials
Equipment Consumables - Hammer,
- Tape meter, - Wheelbarrow,
- Shovel, - Pruning knife,
- Digging fork, - Trowel,
- Rake, - Secateurs/pruning shears,
- Watering can, - Knife
- Watering hose with nozzle, - Soil map (if available)
Procedure
1. The nursery area is selected near to the production site considering nursery selection criteria
(Table 3.1),
2. The nursery site has to be clear from all vegetation (including trees, bushes, weeds, woody
remains etc.),
3. The nursery site is ploughed at least three times (till the site during dry period two months ahead
of sowing. The first till is done one month after the first tillage and the third tillage shall be carried by
mixing FYM/compost at a rate of 6-12 kg/bed a week before sowing,
4. If polyethylene bag is to be used, prepare a potting mix comprising of top soil, sand and compost
with their respective ratio of 2:1:1 by volume and fill the polyethylene bag a week before the actual
sowing,
5. Layout of the nursery is prepared on paper (type of bed and size, spacing between beds…).
6. Depending on the weather condition and the soil type, different seedbed types (raised, flat and
sunken bed) are prepared in such a way that pegs are pegged at a width of 1-1.20 m and length of
convenient size (mostly 5 m or 10 m) with a path of 40 to 60 cm spacing and 5 cm deep between
beds (Fig. 3.1).
7. If it’s a must to locate a fruit nursery site on steep slopes (> 3%), terraces and contour lines need
to be constructed perpendicular to the slope of the land.
8. The beds and/ or polyethylene bags are watered in 24 hours interval for a week carefully with a
fine stream of water and weeds (if any) are removed.
9. Shallow rows are made at 20 cm interval with 8-10 cm deep and perpendicular to the length of
the seedbed.
10. The beds and / or media filled polyethylene bags are watered 24 hours before sowing the seed.
11. One to two fruit seeds (often with a germination percentage > 85%) are sown at 20 cm spacing
on the row and covered lightly with moist friable soil.
12. The beds are covered with locally available mulching materials (dried grass, straw etc.) of about 5
cm thick and watered immediately (see Fig. 3.1).
13. Water is applied in an interval of one or two days (applied usually in the morning, between 9-10
am), until the seeds completely germinate (4-6 weeks).
14. Once the seeds germinate in 4-6 weeks, depending on fruit species, the mulch is removed
(preferably late in the afternoon) and shade constructed with a height of 1-1.2m by fixing the poles
at the edge of the beds and interwoven bamboo (or any other locally available material) over the
poles and then the top covered commonly with dried grass (see Fig. 3.2 and 3.3).
15. When the seeds start germinating, the date and number of germinated seeds in each bed are
recorded.
16. Once the seedlings form 3-4 true leaves (depending on the fruit species), weak and diseased
ones are thinned out, usually late in the afternoon (after applying water to facilitate ease of
thinning).
17. Light hoeing is made twice in the seedling’s nursery life.
18. Weeds (if any) are pulled out through the seedling’s life on nursery.
19. Once, the seedlings form 5-7 true leaves or reach 15-20 cm height, the shade is removed (6-8
days before the actual transplanting) by reducing the thickness of the shade every afternoon and
gradually.
Prior to seedbed preparation, nursery area is determined considering:

(1) plant density required in the field,
(2) spacing in the nursery,
(3) size of the bed and
(4) amount of reserve plants required.
No of seedlings per bed = 10000 cm2 * single bed dimension Intra-row spacing (cm) * Inter- raw
spacing (cm) No of seed beds/ha = Total No of plants needed + Reserve plants required
No of seedlings per bed Net area of beds = No of beds * single bed dimension
Gross area of nursery = No of beds * 7.56 (for bed size of 5 m x 1 m) = No of beds * 15.12 (for bed
size of 10 m x 1 m)
It’s also advisable to construct the longest side of the seed bed from East to West parallel to the sun
rise and set (to protect the effect of the sun on the seedlings during rising and setting along the
longest side of the bed) and the shortest from North to South.
Establishment of container-grown fruit saplings: Fruit saplings, started from seed or through
vegetative means using cuttings (commonly stem cuttings), layers, budding, grafting, or tissue
culture plantlets, are also grown in containers (Fig. 3.5). The containers are commonly filled with
nursery substrates, consisting of several components such as site soil, forest soil, sand, well
composted organic matter or certain materials like sawdust that may enhance the quality of the
mixture. As a rule of thumb, the following ratios can be proposed:
(1) For heavy soils (1 soil: 2 sands: 2 well decomposed organic matter),
(2) For medium textured (1 soil: 1 sand: 1 well decomposed organic matter),
(3) For light soils (1 soil: 0 sand: 1well decomposed organic matter).
Establishment of stock plants of fruit species: Stock plants are the nursery plants from which
material for propagation is obtained. Materials for propagation include cuttings, layers, bud-wood
for budding and grafting, suckers etc. By establishing stock-plants near the propagation area, a
nursery person will be able to supply enough and the right type of material needed in other
processes. Stock plants are required:
(1) for producing many shoots quickly in order to get plenty of cuttings,
(2) to have them near so that cuttings can be collected and set on the same day,
(3) for easy planning and management of nursery operations.

Consider the following issues when writing your report:
• Follow the report writing guideline,
• Session title and objective/s,
• Activities done in tropical fruit nursery establishment and management,
• Composition of nursery substrates for raising container-grown fruit saplings,
• The time taken to germinate, the total number and quality of seedlings raised, and other nursery
activities based on the way the fruit saplings are raised (bare-root or container -grown).
Discussion
Discuss the need of nursery, repeated tillage, mulching, thinning, shade construction and hardening-
off and give scientific explanation. In addition, explain irregularities (if any) related to nursery
establishment and/or management that you have observed during the practical session.
Conclusion
Draw a conclusion based on your observation.
Recommendations
Self-assessment
Assess yourself by answering the following questions:

• Do I understand what nursery meant?
• Why do I need to grow/establish fruit saplings in nursery?
• Do I know fruit nursery site selection criteria?
• Do I describe fruit nursery management practices?
• Do I distinguish composition of the different nursery substrates (media-mix)?
• Why do I mulch nursery beds?
• Why do I need constructing shade in nursery?
• Do I manage nursery establishment and management activities independently?
• What knowledge and skill did I gain from this particular session?
References
1. Chanana Y.R., 2008. General Horticulture Propagation and Nursery Management. Gill
Department of Horticulture Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana- 141004
2. Bose, T.K., Mitra, S.K., Sadhu, M.K. and Das, P. 2001. Propagation of Tropical and
Subtropical Crops. NayaProkash Publishers, Calcutta.
3. Derbew Belew, 2001. Fruit Production and Management. Teaching Material, Jimma
College of Agriculture, Jimma, Ethiopia.
4. Mahlstede, J.P. and E.S. Haber, 1959. Plant propagation. John Willey and sons Inc.
5. Dhliwayo P.D., Mwenye D. and Bhebhe E. 2003.Fruit Tree Nursery Establishment and
Management: A Training Manual, ICRAF.
Module 4
Orchard Establishment and
Management
Theory
Establishment of an orchard is a long-term investment, and deserves a very critical planning. The
primary consideration before setting up an orchard is to analyze the available resources in the
context of those, which are essential for a successful fruit production. Careful planning results in
optimum production, high returns, and long tree life. Poor initial decisions can be costly and difficult
to correct later. All available pertinent information should therefore be sought out before final
commitments are made.
Site selection is one of the most important decisions a grower will make over the life of an orchard.
Virtually every aspect of production and marketing is, to a degree, affected by site. It affects
cropping consistency, fruit quality, pest pressures, and marketing success. Any method of layout of
orchards should aim at providing maximum number of trees per hectare, adequate space for proper
development of the trees and ensuring convenience in orchard cultural practices.
The system of layout can be grouped under two broad categories viz.
(a) vertical row planting pattern and
(b) alternate row planting pattern. In the former planting pattern (e.g., square system, rectangular
system), the trees set in a row are exactly perpendicular to those trees set in their adjacent rows. In
the latter planting pattern (i.e., Hexagonal, Quincunx and Triangular), the trees in the adjacent rows
are not exactly vertical instead the trees in the even rows are midway between those in the odd
rows.
Land preparation, digging holes and planting are the most important practices in orchard
establishment and management. The trees are planted exactly where the stakes stood. It can be
easily done with the help of a planting board. The planting board is usually of 1.52 m long, 10 cm
wide and 2.5cm thick with a central notch and one hole on either end, the central notch and the two
holes (one on either end) are in a straight line.
Seedlings need to be correctly planted per planting hole taking extra care not to break the roots or
bend the tap root. If fertility status of the orchard soil is low, fruits should be supplied with proper
nutrition.
Various fertilizer application methods are followed in fruits’ nutrition, depending mainly on the type
and form (solid or liquid) of fertilizer, local conditions, and availability of resources. Generally, in fruit
plantations, fertilizers may be applied by using any one or more of the following methods:
broadcasting, side dressing, ring application, foliar application and fertigation.
Irrigation water application is recommended for growing crops where or when rainfall is non-
uniform or absent (spatially or temporally). Generally, the methods of irrigation can be classified into
two: surface and pressurized (power-driven) systems. The surface irrigation systems can further be
classified into flooding (wild and controlled), basin, border and furrow irrigation systems. The
pressurized system can be further classified into sprinkler and drip systems.
Pollination is transfer (landing) of active or live pollen onto a receptive stigma. Only flowers that are
pollinated develop into fruit. Although some plants are able to pollinate their own flowers, most will
produce better quality fruit and greater yield when they have another plant of the same type but of
a different variety for pollination.
Objectives
The objectives of this practical session are to:
• familiarize the students with the different criteria to be considered during orchard site selection,
land preparation, hole digging and planting,
• enable the students distinguish among different planting systems (Square planting, rectangular
planting, Hexagonal or Equilateral Triangular, Triangular planting, Quincunx or diagonal planting,
Contour planting),
• equip the students with a practical skill on training and pruning of tropical fruit trees,
• familiarize the students with the criteria for fertilizer application planning and practices,
• enable the students understand the different irrigation methods,
• enable the students understand floral biology of open pollinated fruit trees such as mango,
papaya, and also appreciate role of pollen donor cultivars on productivity of the respective fruits.
• help students identify major diseases and insect pests of tropical fruits, and also to motivate them
suggest possible management mechanisms of the identified diseases and insect pests.
Materials
Equipment Consumables -Harvesting pole,
- Measuring tape, Crates (plastic or wooden)
- Digging hoe, - Fruit saplings,
- Shovel, - Tropical fruits (fruit bearing, if available),
- Secateurs, - Polyethylene bag (containers),
- Pruning saw (pruning shears), - Jute bags,
- Hammer, - Fertilizer (organic & inorganic sources)
- Wheelbarrow, - Rope/string,
- Ladder, - Checklist
Procedure
4.1 Procedure for site selection

Proper selection of site is important. Selection may be made based on the following criteria.
1. The location should be in a well-established fruit growing region because one could get the
benefit of experience of other growers and also get the benefit of selling the produce through co-
operative organizations with other fruit growers.
2. There should be a market close to the area.
3. The climate should be suitable to grow the chosen fruit crops.
4. Adequate water supply should be available round the year.
Before a grower selects a site for establishing a new orchard, he/she must have assessed
the following factors:
1. Suitability of soil, its fertility, the nature of subsoil and soil depth,
2. Site must have proper drainage and no water stagnation during rainy season,
3. Irrigation water must be of good quality,
4. There must be proper transport facilities either by road or rail within the reach,
5. Whether the climatic conditions are suitable for the fruits to be grown and are whether site is free
from the limiting factors such as frost, hailstorms and strong winds,
6. Whether there is assured demand in the market for the fruits to be grown,
7. Whether his/her orchard is a new venture or whether there are already other growers,
8. Availability of labor.
4.2 Procedure for selection of planting system/layout

• Identify the best planting system for the area (depending on topography, tree stature etc.),
• Establish a base line and mark the positions of the trees along this line putting wooden stakes in
the ground.
• Another base line at right angle to the first base line, is then marked along with the other edge of
the field with the help of a carpenter square or a cross staff.
• The right angle can also be drawn with the help of measuring tape.
• One end of this tape is fixed at 3-meter distance from the corner along the first line and the tape is
then stretched along the second base line for a distance of 4 meter.
• The diagonal distance between these two points should be 5 meter (Fig. 4.1).
• The wooden stakes are put in the ground at the desired distance along the second lines.
• All the four rows are thus established and staked. Three men, one putting the pegs in the field and
other two correcting alignment, while moving along the base line, can easily layout the whole field.
• For laying out of an orchard according to the triangular system, a base line is set on one side of the
field as in the square system.
• Large triangle with a ring in each corner (made of heavy wire or chain) is used.
The sides of this triangle are equal to the distance to be kept of the plants in the orchard.
• Two of these rings are placed on the stakes of the base line. The position of the third ring indicates
the position of the plant in the second row. This row then is used as a base line. The whole area is
laid out in a similar manner.
Orchard layout is an important component and it should aim at providing maximum number of trees
per hectare, adequate space for proper development of trees and ensuring convenience in orchard
cultural practices.
The main objectives of orchard designing are:
(1) To have efficient utilization of orchard space and other resources,
(2) To have maximum solar radiation interception and distribution within the orchard canopies in
order to achieve maximum fruit quality and yield,
(3) To minimize competition between trees for nutrients and moisture by having proper tree
spacing, and
(4) To have compatibility with various management practices such as pruning, thinning, harvesting,
pest control etc. The following are different planting systems commonly followed in
planning fruit orchard:
1. Square Planting System: This planting system is commonly followed as it is easy to layout, and
inter-cropping and cultivation is visible in two directions (Fig. 4.2).
Source:https://researchlibrary.agric.wa.gov.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.
com/&httpsredir=1&article=3312&context=journal_agriculture4
2. Rectangular System: This system is similarly that of the square system in its layout except in this
layout row to row and plant to plant spacing is not same (Fig.4.3).
3. Equilateral triangle or hexagonal System: In this planting system six trees form a hexagon (Fig.4.4),
with another tree at its center. This allows cultivation in three directions and accommodates about
15 per cent more trees per hectare at any given distance, than by the square system.
4. Triangular planting - It is a system in which plants in alternate rows are offset half the space
between plants in a row. The distance between the rows is the same or more than that in row
(Fig.4.5).
5. Quincunx or diagonal planting - This method of planting is a variation of the square system
(Fig.4.6). An extra tree, often a temporary one (filler), is set in the center of each square. Filler plants
are usually short-statured and early bearing.
6. Contour System: It is only followed on hills with high slopes (Fig.4.7). In this case the tree rows are
planted along a uniform slope and usually at right angle to the slope with the idea of reducing loss of
top soil due to soil erosion. The marking should be done from lowest level of top.
4.3 Procedure for digging holes (pits) for planting of fruit saplings
Once the planting geometry is decided and the land prepared, the pits are dug for transplanting the
saplings. This should be done one or two months prior to planting. The main purpose of digging and
filling the pit is to provide congenial conditions for plant growth and development, especially during
the establishment phase.
Before digging the pits, two outer pegs are fixed with the help of planting board (Fig.4.8).
The planting board is placed over the planting hole at the position of the tree with its central notch
at the stake. Two pegs are driven in the ground at the notches at the two ends of the planting board.
The board is then removed, leaving the two pegs in the ground.
• Already fixed peg is kept in the central notch to mark the right point to plant each tree.
• During digging of actual pit, the central peg is removed and two outer pegs remain undisturbed.
• These outer pegs help in locating the point where the plant is to be put in.
• Dig the pits 2-4 weeks in advance
• The ideal pit size would be 1x1x1m dimension (Fig. 4.9), this is commonly done for planting of tree
fruits such as mango, avocado etc. Shallow rooted fruits such as papaya and banana are usually
planted at relatively shallow pits (60 x 60 x 60cm) (Fig. 4.10).
• When the soil is fertile and does not have any type of hard pan, the size of pits may be of
50x50x50cm in dimension.
4.4 Procedure for planting of fruit saplings
A) Procedure for planting bare rooted fruit tree saplings
1. Open a large hole to accommodate the root system.
2. Cut off any roots which are broken or kinked.
3. Using two pegs fix the planting board on top of the hole.
4. Replace the planting board with the tree stem fitted into the central notch with the graft at least
5-10 cm above the soil surface.
5. Commonly planting is done during rainy season. If planting is to be done during dry season (using
irrigation), plant in evening when the high humidity prevails in the atmosphere.
6. Seedlings need to be correctly planted per planting hole taking extra care not to break the roots or
bend the tap root (Fig. 4.11).
7. Fill the hole with soil until the root ball is fully covered.
8. Gently firm (press) the soil around the seedling with the fingers to make sure the seedling is
stable.
9. Level off the soil (if the condition is dry, irrigate the pits just after planting to settle down the soil).
10. Regularly check the plants to detect the faults like sinking of soil, tilting of plant and cracking in
basin etc.
11. Maintain sufficient moisture till the plants start new growth in the field.
B) Procedure for planting of container grown fruit tree sapling

1. Dig the middle of the hole big enough to accommodate the sapling root ball.
2. Remove the cover (plastic bag or another container) of the sapling (Fig.4.12).
However, plants grown in easily decomposing material can be planted as it is.
3. Make shallow cuts at the bottom of the root ball to induce quick root development.
4. Gently pull away from the root all circling or girdling roots.
5. Place the tree upright in the hole.
6. Set the tree at the same depth as it stood in the pot (up to the collar mark).
7. Fill the hole with soil until the root ball is fully covered.
8. Gently firm (press) the soil around the tree.
9. During pressing of soil, the earth ball should not be broken.
10. Level off the soil (if the condition is dry, irrigate the pits just after planting to settle down the
soil).
11. Regularly check the plants to detect the faults like sinking of soil, tilting of plant and cracking in
basin etc.
12. Maintain sufficient moisture till the plants start new growth in the field.
Control of early flowering: young plants prepared through asexual methods of propagation start
flowering immediately. This adversely affects the growth and vigor particularly when such types of
plants are allowed to set fruits. This fruiting is on the expense of growth and hindrance of the
formation of strong framework of the plant. These inflorescences therefore need to be removed
immediately after emergence not to disturb vegetative growth. The deblossoming should continue
till the plant attains three to four years of age (i.e., when the plant attains normal size and it is
physiologically sound to bear the fruits).
4.5 Procedure for training and pruning of fruit crops

4.5.1 Training involves physical techniques that control the shape, size and direction of plant
growth. Training is in effect the orientation of the plant in space. It may include bending, twisting, or
fastening of the plant to the supporting structure.
A well-trained fruit trees will have strong branches with wide crotches (Fig. 4.13B).
4.5.2 Pruning involves the removal of parts of the top or root system of plants.
Pruning of fruit plants is an integral part of the procedures used for high production of quality fruits.
Three types of pruning are known: frame, maintenance (Fig. 4.14) and rejuvenation (Fig.4.15)
pruning. Frame pruning is practiced to enable young fruit trees develop a strong, balanced structure.
Trees of most species are strongest if they have a strong central leader (i.e., one stem that leads
straight up through the center), with other branches spaced more or less evenly around it.
Training and pruning of mango:

• Training of young plant is done in early years of planting by removing side branches up to the
height of one meter from the ground level and side branches are allowed to grow beyond one meter
height.
• Such type of initial training provides good architecture of the plant and it is helpful in good fruit
production.
• When starting seedling trees, allow the trees to grow upright for some time.
When about 50 cm high, pinch the terminal bud to force lateral shoots to sprout.
• Allow the shoots to mature and again pinch the terminal bud on each shoot.
Repeat this process until the end of the third year. Allow all shoots to mature and start forcing them
to flower.
• Control the tree height to about 3.5 m and all branches at knee level (about 0.5m) be pruned.
• Most cultivars of mango grow erect; from a natural dome shape canopy and having symmetrical
branching need only occasionally pruning. Carry out pruning later for proper tree maintenance and
should be carried out after fruit harvest.
• Once the trees are bearing, limit pruning to removing weak branches at the tree interior and those
damaged by pests. Generally dead, diseased or crisscross
branches are pruned.
• Mango being an evergreen plant requires very little training and pruning.
• Severe pruning is needed only in high density of some varieties of mango.
Training and pruning of guava:
• Training in guava is done primarily to give form to the tree.
• For development of a strong framework, the first 60 to 90 cm from base of the trunk should be
cleaned followed by 4 to 5 scaffold branches at an interval of 20-25 cm.
• When the plants attained a height of about 1.5m to 1.8 m, it is headed back to make the center
open.
• Some guava variety trees are rarely pruned, but light annual pruning after harvesting to promote
vegetative growth and flowering is desirable.
• All dead, diseased, crowded growth and suckers sprouting from the base and sides of the
framework are pruned back annually.
• Pruned trees give larger fruits and early ripening.
There are two kinds of top pruning [3, 4]: (1) heading back and (2) thinning out.
Heading back consists of cutting back the terminal portion of a branch to a bud (Fig. 4.16), that is,
the terminal portion of twigs, canes, or shoots are removed, but the basal portion is not.
Thinning out is the complete removal of a branch to a lateral or main trunk (Fig. 4.17), that is, the
entire twig, cane, or shoot is removed. Thinning out corrects an overly dense area or removes
unneeded branches, or undesirable growth such as upright branches that compete or interfere with
the leader and branches that will be structurally weak because of narrow crotch angles.
When branches are headed back, it should be done with a slanting cut at an angle of approximately
45°, just above a healthy bud as shown in Fig. 4-18a and b, with the bud opposite the slant. The
lower part of the slant should be above the base of the bud.
The cut should be clean and sharp to encourage rapid healing. No stub should be left above the bud
and the cut surface should be as small as possible. Also, when thinning out, branches should be cut
close to the bulge on the main stem leaving no stub (Fig. 4.19). Any stub left will give rise to fungal
infection due to delay in healing and this may eventually affect the main stem.
If established tree fruit farm is available in the area (and the trees are at fruit bearing stage), observe
whether.
• scaffold branches are strong and spaced more or less evenly around the central leader.
• trees require selective pruning to remove dead, diseased, and/or broken branches (if any).
• trees require selective pruning to reduce density of live branches. Thinning trees reduce the
density at the edge of the crown (not the interior), which increases sunlight penetration and air
movement.
• trees require selective pruning to decrease height and/or spread (canopy). This type of pruning is
done to reduce height or spread, or to improve the appearance of the plant. Not all tree and shrub
species can tolerate reduction pruning, so the species and plant health should be considered.
4.6 Procedure for fertilizer and water application

4.6.1 Procedure for fertilizer application
A sustainable optimum yield of fruits depends, besides other factors, such as water and solar
radiation, on the availability of essential elements and the content of organic
matter in the soil. Soil fertility has a direct effect on all aspects of crop growth and development.
When the crop requirements are higher than the soil supplying capacity, nutrients are applied as
manures or fertilizers or both.
If fertility status of the orchard soil is low, fruits should be supplied with proper nutrition.
In this case, four important points deserve due considerations, i.e., determination of:
(1) the type of fertilizer to be used,
(2) time of fertilizer application,
(3) rate of fertilizer to be used, and
(4) method of fertilizer application.
Various fertilizer application methods are followed in fruits’ nutrition, depending mainly on the type
and form (solid or liquid) of fertilizer, local conditions, and availability of resources. Generally, in fruit
plantations, fertilizers may be applied by using any one or more of the following methods:
broadcasting, side dressing, ring application, foliar application and fertigation.
4.6.2 Procedure for irrigation water application

Successful fruit growing requires, among other factors, adequate supply of water using rainfall and
or irrigation. If the amount of rainfall is not adequate either in amount or distribution, a proper
irrigation method should be adopted to obtain the maximum possible output at a reasonable cost.
Irrigation should be programmed in accordance with the phenological growth cycle of the target
fruit plant to achieve maximum yield.
The methods of irrigation can be classified into two: surface (gravity-driven) and pressurized (power-
driven) systems. The surface irrigation systems can further be classified into flooding (uncontrolled
and controlled), basin (Fig. 4.20), border and furrow irrigation systems. The pressurized system can
be further classified into sprinkler and drip systems.
If established fruit farm is available in the area, observe:
• deficiency symptoms (if any) on fruit plants,
• whether inorganic or organic fertilizers are applied,
• how and when the inorganic or/and organic fertilizers are applied,
• whether fruit plants have received sufficient water (i.e., whether the soil around the fruit tree is
moist or not),
• irrigation method being practiced,
• irrigation interval (watering frequency),
• time of application during the days,
• whether the orchard floor is free from weed, as weeds will compete for water as well.
4.7 Procedure for pollination and pollination management

The process of pollination requires pollinators: agents that carry or move the pollen grains from the
anther to the receptive part of the carpel. Most flowering plant species rely on pollinators (e.g.,
insects, birds, bats, other animals, wind etc.) to carry pollen from the male to the female parts of
flowers for reproduction.
Pollination also requires consideration of pollinizers: plants that provide pollen (pollen donor). Some
plants are self-fertile or self-compatible and can pollinate themselves.
Other plants have chemical or physical barriers to self-pollination and need to be crosspollinated:
with these self-infertile plants, not only pollinators must be considered but pollinizers as well. The
placement of pollinizers is important and it varies based on crop species. Ideally, every tree in an
orchard should be located as close to a pollinizer tree as possible. If another commercial variety is
used as the pollinizer, the preferred arrangement is in solid rows.
In some fruit tree species (example avocado, apple), one or two rows of major cultivar is
accompanied with one row of pollen donor cultivar (pollinizer). In planting apple cultivars such as
Delicious that have a tendency to be less self-fruitful, and when it is desirable to maximize
pollination, a pollinizer row should be set every third row.
In dioecious type of papaya, one male (pollen donor) is commonly planted for 10-25 female plants
(depending mainly on planting density).

• Observe floral biology of open pollinated fruit trees (in established orchard) such as mango,
papaya, avocado, apple etc.
• Identify pollen donor cultivars (if available) of the respective fruit trees.
• Understand the different pollinators (pollen transferring agents) for each fruit type.
• Observe competing flowering plant species (if any) in the established orchard of the selected fruit
species in your area.
• Appreciate the relevance of pollination and pollination management in fruit production.
4.8 Procedure for fruit thinning

Under optimum conditions most trees will set more fruits than needed for a full crop.
Fruit thinning is carried out to reduce limb breakage, increase fruit size, improve color and quality,
and stimulate floral initiation for next year’s crop. Thinning is often practiced for large-fruited
species that normally set too many fruits. By thinning, one directs the available photosynthate
produced by the leaves into fewer, but ultimately larger fruit, rather than many small, unmarketable
fruit. Thinning is accomplished by hand usually, and is obviously very labor intensive. In terms of
timing, the earlier the tree is thinned, the better the result. Fruits are removed such that a certain
number of fruits per tree, or a certain spacing between fruit on a limb is achieved. Thinning should
be uniform throughout the canopy, as fruit in clusters will remain small even if the correct total
number of fruits are left. Thinning based on fruit size is preferred, as it facilitates selective removal
of small and weak fruits irrespective of spacing with the consideration of the desired degree of
thinning.

If established fruit farm is available in the area (and the trees are at fruit bearing stage), motivate the
students observe whether:
• fruit thinning is practiced,
• the individual fruits are well spaced or crowded,
• size and shape of individual fruits are affected due to lack of fruit thinning,
• there are any disease affected (and or deformed) fruits.
4.9 Procedure for pest management in orchards

Various pests such as diseases, insects, nematodes and vertebrates (e.g., birds, rodents and wild
animals) attack and cause serious damage to both the plant and the useable parts (fruits). Weeds
also compete for nutrients, water, light, carbon dioxide and space leading to lower yields and quality
of fruit crops. Weeds may also harbor pests and diseases, which attack the crop, detract from their
appearance and increase postharvest spoilage incidence. Various integrated pest management
approaches are followed in fruit orchards in managing the different pests indicated above.

If established fruit farm is available in the area, observe whether:
• the orchard floor is free from weeds (if so, what weed control measure is followed?),
• there are any disease symptoms (if so, try to identify the observed disease/s),
• there are any insect pests (if so, try to identify the observed insect pest/s),
• the fruit quality is affected by the observed diseases and or insect pests. And determine the
susceptibility (if such case occurs) of the fruit species available in your area, to pest and disease
problems.
Discussion
• Compare your results that you obtained from your practical session with that of other groups’ and
discuss.
Conclusion
Write what you conclude based on your practical session and results
Recommendations, if any
Self-assessment
Assess your knowledge and skill levels by answering the following questions:
• What are the major criteria considered while selecting an orchard site?
• What factors are considered while selecting planting system to be followed in orchards?
• Explain how pits (planting holes) are prepared for planting of fruit saplings.
• What are the main purposes of training and pruning?
• Distinguish between frame, maintenance and rejuvenation pruning in tree fruits.
• Why are narrow crotches undesirable in a fruit tree?
• What are the four important points you need to consider in planning of fertilizer application in fruit
orchard?
• Distinguish between the various irrigation water application methods.
• How are weeds, diseases, insects and other pests managed in fruit orchards?
• Roles of pollinators and pollinizers in improving yield and quality of fruits crops.
• Explain how fruit thinning improves size and shape of individual fruits.
References
1. Kumar, N. 1997. Introduction to Horticulture. Rajalakshmi Publications, 28/5
– 693, Vepamoodu Junction, Nagercoil. pp: 15.47- 15.50.
2. Mitov P., T. Angelov, N. Dimov, G. Pepeliankov, and D. Diakov. 1990. Fruit
Production: Zemizdat. Sofia, Bulgaria.
3. Samson, J.A. 1986. Tropical fruits. 2nd ed., Trop. Agr. Ser., Longman Scientific
and Technical, New York.
4. Mathew, I.P. and S.K. Karikari. 1990. Horticulture: Principles and Practices.
Macmillan Education Ltd., London and Basingstoke.
5. Westwood, M.N. 1993. Temperate Zone Pomology Timber Press
Module 5
Maturity Determination and
Harvesting
Theory
Maturity can be described as the attainment of a particular size and stage after which ripening takes
place. Two types of maturity are distinguished: physiological maturity and commercial (horticultural)
maturity. Physiological maturity refers to the stage in the development of the fruit, when maximum
growth and maturation has occurred, i.e., the fruit is fully ripened and is followed by senescence.
Commercial maturity refers to the stage of development when a fruit possesses the necessary
characteristics for use by consumers (i.e., the stage of a fruit required by a market).
Harvesting of fruits at optimum maturity will produce the best quality fruits in terms of size, color,
flavor and shelf life than those not harvested at appropriate maturity.
Harvesting when fruit is cool (early morning) and cooling the fruit as soon as possible promotes
quality and shelf life.
Maturity indices, also called “harvest indices”, are important for deciding when a given fruit should
be harvested to provide some marketing flexibility and to ensure the attainment of acceptable
eating quality to the consumer.
There are many methods to determine fruit maturity. The most common is the size of the individual
commodity. Some other commonly used crude methods are color change, softening of the tissues,
shriveling of fruit stalk; time elapsed from the date of flowering to picking maturity. Another physical
characteristic is the firmness and it is determined with a pressure tester (Fig. 5.1). Firmness is often
correlated with chemical changes that occur during ripening. Chemical characteristics include TSS
(Fig.5.2), acidity, sugar, vitamins and pigments. Some commonly used maturity indices
are given below in some of the important fruits.
Objectives
• To acquaint the students with various methods of determining stage of maturity at harvest
(maturity indices) of the major tropical fruits,
• To enable the students, understand different harvesting methods.
Materials
- Color chart,
- Refractometer,
- Tendrometer (penetrometer),
- Curved blade,
- Cut and hold hand shears,
- Pole mounted cut and hold
picking shears,
- Tripod ladders
Procedure
5.1 Banana maturity determination
Common maturity stages at harvest (maturity indices) of banana include: drying of top leaves,
degree of roundness (i.e., fruits become plumply and angles are filled and disappear at full maturity)
(Fig.5.3), days after flowering (fruits matures in about 4-5 months depending upon varieties, climate
etc.), change of color of fingers (changing of fruit color from green to light green; in some varieties
one or two fruits ripe at the basal end) or, drying and easily dropping off of parts of flowers (floral
remnants) at the top the fruit, pulp to peel ratio, and pH of fruit. Some other important harvest
indices for banana are: Fall of floral remnants, Pulp to peel ratio (10:1), pH of fruit (5.2-5.6).

Take a random sample of three fruits/fingers (that is, from basal, middle and apical parts of the
bunch), and judge:
(1) the degree of roundness (angularity),
(2) change of color of fruits or fingers,
(3) dryness and easily dropping off parts of flowers (floral remnants) at the top of the fruit. At the
end of the observation, encourage the students compare their results with the standard maturity
indices of banana and accordingly draw conclusion.
Banana harvesting
- Bananas are harvested at 3/4th maturity stage for distant markets while, for local markets are
harvested at full maturity.
- Whole bunch should be cut with the help of sharp knife or with the help of harvesting device
developed specially for harvesting banana.
- Harvesting should be done in the morning or evening hours.
- Harvested bunches should be kept in a dry cool place.
- These are sorted or graded according to color, or size.
5.2 Mango maturity determination
Mango fruits harvested at the correct stage of maturity develop good peel and pulp color and have
full flavor and aroma at the ripe stage. Mangoes harvested at an immature stage of development
can be induced to ripen but the quality of the ripe fruit and particularly the flavor is inferior.
Common maturity indices for mango include: number of days after full bloom (the fruit set date for
each tree is determined when the panicle shows a high percentage of initial fruit set), fruit size,
flesh/pulp color (Fig. 5.4), skin color (change in peel color from dark to light green -for some
varieties), fruit shape (“fullness” of the cheeks or shoulders) (Fig. 5.5), peel appearance (presence of
bloom/white powdery substance on the peel), soluble solids content, specific gravity (the ratio of
the mango density to the density of water), starch content, titratable acidity, and total solids (dry
matter) content.

Take a random sample of five to ten fruits from, at least, three different canopy locations, and
record
(1) the degree of the “fullness” of the cheeks or shoulders of sampled fruits,
(2) extent of change of color of fruits from dark green to pale green,
(3) specific gravity (the ratio of the mango density to the density of water). At the end of the
observation, encourage the students compare their results with standard maturity indices of mango.
Mango harvesting
Mangos are harvested when mature, but not ripe. An old recommendation to judge the date of
harvest was when the first fruit dropped, the fruits on the tree were ready to pick. Mango normally
takes 90-120 days from fruit set to maturity. The mango is harvested by hand from the ground,
wherever reachable, or from ladders and by the use of a long pole with a metal basket or a cloth bag
(Fig. 5.6) to hold two or three large fruits. Harvesting is also done using two people, one on a ladder
to cut the fruit and let it drop into the hands of the other on the ground.
Any form of bruising should be avoided during harvesting. Normally the fruit will be harvested with a
3–4 cm length of peduncle; the fruit are put under the shade of the trees either on the ground in
small furrows or on a layer of sawdust or in specially designed boxes with the cut part of the
peduncle pointing down for about 30 min until the sap flow stops. Grade standards are usually based
upon size, color and freedom from injury and defects. Other requirements include full development,
freedom from stains and firmness.
5.3 Papaya maturity determination

Common maturity indices for papaya include: days from flowering to maturity, fruit size, flesh color,
skin color (Fig. 5.7), flesh firmness, and soluble solids content.

Take a random sample of five fruits, and record
(1) the degree of change of skin color of fruit from green to pale green or yellowish,
(2) whether the latex of fruits becomes watery,
(3) soluble solids content. At the end of your observation, compare your results with standard
maturity indices of papaya.
Papaya harvesting
Harvesting is easy when fruits can be reached by hand; as trees become taller some form of
harvesting aid, such as poles and ladders, must be used. The harvested fruits are accumulated in a
bucket, tray or cloth picking bag. These methods are possible only with the small ‘Solo’ fruit. When
the container is full, it is emptied into padded or lined bins left on field roads.
5.4 Pineapple maturity determination

Common maturity indices for pineapple include: number of days from planting to maturity, color of
lower portion of fruit (Fig. 5.8), nature and color of eye bracts, soluble solids content. Pineapple fruit
should have a minimum of 12% soluble solids near the base and 10% near the top. This is
determined by taking two cross sections of the fruit; one at the point of its largest diameter near the
base and another in the upper third portion of the fruit, and squeezing a few drops of juice from
each cross section onto the prism of a hand-held refractometer. The internal appearance of the flesh
is also indicative of fruit maturity. Random samples of fruit should be sliced horizontally at the point
of the largest diameter. Immature fruit has a white flesh color, while mature or ripe fruit has a
yellowish-white flesh. The flesh also becomes slightly translucent in appearance at maturity. Fruits
destined for the cannery are usually harvested at the half- to three-quarter-yellow stage. Fruit to be
transported to distant fresh fruit markets is picked anywhere from mature green (no yellow color) to
quarter-colored stage.
Figure 5.8 Pineapple is a non-climacteric fruit and can be harvested as soon as it is ready for
consumption. Maturity is determined by color and texture. At maturity fruits change color to yellow,
orange or red and soften. Number 2, 3, 4 and 5 on the photos above are right stages for harvest. 0
and 1 are pre-mature, while 6 and 7 are over- mature.
Source:http://ssadp.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Harvest-and-PostHarvest-Handling-of-
Horticultural-Crops.pdf

Take a random sample of five fruits, and record whether:
(1) the color change of lower portion of fruit turned green yellow;
(2) eyes on the fruit are smooth or flat and are bulged on the sides,
(3) eye bracts are loose and turned brown in color. At the end of your observation, compare your
results with standard maturity indices of pineapple.
Pineapple harvesting
Fruits are harvested by hand, and also harvested by pickers carrying large baskets on their backs.
When the baskets are full, the fruits are dumped at the ends of the rows or at the side of field roads,
to be later loaded into trucks or trailers. When the fruit arrives at the packing shed, it is unloaded by
hand.
5.5 Guava maturity determination

Common maturity indices for guava include: number of days after flowering, fruit skin color, fruit
softness, occurrence and shape of ridges on the fruit.

Take a random sample of five to ten fruits from, at least, three different canopy locations, and
record whether the:
(1) fruit color changed from green to pale green or yellow (Fig. 5.9),
(2) fruit became soft,
(3) A slight depression developed near the stalk end,
(4) Ridges on the fruit disappeared and it became round. At the end of your observation, compare
your results with standard maturity indices of guava.
Guava harvesting
Guava fruits are harvested at their full yellow but firm for local market, whereas half yellow fruits
should be picked for distant markets. The fruits are harvested selectively by hand along with the
stalk and leaves. Hand-pulling is employed. Higher branches can be reached with a ladder. The fruits
are collected in basket (or any other appropriate container). Picking is done 2 to 3 times a week
during harvest season of 8 to 10 weeks (for most varieties).
Discussion
- Compare the results and observations with other groups and discuss accordingly.
Conclusion
- Summarize what have been observed from the session,
- Make a conclusion based on your observations and results.
Recommendations
Self-assessment
Assess yourself by considering the following points:
1.Distinguish among the different maturity indices of tropical fruits (climacteric, no climacteric).
2. Enlist and describe maturity indices of the major tropical fruits and common harvesting tools for
the students (peer-group members),
3. When and how are fruits harvested?
4. What sorts of containers are used for harvesting tropical fruits?
5. Describe the common harvesting tools and containers used in Ethiopia.
References
1. O’Brien, C.F. 1983. Principles and Practices for Harvesting and Handling Fruits and
Nuts. AVI Publishing company, Inc. Westport, Connecticut, USA.
2. Thompson, A.K. 2003. Fruit and Vegetables: Harvesting, Handling and Storage.
(2ndEdition)Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford.
3. Kader, A.A. 1999. Fruit Maturity, Ripening, and Quality Relationships. In:Proc.
Int. Symp. On Effect of Pre- and Post Harvest Factors on Storage of Fruit (Ed., L.
Michalczuk).
4. Samson, J.A. 1982. Tropical fruits. Longman group Ltd., London.

Module 6
Field Visit to nearby Fruit Farm,
Agricultural Research Center and Agro-
industry
Theory
A field visit is a journey made by a student or a group of students to a place away from their normal
learning environment usually nearby tropical fruit Farm, Agricultural Research Center and agro-
industry. The basics of such a trip is mostly observation to broaden the students view about tropical
fruit crops production and management detailed activities about tropical fruit nursery establishment
and management, orchard establishment and management, harvesting, postharvest handling,
grading, packaging and marketing. Such field visits not only do provide alternative educational
opportunities for students, but can also benefit the community if they include some type of
community service by the students.
Objectives
To enable students to:
• Gain real working experiences about fruit crops production and management
• Identify the major fruit crops grown and their constraints
• Familiarize with all activities in relation to research, production, postharvest handling and
marketing of fruit crops
Materials
Procedure
1. Seek instructions about the proposed visit from the instructor (place of visit, date, schedule for
departure and return, any special instructions) ahead of the visit date
2. Make sure all materials (notebook, checklist, pen pencil.) are carried
3. Start the visit as per the instructions and follow all safety rules directed by the research center,
farm or processing plantation
4. During the visit, follow the instruction given by the team leader throughout the day
5. Visit the fruit farm, agricultural research center, and agro industry areas only the management
agrees
6. Critically observe all activities in nursery, orchard, pack house going on in the fruit farm,
agricultural research center, and agro industry
7. Check that all work areas in the fruit farm, agricultural research Centre and agro industry are kept
clean
8. Return to your destination as per the schedule

When writing your observation, consider the following issues:
• The session’s topic and objective.
• Name of the fruit farm, Agricultural Research Center, agro-industry etc. visited.
• State the activities observed associated with all aspects of the fruit farm, Agricultural Research
Center and agro industry activity.
Discussion
Discuss the activities you observed during the visit in accordance with the theory behind fruit
propagation, nursery and orchard establishment, maturity determination, harvesting and
postharvest handling dealt in the class. Any positive points that contribute to minimize those
mistakes should also be highlighted corroborating scientific reasoning.
Conclusion
Based on your observation give a conclusion about the overall activities of the tropical fruit
establishments visited
Recommendations, if any
Self-assessment
Assess the level of your understanding considering the following questions
• Do I understand the research activities carried in relation to fruit crops
• Do I can manage fruit crops production and management activities independently?
• Do I know the need of field visit in relation to fruit crop farms, research, production and
management establishments?
• Do I need any additional knowledge/skill to take about fruit crops production and management? If
so what sort of additional input is needed?
• What knowledge and skill I gained from the field visit?
References
1. Wikipedia, 2009. The Free Encyclopedia. The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. 501(c)(3) tax-
deductible nonprofit charity. http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/ Manioc (accessed on August, 2018).
2.http://www.informalscience.org/news-views/field-trips-are-valuable-learningexperiences
(accessed on Dec.,2 2018)
https://www.slideshare.net/RochelleNato/lesson-1-use-of-farm-tools-and-equipment
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=O2%2fBKmVB&id=309AEAEB8612348E1
DBD8600FCEB7CE769F4118B&thid=OIP.O2_BKmVBigRGxBAVkhtZxgHaGJ&mediaurl=https%3a%2f%
2fc1.staticflickr.com%2f3%2f2709%2f5814067472_2bff5a37d3_b.jpg&exph=851&expw=1024&q=ba
nana+plant+parts&simid=607998362267765667&ck=A9B4480CF4F6FAE37BD6E2317AA29395&selec
tedIndex=3&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0&ajaxserp=0
Classification of Fruits
1. Fruit production
2. Specific Objectives:
• To accustom students with production technology of major fruits.
3. Theory: outline
• Classification of fruits
• Cultivation with reference to acreage
• Production
• Botany
• Cultivars
• Rootstocks •
Propagation
4. Theory: outline
• Climate
• Soil
• Cultural practices (water, nutrition, weeds, diseases, disorders and pest management) • Maturity •
Ripening
• Harvesting
• Quality assurance
• Marketing
5. Practical: outline
• Practices in fruit health management
• Pollination in commercial fruits
• Cost of production
• Description and identification of commercial cultivars of important fruits
• Visit to research institutes and commercial orchards
6. Recommended Books
• Bali, S.S. 2003. Fruit Growing, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
• Bose, T.K. and S.K. Mitra (Eds.). 1990. Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical. Naya Prokash, Calcutta-Six.
• Mitra, S.K., D.S. Rathore, and T.K. Bose (Eds.). 1991. Temperate Fruits. Horticulture and Allied
Publishers, Calcutta.
• Barooh, S. 1998. Modern Fruit Culture. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, New Delhi, India.
• Chottopadhay, T.K. (Ed.). 2006. A Textbook on Pomology, Vol: II. Tropical Fruits. Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana, New Delhi, India.
• Chottopadhay, T.K. (Ed.). 2009. A Textbook on Pomology, Vol: IV. Temperate Fruits. Kalyani
Publishers, Ludhiana, New Delhi, India.
• Yadav, P.K. 2007. Fruit Production Technology. International Book Distributing Co. (Publishing
Division), Lucknow, India.
• Jackson, D.I., N.E. Looney (Eds.). 1999. Temperate and Subtropical Fruit Production (2nd Ed.). CAB
International Publishing, Wallingford, U.K.
• Nakasone, H.Y. and R.E. Paull. 1998. Tropical Fruits. Crop Production Science in Horticulture 7. CAB
International Publishing, Wallingford, U.K.
• Salunkhe, D.K., S.S. Kadam. 1995. Handbook of Fruit Science: production, composition, storage and
processing. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York
8. • Journals/Periodicals:
• Major journal and periodicals related with production technology of the fruits
• Scientia Horticulturae (Elseveir)
• Fruits (Cambridge)
• International Journal of Fruit Science (Taylor and Francis)
• Journal of American Society of Horticultural Sciences (ASHS)
• Acta Horticulture (ISHS
) • Worldwide Web:
• Important websites related to production technology of fruits
• http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/ (University of California, USA)
• http://www.tfrec.wsu.edu/ (Washington State University, USA)
• http://fruit.cfans.umn.edu/ (University of Minnesota, USA)
• http://miami-dade.ifas.ufl.edu/agriculture/tropical_fruit.shtml (University of Florida, USA)
• Botanically referred to as “ripened ovary”
• ‘FRUIT’ Latin word which means ‘ENJOY”
• Commonly juicy, sweet and tart kind used as dessert or snack
• Technically
• Fleshy tissue associated with ovary
• Produced by a perennial woody plant
• Exception ‘Strawberry’
1. Watermelon
2. Muskmelon
3. Tomato A snack is a portion of food often smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between
meals A Dessert is a typically sweet course that concludes an evening meal. The course usually
consists of sweet foods, but may include other items.
Classification of Fruit On the basis of:
1. Structure (Systematic Pomology)
2. Usage
3. Temperature requirement/Climatic conditions
4. Response to ethylene
11. Classification of fruit: Structure
• On the basis of the number of ovaries and the number of flowers involved in their formation.
Structure Simple fruit Aggregate fruit Multiple fruit
12. Types of fruit
• Simple fruit
• Derived from a single ovary e.g. Peach, Plum, mango
• Aggregate fruit
• Derived from a flower having many pistils on a common receptacle e.g. Blackberry, Strawberry
• Multiple fruit
• Derived from separate but closely clustered flowers e.g. Pineapple, fig, mulberry
13. Simple fruit Fleshy fruit Dry fruit
14. 1. Fleshy Fruits
• A fruit in which the wall becomes soft and fleshy as it matures. Types of Fleshy Fruits A. Drupe B.
Berry C. Pome
15. • A one-seeded simple fruit developed from a superior ovary having three distinct layers e.g.
mango, peach, plum • Exocarp • Mesocarp • Endocarp A. Drupe (Stone fruit/ True fruit)
16. B. The Berry
• A fruit formed from a compound ovary with few to many seeds. The entire pericarp is fleshy. (e.g.
grape, banana, gooseberry, kiwi)
• Two special types of
1. Hesperidium
2. Pepo
17. Common berries
18. Hesperidium
• This is a special type of berry in which a leathery rind forms containing oil and locules filled with
fleshy outgrowths containing juice
• the interior of the fruit divided by septa, indicating the number of carpels.
19. Pepo
• Berry with a relatively hard rind (watermelon, gourds, squash).
20. C. Pome (False fruit)
• a pome (after the French name for an apple: pomme)
• Edible part is thalamus e.g. (Apple, pear, quince)
• Hypanthium: A cup-shaped structure surrounding the ovary
21. 2. Dry Fruits
22. A. Dehiscent
23. iii. Capsule
24. Cotton
25. E. Silique - a special long slender capsule of 2 carpels.
26. F. Silicula - a special short broad capsule of 2 carpels.
27. Indehiscent fruits
• Dry fruits which do not open when mature to shed their seeds.
• Many of this group are one seeded fruits.
Types of Indehiscent Fruits:
a. Achene d. grain b. Nut e. Schizocarp c. Samara
28. Strawberry (Fragaria sp.)Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) Seed without wings and with thin fruit
wall. One seed attached to ovary wall at one point. A. Achene
29. B. Nut
• A dry, indehiscent, one seeded fruit similar to an achene but with the wall greatly thickened and
hardened.
• (beech, chestnut, oak, hazel; walnut and hickory - note: because of extrafloral bracts, or "husk",
the latter two fruits are sometimes called "drupes").
30. bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa).
31. C. Samara
• A one- or two-seeded dry, indehiscent fruit in which part of the fruit wall grows out into a wing.
(elm, maple, ash).
• an achene with a wing for wind dispersal Narra
32. D. Grain or Caryopsis
• one seed which has the seed coat fused to the pericarp
33. E. Schizocarp = from a compound pistil, splits into mericarps (pieces) which enclose one or more
seeds and resemble fruits themselves.
34. Temperature requirement
• Tropical fruit
• a year-round summer-like growing season without freezing temperatures. Examples include cocao,
cashew, banana, mango, papaya, and pineapple.
• Sub-tropical fruit
• cannot tolerate severe winter temperatures but need some winter chilling. Examples include
citrus, dates, figs, and olives.
• Temperate fruit
• require a cold winter season as well as a summer growing season
• adapted to survive temperatures considerably below freezing. Examples include apples, cherries,
peaches,
35. Plant characteristics
• Tree fruit
• The fruit produced on trees like peach, plum, mango etc
• Small fruit
• The fruit produced on shrubs (brambles) like blackberry, raspberry etc
36. • a "bramble" is any rough, (usually wild) tangled prickly shrub, specifically the blackberry bush
(Rubus fruticosus), or any hybrid of similar appearance, with thorny stems. Black berry
37. Ripening/ response to ethylene
• Fruits can be divided into two groups according to the regulatory mechanisms underlying their
ripening process.
• Climacteric fruit,
• characterized by a ripening-associated increase in respiration and in ethylene production, the
ethylene being the major trigger and coordinator of the ripening process. e.g. tomato, apple, pear,
and melon
• Non-climacteric fruits,
• characterized by the lack of ethylene-associated respiratory peak and the signaling pathways that
drive the ripening process e.g. grape, orange and pineapple
38. Webinar
• https://www.onlineseminar.nl/haifa-u/webinar/5961/optimizing- color--appearance/
https://www.slideshare.net/JunaidAbbas5/classification-of-fruits-59148648
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lecture1-160306104403/95/classification-of-fruits-19-
638.jpg?cb=1457261104

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Contents

Course 1 - Hort –Fruit Crops Production and Management

Module 1: Identification of Horticultural Tools, Equipment and Tropical Fruit Crops

Activity 1.1 Horticultural Tools and Equipment

Activity 1.2 Identification of Tropical Fruit Crops

Module 2: Demonstration of Tropical Fruit Crops Propagation

Activity 2.1 Procedure for propagation of selected tropical fruits by seed

Activity 2.3 Micropropagation of tropical fruit crops

Module 3: Tropical Fruits Nursery Establishment and Management

Module 4: Orchard Establishment and Management

Activity 4.1 Procedure for site selection

Activity 4.2 Procedure for selection of planting system/layout

Activity 4.4 Procedure for planting of fruit saplings

Activity 4.5 Procedure for training and pruning of fruit crops

Activity 4.6 Procedure for fertilizer and water application

Activity 4.7 Procedure for pollination and pollination management

Activity 4.8 Procedure for fruit thinning

Activity 4.9 Procedure for pest management in orchards

Module 5: Maturity Determination, and Harvesting

Activity 5.1 Banana maturity determination

Activity 5.2 Mango maturity determination

Activity 5.3 Papaya maturity determination

Activity 5.4 Pineapple maturity determination

Activity 5.5 Guava maturity determination

Activity 1.1: Identification of Horticultural Tools and Equipment

Horticultural tools Description and their use

• Long handled with flat and perpendicular blade at the end.

For digging hard soils

- A long handled tool traditionally used for

• All-purpose shovel, rounded, sharp point widely used garden tool.

• Used to break up compacted soil, spread fertilizers and compost, remove

• Used for securing net, line or fleece to the ground

• Used for lay outing activities and tying plants to stakes

• Shears for different purposes (Pruning, Harvesting)

• Long handles provide extra leverage for pruning thick branches

• Used to protect feet from stones, falling items or tools.

• Clip and pick fruit picker

• Fruit Tree Picking Pole with Basket

Observation and Expression of Results

No. Tools/ equipment Functions/uses

Flip Chart 1. Pictorial description of major tropical fruits

Major Fruits Plant Appearance Flower Fruit Seed/Propagule

No Common Name Botanical Name Brief description*

3. Samson, J.A.1990.Tropical Fruits Longman group Ltd. London. 3.

2.1 Procedure for propagation of selected tropical fruits by seed

2.1.1 Procedure for seed extraction of selected tropical fruits

A. Procedure for propagation of mango by seed

9. The seedlings are grown under ~30% shade.

1. Harvest ripe fruits from selected plants,

C. Procedure for propagation of papaya by seed

Write your observations based on the following points:

• Fruit seeds need to be dried under shade.

1. Do I know seed extraction procedures of tropical fruits available in my area?

2.2 Procedure for propagation of selected tropical fruits by vegetative means

A) Procedure for propagation of banana

To get quality scions follow these steps:

Wedge grafting (Fig. 2.7) procedure:

Join rootstock and scion

D) Procedure for propagation of guava by wedge grafting

E) Procedure for propagation of guava by shoot (soft wood) cuttings