I

sn, is a
the po-
Nature, .

Macbeth,
he may
leath; he Joan LarsenKlein
ould like
Lady Macbeth:
"Infirm of Purpose"

In the Elizabethan marriage service, in the Elizabethan

tomily on marriage, in books like Vives.'s Instruction of a
Christen Woman and Tilney's discourse on marriage,
women were said to be weaker than men in reason and
Physical strength, prone to fears and subject to the vagaries
?f their imaginations. The second account of the creation
^ Genesis even suggests that the perfect woman was an
afterthought, created later than the perfect man, shaped
Spm his rib in order to forestall his loneliness and to be a
helpe meet for him" (Chapter II, verse 20). The serpent
**$ able to seduce Eve, many theologians said, because
'he was the weakervessel. When she seduced Adam, they
^eluded, she reversed the order and denied the purpose
°* her own creation. On account of the original created
^jate of woman and the curse of the Fall, therefore, it was
Jjid that women were bound by nature and law to obey
J*fr husbands as well as their God. Only when husbands
acted in opposition to divine law, said all the treatises, •r
^d their wives disobey them, however, the chief duty of
jftod wives was to try lovingly to bring their errant hus-
^nds back into virtuous ways.
$* Ursen Klein, "Lady Macbeth: 'Infirm of Purpose,'" in The
\
Toman's pflrt; Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare, eds. Carol Ruth Swift
^ Gayle Greene, and Carol Thomas Neely (Urbana: University of
°°a Press, 1980), pp. 240-51.
241
 242 JOAN LARSEN KLEIN LADY MACBETH 243
Lady Macbeth violates her chief duty to her husband self appears to be imperfectly rational and infected in wilL
and her God when she urges Macbeth to murder his king. That the witches wait for no other purpose than to meet
For these and other reasons, most critics believe that Lady him suggests that he has long since opened his mind to
Macbeth, the "fiend-like queen" (v.viii.69), lapses from demonic temptation, for "that olde and craftie enemie of
womanliness. I want to suggest, however, that Shakespeare ours, assailes none . . . except he first finde an entresse
intended us to think that Lady Macbeth, despite her at reddy for him." In fact, it is Macbeth who seems originally
tempt to unsex herself, is never able to separate herself to have thought of murdering Duncan (see i.vii.47-48).
completely from womankind—unlike her husband, who Yet Macbeth, unlike Lady Macbeth, can at first perceive
ultimately becomes less and worse than a man. At the be goodness. He knows that "Duncan . . . hath been / So
ginning Lady Macbeth embodies certain Renaissance no clear in his great office" (i.vii.16-18) and that Banquo is
tions about women. But when she wills actions that are royal "of nature" (m.i.50). He also, for one short mo
opposed to the dictates of charity and fails in her chief ment, seems to understand that charity, not cruelty, ought
duty, her wifely roles of hostess and helpmate are perverted. to motivate human action and that pity, not cruelty, is
N *
She is deprived of even these perverted roles in the banquet strong—-that pity strides the blast and tears drown the
scene as Macbeth abandons his roles of host and husband. wind. His momentary vision of pity as a newborn babe,
Her occupation gone, Lady Macbeth is left anguished, furthermore, evokes not only the image of Christ trium
alone, and guilty in ways which are particularly "feminine." phant but also the emblem of charity—a naked babe
Lady Macbeth embodies in extremity, I think, the Renais sucking the breast We should remember, however, that
sance commonplace that women reflect God's image less charity was associated more often with women than it was
clearly than men and that consequently women are less with men because woman, like children, were thought to
reasonable than men. Right reason enables mankind to be physically weak: "hit is natural for women to be kynde
choose between good and evil and thus to know right from and gentyll / bicausethey be feble / and nede the ayde of
wrong. Lady Macbeth, however, seems to have repudiated other," said Vives (sig. MT). But the woman who denies
whatever glimmerings of right reason she might once have her nature and is consumed with "outragious ire and
possessed. Shedoes not considerthe ethical or the religious cruelte," said Vives, "hit is jeoperdye / leest she be dis-
aspects of murder. She seems to believe, for instance, that troyed / and have everlastyngepayne / bothe in this lyfe /
ambition is attended with "illness" (i.v.21). That which and in an other" (sig. MT-Mii). Portia argues for mercy;
one craves"highly," she says, cannot be got "holiry" (21- Cordelia practices it. It is Macbeth, however, not Lady
22).The dying grooms' prayers for blessing andMacbeth's Macbeth, who has rightreason enough to glimpse both the
inabilityto say "Amen," she insists, must not be considered strength of pity and its chief resting place. But he never
"so deeply" (n.ii.26-29). She refuses, in fact, to think of acts upon his vision and she never sees it.
"These deeds . . . After these ways" (32-33). Thus she Having apparently denied her God, Lady Macbeth puts
seems to have forgotten or repudiated the dictates of reason her trust in the murdering ministers of Hell. Thus she dis
and her own conscience. Shakespeare may even intend us obeys the first rule of marriage as it was formulated in the
to conclude that she has renounced her God. sixteenth century. A wife, said Tilney in the language of
Having put away the knowledge of good, LadyMacbeth natural fruition common to Macbeth, must trust wholly in
is without charity. She is without, in other words, the vir God: a wife "must being of hir selfe weake, and unable
tue enjoined on mankind by Christ when He told man to besides hir owne diligence, put hir whole trust in the first
love his neighbor as himself, the virtue which gave man ... author thereof, whome if she serve faythfulrye, wyll no
the will to act upon his knowledge of good. Macbeth him- doubt, make thys Flower [of Friendship in holye Matri-
'
 4
244 JOAN LARSEN KLEIN
LADY MACBETH 245
monie] to spring up in hir aboundantly" (sig. E[7]). Noth wife, a helpmate. Thus she epitomizes at the same time that
ing in life can prosper, say all the authorities, when faith she perverts Renaissance views of the woman's role. Mac
is dead, and the commandments of Christ denied. Thus, beth, she says, shall be what he is "promised" (i.v.17).
despiteher wish to aid her husband, Lady Macbeth cannot "Great Glamis" must have the "golden round" (23, 29).
give him that lasting companionship under God which the When Lady Macbeth reads Macbeth's letter, she speaks
Homilies saw as true marriage. Furthermore, although not to herself but to her husband: "Thou wouldst be great
Lady Macbeth may once have had a child, its absence ... wouldstnot play false, / And yet wouldstwrongly win"
from her life and her willingness to contemplate its de (16-20). (Macbeth, on the contrary, absents himself in
struction contradict the Homilies' view that children are an soliloquy even in company.) Lady Macbeth will "chastise"
end of marriage, a blessing upon their parents, and a means Macbeth with the "valor" of her tongue so thathe, not she,
of enlarging'God's kingdom. Macbeth atfirst triescrookedly might have what he wants (28). Nowhere does she men
to keep to the waysof faith even as he dwells on the pros tion Macbeth's implied bribe—that she, too, has been
pect or damnation and feels the loss of grace: "Wherefore promised "greatness" (14). When Lady Macbeth later
could not I pronounce 'Amen'?" he asks (n.ii.30). But speaks to Macbeth in person, she measures what she takes
Lady Macbeth refuses from the outset to consider the first to be his love for her by his willingness to murder. But love 1*0
author of her being, the last judge of her actions, and the for Lady Macbeth never figures in Macbeth's stated desires
life to come.
for the kingdom or for an heir. Nor does he give in to her
Perhaps because of her separation from God, Lady persuasions out of love. On the contrary, he responds to
Macbeth is as mistaken about her own nature as she is her only when she impeaches his manliness and arouses
about her marriage. She says she could dash out the brains his fear. "If we should fail?" (i.vii.59), he asks. In a grim
ofhersuckling child. She thinks ofwounding with herkeen perversion of married companionship, Lady Macbeth re
knife. But she has no child and can not murder the sleep sponds by assuming the feminine role of comforter and
ing Duncan. She begs to be unsexed, but is never able to helper: "We'll not fail" (61). But Macbeth never includes
assume in fact what she wrongly believes is the masculine Lady Macbeth in any of his visions of thedeed successfully
attribute of "direst cruelty" (i.v.41). Lady Macbeth, there done.
fore, cannot act out of cruelty. But she refuses to act out Although Lady Macbeth always thinks of herself as a
of what Latimer called "charitable" love. As she forfeits wife, Macbeth thinks of himself as a husband only when
the power for goodwhichderives from the practice of pity, she forces him to do so. Otherwise he is concerned solely
she is left only with loss and weakness. She is further for himself: "I am Thane of Cawdor ... My thought. . .
enfeebled to the point of madness by what Bright called Shakes ... my single state of man" (i.iii.133^0). (The
the awareness of sin. Along this path to despair, she does witches recognize Macbeth's self-interest Setter than Lady
i
not even seem to notice that she also loses her husband. Macbeth does; they never discuss her with him.) In his
But Macbeth loses too. He exchanges the fellowship of his soliloquy during the first banquet, Macbeth uses the royal
badly founded marriage to Lady Macbeth for union with we proleptically when he describes his readiness to jump
the weird sisters. He exchanges his hopes for men-children the life to come and the first person singular when he
born to his wife for the grisly finger of a birth-strangled thinks about hisown ambition and his present relationship
babe and tormenting visions of the crowned children of to a loving king. Nowhere in this soliloquy does he speak
other men.
of a wife or future queen. When Macbeth goes to murder
Despite Lady Macbeth's heavy ignorance of Christian Duncan, it is the fatal vision of his own mind that mate
marriage, she conceives of herself almost exclusively as a rializes before him. The "I" sees the dagger of his own
:.
J
246 JOAN LARSEN KLEIN
LADY MACBETH 247
fantasy and the "I" draws the dagger of steel. After the to nd herself ofit, begs murdering ministers to come to her
murder of Duncan, there is almost no husband to talk to a woman s breasts and take that milk "for gall" (i.v.49). She
wife, for Lady Macbeth can scarcely reach Macbeth. also begs those demonic ministers to stop up in her "th'
"What do you mean?" (n.ii.39), she asks him. "Be not access andpassage to remorse" andthus forestall the"com
lost / So poorly in your thoughts" (70-71), she begs him, punctious yisitings of nature" which result when bonds of
quite uselessly. After the murder of Banquo, Macbeth is kind are violated (i.v.45-46; "compunction" = the stings
wholly dominated by self: "For mine own good / All of conscience OED, 1). But Lady Macbeth's prayers are
causes shall give way" (ra.iv.136-37). never granted by any of the murdering ministers we see
In spite of the view of some critics that Lady Macbeth waiting on nature's mischief. Unlike Macbeth and until her
is the evil force behind Macbeth's unwilling villainy, she own suicide, Lady Macbeth does not succeed in breaking
seems to epitomize the sixteenth-century belief that women
are passive, men active: "nature made man more strong kind81634 bond which keeps him pale and ties her to her 3->*^
and couragiouse, the woman more weake fearefull and Remorse and guilt finally overtake Lady Macbeth But
scrupulouse, to the intente that she for her feblenesse
shulde be more circumspecte, the man for his strengthe she manages for a short time to slow their advent by oc
moche more adventurouse." It is Macbeth, the man, who cupy herself with the practical details of murder. Indeed,
must be the "same in [his] own act and valor / As Die is]
Lady Macbeth s preparations for the clearing up after
in desire" (i.vii.40-41), Macbeth, who must "screw [his] Duncans murder become a frightening perversion of Re
courage to the sticking-place" (60). Lady Macbeth's
naissance woman's domestic activity. As Vives said, "the
threats of violence, for all their force and cruelty, are empty busynes and charge within the house lyeth upon the
fantasies. It is Macbeth who converts them to hard reality. womans hande" (sig. KIT). Unlike Goneril, Regan, Cor-
He does so in terms of his single self and his singular act: deha, and Desdemona—all of whom take to the field of
"I am settled, and bend up / Each corporal agent to this ™!!i a y Macbeth waits for Macbeth at home, where
terrible fear (79-80).
pod-conduct books told her to stay: "whan her husbande
One can suggest, I think, that the virtues which Lady Iw£S ?w?rCS' ^ankepe her house moche more diligently
Macbeth sees as defects in Macbeth's character and ob t^lL (I1W(%
bers to give "?: '3*to At
"tending" thehome' ^ Macbeth
messenger who comesremem
with
stacles to his success are in fact the better parts of her own
being—which she determines to suppress. She says that thl
tue twl^03* ?arriV?l
krng that s coming (LV'32)-
/ Must She ^members
be provided that
for" (i.v.67-
she fears Macbeth's nature because "It is too full o' th'
milk of human kindness" (i.v.18), but we have never seen fTi'inPiaSVI bostess," "Fair and noble hostess"
Macbeth "kind." On the contrary, we were told about a aWflA nil }' As she connives at murder, she thinks to
man whose sword "smoked with bloody execution" and assail the grooms with "wine and wassail" (i.vii.64). Even
were shown a man whose thought was taken over by mur 2££hX7 1?mi?*2 t0 d^ribe her doraestic b^tIeground
derous "imaginings" (i.ii.18; l.iii.138). It isLady Macbeth SSft&f^S6? *"£ tamQS 0f home-brewed liquor
who knows "How tender 'tis to love the babe that milks" &fh v£? \ ief0u I?Uncans murder> il * Lady Mac-
her (i.vii.55). It is Lady Macbeth who could not kill be readv^l^10^!^8 doors and IaVs the daggers
cause she remembered her father as he slept Thus it is murIr^^0Urgh,M^bQth draws one of his own. After the
Lady Macbeth, not Macbeth, who feels the bonds of kind, Kw2Vi!S
blood. In her¥dy Macbeth
last act wh° smearsLady
as housekeeper, the Macbeth
grooms with
re
\
Lady Macbeth who has, as women were supposed to have,
something of the milk of human kindness in her, and who, m^nU^r811 DUnCaD'S h^^orf'thei/hands'and to
put on nightgowns.
248 JOAN LARSEN KLEIN
LADY MACBETH 249
As soon as Duncan's murder isa public fact, Lady Mac there beyond her reach and her comprehension, she is
beth begins to lose her place in society and her position at powerless. Ross, not Lady Macbeth, gives the first com
home. She does so because there is no room for her in the
exclusively male world of treason and revenge. Therefore,
mand to rise. When Lady Macbeth twice tries to tell the
her true weakness and lack of consequence are first re
nobles that Macbeth has been thus since his youth, no one
vealed in the discovery scene. Lady Macbeth's feeble and pretends to believe her. When she attempts to preserve the
domestic response, for instance, to the news she expected good meeting" (m.iv.110), even Macbeth ignores her. As
to hear—"What, in our house?" (n.iii.89)—is very differ soon asshe isforced byMacbeth's actions to give over her
ent from the cries and clamors she said she would raise.
last role, she dissolves in confusion the very society upon
When she asks Macduff the domestic question, "What's the
whose continuance that role depends. With her husband
business" that wakes the "sleepers of the house?" (83-85), out of her reach and society in shambles, Lady Macbeth
he refuses to answer a "gentle lady"; " Tis not for you to
no longer hasanyreason forbeing.
hear what I can speak" (86). It is apparent, therefore, that As soon as Macbeth abandons her company for that of
Lady Macbeth has as little place in the male world of
the witches, Lady Macbeth is totally alone. In fact, Mac-
revenge as she had in the male world of war. Thus it may tr s,umon ^th the witches symbolizes the culmination
be that her faint is genuine, a confirmation of her debility. of Lady Macbeth's loss of womanly social roles as well as
On the other hand, if her faint is only pretended in order
herloss ofhome and family. But hergrowing isolation had
to shield Macbeth, it is still a particularly feminine ploy. been apparent from the moment her husband became king.
True or false, k dramatically symbolizes weakness. It has
Unlike Portia or Desdemona or even Macbeth himself,
the further effect of removing her from the center of events
Lady Macbeth was never seen with friends or woman-
servants in whose presence she could take comfort Even
to the periphery, from whence she never returns. It is char when she appeared in company, she was the only woman
acteristic that Macbeth, busy defending himself, ignores there. Consequently, once she begins to lose her husband,
his lady's fall. Only Banquo and Macduff in the midst of she has neither person nor occupation to stave off the visit-
genuine grief take time to "Look to the lady" (121, 128). rngs of nature. All she has is time, time to succumb to that
After Macbeth becomes king, he, the man, so fully com human kindness which, said Bright, no one could forget
mands Lady Macbeth that he allows her no share in his and remain human. Thus, in Lady Macbeth's short solilo '-
new business. No longer his accomplice, she loses her role quy before Macbeth's feast, even though she still talks in
as housekeeper. Macbeth plans the next feast, not Lady terms of "we," she seems to be speaking only of herself.
Macbeth. It is Macbeth who invites Banquo to ft, not Lady Alone and unoccupied, she is visited by the remorse and
Macbeth, who had welcomed Duncan to Inverness by her sorrow she had hoped to banish:
self. When Macbeth commands his nobles to leave him
alone, Lady Macbeth withdraws silently and unnoticed Naught's had, all'sspent,
along with them (m.i.39—43). Macbeth does not tell Lady Whereour desireis got without content.
Macbeth that he plans to murder Banquo before his feast Tis safer to bethatwhich we destroy
or even that he wanted Macduff to attend it Although Than by destruction dwell in doubtful joy. (m.ii.4-7)
Macbeth needed Lady Macbeth to keep house during
Duncan's murder, he disposes of Banquo well outside the Lady Macbeth's existence now is circumscribed by the
castle walls. Thus Lady Macbeth is now neither companion present memory of past loss. Absent from her mind is the
nor helpmate. Finally, in the great banquet scene, she loses sense of future promise she had anticipated before Dun
even her faltering role as hostess. Because Macbeth is can's murder when she thought herself transported beyond
.

250 JOAN LARSEN KLEIN

LADY MACBETH
the "ignorant present" and felt "The future in the instant" 251
(i.v.58-59). In her wordsrwe also hear, I think, what It •wheQ they sit at their warm hearths and tell tales to
Bright calls the afflictions of a guilt-ridden conscience, that their children. In fact, Lady Macbeth's words describe the
"internal anguish [which] bereve[s] us of all delight" in comforts of a home she so little knows that she uses the
"outward benefits." Even, after Macbeth joins Lady Mac picture her words evoke to castigate a man who will soon
beth, her words seem to continue her own thoughts, not to destroy the only real home we see in the play. Thus it is
describe his: "Why do you keep alone, / Of sorriest fancies not surprising that Lady Macbeth atthe end of the banquet
your companions making" (m.ii.8-9). For we know, as scene does not seem to realize that Macbeth is leaving her
Lady Macbeth does not that Macbeth is thinking of the ?f a ? ?e Fommunity of men in order to join th!un-
coming murder of Banquo, not the past murder of Dun sexed witches in an unholy union—one wherein they joy
can. We know his recent companions have been murderers, \L SEE his heart" (rv.i.l 10). As soon as Macbeth joU
not "fancies." Only Lady Macbeth suffers now the "repeti ™LTtches, Lady Macbeth no longer has any place any-
tion" of the "horror" of Duncan's death which Macduff
had feared "in a woman's ear / Would murder as it fell"
rTor hn^fc
nor hostess ^'
WhenShewewnei?er ***she
see her next, 1ueen' housekeeper,
will have lost the
(n.iii.82, 87-88). When Lady Macbeth thinks to quiet her memories of motherhood and childhood she remembered
husband, she does so with advice she has already revealed n?^^ -i. 3fd Uued S? Crue"y at the beginning of the
she cannot herself take: "Things without all remedy/ EnLSe ™H also have lost that fragmented glimpse of
Should be without regard" (m.ii.11-12). But Macbeth no womanly life she repudiates during her last banquet
longer needs her advice: "Duncan is in his grave," he says, J S Tlkfg scene' Lady Macbeth exists (for she
"nothing, / Can touch him further" (22-26). Thus Shake soul which
whlehSa,ld t0 5r}can* enlighten,
thf PerPetuaI darkness
speare shows us that the differences between husband and soul no candle although she *hasthea
wife are extreme. Macbeth wades deeper and deeper in *aP.er hy her continually. This is the darkness of the soul
blood in order to stifle the tortures of a mind which fears which, said Bright "is above measure unhappy and most
only the future: Banquo's increasing kingliness, Fleance hrlTf-v 3*2* b°? &*<*> Lady Macbeth is withou
and his unborn children, all living things and their seed
Lady Macbeth, her husband's "Sweet remembrancer"
fe^6 thC damned
within the present mthe
memory In1erno>
of past sfae exists
horrors. In factsolely
her
(rn.iv.38), does little else but think of horrors past: of the existence seems to exemplify-but only in relation to her-
"air drawn" dagger which led Macbeth to Duncan (63), Sri?fu16Val definjt">ns of eternal time as the everlasting
; of the kingslaughtered and her hands bloodied,of Banquo nened nU^T* durm& which all things that have hap:
dead and Lady Macduff in realms unknown. l\de %LVt bapP<? are happening. For she relives ou£
In the banquet scene, Lady Macbeth's words reveal an sent, 27f5mp°1? SeqUeDCe aU Macbeth's murders and
increase in weakness, emphasize the loss of her womanly JhS «w2/5 damna^on/ were an already accomplished fact,
roles, and lay bare her present isolation. Her scolding, for that Hell is murky" (v.i.39). Without grace, Lady Mac-
instance, is no more than a weak, futile imitation of the SStSrS
Macduff ST**aW°rid
might possess another°Utside
kind ofherbeing.
own Nor
wherecanLady
she
tells Macbeth, "would well become / A woman's story at
tofhE?stT/SrWth3n
SnS? she and Macbeth possess, thatawhich
powershe s«llTeems
which might
a winter's fire, / Authorized by her grandam" (in.iv.64- SfJTi * accomPt" (42). In the prison of her"own
anguish, she is ignorant of good and the God she long aw
67). But her images also evoke a kind of homeliness and
comfort she can never know: the security that other women renounced. This is the illness that Bright said no ohvsi?
could cure: "Here no medicine, no purfadon nocoSl
6
 252 JOAN LARSEN KLEIN
LADY MACBETH 253
no tryacle or balme are able to assure the afflicted soule
and trembling heart." This is the infection of the mind cruelty she ignorantly and perversely identified with male
which the physician hired by Macbeth says only a divine strength. But she has lost that true strength which Shake
can cure—although Shakespeare shows us no priest in speare says elsewhere isbased on pity and fostered by love
Scotland.
She is not now—perhaps she never was—of real con
It is painfully ironic that Lady Macbeth, who had once cern to herlord, whom she remembers and speaks to even
thought that drink could make "memory, the warder of the as she sleepwalks. Macbeth does not think of her as he
brain," into a fume and sleep into something "swinish" prepares himself for war. When her doctor forces Macbeth
(i.vii.65-67), can now neither forget her guilt nor sleep to speak about her troubled mind, Macbeth renounces
the sleep of oblivion. Unlike Macbeth, however, who re- physic on his own account, not hers. "I'll none of it," he
- vealed his guilt before the assembled nobility of Scotland, says (v.m.47). It is ironic, therefore, that Lady Macbeth,
Lady Macbeth confesses hers when she is alone. She does
offstage and neglected, is able at the last to unsex herself
so because she has always been, as women were supposed only through the act of self-murder—in contrast to her
to be, a private figure, living behind closed doors. She also husband, whose single attribute now is the "direst cruelty"
reveals her anguish in sleep partly because she has no pur she begged for, who wills himself to murder others tomor
poseful waking existence and partly, as Banquo said, be row after tomorrow so long as he sees "lives" (vviii 2)
cause in repose the fallen, unblessed nature "gives way" to Thecry ofwomen which rises at his wife's death isno more
"cursed thoughts" (n.i.8-9; seealso v.i.69-72). Macbeth's than another proof to him that he is fearless, that no
guilty soul is as public as his acts. Lady Macbeth's is as horrors can move him. (v.v.13). Even her death to him
private as memory, tormented by a self whose function is
is only a 'word," a word for which he has no "time"
(v.v.18).
only to remember in isolation and unwillingly the deeds
done by another. So tormented is Lady Macbeth that the
gentlewoman—the first we ever see tending her—says she
would not have that heart in her "bosom for the dignity of
the whole body" (v.i.59). ?
Our final ghmpse into the afflicted and brainsick mind
of Lady Macbeth reveals that her doctoris eithermistaken
or lying when he says she is troubled with "thick-coming
fancies" (v.iii.38). Her madness is not that melancholy
which springs from delusion, but rather than which stems
from true and substantial causes. Her mind, like her being
as mother, child, wife, and hostess, has also been twisted
yjher destructive longing for Macbeth to murder cruelly
and deliberately. When we see Lady Macbeth at the end,
therefore, she is "womanly" only in that she is sick and
weak. AH thevalor of her tongue is gone, as is her illusion
of its power. The hands whichshe cannot sweeten with the
perfumes of Arabia are the little hands of a woman. As
long as she lives, Lady Macbeth is never unsexed in the
only way she wanted to be unsexed—able to act with the