Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U.

Sarkar

Syllabus: Elementary operations and their use in getting the rank, inverse of a matrix and solution of
linear simultaneous equations, orthogonal, symmetric, skew-symmetric, Hermitian, skew-Hermitian,
normal & unitary matrices and their elementary properties, eigen-values and eigenvectors of a matrix,
Caley-Hamilton theorem.

Matrix and Determinant:

An 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix is given by
𝑎11 𝑎12 … … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 … … 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = …… …… … …… …
…
𝑚 ×𝑛 …
𝑎𝑚 1 𝑎𝑚 2 … … 𝑎𝑚𝑛

Square Matrix: If 𝑚 = 𝑛 then 𝐴 is called a square matrix. The following matrix 𝐴 is a square matrix of
order 3.

1 2 3
𝐴= 4 5 4
7 3 2

An 𝑛-th order determinant of a square matrix 𝐴 is denoted by

𝑎11 𝑎12 … … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 … … 𝑎2𝑛
det 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = …… …
… … …… …
…
𝑛×𝑛 …
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … … 𝑎𝑛𝑛

Types of Matrices:

1. Diagonal Matrix:
A square matrix in which all non-diagonal elements are zero is called a diagonal matrix. In a
diagonal matrix, the diagonal elements may or may not be zero. The matrix given below is a
diagonal matrix.
3 0 0
𝐴= 0 1 0
0 0 2
2. Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix:
A square matrix in which all non-diagonal elements are zero and each diagonal element is 1 is called
an identity matrix and is denoted by 𝐼.
1 0 0
𝐼= 0 1 0
0 0 1
An identity matrix 𝐼 holds the following properties:
 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴
 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼
 𝐼 −1 = 𝐼
 det 𝐼 = 1
3. Null Matrix:
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

A matrix having each element as zero is called a null matrix and is denoted by 𝑂.
0 0 0
𝑂= 0 0 0
0 0 0
4. Non-singular Matrix:
A square matrix 𝐴 is called non-singular if det 𝐴 ≠ 0 and singular if det 𝐴 = 0.
5. Transpose of a Matrix:
The transpose of a matrix 𝐴, denoted by 𝐴𝑇 is obtained by interchanging rows and columns. An
example is given below.
4 1
4 2 7
𝐴= and 𝐴𝑇 = 2 5
1 5 3
7 3
6. Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix 𝐴 is called symmetric if 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴, i.e. if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 . Below, 𝐴 is symmetric.
𝑎 𝑕 𝑔
𝐴= 𝑕 𝑏 𝑓
𝑔 𝑓 𝑐
7. Skew-Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix 𝐴 is called skew-symmetric if 𝐴𝑇 = −𝐴, i.e. if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 . Clearly, in a skew-
symmetric matrix, all the diagonal elements are zero. Below, 𝐴 is skew-symmetric.
0 −𝑕 𝑔
𝐴= 𝑕 0 −𝑓
−𝑔 𝑓 0
Note: If 𝐴 is a square matrix then
 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 is symmetric matrix
 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 is skew-symmetric matrix
8. Orthogonal Matrix:
A square matrix 𝐴 is called orthogonal if 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = 𝐼. An illustration is given below.
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝐴=
− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
The following properties are held by orthogonal matrices.
 If 𝐴 is orthogonal then det 𝐴 = ±1
 If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are orthogonal then 𝐴𝐵 is also orthogonal.
 If 𝐴 is orthogonal then 𝐴𝑇 and 𝐴−1 are also orthogonal.
9. Conjugate of a Matrix:
The conjugate of a matrix 𝐴, denoted by 𝐴 is obtained by replacing the elements of 𝐴 by their
corresponding conjugates. An example is given below.
2 4−𝑖 2 4+𝑖
𝐴= ⇒𝐴=
2 + 3𝑖 1 2 − 3𝑖 1
10. Tranjugate of a Matrix:
The transpose of the conjugate matrix of a given matrix 𝐴 is known as the tranjugate matrix and it is
denoted by 𝐴0 . Look at the following example.
2 4−𝑖 2 4+𝑖 2 2 − 3𝑖
𝐴= ⇒𝐴= ⇒ 𝐴0 =
2 + 3𝑖 1 2 − 3𝑖 1 4+𝑖 1
11. Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Matrix:
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

Hermitian if 𝐴0 = 𝐴
Skew-Hermitian if 𝐴0 = −𝐴
This is illustrated below.
2 2 + 3𝑖 0 2 − 3𝑖
Hermitian ⇒ Skew-Hermitian ⇒
2 − 3𝑖 1 −2 − 3𝑖 0

Singular and Non-singular Matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is called non-singular if det 𝐴 ≠ 0 and singular
if det 𝐴 = 0.

Addition and Subtraction of Matrices: Let 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 and 𝐵 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 be two matrices of same order.
Then

 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 is defined as the matrix whose each element is obtained by adding the
corresponding elements of 𝐴 and 𝐵 , i.e., 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 For example, 𝐶3 = 𝐴3 + 𝐵3 is shown
below:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑎11 + 𝑏11 𝑎12 + 𝑏12 𝑎13 + 𝑏13
𝐶3 = 𝐴3 + 𝐵3 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 + 𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 = 𝑎21 + 𝑏21 𝑎22 + 𝑏22 𝑎23 + 𝑏23
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33 𝑎31 + 𝑏31 𝑎32 + 𝑏32 𝑎33 + 𝑏33
 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 is defined as the matrix whose each element is obtained by subtracting the
elements of 𝐵 from the corresponding elements of 𝐴, i.e., 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 For example, 𝐶3 =
𝐴3 − 𝐵3 is shown below:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑎11 − 𝑏11 𝑎12 − 𝑏12 𝑎13 − 𝑏13
𝐶3 = 𝐴3 − 𝐵3 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 − 𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 = 𝑎21 − 𝑏21 𝑎22 − 𝑏22 𝑎23 − 𝑏23
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33 𝑎31 − 𝑏31 𝑎32 − 𝑏32 𝑎33 − 𝑏33

Multiplication by a Scalar: If the matrix 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 be multiplied by a scalar 𝑘, then each element of
𝑚 ×𝑛
𝐴 is multiplied by the same scalar 𝑘. For example, consider 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 2×3
. Then

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑘𝑎11 𝑘𝑎12 𝑘𝑎13

𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘 𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎23 = 𝑘𝑎21
21 𝑘𝑎22 𝑘𝑎23

Matrix Multiplication: Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be conformable for the product 𝐴𝐵 if the
number of columns of 𝐴 is equal to the number of rows of 𝐵 . Thus, if 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑚 ×𝑝 and 𝐵 =
𝑏𝑖𝑗 𝑝×𝑛
, then their product 𝐴𝐵 is the matrix 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑖𝑗 𝑚 ×𝑛
where

𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖1 𝑏1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏2𝑗 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑖𝑝 𝑏𝑝𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗

𝑘=1

Note: Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general, i.e., 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴, but is always associative, i.e.,
𝐴𝐵 𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶).

1 2 3 4
Example 1: Let 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = . Find 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 and check whether 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.
−1 1 2 1

Solution:
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

1 2 3 4 1×3+2×2 1×4+2×1 7 6
𝐴𝐵 = = =
−1 1 2 1 −1 × 3 + 1 × 2 −1 × 4 + 1 × 1 −1 −3

3 4 1 2 3 × 1 + 4 × (−1) 3 × 2 + 4 × 1 −1 10
𝐵𝐴 = = =
2 1 −1 1 2 × 1 + 1 × (−1) 2 × 2 + 1 × 1 1 5

Clearly, 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴.

Properties of Determinant:

(i) A determinant remains unaltered if its rows and columns are interchanged. That is
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎21 𝑎31
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 = 𝑎12 𝑎22 𝑎32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎13 𝑎23 𝑎33
(ii) The interchange of any two rows or any two columns of a determinant changes the sign of the
determinant. But the numerical value remains unaltered. That is
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎13 𝑎12
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 = − 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎33 𝑎32
(iii) The value of a determinant is zero if two rows or two columns are identical. Consider the
following example.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎12
𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎22 = 𝑎11 22
𝑎32 𝑎32 − 𝑎12 𝑎31 𝑎32 + 𝑎12 𝑎31 𝑎32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎32
= 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎32 − 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎32 = 0
(iv) If every element of any row (or column) of a determinant is multiplied by some constant then the
value of the determinant is also multiplied by that constant. As an example,

𝑘𝑎11 𝑘𝑎12 𝑘𝑎13 𝑎 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22

𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 = 𝑘𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 − 𝑘𝑎12 𝑎31 𝑎33 + 𝑘𝑎13 𝑎31 𝑎32
32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
= 𝑘 𝑎11 𝑎 𝑎33 − 𝑎12 𝑎31 𝑎33 + 𝑎13 𝑎31 𝑎32 = 𝑘 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23
32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
(v) If each element of any row (or column) of a determinant is expressed as a sum of two numbers
then the determinant can also be expressed as a sum of two determinants of same order. That is
𝑎11 + 𝑏11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎21 + 𝑏21 𝑎22 𝑎23 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 + 𝑏21 𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑎31 + 𝑏31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑏31 𝑎32 𝑎33
(vi) The value of a determinant remains unaltered if each element of one row (or column) is added
with a constant multiple of the corresponding elements of another row (or column). That is

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 + 𝑘𝑎12 𝑎12 𝑎13

𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 = 𝑎21 + 𝑘𝑎22 𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 + 𝑘𝑎32 𝑎32 𝑎33

1 𝜔 𝜔2
Example 2: Determine the value of 𝜔 𝜔2 1 , where 𝜔 is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity.
𝜔2 1 𝜔
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

Solution:
1 𝜔 𝜔2
𝜔 𝜔2 1
𝜔2 1 𝜔
1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 𝜔 𝜔2
= 1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 𝜔2 1 , 𝐶1 ← 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 1 𝜔
0 𝜔 𝜔2
= 0 𝜔2 1 , as 1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 = 0
0 1 𝜔
= 0, as one column is 0.
𝑎−𝑥 𝑐 𝑏
Example 3: If 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0, solve 𝑐 𝑏−𝑥 𝑎 = 0.
𝑏 𝑎 𝑐−𝑥
Solution:
𝑎−𝑥 𝑐 𝑏
𝑐 𝑏−𝑥 𝑎 =0
𝑏 𝑎 𝑐−𝑥
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐−𝑥 𝑐 𝑏
⇒ 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐−𝑥 𝑏−𝑥 𝑎 = 0, 𝐶1 ← 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐−𝑥 𝑎 𝑐−𝑥
−𝑥 𝑐 𝑏
⇒ −𝑥 𝑏 − 𝑥 𝑎 = 0, as 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
−𝑥 𝑎 𝑐−𝑥
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑏−𝑐+𝑥
⇒ 0 𝑏 − 𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑎 − 𝑐 + 𝑥 = 0, 𝑅1 ← 𝑅1 − 𝑅3 , 𝑅2 ← 𝑅2 − 𝑅3
−𝑥 𝑎 𝑐−𝑥
𝑐−𝑎 𝑏−𝑐+𝑥
⇒ −𝑥 =0
𝑏−𝑎−𝑥 𝑎−𝑐+𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = 0 Or 𝑐 − 𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑐 + 𝑥 − 𝑏 − 𝑎 − 𝑥 (𝑏 − 𝑐 + 𝑥) = 0
Or 2𝑐𝑎 − 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 + 𝑥 𝑐 − 𝑎 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑏 − 𝑐 − 𝑏 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 2 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑐𝑎 = 0
Or 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎, i.e., 𝑥 = ± 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎
1 𝑎 𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑐
Example 4: Show that 1 𝑏 𝑏 2 − 𝑐𝑎 = 0.
1 𝑐 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏
Solution:
1 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑐
1 𝑏𝑏 2 − 𝑐𝑎
1 𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏
1 𝑎 𝑎2 1 𝑎 −𝑏𝑐
= 1 𝑏 𝑏2 + 1 𝑏 −𝑐𝑎
1 𝑐 𝑐2 1 𝑐 −𝑎𝑏
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

1 𝑎 𝑎2 1 𝑎 𝑏𝑐
= 1 𝑏 𝑏2 − 1 𝑏 𝑐𝑎
1 𝑐 𝑐2 1 𝑐 𝑎𝑏
1 𝑎 𝑎2 1
𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎𝑏𝑐
nd
= 1 𝑏 𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑎𝑏𝑐 , 𝑅1 ← 𝑎𝑅1 , 𝑅2 ← 𝑏𝑅2 , 𝑅3 ← 𝑐𝑅3 for the 2 determinant.
1 𝑐 𝑐2 𝑐 𝑐2 𝑎𝑏𝑐
1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑎 𝑎2 1
nd
= 1 𝑏 𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑏 𝑏2 1 , taking 𝑎𝑏𝑐 common from 𝐶3 of 2 determinant.
1 𝑐 𝑐2 𝑐 𝑐2 1
1 𝑎 𝑎2 1 𝑎 𝑎2
2 − nd
= 1 𝑏 𝑏 1 𝑏 𝑏 2 , 𝐶2 ↔ 𝐶3 and then 𝐶1 ↔ 𝐶2 in the 2 determinant.
1 𝑐 𝑐2 1 𝑐 𝑐2
=0
1+𝑎 1 1 1
Example 5: Prove that 1 1+𝑏 1 1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 .
1 1 1+𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
1 1 1 1+𝑑
Solution:
1+𝑎 1 1 1
1 1+𝑏 1 1
1 1 1+𝑐 1
1 1 1 1+𝑑
1 1 1 1
𝑎
+1 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
1 1 1 1
𝑎 𝑏
+1 𝑐 𝑑 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶4
= 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 1 1 1 1 , 𝐶1 ← , 𝐶2 ← , 𝐶3 ← , 𝐶4 ←
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
+1 𝑑
1 1 1 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
+1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + +
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 +𝑑 𝑏
+1 𝑐 𝑑
= 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 𝐶1 ← 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + 𝐶4
1+ + + + +1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐 +𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
+1
1 1 1
1 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 𝑏
+1 𝑐 𝑑
= 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 1 + + + + 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 1 1 1
1 𝑏 𝑐
+1 𝑑
1 1 1
1 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
+1
0 0 0 −1
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 −1
= 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 1 + + + + 0 0 1 −1 , 𝑅1 ← 𝑅1 − 𝑅4 , 𝑅2 ← 𝑅2 − 𝑅4 , 𝑅3 ← 𝑅3 − 𝑅4
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
1 1 1
1 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
+1
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

0 0 −1
1 1 1 1
= −𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 1 0 −1
0 1 −1
1 1 1 1
= 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑
3−𝑥 2 2
Example 6: For what values of 𝑥, the matrix 𝐴 = 2 4−𝑥 1 is singular?
−2 −4 −1 − 𝑥
Solution: If 𝐴 is singular, we must have
3−𝑥 2 2
2 4−𝑥 1 =0
−2 −4 −1 − 𝑥
⇒ 3−𝑥 4 − 𝑥 −1 − 𝑥 + 4 − 2{2 −1 − 𝑥 + 2} + 2{−8 + 2 4 − 𝑥 } = 0
⇒ 3 − 𝑥 4 − 4 − 4𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 2 2 − 2 − 2𝑥 + 2(8 − 8 − 2𝑥) = 0
⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 3, 3

Factor Theorem: If 𝑥 = 𝑎 makes 𝑘 rows or columns of a determinant identical, then (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘−1 is a

factor of the determinant.
1 1 1
Example 7: Using factor theorem, show that 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑧 (𝑧 − 𝑥).
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
Solution:
1 1 1
Let ∆= 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
Putting 𝑥 = 𝑦, we get
1 1 1
𝑦 𝑦 𝑧 ⇒ Two columns identical ⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑦) is a factor of ∆.
𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑧2
Similarly, (𝑦 − 𝑧) and (𝑧 − 𝑥) are also factors of ∆.
Now,
Sum of exponents of leading diagonal = 0 + 1 + 2 = 3
Sum of exponents of the product of 3 factors = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
Therefore, we can write
1 1 1
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑧 (𝑧 − 𝑥), 𝑘 being a constant.
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
Putting 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2 and 𝑧 = 3, we get
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

1 1 1
1 2 3 = 𝑘 1 − 2 2 − 3 3 − 1 ⇒ 2𝑘 = 18 − 12 − 9 − 3 + 4 − 2 ⇒ 𝑘 = 1
1 4 9
1 1 1
Thus, 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑧 (𝑧 − 𝑥).
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
𝑏+𝑐 𝑎−𝑐 𝑎−𝑏
Example 8: Using factor theorem, show that 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑎+𝑐 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 8𝑎𝑏𝑐.
𝑐−𝑏 𝑐−𝑎 𝑎+𝑏
Solution:
𝑏+𝑐 𝑎−𝑐 𝑎−𝑏
Let ∆= 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑎+𝑐 𝑏−𝑎
𝑐−𝑏 𝑐−𝑎 𝑎+𝑏
Putting 𝑎 = 0, we get
𝑏+𝑐 −𝑐 −𝑏 𝑏+𝑐 −1 −1
𝑏−𝑐 𝑐 𝑏 = 𝑏𝑐 𝑏 − 𝑐 1 1 ⇒ Two columns identical ⇒ 𝑎 is a factor of ∆.
𝑐−𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐−𝑏 1 1
Similarly, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are also factors of ∆.
Now,
Sum of exponents of leading diagonal = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
Sum of exponents of the product of 3 factors = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
Therefore, we can write
𝑏+𝑐 𝑎−𝑐 𝑎−𝑏
𝑏−𝑐 𝑎+𝑐 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎𝑏𝑐, 𝑘 being a constant.
𝑐−𝑏 𝑐−𝑎 𝑎+𝑏
Putting 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2 and 𝑐 = 3, we get
5 −2 −1
−1 4 1 = 𝑘 × 1 × 2 × 3 ⇒ 6𝑘 = 50 − 8 + 6 ⇒ 𝑘 = 8
1 2 3
𝑏+𝑐 𝑎−𝑐 𝑎−𝑏
Thus, 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑎 + 𝑐 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 8𝑎𝑏𝑐.
𝑐−𝑏 𝑐−𝑎 𝑎+𝑏

Minors and Cofactors: Let 𝑎𝑖𝑗 be an element of a square matrix 𝐴 of order 𝑛. Then
 the minor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , denoted by 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is the determinant obtained by deleting the 𝑖-th row and 𝑗-th
column of 𝐴 or of det⁡
(𝐴).
 the cofactor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , denoted by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 is the determined by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗 .

Adjoint and Inverse of a non-singular Matrix: Let 𝐴 be a non-singular matrix of order 𝑛 and 𝐴 be the
determinant of 𝐴. Then
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

… … 𝐴1𝑛 𝑇 … … 𝐴𝑛1
𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴11 𝐴21
𝐴 𝐴22 … … 𝐴2𝑛 𝐴 𝐴22 … … 𝐴𝑛2 Adj 𝐴
Adj 𝐴 = …21 … … …
… … = …12 … … … and 𝐴−1 =
… …
… … … … … … … … 𝐴
𝐴𝑛1 𝐴𝑛2 … … 𝐴𝑛𝑛 𝐴1𝑛 𝐴2𝑛 … … 𝐴𝑛𝑛

Properties:
(i) 𝐴 Adj 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝐼 where 𝐼 is the identity matrix of order 𝑛.
(ii) Adj 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝑛−1 (Jacobi's Theorem)
𝑛−1 2
(iii) Adj (Adj 𝐴) = 𝐴
(iv) 𝐴𝐵 −1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1
(v) 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼

Properties of Determinants on Matrices:

(i) det 𝐴 = det⁡ (𝐴𝑇 ).
(ii) det 𝐴𝐵 = det 𝐴 det 𝐵 .
(iii) det 𝐴−1 = det 𝐴 𝑛−2 .
(iv) The determinant value of a diagonal/triangular matrix is the product of its principal diagonal
elements.

2 1
Example 9: Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = .
4 5
Solution:
2 1
𝐴 = =2×5−4×1=6
4 5
𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 × 5 = 5, 𝐴12 = (−1)1+2 × 4 = −4, 𝐴21 = (−1)2+1 × 1 = −1, 𝐴22 = (−1)2+2 × 2 = 2
𝐴 𝐴12 𝑇 5 −4 𝑇 5 −1
∴ Adj 𝐴 = 11 = =
𝐴21 𝐴22 −1 2 −4 2
−1 Adj 𝐴 1 5 −1
∴ 𝐴 = =
𝐴 6 −4 2
𝑎11 𝑎12
Note: For a non-singular matrix 𝐴 = 𝑎 , we observe that
21 𝑎22
𝑎22 −𝑎12
Adj 𝐴 = −𝑎 𝑎11
21

2 3 4
Example 10: Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = 4 3 1 .
1 2 4
Solution:
2 3 4
𝐴 = 4 3 1 = 2 × 12 − 2 − 3 × 16 − 1 + 4 × 8 − 3 = −5
1 2 4
𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 × 10 = 10, 𝐴12 = (−1)1+2 × 15 = −15, 𝐴13 = (−1)1+3 × 5 = 5
𝐴21 = (−1)2+1 × 4 = −4, 𝐴22 = (−1)2+2 × 4 = 4, 𝐴23 = (−1)2+3 × 1 = −1
𝐴31 = (−1)3+1 × −9 = −9, 𝐴32 = (−1)3+2 × −14 = 14, 𝐴33 = −1 3+3 × −6 = −6
𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴13 𝑇 10 −15 5 𝑇 10 −4 −9
∴ Adj 𝐴 = 𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐴23 = −4 4 −1 = −15 4 14
𝐴31 𝐴32 𝐴33 −9 14 −6 5 −1 −6
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

10 −4 −9 −2 4/5 9/5
Adj 𝐴 1
∴ 𝐴−1 = 𝐴
= −5 −15 4 14 = 3 −4/5 −14/5
5 −1 −6 −1 1/5 6/5

Alternative Process to find the inverse of a non-singular matrix of order 3 only: Let us consider a
non-singular matrix of order 3 of the form
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = 21 𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑎
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
Step-1: Compute 𝐴
Step-2: Construct a new matrix from the given matrix as instructed below:
 Re-write first two columns again after the 3rd column and get
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32

 Re-write first two rows so obtained again after the 3rd row and get
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
Step-3: Strike out first row and first column of the above matrix and get
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32
𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
Step-4: Apply cross multiplication process column-wise and write the results row-wise and the matrix
thus obtained will be the Adj 𝐴.
Step-5: Compute the inverse by using the formula
Adj 𝐴
𝐴−1 =
𝐴

1 2 2
Example 11: Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = 2 1 2 .
2 2 1
Solution:
1 2 2
𝐴 = 2 1 2 =1× 1−4 −2× 2−4 +2× 4−2 =5
2 2 1
Now,
1 2 2 1 2
2 1 2 2 1
2 2 1 2 2
1 2 2 1 2
2 1 2 2 1

Applying cross multiplication process column-wise and writing the results row-wise, we get
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

−3 2 2
Adj 𝐴 = 2 −3 2
2 2 −3
−3 2 2
Adj 𝐴 1
∴ 𝐴−1 = = 2 −3 2
𝐴 5
2 2 −3

8 −4 0
Example 12: Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = −4 8 −4 .
0 −4 8
Solution:
8 −4 0
𝐴 = −4 8 −4 = 8 × 64 − 16 + 4 × −32 = 256
0 −4 8
Now,
8 −4 0 8 −4
−4 8 −4 −4 8
0 −4 8 0 −4
8 −4 0 8 −4
−4 8 −4 −4 8

Applying cross multiplication process column-wise and writing the results row-wise, we get
48 32 16
Adj 𝐴 = 32 64 32
16 32 48
48 32 16 3 2 1
Adj 𝐴 1 1
∴ 𝐴−1 = 𝐴 = 256 32 64 32 = 16 2 4 2
16 32 48 1 2 3

Echelon Matrix:
A matrix A is said to be an Echelon matrix if the number of leading zeros of a row increases as
we pass from row to row downwards. Below one Echelon matrix and one Non-Echelon matrix are given.
2 0 3
Echelon Matrix ⇒ 0 5 1
0 0 6
2 0 3
Non-Echelon Matrix ⇒ 0 0 1
0 5 0
Rank of a Matrix:
Let 𝐴 be a matrix of order 𝑛 × 𝑚. Then the rank of the matrix 𝐴, denoted by 𝜌(𝐴) is
(i) the order of the highest order non-zero minor of 𝐴.
OR
(ii) the number of non-zero rows in the Echelon form of 𝐴.
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

System of Linear Equations:

A system of linear equations of the form 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵, where 𝐴 is the coefficient matrix, 𝑋 is the
column matrix of the unknowns and 𝐵 is the column matrix of the constants, is called homogeneous if
𝐵 = 0 and non-homogeneous if 𝐵 ≠ 0. The system is
(i) consistent if it has at least one solution
(ii) inconsistent if it has no solution

Note: The homogeneous system 𝐴𝑋 = 0 is always consistent because it has a solution 𝑋 = 0.

Types of Solutions of 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 w.r.t. Rank:

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵

Homogeneous: 𝐵 = 0 Non-homogeneous: 𝐵 ≠ 0
(Always consistent)

Consistent (solution) Inconsistent (no solution)

Trivial or zero solution Non-trivial or non-zero solution 𝜌 𝐴 =𝜌 𝐴𝐵 𝜌 𝐴 ≠𝜌 𝐴𝐵
𝜌 𝐴 =no. of unknowns 𝜌 𝐴 <no. of unknowns

Unique solution Infinite no. of solutions

𝜌 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝐵 = no. of unknowns 𝜌 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝐵 < no. of unknowns

Cramer’s Rule to Solve a System of Linear Equations:

Let 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵, where 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑛×𝑛

, 𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑛×1 and 𝐵 = 𝑏𝑖 𝑛×1 be a system of 𝑛 linear equations with

𝑛 unknowns.

The system has a unique solution if the coefficient determinant

𝑎11 𝑎12 … … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 … … 𝑎2𝑛
∆= 𝐴 = …… …… … …… …
… ≠0
…
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … … 𝑎𝑛𝑛
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

∆𝒋
and the unique solution is given by 𝒙𝒋 = , 𝑗 = 1 1 𝑛 , where ∆𝑗 is the determinant of order 𝑛 obtained
∆
from ∆ by replacing the elements of the 𝑗-th column by the elements 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 .

Example 13: Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer’s rule:

2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3, 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5, 𝑥 + 2𝑧 = 4

Solution: The coefficient determinant

2 −1 0
∆= 0 3 −2 = 2 × 6 − 0 + 1 × 0 + 2 + 0 = 14 ≠ 0 ⇒ the system has a unique solution.
1 0 2
Now

3 −1 0 2 3 0 2 −1 3
∆𝑥 = 5 3 −2 = 36 , ∆𝑦 = 0 5 −2 = 30 , ∆𝑧 = 0 3 5 = 10
4 0 2 1 4 2 1 0 4
∆𝑥 36 18 ∆𝑦 30 15 ∆𝑧 10 5
Therefore, 𝑥 = = = ,= = = ,𝑧= = =
∆ 14 7 ∆ 14 7 ∆ 14 7

Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors:

Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors: If T is a linear transformation from a vector space V over a field F into
itself and 𝑣 is a nonzero vector in V, then 𝑣 is an eigenvector of T if T(𝑣) is a scalar multiple of 𝑣.
This can be written as

𝑇 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑣
where λ is a scalar in F, known as the eigenvalue, characteristic value, or characteristic
root associated with 𝑣.
There is a direct correspondence between n-by-n square matrices and linear transformations from
an n-dimensional vector space into itself, given any basis of the vector space. Hence, in a finite-
dimensional vector space, it is equivalent to define eigenvalues and eigenvectors using either the language
of matrices, or the language of linear transformations.
If V is finite-dimensional, the above equation is equivalent to 𝐴𝑢 = 𝜆𝑢 where A is the matrix
representation of T and 𝑢 is the coordinate vector of 𝑣.
Let 𝐴 be a square matrix of order 𝑛. Then the
roots of the characteristic equation 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0 are
known as the eigen values of 𝐴.
To each eigen value 𝜆 , if there exists a non-zero
vector 𝑋 such that 𝐴𝑋 = 𝜆𝑋 then 𝑋 is called the eigen
vector of 𝐴 corresponding to the eigen value 𝜆.

Properties:
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

Let 𝜆 = 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , … , 𝜆𝑛 be the eigen values of a square matrix 𝐴 of order 𝑛. Then

1. 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + ⋯ + 𝜆𝑛 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒(𝐴) where 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒(𝐴) is the sum of the principal diagonal elements.
2. If 𝐴 is lower or upper or diagonal matrix then all the diagonal elements are the eigen values.
3. 𝜆1 𝜆2 … 𝜆𝑛 = 𝐴 .
4. all values of 𝜆 are non-zero if 𝐴 ≠ 0 and at least one value of 𝜆 is zero if 𝐴 = 0.
5. all values of 𝜆 are real if 𝐴 is Hermitian or (real) Symmetric.
6. if A is symmetric then the eigen vectors 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 are pair-wise orthogonal, i.e. 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 = 0.
7. each value of 𝜆 is either zero or purely imaginary if 𝐴 is Skew-Hermitian or Skew-symmetric.
8. 𝜆 = ±1 if 𝐴 is orthogonal.
9. All eigenvectors will be linearly independent only when the eigenvalues are distinct.
10. 𝑘𝜆1 , 𝑘𝜆2 , … , 𝑘𝜆𝑛 are the eigen values of 𝑘𝐴.
11. 𝜆1 𝑘 , 𝜆2 𝑘 , … , 𝜆𝑛 𝑘 are the eigen values of 𝐴𝑘 .
1 1 1
12. , , … , are the eigen values of 𝐴−1 .
𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆𝑛
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
13. , , … , 𝜆 are the eigen values of Adj 𝐴.
𝜆1 𝜆2 𝑛

Computing all Eigen values and corresponding Eigen vectors:

1 2
Example 14: Find the Eigen values and corresponding Eigen vectors of the matrix 𝐴 = .
4 3
1 2
Solution: Let 𝜆 be the Eigen value of the given matrix 𝐴 = . Then we have
4 3
1−𝜆 2
𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0 ⇒ = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = 5, −1.
4 3−𝜆

So the Eigen values are 5 and −1.

𝑥
Let 𝑋 = 𝑦 be an Eigen vector. Then

(i) for 𝜆 = 5 we have

1−5 2 𝑥 0
= ⇒ 𝑦 = 2𝑥
4 3−5 𝑦 0
𝑘 1
Hence for any non-zero value of 𝑘, the Eigen value is given by =𝑘 .
2𝑘 2
(ii) for 𝜆 = −1 we have
1+1 2 𝑥 0
= ⇒ 𝑦 = −𝑥
4 3+1 𝑦 0
𝑘 1
Hence for any non-zero value of 𝑘, the Eigen value is given by =𝑘 .
−𝑘 −1
5 0 1
Example 15: Find the Eigen values and corresponding Eigen vectors of the matrix 𝐴 = 0 −2 0 .
1 0 5
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

5 0 1
Solution: Let 𝜆 be the Eigen value of the given matrix 𝐴 = 0 −2 0 . Then we have
1 0 5
5−𝜆 0 1
𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0 ⇒ 0 −2 − 𝜆 0 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = −2, 4, 6.
1 0 5−𝜆

So the Eigen values are −2, 4 and 6.

𝑥
Let 𝑋 = 𝑦 be an Eigen vector. Then
𝑧

(i) for 𝜆 = −2 we have

5+2 0 1 𝑥 0
𝑦 7𝑥 + 𝑧 = 0
0 −2 + 2 0 = 0 ⇒ ⇒𝑥=0=𝑧
𝑥 + 7𝑧 = 0
1 0 5+2 𝑧 0
0 0
Hence for any non-zero value of 𝑘, the Eigen vector is given by 𝑘 = 𝑘 1 .
0 0
(ii) for 𝜆 = 4 we have
5−4 0 1 𝑥 0 𝑥+𝑧 =0
0 −2 − 4 0 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ ⇒ 𝑧 = −𝑥, 𝑦 = 0
6𝑦 = 0
1 0 5−4 𝑧 0
𝑘 1
Hence for any non-zero value of 𝑘, the Eigen vector is given by 0 = 𝑘 0 .
−𝑘 −1
(iii) for 𝜆 = 6 we have
5−6 0 1 𝑥 0 𝑥−𝑧 =0
0 −2 − 6 0 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0
8𝑦 = 0
1 0 5−6 𝑧 0
𝑘 1
Hence for any non-zero value of 𝑘, the Eigen vector is given by 0 = 𝑘 0 .
𝑘 1

Cayley-Hamilton Theorem: Every non-singular square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
That is, if the non-singular square matrix 𝐴 has the characteristic equation
𝑓 𝜆 =0
where 𝜆 is the Eigen value of the matrix 𝐴, then
𝑓 𝐴 =𝑂
where 𝑂 is the null matrix of order of 𝐴.

1 −1 0
Example 16: Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for 𝐴 = 1 2 −1 and hence compute 𝐴−1 .
3 2 −2

Solution:
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

1 −1 0
det 𝐴 = 1 2 −1 = 1 × −2 + 1 × 1 = −1 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝐴 is non-singular.
3 2 −2
1 −1 0
Let 𝜆 be the Eigen value of the given matrix 𝐴 = 1 2 −1 . Then the characteristic equation is
3 2 −2
1−𝜆 −1 0
𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0 ⇒ 1 2−𝜆 −1 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆3 − 𝜆2 − 𝜆 + 1 = 0
3 2 −2 − 𝜆
Now,

1 −1 0 1 −1 0 0 −3 1
𝐴2 = 1 2 −1 1 2 −1 = 0 1 0
3 2 −2 3 2 −2 −1 −3 2
1 −1 0 0 −3 1 0 −4 1
𝐴3 = 1 2 −1 0 1 0 = 1 2 −1
3 2 −2 −1 −3 2 2 −1 −1
0 −4 1 0 −3 1 1 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
∴ 𝐴3 − 𝐴2 − 𝐴 + 𝐼 = 1 2 −1 − 0 1 0 − 1 2 −1 + 0 1 0 = 0 0 0
2 −1 −1 −1 −3 2 3 2 −2 0 0 1 0 0 0
This shows that, A satisfies its own characteristic equation.

Thus, Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.

Therefore,

𝐴3 − 𝐴2 − 𝐴 + 𝐼 = 𝑂

Multiplying the equation with 𝐴−1 , we get

𝐴3 𝐴−1 − 𝐴2 𝐴−1 − 𝐴𝐴−1 + 𝐼𝐴−1 = 𝑂𝐴−1

⇒ 𝐴2 − 𝐴 − 𝐼 + 𝐴−1 = 𝑂

⇒ 𝐴−1 = 𝐼 + 𝐴 − 𝐴2

1 0 0 1 −1 0 0 −3 1
= 0 1 0 + 1 2 −1 − 0 1 0
0 0 1 3 2 −2 −1 −3 2
2 2 −1
= 1 2 −1
4 5 −3
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

Solved Problems

1. 𝐴 is a square matrix which is neither symmetric nor skew-symmetric and 𝐴𝑇 is its transpose. The
sum and difference of these matrices are defined as S = 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 and D = 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 respectively.
Which of the following statements is TRUE?
(a) Both S and D are symmetric
(b) Both S and D are skew-symmetric
(c) S is skew-symmetric and D is symmetric
(d) S is symmetric and D is skew-symmetric
Ans. (d).
3 2 −9
2. Rank of the matrix −6 −4 18 is
12 8 −36
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 2
Solution:
3 2 −9 𝑅2′ = 𝑅2 + 2𝑅1 3 2 −9
−6 −4 18 ′ 0 0 0 ⇒ Rank=1
12 8 −36 𝑅 3 = 𝑅 3 − 4𝑅 1 0 0 0
Ans. (a).
4 2 1 3
3. Given matrix 𝐴 = 6 3 4 7 , the rank is
2 1 0 1
(a) 4
(b) 3
(c) 2
(d) 1
Solution:
4 2 1 3 𝑅1′ = 𝑅1 − 2𝑅3 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
𝑅2′ = 𝑅2 − 4𝑅1
6 3 4 7 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 0 ⇒ Rank(A) =2
2 1 0 1 𝑅 ′ = 𝑅 − 3𝑅 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 1
2 2 3
Ans. (c).
2 −0.1 1/2 𝑎
4. Let 𝐴 = and 𝐴−1 = . Then 𝑎 + 𝑏 =
0 3 0 𝑏
(a) 7/20
(b) 3/20
(c) 19/60
(d) 11/20
Solution:
2 −0.1 1/2 𝑎 1 0 1 2𝑎 − 0.1𝑏 1 0 1
𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼 ⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒ 3𝑏 = 1 ⇒ 𝑏 = 3
0 3 0 𝑏 0 1 0 3𝑏 0 1
1
and 2𝑎 − 0.1𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 2 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2.1𝑏 = 2.1 × = 7/10
3
∴ 𝑎 + 𝑏 =7/20
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

Ans. (a).
1 2
5. The inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = is
5 7
1−7 2
(a)
3 5 −1
7
1 2
(b)
5
3 1
1 7 −2
(c) 3−5 1
1−7 −2
(d) 3−5 −1
Solution:
T
7 −5 7 −2 −7 2
𝐴 = −3 and Adj 𝐴 = = =−
−2 1 −5 1 5 −1
1 2 −1 1 −7 2
∴ =3
5 7 5 −1
Ans. (a).

1 1 1 1
6. Given an orthogonal matrix 𝐴 = 1 1 −1 −1 , 𝐴𝐴𝑇 −1
is
1 −1 0 0
0 0 1 −1
1
0 0 0
4
1 0 0
0 4
(a) 1
0 0 2
0
0 0 1
0 2
1
0 0 0
2
1 0 0
0 2
(b) 1
0 0 0
2
0 0 1
0
2
1 0 0 0
(c) 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1
0 0 0
4
1 0 0
0 4
(d) 1
0 0 4
0
0 0 1
0 4
Solution: For orthogonal matrix,
𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼 ⇒ 𝐴𝐴𝑇 −1 = 𝐼 −1 = 𝐼
Ans. (c).
7. For the following set of simultaneous equations:
1.5𝑥 − 0.5𝑦 = 2, 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 9, 7𝑥 + 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 10
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

(a) the solution is unique

(b) infinitely many solutions exist
(c) the equations are incompatible
(d) finite number of multiple solutions exist

Solution: The system is 3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 4, 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 9, 7𝑥 + 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 10.

′
3 −1 0 4 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 3 −1 0 4 𝑅3′ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 3 −1 0 4
𝐴𝐵 = 4 2 3 9 1 3 3 5 1 3 3 5
′
7 𝑅
1 5 10 3 = 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 1 3 5 2 0 0 2 −3

⇒ Rank 𝐴 𝐵 =3= Rank(𝐴) =no. of unknowns ⇒ unique solution.

Ans. (a).
8. Consider the system of simultaneous equations
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6, 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6, 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5
This system has
(a) unique solution
(b) infinitely number of solutions
(c) no solution
(d) exactly two solutions

Solution:

1 2 1 6 𝑅1′ = 𝑅1 − 𝑅3 0 1 0 1 𝑅2′ = 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 0 1 0 1
𝐴𝐵 = 2 1 2 6 0 −1 0 −4 0 0 0 −3
1 1 1 5 𝑅2′ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅3 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5

⇒ Rank 𝐴 𝐵 =3 and Rank(𝐴) = 2 ⇒ inconsistent ⇒ no solution.

Ans. (c).
9. For what value of a, if any, will the following system of equations in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 have a solution?
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 4, 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 𝑎
(a) Any real number
(b) 0
(c) 1
(d) There is no such value

Solution: The augmented matrix is

′
2 3 0 4 𝑅1 = 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2 0 1 −2 −4 𝑅3′ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 0 1 −2 −4
1 1 1 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 4
′
1 2 −1 𝑎 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 0 1 −2 𝑎 − 4 0 0 0 𝑎

⇒ Rank(𝐴) = 2.
∴ the system will have solution (consistent) if Rank(𝐴) = 2 = Rank 𝐴 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑎 = 0.
Ans. (b).
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

10. For what values of 𝛼 and 𝛽 , the following simultaneous equations have an infinite number of
solutions? [GATE 2007]
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5, 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 9, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝛼𝑧 = 𝛽
(a) 2, 7
(b) 3, 8
(c) 8, 3
(d) 7, 2
Solution: The augmented matrix is
′
𝑅2
1 1 1 5 𝑅2′ = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 1 1 1 5 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 − 2 1 1 1 5
1 3 3 9 0 2 2 4 0 2 2 4
1 2 𝛼 𝛽 𝑅3′ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 0 1 𝛼 − 1 𝛽 − 5 0 0 𝛼−2 𝛽−7

Now, infinite no. of solutions ⇒ Rank(𝐴) = Rank 𝐴 𝐵 < no. of unknowns = 3

⇒ 𝛼 − 2 = 0 & 𝛽 − 7 = 0 , i.e. 𝛼 = 2 & 𝛽 = 7
Ans. (a).
1 2 3
11. The three characteristic roots of the following matrix 𝐴 = 0 2 3 are
0 0 2
(a) 1, 2, 3
(b) 1, 2, 2
(c) 1, 0, 0
(d) 0, 2, 3
Solution: 𝐴 is upper triangular matrix ⇒ eigen values are the diagonal elements (1, 2, 2).
Ans. (b).

12. The sum of the eigen values of the matrix given below is
1 2 3
𝐴= 1 5 1
3 1 1
(a) 5
(b) 7
(c) 9
(d) 18
Solution: Sum of eigen values = trace(𝐴) = 1 + 5 + 1 = 7.
Ans. (b).

4 1
13. For the matrix 𝐴 = the eigen values are
1 4
(a) 3 and −3
(b) −3 and −5
(c) 3 and 5
(d) 5 and 0
Solution: Sum of eigen values = trace(𝐴) = 8 = 3 + 5.
Ans. (c).
14. If a square matrix A is real and symmetric, then the eigen values
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

(a) are always real

(b) are always real and positive
(c) are always real and non-negative
(d) occur in complex conjugate pairs

Solution: A is real and symmetric ⇒ eigen values are always real.

Ans. (a).

15. Consider the matrix

0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
𝐽6 =
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
which is obtained by reversing the order of the columns of the identity matrix 𝐼6 . Let 𝑃 = 𝐼6 + 𝛼𝐽6 ,
where 𝛼 is a non-negative real number. The value of 𝛼 for which 𝑃 = 0 is _______.
Solution:
We see
(i) If 𝑃 = 𝐼2 + 𝛼𝐽2 then
1 0 0 1 1 𝛼
𝑃= +𝛼 =
0 1 1 0 𝛼 1
∴ 𝑃 = 1 − 𝛼2
(ii) If 𝑃 = 𝐼4 + 𝛼𝐽4 then
1 0 0 𝛼
𝑃= 0 1 𝛼 0
0 𝛼 1 0
𝛼 0 0 1
1 𝛼 0 0 1 𝛼
∴ 𝑃 = 1 × 𝛼 1 0 − 𝛼 × 0 𝛼 1 = 1 − 𝛼2 2
0 0 1 𝛼 0 0
From (i) and (ii), we can conclude that if 𝑃 = 𝐼6 + 𝛼𝐽6 , then 𝑃 = 1 − 𝛼 2 3 .
∴ 𝑃 = 0 ⇒ 1 − 𝛼 2 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝛼 = ±1.
But 𝛼 is non-negative. Hence 𝛼 = 1.
Ans. 1
16. The minimum eigen value of the following matrix
3 5 2
5 12 7 is
2 7 5
(a) 0
(b) 1
(c) 2
(d) 3
Solution:
3 5 2 5 5 2
5 12 7 = 12 12 7 = 0, [𝐶1 ← 𝐶1 + 𝐶3 ]
2 7 5 7 7 5
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

As determinant of the matrix is zero, at least one eigen value must be zero. In the given options, all
eigen values are non-negative. Hence the minimum eigen value is 0.
Ans. (a)
1
17. The value of 𝑝 such that the vector 2 is an eigenvector of the matrix
3
4 1 2
𝑝 2 1 is _______.
14 −4 10
Solution:
1 4 1 2
Let 𝜆 be the eigenvalue corresponding to the eigenvector 2 of the matrix 𝑝 2 1 .
3 14 −4 10
Therefore,
4 1 2 1 1 12 𝜆
𝑝 2 1 2 = 𝜆 2 ⇒ 𝑝 + 7 = 2𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 = 12 and hence 𝑝 + 7 = 24 ⇒ 𝑝 = 17.
14 −4 10 3 3 36 3𝜆

Ans. 17

Practice Set
1 1 1
1. The rank of the matrix 1 −1 0 is
1 1 1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
2. The eigen values of a skew-symmetric matrix are
(a) always zero (b) always pure imaginary
(c) either zero or pure imaginary (d) always real
3. A is a 3×4 real matrix and Ax = b is an inconsistent system of equations. The highest possible rank
of A is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
4. A square matrix B is skew-symmetric if
a) B T = −B (b) B T = B (c) B −1 = B (d) B T = B −1
3 + 2𝑖 𝑖
5. The inverse of the matrix is
−𝑖 3 − 2𝑖
1 3 + 2𝑖 −𝑖 1 3 − 2𝑖 −𝑖
(a) (b)
12 𝑖 3 − 2𝑖 12 𝑖 3 + 2𝑖
1 3 + 2𝑖 −𝑖 1 3 − 2𝑖 −𝑖
(c) (d)
14 𝑖 3 − 2𝑖 14 𝑖 3 + 2𝑖
6. The system of linear equations 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7, 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6 has
(a) a unique solution (b) no solution
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

(c) an infinite number of solutions (d) exactly two distinct solutions

7. The system of equations 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2, 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5 has
(a) one solution (b) no solution
(c) infinite solutions (d) four solutions
8. The following set of equations has
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4, 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2, −2𝑥 + 2𝑧 = 5
(a) no solution (b) a unique solution
(c) multiple solutions (d) an inconsistency
9. The following system of equations
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4, 𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 = 6
will NOT have a unique solution for 𝑘 equals to
(a) 0 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 7
10. For the set of equations 𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 4𝑥4 = 2, 3𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 + 12𝑥4 = 6
(a) only the trivial solution 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 = 𝑥4 = 0 exists
(b) there are no solutions
(c) a unique non-trivial solution exists
(a) multiple non-trivial solutions exist
−4 2
11. Given the matrix , one of the eigen vectors is
4 3
3 4 2 −2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 3 −1 1
4 2 101
12. For the matrix , the eigen value corresponding to the eigen vectors is
2 4 101
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
𝑝11 𝑝12
13. All the four entries of the 2×2 matrix P = 𝑝 are non-zero and one of its eigen values is
21 𝑝22

zero. Which of the following statements is true?

(a) 𝑝11 𝑝22 − 𝑝12 𝑝21 = 1 (b) 𝑝11 𝑝22 − 𝑝12 𝑝21 = −1
(c) 𝑝11 𝑝22 − 𝑝12 𝑝21 = 0 (d) 𝑝11 𝑝22 + 𝑝12 𝑝21 = 0
−1 3 5
14. The eigen values of the matrix −3 −1 6 are
0 0 3
(a) 3, 3 + 5𝑖, −6 − 𝑖 (b) −6 + 5𝑖, 3 + 𝑖, 3 − 𝑖
(c) 3 + 𝑖, 3 − 𝑖, 5 + 𝑖 (d) 3, −1 + 3𝑖, −1 − 3𝑖
5 3
15. The eigen values of the matrix
3 −3
(a) 6 (b) 5 (c) −3 (d) −4
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

8 𝑥 0
16. For which value of 𝑥 will the matrix 4 0 2 becomes singular?
12 6 0
(a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 8 (d) 12
3 2
17. Eigen values of a matrix S = are 5 and 1. What are the eigen values of the matrix S 2 = SS ?
2 3
(a) 1 and 25 (b) 6 and 4 (c) 5 and 1 (d) 2 and 10
1 2 4
18. The matrix 3 0 6 has one eigen value equal to 3. The sum of the other two eigen values is
1 1 𝑝
(a) 𝑝 (b) 𝑝 − 1 (c) 𝑝 − 2 (d) 𝑝 − 3
1 2 1 1
19. The eigen vectors of the matrix are written in the form and . What is 𝑎 + 𝑏?
0 2 𝑎 𝑏
(a) 0 (b) 1/2 (c) 1 (d) 2
3/5 4/5
20. For the matrix M = , M T = M −1 . The value of 𝑥 is given by
𝑥 3/5
(a) −4/5 (b) −3/5 (c) 3/5 (d) 4/5
2 1
21. One of the Eigen vectors of the matrix 𝐴 = is
1 3
2 2 4 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
−1 1 1 −1
4 −2
22. The eigen values of the matrix
−2 1
(a) are 0 and 4 (b) are −1 and 2
(c) are 0 and 5 (d) cannot be determined
2 −2 3
23. For a given matrix 𝐴 = −2 −1 6 , one of the eigen values is 3. The other two eigen values are
1 2 0
(a) 2, −5 (b) 3, −5 (c) 2, 5 (d) 3, 5
1 1 3
24. The minimum and the maximum eigen values of the matrix 1 5 1 are –2 and 6, respectively.
3 1 1
What is the other eigen value?
(a) 5 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) −1
25. The characteristic equation of a 3×3 matrix 𝑃 is defined as 𝛼 𝜆 = 𝜆𝐼 − 𝑃 = 𝜆3 + 𝜆2 + 2𝜆 + 1. If
𝐼 denote the identity matrix then the inverse of matrix 𝑃 is
(a) 𝑃2 + 𝑃 + 2𝐼 (b) 𝑃2 + 𝑃 + 𝐼
(c) −(𝑃2 + 𝑃 + 𝐼) (d) −(𝑃2 + 𝑃 + 2𝐼)
26. The trace and determinant of a 2×2 matrix are known to be −2 and −35 respectively. Its eigen
values are
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

(a) −30 and −5 (b) −35 and −1 (c) −7 and 5 (d) 17.5 and −2
27. Let 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , 1 ≤ 𝑖, 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛 with 𝑛 ≥ 3 and 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑖. 𝑗. Then the rank of 𝐴 is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 𝑛 − 1 (d) 𝑛
28. A real 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is defined as follows:
𝑖, if 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑗 =
0, otherwise
The summation of all 𝑛 eigen values is
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛 𝑛+1 (2𝑛+1)
(a) 2
(b) 2
(c) 6
(d) 𝑛2

29. The system of linear equations

2 1 3 𝑎 5
3 0 1 𝑏 = −4 has
1 2 5 𝑐 14
(a) a unique solution
(b) infinitely many solutions
(c) no solution
(d) exactly two solutions

30. Which one of the following statements is NOT true for a square matrix?
(a) If A is upper triangular, the eigenvalues of A are the diagonal elements of it
(b) If A is real symmetric, the eigenvalues of A are always real and positive
(c) If A is real, the eigenvalues of A and AT are always the same
(d) If all the principal minors of A are positive, all the eigenvalues of A are also positive

31. The system of equations

x+y+z=6
x + 4y + 6z = 20
x + 4y + z = µ
has NO solution for values of and µgiven by
(a) 6, µ20
(b) 6, µ20
(c) 6, µ20
(d) 6, µ20
32. Given that
−5 −3 1 0
A= and I = , the value of A3 is
2 0 0 1
(a) 15A+12I
(b) 19A+30I
(c) 17A+15I
(d) 17A+21I
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

33. Consider a system of linear equations:

𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = −1
𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 1 and
−2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = 𝑘
The value of 𝑘 for which the system has infinitely many solutions is ______.
34. The value of x for which all the eigen-values of the matrix given below are real is
10 5 + 𝑗 4
𝑥 20 2
4 2 −10
(a) 5 + 𝑗
(b) 5 − 𝑗
(c) 1 − 5𝑗
(d) 1 + 5𝑗
1 tan 𝑥
35. For 𝐴 = , the determinant of 𝐴𝑇 𝐴−1 is
− tan 𝑥 1
(a) sec 2 𝑥
(b) cos 4𝑥
(c) 1
(d) 0
36. Let 𝑀4 = 𝐼 (Where 𝐼 denotes the identity matrix) and 𝑀 ≠ 𝐼, 𝑀2 ≠ 𝐼, 𝑀3 ≠ 𝐼. Then, for any natural
number 𝑘, 𝑀−1 equals:
(a) 𝑀4𝑘+1
(b) 𝑀4𝑘+2
(c) 𝑀4𝑘+3
(d) 𝑀4𝑘
37. The value of 𝑥 for which the matrix
3 2 4
𝐴= 9 7 13
−6 −4 −9 + 𝑥
has zero as an eigen-value is____.
38. The matrix
3 2 4
𝐴= 9 7 13
−6 −4 −9 + 𝑥
has det 𝐴 = 100 and 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴 = 14. The value of |𝑎 − 𝑏| is____.
39. Consider a 2×2 square matrix
 Matrix Algebra: MTH-174 Prof. U. Sarkar

𝜎 𝑥
𝐴= , where 𝑥 is unknown.
𝜔 𝜎
If the eigenvalues of the matrix 𝐴 are (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔) and (𝜎 − 𝑗𝜔), then 𝑥 is equal to
(a) +𝑗𝜔
(b) −𝑗𝜔
(c) +𝜔
(d) – 𝜔
40. The rank of the matrix
1 −1 0 0 0
0 0 1 −1 0
0 1 −1 0 0
−1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 −1
is ______.
𝑘 2𝑘 𝑥1
41. Consider matrix 𝐴 = 2 2 and vector 𝑥 = 𝑥 . The number of distinct real values of 𝑘 for
𝑘 −𝑘 𝑘 2

which the equation 𝐴𝑥 = 0 has infinitely many solutions is ____.