LAB MANUAL

M. Sc Physics – Semester II

Dr. D. Balamurugan
Dr. V. K. Chandrasekar
Dr. V. K. Chandrasekar
Dr.Vasantha
Dr. R. D. Balamurugan
Jayakantha Raja
Dr. R. Vasantha Jayakantha Raja

NAME:
REG. NO.:
 LAB M A N U A L
M.Sc Physics – Semester I I

Dr. V. K. Chandrasekar
Associate Professor, Department of physics

Dr. D. Balamurugan
Senior Assistant Professor, Department of physics

Dr. R. Vasantha Jayakantha Raja

Assistant Professor, Department of physics

School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

SASTRA Deemed University
Thanjavur - 613401

1
 INDEX

1. ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE

2. DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POLARIZABILITY OF BENZENE

3. YOUNG’S SINGLE AND DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE EXPERIMENT

4. PHOTO ELECRIC EFFECT – DETERMINATION OF PLANK’S CONSTANT

5. NUMERICAL APERTURE OF MULTIMODE OPTICAL FIBER

6. BENDING LOSS OF MULTIMODE OPTICAL FIBER

7. B-H LOOP TRACING OF MAGNETIC MATIRIALS

8. B-H CURVE OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIAL

9. DIPOLE MOMENT OF AN ORGANIC MOLECULE,ACETONE

10. I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOLAR CELL

11. STUDY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GM TUBE

12. VERIFICATION OF INVERSE SQUARE LAW USING GM COUNTER

13. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

14. LINEAR AND MASS ATTENUATION COEFFICIENT FOR γ RAYS

15. REFLEX KLYSTRON – MODE CHARACTERISTICS

[AMPLITUDE MODULATION]

16. FOUR PROBE METHOD – MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY OF

MATERIAL

17. HALL EFFECT – MEASUREMENT OF CARRIER CONCENTRATION OF

SEMICONDUCTOR

18. NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) OF MATERIALS

S.No. DATE EXPERIMENT NAME SIGN.

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

I. Performance of Experiments:

Students have to perform well by reading the following guide lines

1. Study the experiment: Very carefully and think of the steps you will take in carrying out
the work.
2. Check that you have all the required apparatus.

3. Keep a observation note for a record of the experiment data. In the note book, write the
date of your performance.
4. Check the working formula with a clear explanation of the symbols.
5. For an electrical and electronics experiment, make connections accordingly.
6. Do the work cleanly and methodically, step by step.

7. Record all the data in your note book systematically in a table.

8. If a mistake is made in recording a value, strike off and write the new value by its side. Do
not over write.

9. Do all the calculations neatly and enter result in the note book put units in the final result.

10. Compute the percentage error, and judge the number of significant figures to be kept in
the result.
 II. Writing of the Laboratory Record:

The following method of writing is suggested in writing the physics laboratory Record note.

1. Title: The title of the experiment should be written in capital letter.

2. Expt. No. & Date: The experiment number and the date on which the experiment was
performed should be written.

3. Aim: The aim of the experiment should be given after the title.

4. Apparatus required: Give a complete list of apparatus and indicate their assembly, when
required.

5. Formula: Write the working formula with proper unit and explain the symbols.

6. Procedure: The steps followed in the work are to be mentioned.

7. Diagram: A neat schematic diagram in pencil of the apparatus or experimental arrangement

should be given on the left hand page. If electrical experiments, a circuit diagram is
required.

8. Observation: Record the data in the order they are taken on the left-hand page. Make
tables, wherever possible. Do not forget to show units.

9. Calculation: Calculations of the result by putting the measured values (in proper units) in
the working formula are to be clearly shown on the left-hand page.

10. Result: Finally write the result of the experiment with proper unit in the bottom of the page.
 1. ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE

Expt.No: Date:

Aim:
To determine the electron spin resonance of the given sample.
Apparatus:

ESR spectrometer, Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO), DPPH

Principle:

The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron ‘S’ couples with the orbital
angular momentum of the electron ‘L’ to give a resultant J and this coupling gives rise to the
‘fine structure’ of the spectra. Furthermore, under the influence of an external magnetic field (H)
each of the level will split into (2j+1) sublevels (Zeeman effect) and the splitting of a level will
be

∆E = (gµ0H)mj

where µ0 is the Bohr magneton, g is the Lande’s g-factor and m j is the magnetic quantum
number. The splitting is not same for all levels; it depends on the J and L of the level (S=½
always for one electron). However, the sublevels will split equally by an amount

∆E = gµ0H or = hν0

where ν0 is the frequency of the system. Now if the electron is subjected to a perturbation by an
oscillating magnetic field with its direction perpendicular to the static magnetic field and its
frequency ν1 such that the quantum hν1 is equal to E=hν0, then there will be resonance between
ν1 and ν0. This will induce transition between neighboring sublevels (m j = ±1) and in turn will
absorb energy from oscillating field. Thus, at resonance, a peak is observed due to the absorption
of energy by the system.

Considering a free electron and substitute the proper value of constants in the equation, g = 2.00,
µ0 = 0.927X10-20 erg/gauss and h = 6.625 X l0-27 erg sec, we get

(ν0)/(H0)= 2.8MHz/gauss
ESR can be observed at radio frequencies in a magnetic field of a few gauss or in the microwave
region in a magnetic field of a few kilogauss.
Experimental set up

ESR spectrometer consists of radio frequency oscillator with 4-digit frequency display.
The sample is kept inside the tank coil of the oscillator, which in turn, is placed in the 50Hz
magnetic field, generated by the Helmholtz coils. At resonance, when the frequency of
oscillation equal to the Larmor’s frequency of the sample, the oscillator amplitude registers a dip
due to the absorption of power by the sample. The result is amplitude modulated carrier which is
then detected using a FET demodulator and amplified by an op-amp circuit.

Tabulation:

Distance
between peaks Q=x/2 1/I
S.No Current(mA)
(x) (mm) (A-1)
(mm)


Formula: 𝑔 =

h-Planck’s constant = 6.62x10-27 erg.sec

0 – Resonance frequency = 15.05 MHz Q

μ0- Bohr magneton = 0.0927x10-19erg/gauss

I-1(A-1)
H0= QI/P  Hpp

P- Total X-plate deflection of oscilloscope =________(mm)

Hpp= Magentic field at the centre of Helmholtz coil = 168 gauss/amp

Results:

The value of g-factor =

Partner Names:

MARK DISTRIBUTION
A Observation /4
B Calculation /6
C Negative marks for late /10
submission
Total marks(A+B+C) /10
 2. DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POLARIZABILITY OF BENZENE

Expt.No: Date:

Aim:
To determine the electric polarizability of Benzene.
Apparatus Required:
Capacitance measuring circuit, cylindrical capacitance in a jar, a mm measuring upto 3
decimal places, analar grade benzene.

Formula:

(i )V liq = a+ b x 90

Where,
V liq - Contribution V O of the leads Mass of the electron (Kg).

V liq− V 0
(ii )Dielectric constant of liquid :ε r=
V air − V 0

3(ε r− 1) 3
(iii )Polarisability α= (nm)
N B (ε r +2)

Where,
Nb - Number of Benzene molecules per unit volume.

Experimental Setup:
For this measurement a cylindrical capacitor of 15 cm is provided. The cylindrical
capacitor is suspended in a tall cylindrical graduated plastic jar (of volume 100 ml). The
cylindrical capacitor consists of two coaxial metal tubes of different radii insulated from each
other. Two leads taken out of the tubes are connected to banana plugs on the insulating mount on
top of the jar. Such a cylindrical capacitor will have a capacitance of a few tens of pico-farads.
The capacitance of the leads may be a sizeable fraction of the capacitance of the
cylindrical condenser if the connecting leads are large in diameter and are close to each other.
The capacitance of the cylindrical capacitor is of the order of 10 to 15 pfd. To reduce the lead
capacitance use thin wires for connection and separate the wires by a large distance. Connect the
black terminal on the cylindrical capacitance to the ground terminal of the pair C on the
capacitance circuit. Bring the wire from the other terminal of the pair C close to the red terminal
of the cylindrical capacitor. Without connecting it to the red terminal note the DC reading on the
DMM (in the DC 2 V range) connected to the output of the capacitance meter. Let it be N B .
Then connect the lead to the red terminal and measure the voltage. Let it be V 0 .Then ( V air -
V 0 ) is proportional to the capacitance of the cylindrical condenser with air as the medium.

Figure: Measuring jar filled with a cylindrical capacitor inside.

Analar grade (this means high purity) benzene (or carbon tetrachloride) is added in
approximately 10 ml quantities into the jar through a tube provided in the cap of the capacitor. If
the liquid spills out it may damage the plastic terminals. The liquid is now added in steps of 10
ml and the DC voltage is noted on the DMM after each such addition. Please wait for a minute or
stwo after adding the liquid for the reading on the DMM to settle down to a steady value. Note
the level of the liquid in milli-liters from the graduation on the jar for each addition of the liquid.
The jars purchased in the market may be of different cross-sections. So in some the top of
the cylindrical capacitor may be above the 100ml mark on the jar. In the others the top of the
cylindrical capacitor may be below the 100ml mark. Take readings of the output voltage till you
fill the jar up to 80 ml. Then note the height of the jar, h, from 0 to 100 ml. Find the height of the
top of the cylindrical capacitor from the bottom of the jar. Let it be h’. So h’ would correspond to
(h’/h) x 100 = v milliliters of liquid. This is the volume of the liquid to fill the capacitor. In the
case of the sample readings given below this corresponds to 90 ml.
Model Graph:

Figure: Plot of DC voltage against ml of benzene filled.

A graph is plotted of the DC voltage against the volume of benzene. A straight line is
fitted on the computer to the points and the equation of the straight line is noted as
V = V’+bm
where V is the DC voltage with the liquid, V’ is the intercept, b is the slope and m is the volume
of the liquid in milliliters. The reading corresponding to the situation when the liquid is filled to
reach the top of the cylindrical capacitor is obtained from equation by putting m = v i.e.
V air = a+ b x v

V liq includes the contribution V 0 of the leads. So the voltage due to cylindrical capacitance
filled with liquid, omitting the capacitance of the leads, will be ( V liq - V 0 ).
The dielectric constant of the liquid is
ε r = capacitance with liquid/capacitance with air

V liq − V 0
= V −V
air 0

Use the Clausius Mosotti relation

(ε − 1)( ε +2) = NB α/3

where NB is the number of benzene molecules per unit volume and α is the electronic
polarizability of benzene.

The molecular weight of benzene (C6H6) is 78 gm and its density, N B , is 0.899 g/cc. So
78 grams of benzene contain the Avogadro number NA (6.022x1023) of molecules. 1cc of
benzene has a mass 0.899 g. The number of molecules in 1 cc is
23 21
NB = 6.022x 10 x0.899/78 = 6.94x 10 molecules/cc.

In the SI units the unit of volume is 1 m = V 0 cc. So the number NB of molecules in 1 V liq is
3

NB = 6.94x1021x106 = 6.94 x 1027 / m3

Note that the electronic polarizability of a molecule has the dimensions of volume and roughly
gives the size of the molecule.
Observation:
The voltage due to leads V0 = ________ V.
The voltage of capacitance in air with leads Vair = _________ V
When benzene is filled in the jar the following readings were obtained.
Milli-litre V in mV

The intercept is ___________ mV and the slope is ___________mV/ml.

The voltage Vliq when the capacitor is filled with liquid is
Vliq = ______________mV. = ______________V.
Calculation:

Results:

The electric polarizability of the molecule of Benzene is_____________

Partner Names:

MARK DISTRIBUTION
A Observation /4
B Calculation /6
C Negative marks for late /10
submission
Total marks(A+B+C) /10
 3. YOUNG’S SINGLE AND DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE EXPERIMENT

Expt.No: Date:

Aim:
(a) To observe the character of single slit diffraction.
(b) To observe the character of double slit diffraction

Apparatus Required:

Helium-Neon laser, Slide of single slits, Slide of double slits, slit holders, Meter stick

Formula:
Interference of light through single slit is

a sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 here sin 𝜃 =

where
a - slit width (m)
m - Order of the fringe
𝑙 - Distance between the two minima of order m (m)
L - Distance between screen and slit (m)
Interference of light through double slit is

d sin 𝜃 = 𝑚′𝜆 here sin 𝜃 =

Where
d - slit separation (m)
𝑙 - Distance between the central maximum and the minima of order m (m)

Description:

Fig : Experimental setup

 Set up the laser at one end of the optics bench and place the single slit in its holder about
5 cm in front of the laser.
 Cover the screen with a sheet of paper and attach it to the other end of the bench so that
the paper faces the laser.
 Select the single/double slit and adjust the position of the laser beam from left-to-right
and up-and-down until the beam is centered on the slit.
Procedure:

Single Slit:
 Determine the distance from the slit to the screen.
 Note that the slit is actually offset from the center line of the slit holder. Record the
screen position, slit position, and the difference between these (the slit-to-screen distance)
in Table.
 Turn off the room lights and mark the positions of the minima in the diffraction pattern
on
the screen.
  Turn on the room lights and measure the distance between the first order (m = 1) marks
and record this distance in Table. Also measure the distance between the second order (m
=2) marks and record in Table.
 Divide the distances between side orders by two to get the distances from the center of
the pattern to the first and second order minima. Record these values in Table.
 Using the average wavelength of the laser (670 nm for the Diode Laser), calculate the slit
width twice, once using first order and once using second order. Record the results in
Table.

Double Slit:
 Determine the distance from the slits to the screen similar to single slit.
 Note that the slits are actually offset from the centre line of the slit holder. Record the
screen position, slit position, and the difference between these (the slit-to-screen distance)
in Table.
 Divide the distances between side orders by two to get the distances from the center of
the pattern to the first and second order maxima. Record these values in Table.
 Using the average wavelength of the laser, calculate the slit separation twice, once using
first order and once using second order. Record the results in Table.

Observation:

a. Determination of slit width – single slit

Wavelength of Laser 𝜆 =
Distance between screen to slit =

S.No Order of Distance Distance from 𝒍𝟏 a =

𝒎𝝀

the fringe between the two centre to side 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟏

𝑳
minima l’ (l1 =l’/2)
1
2
3
 b. Determination of slit width and slit separation – Double Slit Interference and Diffraction
Distance between screen to slit =

S.No Order Order Distance Distance sin sin θ2 a = d ,=

𝒎𝝀
of the of the between between the θ1 𝒍
= 𝟐
𝒎𝝀
𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟐
fringe fringe the two central 𝒍
= 𝟏
M m’ minima of maximum and 𝑳

order m, l1 the minima of

order m’, l2
1
2
3

Results:
Slit width of single slit = ………………………...
Double width of double slit = ………………………...
Slit separation of double slit = ………………………...

|
Percentage of error = × 100

Partner Names:

MARK DISTRIBUTION
A Observation /4
B Calculation /6
C Negative marks for late /10
submission
Total marks(A+B+C) /10
 4. PHOTO ELECRIC EFFECT – DETERMINATION OF PLANK’S CONSTANT

Expt.No: Date:

Aim:
 To determine the Planck’s constant
 To study the variation of photoelectric current at various distances between the
source and the cell, and
 To find the dependence of photoelectric current on the voltage across the photo
cell
Apparatus Required:
Photo cell, lamp, filters, power supply, resistance, micrometer and multimeter.
Formula:

Einstein’s theory of light for photoelectric effect is

1
hν = 𝜙 + 𝑚𝑣
2
where
h - Planck’s constant (J-sec)
 - Frequency of incident photon (Hz)
𝜙 – Work function (J)
m - Mass of the electron (Kg)
v - Velocity of the electron (m/sec)

The loss of kinetic energy under the potential difference between anode and cathode is

hν = 𝜙 + 𝑒𝑉
where
e - Charge of the electron (C)
𝑉 - Stopping potential (V)
Principle:
If light be incident on certain metals, then photo electrons are emitted and the emission of
electrons by the action of light (photon) is called photoelectric effect. Einstein explained
photoelectric effect by quantum theory of light. If light of energy h be incident on a photo
material, it is used in doing work to take out the electron from the orbit and in imparting the
kinetic energy to the electron. Hence
1
hν = 𝜙 + 𝑚𝑣
2
where h is Planck’s constant, ν is the frequency of the incident radiation, m is the mass of
the electron and v is its velocity. The minimum positive cathode potential at a particular
frequency required to stop the fast moving electron is called stopping potential (V s). If the
conductor forms the anode of a phototube, as shown in Fig, no electrons will reach the cathode if
the potential difference ("retarding potential") between the anode and cathode is adjusted to the
minimum value necessary to stop the fastest electrons. The loss of kinetic energy is then
balanced by the gain of potential energy, eVs, and the energy equation is given by
 hν = 𝜙 + 𝑒𝑉 or 𝑉 = ν−𝜙

so when we plot a graph Vs as a function of , the slope of straight line yields and the
intercept of extrapolated point =0 can give work function .
Procedure:
a. To Find Planck’s Constant:
 Insert red color filter (635 nm), set light intensity switch at strong light, voltage direction
switch (14) at ‘-’, display mode switch (10) at current display.
 Adjust to de-accelerating voltage to 0 V and set current range selector (4) at x0.001.
Increase the de-accelerating to decrease the photo current to zero.
 Take down the de-accelerating voltage (Vs) corresponding to zero current of 635 nm
wavelength.
 Get the Vs of other wavelength, in the same way.
 A graph is plotted between the known frequencies and the corresponding stopping
potentials giving a straight line graph as shown in fig-1.

b. To Measure Current-Voltage Characteristics of Spectral Lines – Constant Frequency,

Different Intensity:
 Place the 635 nm filter in the window of the enclosure
 Adjust the voltage knob so that the current display is zero. Record the voltage and current
in Table 2.
  Increase the voltage by a small amount (for example, 1 V). Record the new voltage and
current in Table 2.
 Continue to increase the voltage by the same small increment. Record the new voltage
and current each time in Table 2.
 Stop when you reach the end of the VOLTAGE range
 Plot the graphs of Current (y-axis) versus Voltage (x-axis) for the one spectral line, 635
nm, at the three different intensities.
 when the voltage between the cathode and anode is greater than the stopping voltage, the
photocurrent will increase quickly and eventually reach saturation. The saturated current
is proportional to the intensity of the incident light. See Figure 2.

c. To Measure Current-Voltage Characteristics of Spectral Lines – Different Frequencies,

Constant Intensity:
 After placing the 460 nm filter in the window, keep anyone of the standard intensity.
 Adjust the voltage knob record the current for various voltage in Table 4.
 Stop when you reach the end of the VOLTAGE range
 Plot the graphs of Current (y-axis) versus Voltage (x-axis) for the three different spectral
lines at constant intensity.
 Light of different frequencies (colors) have different stopping potentials. See Figure 3

Observation:

a. To find Planck’s constant:

S. No Wavelength Frequency Stopping

potential
 b. To Measure Current-Voltage Characteristics of Spectral Lines – Constant Frequency,
Different Intensity:
Spectral Frequency = Red

S. No Intensity 1 Intensity 2 Intensity 3

V (V) I (m) V (V) I (m) V (V) I (m)

Spectral Frequency = Yellow

S. No Intensity 1 Intensity 2 Intensity 3

V (V) I (m) V (V) I (m) V (V) I (m)
 c. To Measure Current-Voltage Characteristics of Spectral Lines – Different Frequencies,
Constant Intensity:

Intensity:

S. No Red Green Yellow I

V (V) I (m) V (V) I (m) V (V) I (m)

Calculation:

Slope = __________________
h = e x slope = _______________________
Results:

Planck’s constant =……………….

|
Percentage of error = × 100 =

Partner Names:

MARK DISTRIBUTION
A Observation /4
B Calculation /6
C Negative marks for late /10
submission
Total marks(A+B+C) /10
 7. B-H LOOP TRACING OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Expt.No: Date:

Aim:
To trace hysteresis loop and to measure the coercivity, retentivity and energy loss of the given
sample.

Apparatus Required:
B-H loop tracer, cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) and given sample.

Formula:

N 1R2 C
Energy Loss= × S v× Sh × × A
N 2R1 V
J/cycle.m3

N 1× S h× C d
Coercivity=
2 πr× R 1
Ampere / meter

Retentivity = 0 . 054× S v × Rd
mT.

Where,
C - Capacitance = 4.7 μF
R1 - Resistance of primary = 1.0 ohm
R2 - Resistance of secondary = 680 ohms
N1 - Number of turns in primary = 200 turns
N2 - Number of turns in secondary = 100 turns
V - Volume of the toroid = 4.946x10-5 m3
r - Outer radius of the toroid = 0.0425 m
A - Area of the Loop (from graph)
Sh - Horizontal sensitivity
Sv - Vertical sensitivity
Cd - Distance o-c and o-f for negative and positive coercivity (in meter)
Rd – Distance o-b and o-e for positive and negative retentivity (in meter)

Theory:
Magnetic hysteresis may be defined as the lagging of magnetization (or flux density B) behind
magnetizing force H. It is that property of material due to which energy is dissipated in it on the
reversal of its magnetism. The magnetizing force H can be produced by passing current through
the coil wound on iron sample. It can be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing the
current through the coil.
o Initially variable resistance is kept at maximum position so current through the circuit is
very low. The field strength H is also very low. So as current increased, for low values of
field strength, flux density do not increase rapidly. But after the knee point flux density
increases rapidly up to certain point .This point is called point of saturation .There after
 any change in current do not have an effect on the flux density .This curve is nothing but
the magnetization curve (B-H curve). This is the initial part of hysteresis loop.

o After the saturation point, now current is again reduced to zero. Due to this field strength
also reduces to zero. But it is observed that flux density do not trace the same curve back
but falls back as compared to previous magnetization curve .This phenomenon of falling
back of flux density while demagnetization cycle is called hysteresis. Hence due to this
effect, when current becomes exactly zero, there remains some magnetism associated
with a coil. The sample does not get completely demagnetized though current through
coil becomes zero. This value of flux density when exciting current through the coil and
magnetic field strength is reduced to zero is called residual flux density/ residual
magnetism of the sample. The magnitude of this residual flux or magnetism depends on
the nature of the sample. And this property of the material is called retentivity.
o But now if it is required to demagnetize the sample entirely then it is necessary to reverse
the direction of the current through the coil. The value of magnetic field strength
required to wipe out the residual flux density is called the coercive force. It is measured
in terms of coercivity.
o If now this reversed current is increased, sample will get saturated but in opposite
direction. At this point flux density is maximum but with opposite direction.
o If this current is reduced to zero, again sample shows a hysteresis property and does not
get fully demagnetized. It shows same value of residual magnetism but with opposite
direction.
o If current is reversed again, then for a certain magnitude of field strength, complete
demagnetization of the sample is possible.
o And if it is increased further, then saturation in the original direction is achieved
completing one cycle of magnetization and demagnetization.
o The curve plotted for such one cycle turns out to be closed loop which is called
hysteresis loop.

Diagram
 Figure 2: Schematic graph of the hysteresis loop

Procedure:
 Connect H to the horizontal input of the CRO and V to vertical input of the CRO.
Operate the CRO in X-Y mode.
 Switch ON the kit.
 To calibrate horizontal and vertical sensitivity, as follows.
 Horizontal Calibration:
 Connect only the X-axis to the CRO. This will result in a
line being displayed along the X-axis. Adjust it to the vertical
center of the CRO and do not change it afterwards.
 Note the length of this line Lx in meters
 Measure the voltage using multimeter.(Vrms-X) (1.5 V)
 Vp = √2 x Vrms-X
 Vppx = 2 x Vp
 Horizontal sensitivity (Sh) = Vpp/ Lx

 Vertical Calibration:
 Connect only the Y-axis to the CRO. This will result in a
line being displayed along the Y-axis. Adjust it to the Horizontal
center of the CRO and do not change it afterwards.
 Note the length of this line Ly in meters
 Measure the voltage using multimeter.(Vrms-Y) (0.4 V)
 Vp = √2 x Vrms-Y
 Vppy = 2 x Vp
 Vertical sensitivity (Sv) = Vpp/ Ly

 Trace center point and the area of the loop on a butter paper from the screen of CRO
and retrace it on graph paper.
 Measure the distances o-c, o-f, o-b and o-e, as mentioned in the Figure 2.
  Calculate the coercivity (H) and retentivity (B) using relation given in the formula
section.
 Determine the area of the loop with the help of graph paper.

Precautions:
If the area of the loop is expressed in cm2, the sensitivities should be expressed in volts/cm. If
the area of the loop is expressed in sq.meter the sensitivities should be expressed in volts/meter.
The length of the coil should be in meter.

Observations:
Length of Line X axis (Lx) = ___________m
Voltage applied to X axis (Vrms-X) = 1.5 V
Horizontal sensitivity (Sh) = ____________ V/m
Length of Line Y axis (Ly) = ____________m
Voltage applied to Y axis (Vrms-Y) = 0.4 V
Vertical sensitivity (Sv) = ____________ V/m
Area of the Loop (from graph) = ____________ m 2.
Cd:
Positive distance (o-f) from graph = _____________ m
Negative distance (o-c) from graph = _____________ m
Rd:
Positive distance (o-b) from graph = _____________ m
Negative distance (o-e) from graph = _____________ m
Results:

The coercivity, retentivity, and the energy loss of the given sample is
Coercivity = ± ………………………………………. Ampere/meter
Retentivity = ± ………………………………………. mT.
Energy Loss = …………………………………….. J/cycle/m 3.

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A Observation /4
B Calculation /6
Negative mark for late
C /10
submission
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 12. STUDY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GM TUBE

Expt No: Date:

Aim:

To study the variations of count rate with applied voltage and thereby determine the plateau,
the operating voltage and the slope of the plateau.

Apparatus Required:

GM counting system with A.C. main chord, GM detector, stand.

Procedure:

 Make the connection between counting system to GM detector by MHV to VHF coaxial
cable.
 Also connect the main chord from the counting system to 230 V. A .C power.
 Place a gamma or beta source from the end window of the detector.
 Now place up the unit and select menu options to PROGRAM ON the keypad of the GM
counting system and select 30sec preset time typically.
 Now press – “START” button to record the counts and gradually increases the HV by
retarting the HV knob till such time, the unit just starts counting. Now press “STOP” button.
 Now take a fresh reading at the point and record the observation.
 Also record for each HV setting corresponding background counts without keeping the
source.
 Now tabulate the readings and a graph of voltage against counts.
Observation:

S.No EHT (Volts) Counts 30 Sec Background counts Corrected Nc = (N-No)

N 30 Sec Counts 30 Sec
(No)

Results:

Thus the variations of count rate with applied voltage and the plateau, the operating voltage
and the slope of the plateau are determined.

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 14. LINEAR AND MASS ATTENUATION COEFFICIENT FOR γ- RAYS

Expt No: Date:

Aim:

To calculate linear and mass attenuation coefficient for γ-Rays.

Apparatus Required:

GM counting system 601A / 602A with A. C main chord, GM detector, stand, radioactive
source, kit.

Procedure:

 Make standard connections and arrangement between GM counting system, detector,

absorber and source.
 Place a gamma source in the source tray at about 4cm from the end window of the Gm tube.
 Set the GM voltage at the operating voltage of the GM tube.
 Choose one of the absorber from the set given below for the experiment and interpose
between end window detector and source holder.
a) Aluminium absorber set (or)
b) Copper absorber set (or)
c) Lead absorber set
 Take reading for a present time of 60sec without any absorber and tabulate.
 Plot the graph for each type of absorber counts 30sec vs thickness of the absorber.

Observation:

Without Shielding

Thickness = Thickness = Thickness =

Runs Counts Runs Counts Runs Counts
With Shielding

Thickness = Thickness = Thickness =

Runs Counts Runs Counts Runs Counts

Background Thickness

Runs Counts Runs Counts in 30 sec

Calculation:
Results:
Thus the mass attenuation coefficient for γ-rays is_________________cm2/gm.

Partner’s Names:

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A observation /4
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 16. FOUR PROBE METHOD – MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY OF MATERIAL

Expt No: Date:

Aim
To study the variation of resistivity with temperature and determine the energy
band gap of a semiconductor using four probe method.

Apparatus Required:

Four probe arrangement, oven, thermometer, sample semiconductor crystal,

voltmeter, ammeter, connecting leads.

Formula:
The resistivity of the semiconductor crystal is given by

v πd
ρ= ×
I ln 2
Where,
d is the thickness of the crystal
V is the voltage across the crystal
I is the current through the crystal

The energy gap is E g of semiconductor crystal is given by

2.3026 log 10 ρ
E g=2 k eV
1/T
where
k is Boltzmann constant = 8.6 × 10 −5 eV and T is temperature in Kelvin.

Precautions
1. All four probes should be in contact with crystal surface.
2. Current through the crystal should remain constant through out the experiment.
3. Temperature of oven should not be increased beyond 1300 C.

Procedure:
1. Connect the outer pair of probes leads to the constant current power supply and inner pair to the
voltage terminals.
2. Place the four probe arrangement in the oven and fix the thermometer in the oven through the
hole provided.
3. Switch on the power supply and keep the digital panel meter in the current measuring mode
through the selector switch. In this position the LED facing mA would glow. Adjust the current to a
desired value.
4. Now change the digital panel meter in the voltage measuring mode. In this position the LED
facing mV would glow and the meter would read the voltage between inner probes.
5. Connect the oven supply, the rate of heating may be selected with the help of a switch.
6. Increase temperature of the oven upto 1300 C and then switch off the oven.
7. The temperature of the oven will decrease automatically. Now, measure the voltage in the digital
panel meter four various values of temperatures with a difference of 500 C.
8. Record the observations till the temperature of the oven reaches to the room temperature.
Observation:
Distance between the probes (S): 0.2 cm
Thickness of the crystal (d): 0.072 cm
Current through the crystal (I) = -----------------------mA

S. No. Temp (0C) Temp (K) 1000/T Voltage V v πd log 10 ρ

ρ= ×
(mV) I ln 2

Calculation:

1. Draw a graph between 1000/T versus log10 ρ .

Find the slope of the curve plotted in step 1 i.e. obtain the value of

log 10 ρ
Δ(1000 /T )

The energy band gap Eg of semiconductor crystal is calculated by

2.3026 log 10 ρ log 10 ρ

E g=2 k =2.3026×2 k ×103 eV
1/T Δ(1000/T )

Results:

The bandgap of the given semiconductor is Eg=......................eV

Partner’s Name:

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A observation /4
B Calculation /6
C Negative mark for late /10
submission
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