1st Aid Workbook

HLTAID011 LEARNER GUIDE
Provide First Aid
RTO: 45654
2022
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For use by authorised FAP staff only. For further information on the Units of Competency covered in this tool,
please consult:
https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/HLTAID011
Contents
This Learner Guide........................................................................................................................ 4
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 6
I. Respond to an Emergency Situation ......................................................................................... 13
1.1 Recognise and Assess an Emergency Situation ..................................................................... 13
1.1.1 Signs of Possible Emergencies .............................................................................................. 14
1.1.2 Assessing the Emergency Situation ...................................................................................... 15
1.2 Ensure Safety for Self, Bystanders and Casualty ................................................................... 16
1.2.1 Emergency Hazards .............................................................................................................. 16
1.2.2 Identifying Safety Hazards .................................................................................................... 17
1.2.3 Assessing the Hazards .......................................................................................................... 18
1.2.4 Managing the Hazards .......................................................................................................... 19
1.3 Assess the Casualty and Recognise the Need for First Aid Response .................................... 21
1.3.1 Assessment Principles ........................................................................................................... 21
1.4 Seek Assistance from Emergency Services ............................................................................ 25
1.4.1 Triple Zero (000) ................................................................................................................... 25
1.4.2 Other Emergency Contacts ................................................................................................... 26
II. Apply Appropriate First Aid Procedures .................................................................................... 27
2.1 Perform Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) in Accordance with ARC Guidelines ............ 29
2.1.1. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation........................................................................................... 29
2.1.2 The Australian Resuscitation Council (ARC) and the ARC Guidelines .................................... 30
2.1.3 Performing Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation......................................................................... 31
2.1.4 Defibrillation ......................................................................................................................... 34
2.1.5 Considerations When Providing CPR .................................................................................... 36
2.2 Provide First Aid in Accordance with Established First Aid Principles ................................... 40
2.2.1 ARC Guidelines Relevant to the Provision of First Aid .......................................................... 41
2.2.2 Principles and Procedures for First Aid Management .......................................................... 45
2.3 Display Respectful Behaviour Towards Casualty ................................................................... 92
2.4 Obtain Consent from Casualty Where Possible..................................................................... 93
2.5 Use Available Resources and Equipment to Make the Casualty as Comfortable as Possible
94
2.5.1 First Aid Kit............................................................................................................................ 95
HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

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Learner Guide – Version 2.4
2.6 Operate First Aid Equipment According to Manufacturer’s Instructions .............................. 97
2.7 Monitor the Casualty’s Condition and Respond in Accordance with First Aid Principles ...... 98
III. Communicate Details of the Incident .................................................................................... 100
3.1 Accurately Convey Incident Details to Emergency Services ................................................ 101
3.2 Report Details of Incident in Line with Appropriate Workplace or Site Procedures ............ 102
3.3 Complete Applicable Workplace or Site Documentation, Including Incident Report Form
103
3.4 Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality of Information in Line with Statutory or
Organisational Policies .................................................................................................................... 104
IV. Review the Incident ............................................................................................................. 106
4.1 Recognise the Possible Psychological Impacts on Self and Other Rescuers and Seek Help
when Required ................................................................................................................................ 107
4.2 Contribute to a Review of the First Aid Response as Required ........................................... 109
References ............................................................................................................................... 111

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This Learner Guide
HLTAID011 - Provide first aid (Release 1)
This unit describes the skills and knowledge required to provide a first aid response to a
casualty in line with first aid guidelines determined by the Australian Resuscitation Council
(ARC) and other Australian national peak clinical bodies.
The unit applies to all persons who may be required to provide a first aid response in a range
of situations, including community and workplace settings.
Specific licensing/regulatory requirements relating to this competency, including

requirements for refresher training should be obtained from the relevant
national/state/territory Work Health and Safety Regulatory Authorities.
A complete copy of the above unit of competency can be downloaded from the TGA
website:
https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/HLTAID011

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About this Unit of Study Introduction
As a worker, a trainee, or a future worker, you want to enjoy your work and become known
as a valuable team member. This unit of competency will help you acquire the knowledge
and skills to work effectively as an individual and in groups. It will give you the basis to
contribute to the goals of the organisation which employs you.
It is essential that you begin your training by becoming familiar with the industry standards
to which organisations must conform.
This Learner Guide Covers

Provide first aid
I. Respond to an emergency situation
II. Apply appropriate first aid procedures
III. Communicate details of the incident
IV. Review the incident
Learning Program
As you progress through this unit of study, you will develop skills in locating and
understanding an organisation’s policies and procedures. You will build up a sound
knowledge of the industry standards within which organisations must operate. You will
become more aware of the effect that your skills in dealing with people have on your success
or otherwise in the workplace. Knowledge of your skills and capabilities will help you make
informed choices about your further study and career options.

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Introduction
It is almost impossible to eliminate the risks of incidents and accidents from happening in any
workplace. Regardless of the safety precautions in place, incidents and accidents will
eventually happen. This is why it has become a requirement for all workplaces to provide
their employees and other people at the site access to first aid resources. These first aid
resources include not only a first aid kit but also people who are capable of providing first aid.
It is essential to have these first aid resources in place so that the workplace can respond
appropriately and immediately to a life-threatening situation while waiting for medical
services to arrive at the scene.
Immediate care of injuries or illnesses can greatly increase the chances of recovery and
reduce the chance of permanent damage and even death.
This Learner Guide is not intended to be a comprehensive first aid manual. As this is a Learner
Guide, a guide to help you learn, it will talk about the practical skills essential to providing
first and the theoretical knowledge underpinning them. These practical skills and knowledge
are essential in your pursuit of the unit of competency, HLTAID003 - Provide first aid (Release
6). Links to important reference materials are provided throughout this guide to supplement
your learning.
What is First Aid?

First Aid is any emergency care, such as treatment and assistance, provided to an injured or
ill person (referred to as a casualty) before any professional medical services, e.g. paramedic,
doctor, nurse, arrive.
The provision of first aid essentially aims to:
PRESERVE life
PROTECT the unconscious
PREVENT the condition from worsening
PROMOTE recovery
SEEK medical assistance

(Source: Emergency First Aid, Edition 19)

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The Healthcare Team
The health care team is the group of people involved in the treatment and care of a casualty.
They are individuals with specialised skills who have one purpose – to provide care and
treatment to the casualty.
Health care is composed of the following people:
▪ Casualty, the injured or ill person.
▪ First Aider, the person providing the first aid while waiting for professional medical
services to arrive.
▪ Paramedic, a healthcare professional who responds to emergency calls for medical
help outside of a hospital.
▪ Ambulance transport. An ambulance is a medically equipped vehicle which brings
patients to treatment facilities, e.g. hospitals.
▪ Hospital emergency department, the department of a hospital which provides
medical care to patients who need immediate care.
▪ Definitive care, the type of care provided to a patient to manage their medical
conditions conclusively or in the long term. This includes preventive, curative acute,
convalescent, restorative, rehabilitative medical care.
The Role of the First Aider

The first aider’s role is to:
▪ assess the situation and the area
▪ protect oneself from any danger
▪ prevent infection
▪ comfort and reassure the casualty
▪ assess the casualty and provide first aid accordingly
▪ seek medical assistance, as needed
(Source: www.sja.org.uk)

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Legal and Ethical Considerations in First Aid
Below are legal and ethical considerations underlying the practice of first aid:
Codes of Practice on
Duty of care Respectful behaviour
minimising risks and
requirements towards a casualty
potential hazards
Privacy and
Own skills and
Consent confidentiality
limitations
requirements
Codes of Practice on Minimising Risks and Potential Hazards

Work health and safety codes of practice provide information on specific work tasks to help
organisations achieve their WHS standards as required by relevant WHS laws.
The following model codes of practice can be used as a guide, especially in the assessment of
an emergency:
1. Model Code of Practice: First aid in the workplace

This code of practice provides Person Conducting a Business or Undertaking (PCBU) practical
guidance on how to effectively provide first aid in their workplace. It provides information on
first aid resources such as first aid kits, procedures, and facilities and training for first aid
personnel.
2. Model Code of Practice: How to manage work health and safety risks
This code of practice provides Person Conducting a Business or Undertaking (PCBU) practical
guidance on managing work health and safety risks in the workplace. This is intended to be
used along with other codes of practice (e.g. if the PCBU’s business involves construction,
then the PCBU also needs to refer to codes of practice that are relevant to construction work).
According to this code of practice, the following steps are taken to identify hazards in the
workplace.
1. Inspect the workplace
2. Consult your workers

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3. Review available information
Further Reading
Make sure to access your state/territory’s codes of practice. You can
access them through the website of your WHS state/territory’s
regulator.
Duty to Rescue
One of the questions which prevent a bystander from assisting in an emergency is whether
or not there is an obligation to provide assistance or care towards a person in need of
emergency care. The ARC guideline 10.5 states that ‘good Samaritans’ and ‘volunteers’ have
no duty of care to rescue, legislation varies per state/territory, and only the Northern
Territory has legislation that requires duty to rescue by any person without a duty of care.

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Duty of Care
Duty of care is the legal and moral responsibility to keep your clients, and other people safe
from harm whilst they are using a service, and this is in accordance with commonwealth and
state/territory Work Health and Safety Laws applicable in your state/territory, e.g. (WHS Act
2011 in Queensland).
In line with Work Health and Safety Laws, below are examples of duty of care requirements:
▪ The provision and maintenance of a work environment without risks to health and
safety
▪ The safe use, handling and storage of plant, structures, and substances
In the context of first aid, there exists a legal obligation for those who choose to provide first
aid to act responsibly, to the best of their ability and in good faith. There are those with legal
obligations to care such as those involved in a car crash, an employee designated as the
workplace first aider, and a trained first aider with a responsibility to others (children and
aged) such as those in an education and care setting.
Duty of care also means that you are not exposing others from potential illnesses as you
perform first aid or other emergency responses. The use of personal protective equipment
(e.g. face masks, face shields, sterile gloves), whenever applicable and possible, helps not only
to protect the first responder but the casualty and other people as well from the risk of
potential sickness that either of the two may have.

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Consent
Before assisting a casualty, it is important to seek the consent of the person if they are
conscious. Failure to do so could constitute assault or medical trespass, and the casualty can
seek to restitution or seek damages.
If the casualty is unconscious or otherwise has impaired decision-making capacity, it may be
possible to seek consent from a substitute decision-maker. This is especially true for children
whose parents or caretakers may be present.
A person is deemed to have impaired decision-making capacity for instances that they cannot
retain, understand, process, or communicate a medical or health care decision.
Children under 18 years old are considered to also have impaired decision-making capacity,
but some states/territories permit younger persons to make these decisions themselves.
However, there exist situations where treatment can be given without consent aside from
those stated above (impaired decision-making, those with advanced care directives, presence
of a secondary decisions maker).
There may also be situations where a casualty refuses to give consent. Therefore, refusal of
treatment is a legal right. There are legislations per state, and there are even other means to
refuse treatment such as Do Not Resuscitate or Not for Resuscitation order.
Below are two legal factors that must be considered when providing treatment without
consent:
a. Whether the casualty has or has not decision-making capacity.
b. The degree of urgency of the situation.
Currency of Skill Requirements

CPR skills should be updated every 12 months (annually), and All First Aid
courses/qualifications should be updated at least every three years.
Limitations of Own Skills

As a first aid responder, one must keep in mind that there are limits to one’s ability to provide
medical services. For example, first aiders are not qualified to prescribe and administer
prescription medicine. However, they can provide emergency medication and medication if
they are prescribed in a casualty’s asthma or anaphylaxis management plan. Additionally, a
first aider can only provide medical advice up to their training and knowledge level.

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Privacy and Confidentiality
In first aid, especially when dealing with casualty’s records, be sure to act in accordance with
privacy laws, particularly the Privacy Act 1988. The Privacy Act 1988 outlines 13 Australian
Privacy Principles that service providers must observe when handling personal and sensitive
information of people.
Under this legislation:
In relation to privacy:
▪ Individual must have access to their records when reasonable and practicable.
▪ Individual must be given access to their records in the manner requested.
In relation to confidentiality:
▪ Information about worker’s health must be kept confidential.
▪ Information about the worker’s health is only given to first aiders with the worker’s
consent.
Further Reading
You also have to keep in mind organisational policies and procedures
relevant to privacy and confidentiality. Below is a sample of an
organisational policy relating to information and records.
Lotus Compassionate Care Confidentiality Policy and Procedure

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I. Respond to an Emergency Situation
What is an Emergency Situation?
An emergency is a situation that poses an immediate risk to health, life, property, or
environment and requires an immediate response.
As this is a Learner Guide on First Aid and as you learned earlier in the Introduction section
of this document, this Learner Guide will just focus on emergencies that pose risks to the
health and life of people.
This chapter will discuss responding to emergency situations, including:
▪ Recognising and assessing an emergency situation
▪ Ensuring the safety for self, bystanders and casualty
▪ Assessing the casualty and recognising the need for first aid response
▪ Seeking assistance from emergency services
1.1 Recognise and Assess an Emergency Situation
As mentioned, a situation becomes an emergency if one or more of the following are present:

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▪ an immediate threat to life and health of a person or people in an area
▪ an immediate threat to property and environment
▪ loss of life
▪ health detriments
▪ property damage
▪ environmental damage
▪ high probability of escalation to cause immediate danger to life, health, property or
environment
1.1.1 Signs of Possible Emergencies

Knowing and recognising signs of potential emergencies are critical to the initial response to
the emergency. You use your senses to detect signs of an emergency and to recognise an
emergency. Signs of possible emergencies include noises, sights, smells, and behaviours that
are not typical to a situation.
For example, while you are going about in your day-to-day tasks in the office, the smell of
something burning and the sight of smoke emanating from the office pantry will tell you
immediately that there is something wrong. From what you know, the smell of burning and
the sight of smoke always means there is a fire which is never good in the office.
Aside from the smell of something burning and the sight of smoke, the following are other
indicators of possible emergencies:
▪ sound of alarms and sirens
▪ moaning, crying, yelling (for help)
▪ sounds of something breaking, crashing or falling
▪ foul or strong smells (could be an indicator of a chemical spill, so be very careful in
these situations as the fumes can be poisonous)
▪ crowd panic
▪ the sight of a person collapsed on the floor
▪ the sight of a person or group of people in distress

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1.1.2 Assessing the Emergency Situation
Once a situation is recognised as an emergency, you should proceed with assessing the
emergency situation. To assess an emergency, you can perform a primary survey of the
situation. A primary survey is a quick, orderly assessment to determine how best to treat the
casualty in order of the priority of the casualty.
When doing your primary survey, always remember D-R-S-A-B-C-D or Drs. ABCD as your
primary approach. DRSABCD stands for the following:
• Are there any dangers to you, the casualty and the bystanders?
Danger • If safe to do so, manage the hazards
• Move casualty away from the hazards (e.g. fire)
• Approach the casualty to try and get a response

Response • AVPU - Check if the casualty is alert, responds to voice or pain, or if
they are unresponsive
• Call 000 (Ambulance) or ask a bystander to do so

Send help • Call 131 126 for poisoinings (24 hours)
• Send for a defibrillator (AED)
• Is the casualty's airway blocked?

Airway • Open airway, using head tilt and jaw support for adults
• Check for loose objects, e.g. broken teeth
• Check whether the casualty is breathing normally

Breathing • Look for regular movement of chest or upper abdomen
• If the casualty is not breathing normally, proceed to perform CPR
• Perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation or chest compressions

CPR • Do 30 chest compresssions and two rescue breaths
• Continue until handed over to ambulance officers or casualty responds
• Use an automated external defibrillator (AED), as soon as possible

Defibrillation • Follow AED instructions and prompts
IMPORTANT: If there is more than one casualty, ALWAYS manage the unresponsive casualty first.

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1.2 Ensure Safety for Self, Bystanders and Casualty
As discussed in the previous section, the first action you take once you recognise an
emergency to assess the danger in the vicinity of the casualty. You need to ensure that the
emergency situation poses no risk in your safety, as well as the safety of bystanders around
and, of course, the casualty.
1.2.1 Emergency Hazards

Hazards will most likely be present in an emergency. Hazards are anything, such as an object,
a situation, or an event, that can cause harm or pose a risk to someone’s health and safety,
damage to property or environment, or a combination of these. Risks are the chances of a
hazard hurting someone or causing some damage.
Some hazards you might encounter include:
▪ Debris and Obstructions – These are physical objects that may bring harm or impede
movements, such as broken glass, collapsed structures, and holes.
▪ Electricity – This poses the risk of electrocution and is usually found in fallen power
lines and exposed live wires.
▪ Water – Poses the danger of slipping, getting wet, or drowning.
▪ Chemicals – These can be present as liquid or gases, such as fumes, which can be
toxic.
▪ Fire – It also includes explosives as well as flammable and combustible materials
present, which can cause burns, dehydration, and respiratory problems.
▪ Weather – Wind, rain, and other weather conditions can also pose hazards.

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1.2.2 Identifying Safety Hazards
When responding to emergency situations, it is essential to think calmly and logically and
work out a way how to respond to the situation without aggravating it either by putting
yourself in harm’s way or by causing further harm to a casualty.
Before rushing into the scene to assist someone, you have to STOP, LOOK, and CHECK if the
area is safe for you, the casualty, and the bystanders. Check the area for any hazards. Again,
use your senses to help you identify hazards and their indicators – can you see, smell, or hear
anything that could endanger you, the casualty, and the bystanders?
To assist you in identifying immediate health and safety hazards in the area:
Look up
Look at
eye level
Look
down
below
1. Look down below to see:

▪ Exposed wires
▪ Sharp objects (broken glass or other debris)
▪ Ground stability, muddy ground
▪ Liquid spills on the floor (water or chemicals)
2. Look at eye-level to check for:
▪ Bystanders, traffic, pedestrians, and vehicles
▪ Hazards such as fire, smoke, gas, or chemicals
3. Look up to see:
▪ Weather conditions (e.g. clouds, storms, lightning, wind, heavy raining, etc.)
▪ Overhead hazards (e.g. falling debris, trees, unstable structures, etc.)

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1.2.3 Assessing the Hazards
Once hazards are identified, you need to assess the risks they bring to you, bystander and
casualty. Risks are the chances of a hazard hurting someone or causing some damage. For
example, broken glass on the floor brings the risk of a cut, puncture, or laceration to someone
when stepped on.
Assessing hazards means determining and evaluating their risks or the harm they may cause.
It aims to answer one crucial question: Is there any danger to yourself, others, or the
casualty? The question can be answered by:
Determining the
Determining the Determining the risk level
likelihood of the consequence if (likelihood and
risk from the risk should consequence
happening occur associated with
the hazard)
Regular health and safety risk assessments are done in a more structured format with the use
of risk rating tables and risk analysis templates. However, in the event of an emergency, you
have to be able to think quick, think on your feet, and assess hazards’ risks instantaneously.
This is why it is very important for first aid responders to not panic when faced with danger
and approach the situation calmly and logically.
Assessing risks in an emergency situation, where the environment is dynamic, i.e. the
situation could change at any time, requires:
▪ undertaking a risk assessment prior, during, and after an operation
▪ carefully weighing the benefits of undertaking a task against the actual risks
▪ thinking before acting

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1.2.4 Managing the Hazards
Now that you have determined and assessed the hazards in the area, those hazards need to
be managed before you rush to the casualty’s aid. Remember that you cannot manage all the
hazards every time. Depending on the nature and the severity of the risk associated with the
hazard, you can take the following actions:
▪ Remove the hazard or the danger ONLY IF IT IS SAFE FOR YOU TO DO SO; or
▪ Transport the casualty to a location away from the hazard.
How do you know if it is safe for you to remove or take care of a hazard?
To determine whether controlling the hazard yourself is safe to do so:
▪ Think about your assessment of the hazard:
o Where is the hazard located? If it is far from you, the casualty and other
bystanders, it is unlikely that it will cause harm to you and the casualty.
o What harm will the hazard cause?
o How severe of harm will the hazard cause?

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▪ Ask yourself:
o ‘If I do this, what could happen next?’
o ‘Will I put myself in danger?’
o ‘Will I put the casualty in more danger?’
▪ Check your abilities and limitations:
o Are you qualified to do control this hazard?
o Have you been sufficiently trained in controlling this hazard?
o Have you had sufficient experience in controlling this hazard?
Before rushing in to control the hazards yourself or rushing to the casualty’s aid, it is critical
that you know these things first.
Below are examples of hazard management in emergency situations:
Putting out a small fire Instructing bystanders to

Wiping a spill on the floor
using fire extinguisher or stand back or to keep
dry so you don't slip on it.
a fire blanket. distance.
IMPORTANT: These examples are not always the best solution to all emergency situations.
Follow the steps discussed in the previous sections to guide you in managing with hazards
in different emergency situations.

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1.3 Assess the Casualty and Recognise the Need for First Aid Response
It is important that first aiders are able to recognise illnesses, injuries, and other conditions
that indicate immediate first aid assistance.
1.3.1 Assessment Principles

To recognise illnesses, injuries, and other conditions, first aiders look at evidence found in the
surroundings and the casualty. This evidence is categorised into the following:
History Signs Symptoms
History

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First aiders must look into the history of the casualty. This includes finding out the events
leading to, during, and after the accident, incident, or illness. This crucial piece of information
can be obtained from:
Asking the following people questions:
▪ The casualty, if they are conscious
▪ Bystanders who witnessed the incident
Observing (using your senses):
▪ The surroundings

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However, please note that if the casualty is unconscious and there are no bystanders, it will
be impossible for you to ask them questions to obtain the history of the incident. In this
situation, you need to do some detective work to obtain as much information from the
surroundings. For example, an unconscious casualty near a puddle of water could mean the
casualty slipped on it and hit their head.
Signs
Signs in the casualty are what you can see or hear, such as:
▪ Redness
▪ Swelling (e.g. lips, face, tongue or throat that indicate the casualty suffered an allergy
attack)
▪ Cuts and wounds
▪ Burns, blisters
▪ Rapid or laboured breathing
Symptoms
If signs are what you can see or hear, symptoms, on the other hand, are what the casualty
feels and tells you about.
As you cannot see or hear symptoms, you will need to ask the casualty questions to know if
they are experiencing pain, nausea, or other conditions you cannot see with your eyes.
When you have gathered all these three pieces of evidence, you can then have a fair
assessment of the casualty’s illness or injury which you will then use to determine whether
first aid is needed, and if yes, what type of first aid treatment is needed.

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See the case study below as an example:
Assessing the casualty through history, signs, and symptoms
History
Whilst playing soccer, one player accidentally hit the left shin of another player.
Signs
Casualty’s left shin looks swollen and deformed.
Symptoms
Casualty says he is unable to move his left leg and says he is in great pain.
Assessment

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1.4 Seek Assistance from Emergency Services
Part of responding to an emergency situation is seeking help or assistance for the casualty.
As you can only provide first aid to a person, you cannot perform other medical procedures
as you will also most likely lack the necessary medical tools and equipment to treat the
casualty. Therefore, calling emergency response team should be done in order to further
assist the casualty and also send the person to a healthcare facility, such as a hospital.
1.4.1 Triple Zero (000)

To access assistance from emergency services, call
Triple Zero (000).
Triple Zero (000) is the primary national emergency
number in Australia. It is to be used only for life-
threatening or time-critical emergencies.
Triple Zero can be dialled free of charge from any fixed
or mobile phone, payphones and certain Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP) services.
When you dial Triple Zero, you will be asked by the
operator which emergency service you require:
▪ Police
▪ Fire
▪ Ambulance
For first aid and other medical emergencies, ask for ambulance services. Then give the state
and town from where you are calling. Stay on the line while the operator connects to the
ambulance services you requested.
You may also call 000 using the Emergency+ application on a smartphone. An advantage of
using the Emergency+ app to dial 000 is that it uses your phone’s global positioning system,
or GPS, to get your exact location to be given to emergency services.

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1.4.2 Other Emergency Contacts
As an alternative to the Triple Zero, you can also call 112 for mobile devices. For people who
are deaf or who have hearing or speech impairment, you can dial 106 through a
teletypewriter (TTY). Then you can type ‘PPP’ for police, ‘FFF’ for fire, or ‘AAA’ for an
ambulance.
For poisonings or when you think someone has taken an overdose or made an error with
medicine, call 131 126 to reach the Poisons Information Centre. This hotline is open 24 hours
a day, seven days a week.
Further Reading
For more information on other emergency numbers in
Australia, you can visit the website on Triple Zero.
Triple Zero – Australian Government: Department of Home
Affairs
Australian State and Territory Emergency Services
Organisations

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II. Apply Appropriate First Aid Procedures
In Chapter 1, the topics on responding to an emergency, including recognising an emergency
situation, looking out for dangers in the area, and assessing the casualty and the situation
were discussed.
Once you have made an assessment of the situation and the casualty and you have managed
the dangers or hazards in the area, you should proceed to apply first aid procedures as
appropriate to the casualty’s injury, illness or condition as well as the situation.
This chapter will discuss applying appropriate first aid procedures. Specifically, it will cover
the following:
▪ Performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in accordance with ARC guidelines
▪ Providing first aid in accordance with established first aid principles
▪ Displaying respectful behaviour towards the casualty
▪ Obtaining consent from casualty where possible
▪ Using available resources and equipment to make the casualty as comfortable as
possible
▪ Operating first aid equipment according to manufacturer’s instructions
▪ Monitoring the casualty’s condition and responding in accordance with first aid
principles

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2.1 Perform Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) in Accordance with ARC Guidelines
2.1.1. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

According to the Australian Resuscitation Council’s ARC Guideline 8 – Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation (CPR), cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is the technique of chest
compressions combined with rescue breathing. The purpose of CPR is to temporarily
maintain a circulation sufficient to preserve brain function until specialised treatment is
available. Rescuers must start CPR if the person is unconscious and not breathing normally.
To check if the casualty is unconscious, use the talk and touch method, ensuring that those
do not cause or worsen any injury. The method includes asking or giving a simple command
such as, ’open your eyes; squeeze my hand; let it go’ (talk) and then grasping and squeezing
the shoulder firmly (touch). If the casualty does not respond or shows only a minor response
(e.g. groaning but with eyes closed), the casualty is considered unconscious.

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To assess the breathing of the casualty:
Assessing If Casualty is Breathing
• look for movement of the upper abdomen

• listen for the escape of air from nose and mouth
• feel for the movement of air at the mouth or nose
Even if the person takes occasional gasps, rescuers should start CPR. CPR should commence
with chest compressions, and interruptions to chest compressions must be minimised.
Further Reading
To learn how to recognise that a casualty is unconscious and not
breathing normally, download the link below on ARC Guidelines on
Unconsciousness and Breathing.
ANZCOR Guideline 3 - Recognition and First Aid Management of the
Unconscious Victim
ANZCOR Guideline 4 – Airway
ANZCOR Guideline 5 – Breathing
2.1.2 The Australian Resuscitation Council (ARC) and the ARC Guidelines
The Australian Resuscitation Council (ARC) is a voluntary coordinating body representing
groups involved in teaching and practising resuscitation. They are sponsored by the Royal
Australasian College of Surgeons and the Australian and New Zealand College of
Anaesthetists.

30
The ARC produces guidelines on the practice of resuscitation to ensure uniformity and
simplicity in resuscitation techniques and terminology. They develop and publish guidelines
based on careful consideration of all available scientific and published material. These
guidelines then go through rigorous reviews by the members of the organisation.
Further Reading
You can access the ARC Guidelines through the link below, as well as
download the guideline specific to Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation.
The ARC Guidelines
ANZCOR Guideline 8 - Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
2.1.3 Performing Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

Once you have identified an adult casualty to be unconscious/unresponsive and not
breathing normally, you need to perform CPR immediately. The method of CPR will depend
on casualty’s age and body structure.
Essentially, the method is still the same for adults, children, and infants, but will account the
difference in size and strength of the casualty’s body. For adults, both hands should be used,
and a large amount of force is needed for chest compression. Both hands can also be used
for larger children, but it is recommended to use just one hand for smaller children. And you
should use only two fingers in performing CPR to an infant. Compression force should be
adjusted to account for the lesser strength bones of children and infants possess.

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CPR for Adults and Children over one year
To carry out Chest Compression:
1. Place the casualty on their back and kneel beside them.
2. (a.) Place the heel of one hand on the lower half of the breastbone, in the centre of
the person’s chest. (b.) Place your other hand on top of the first hand and interlock
your fingers. (If a child’s chest is too small, you may perform only the (a.) part)
3. Position yourself above the casualty’s chest.
4. Using your body weight (unless the casualty is a child) and keeping your arms straight,
press straight down on their chest by one-third of the chest depth.
5. Release the pressure. Pressing down and releasing is one compression.
To perform Rescue Breathing (mouth-to-mouth ventilation/breaths):

1. Open the casualty’s airway by placing one hand on the forehead or top of the head
and your other hand under the chin to tilt the head back.
2. Pinch the soft part of the nose closed with your index finger and thumb.
3. Open the casualty’s mouth with your thumb and fingers.
4. Take a breath and place your lips over the casualty’s mouth, ensuring a good seal.
5. Blow steadily into their mouth for about one second, watching for the chest to rise.
6. Following the breath, look at the casualty’s chest and watch for the chest to fall. Listen
and feel for signs that air is being expelled. Maintain the head tilt and chin lift position.
7. If their chest does not rise, check the mouth again and remove any obstructions. Make
sure the head is tilted, and chin lifted to open the airway. Check that yours and the
casualty’s mouth are sealed together, and the nose is closed so that air cannot easily
escape. Take another breath and repeat.

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Further Reading
You can check the video below for a sample presentation on how to
perform CPR on an adult and a child.
How to Perform Emergency CPR on an Adult
How to Perform Emergency CPR on a Child
CPR on Infants
Performing CPR on infants (babies aged under one year) is essentially the same with CPR in
adults and children, but accounts for the size of the infant.
To carry out Chest Compression:
1. Lie the baby/infant on their back.
2. Place two fingers on the lower half of the breastbone in the middle of the chest and
press down by one-third of the depth of the chest (you may need to use one hand to
do CPR depending on the size of the infant).
3. Release the pressure. Pressing down and releasing is one compression.

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To perform Rescue Breathing:
1. Tilt the baby/infant’s head back very slightly.
2. Lift the baby/infant’s chin up, be careful not to rest your hands on their throat
because this will stop the air getting to their lungs from the mouth-to-mouth.
3. Take a breath and cover the baby/infant’s mouth and nose with your mouth,
ensuring a good seal.
4. Blow steadily for about 1 second, watching for the chest to rise.
5. Following the breath, look at the baby/infant’s chest and watch for the chest to fall.
Listen and feel for signs that air is being expelled.
6. If their chest does not rise, check their mouth and nose again and remove any
obstructions. Make sure their head is slightly tilted to open the airway and that there
is a tight seal around the mouth and nose with no air escaping. Take another breath
and repeat.
Further Reading
You can check the video below for a sample presentation on how to
perform CPR on an infant.
How to Perform Emergency CPR on an Infant
2.1.4 Defibrillation
Along with CPR, defibrillation is also an integral factor in providing overall resuscitation to a
person. Defibrillation involves restoring the regular cardiac activity and rhythm by the
running of a controlled electric shock through the chest with a device known as an
automated external defibrillator (AED).
Although it is recommended that AEDs should be used by trained and professional medical
and emergency responders, the use of AEDs is not restricted only to them. Allowing
individuals without prior formal training to use AEDs may be beneficial and life-saving. It is
instead recommended that training in the use of AEDs (as a part of basic life support) be
provided to improve performance.
AEDs should be used once the casualty shows signs of unconsciousness and abnormal
breathing, especially when the casualty goes into cardiac arrest. Therefore, it is essential to
provide defibrillation once it is available. If other necessary actions are taken, rescuers

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should minimise the delay in delivering AED shocks. If an AED is not yet available, continue
to perform compressions until an AED has been obtained.
Appropriate Use of AEDs
The AED pads must be directly placed onto the skin for successful defibrillation. Moisture and
excess chest hair may be removed, if necessary. Most AED pads have a diagram on the outer
covering showing the area suitable for pad placement, enabling quick application of the AED
to the casualty.
For adults and children above eight years of age, when using an AED, AED pads should be
placed on an anterior-lateral position, specifically:
▪ on the bare chest slightly below the right collar bone
▪ below and slightly to the side of the left armpit
An alternative position would be the antero-posterior (front-back) position:
▪ on the upper back between the shoulder blades
▪ on the front of the chest (slightly to the left, if possible)
In the case of children aged under eight, there are paediatric pads and AEDs with paediatric
capabilities for those in need of defibrillation. The location of the pads is the same as the
adults and has a diagram for the correct placement of the pads as well.
If in case a suitable AED for children under eight years is unavailable, you may proceed with
using the standard AED. You must ensure that the pads do not touch each other when placed
on the child’s chest. You should place the pads on the anterior-lateral position. If the pads
are too big or there is the danger of the pads touching, place the pads on a front-back position
instead.

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2.1.5 Considerations When Providing CPR
Here are some areas of concerns to take into consideration when providing CPR to a casualty.
Upper Airway and Effects of Positional Changes
Appropriate Duration and Cessation of CPR
Safety and Maintenance Procedures for an AED
Chain of Survival
How to Access Emergency Services

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Upper Airway and Effect of Positional Change
After sending for help (following DRSABCD), the next step is to check if the casualty’s upper
airway is clear and not compromised. As emphasised in ARC guidelines, care of the airway
take priority over any injury (including possible spinal injuries) in an unconscious person. At
times, the casualty’s airway can be obstructed due to their body position. Therefore, changing
their position may prove beneficial to them.
Generally, the casualty should not be moved routinely; it is better to leave them in the
position they are found. This has the advantages of simplified teaching, taking less time to
perform and avoids movement. But when the airway is obstructed or blocked, you should
then change the position of the casualty to clear the airway. Consider the following below:
▪ If the airway is obstructed with a fluid (water or blood) or matter (sand, debris, vomit)
because of regurgitation or vomiting, you need to roll the casualty onto their side to
help clear the airway.
▪ If foreign materials are present in the mouth, you should open it and turn casualty's
head slightly downwards to allow these materials to drain out.
▪ You may remove any visible materials with your fingers to aid the clearance of the
airway.
▪ If the casualty recovers to normal breathing, they can be left on their side with the
head appropriately tilted.
▪ If the casualty is still not breathing normally, they should be rolled on their back and
perform resuscitation.

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Appropriate Duration and Cessation of CPR
Following ARC guidelines, you need to give 30 compressions followed by two breaths, known
as the 30:2 compression-to-ventilation ratio. It is recommended to give five cycles of 30:2 in
about 2 minutes if only doing about 100-120 compression per minute.
Performing CPR is a tiring task. Therefore, you should swap between doing mouth-to-mouth
and compressions to carry out effective compressions. In circumstances that you cannot give
mouth-to-mouth ventilation, still performing chest compressions without stopping may still
save the casualty.
If there are multiple rescuers for one casualty, assign one for the compression while the other
one will give mouth-to-mouth so that work is shared. If there are any more rescuers available,
you may rotate rescuers who will perform CPR so that fatigue can be reduced, and CPR can
be consistently carried out uninterrupted.
As indicated in ARC Guidelines, you should continue to provide CPR to the casualty until:
▪ the casualty recovers or begins breathing normally,
▪ it is impossible to continue (e.g. exhaustion, hazards),
▪ an emergency or health care professional arrives and takes over CPR, or
▪ an emergency or health care professional directs that CPR be ceased.
Safety Procedures for AEDs

AEDs may have a voice and visual prompts, instructing you when to stand back and when the
shock has been delivered. The general rule is to follow the prompts given by the AED. Other
safety procedures include:
▪ Not touching the patient when AED shocks are being delivered
▪ Making sure that the pads do not touch each other
▪ Not operating an AED if under the influence of alcohol or drug
▪ Not using AEDs on the following:
o on conductive surfaces (e.g. water, fluids, metallic surfaces)
o in an explosive environment (e.g. oxygen-enriched, gaseous or fume
environment)
o when there is an implanted device in the casualty (e.g. pacemaker)
Maintenance Procedures for AEDs
▪ Immediate replacement of AEDs pads when they have been used,

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▪ Replacement of consumable items (e.g. batteries, pads, towels, etc.) in line with
expiration dates,
▪ Regular inspection of AEDs, to check for faulty parts, and
▪ Manufacturer-specific procedures indicated in the user manual.
Chain of Survival
Immediate actions are critical to maximising a casualty’s chances of survival. These
immediate actions are labelled as ‘chain of survival’, and they are as follows:
▪ Early access (for medical assistance, ambulance, backup, etc.)
▪ Early CPR that emphasises chest compressions
▪ Rapid defibrillation if indicated
▪ Effective advanced life support
▪ Integrated postcardiac arrest care

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How to Access Emergency Services
As previously discussed in Section 1.4, you need to dial Triple Zero (000) to access Australia’s
main emergency service hotline. Once asked by the operator of the specific emergency
service you need, tell them you need ambulance services. Provide the current location of the
casualty and if can, the current situation. You may ask bystanders to dial 000 for you in case
you are unable to.
2.2 Provide First Aid in Accordance with Established First Aid Principles
First aid practice in Australia is primarily based on peak bodies which are non-profit
organisations that either consolidate research and/or release guidelines regarding the
practices, procedures, techniques related to first aid.
An example of a peak body related to first aid is the Australian Resuscitation Council (ARC)
which was discussed in the previous section. They develop guidelines outlining management
principles and procedures for first aid situations.

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2.2.1 ARC Guidelines Relevant to the Provision of First Aid
The Australian Resuscitation Council’s Guidelines for First Aid can be fully accessed through
their website.
Their guidelines consist of 14 sections, with the first nine focusing on first aid:
▪ Section 1 – The Council
Section 1 provides an overview of ARC’s aims and objectives, its process for
developing and deciding on guidelines, as well as the principles and required formats
for developing these guidelines.
▪ Section 2 – Assessment
Section 2 contains the ANZCOR guideline for managing and assessing an emergency.
It outlines the priorities of a first aid responder or rescuer in an emergency as well as
the principles for managing emergencies.
▪ Section 3 – The Unconscious State
Section 3 contains the ANZCOR guideline for recognising and managing an
unconscious casualty.
Guideline 3 defines unconsciousness as ’a state of unrousable, unresponsiveness,
where the person is unaware of their surroundings, and no purposeful response can
be obtained.’
▪ Section 4 – Airway
Section 4 contains the ANZCOR Guideline 4 for airway management. Airway
management is required when upon assessment, the casualty’s airway is obstructed,
or they are unconscious, or they need rescue breathing.

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▪ Section 5 – Breathing
Section 5 contains the ANZCOR Guideline 5 for management of casualties in need of
resuscitation.
▪ Section 6 – Circulation
Section 5 contains the ANZCOR Guideline 6 for management of casualties who are
unresponsive and not breathing normally.
▪ Section 7 – Defibrillation
Section 5 contains the ANZCOR Guideline 7
Automated External Defibrillation (AED) in Basic Life
Support.
Both AED and CPR have been well established as part
of effective overall resuscitation. An AED must only be
used on casualties who are unresponsive and not
breathing normally.

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▪ Section 8 – Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
Section 8 contains ANZCOR Guideline 8 – Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation, which has
been discussed in Section 2.2.1.
▪ Section 9.1 – First Aid Guidelines – Trauma
Section 9.1 contains ANZCOR Guideline 9.1.1 – 9.1.7, which cover management of
bleeding, burns, head injury, harness suspension trauma, suspected spinal injury, and
management of crushed casualty.
▪ Section 9.2 – First Aid Guidelines – Medical
Section 9.2 contains ANZCOR Guideline 9.2.1 – 9.2.10, which cover management of
heart attack, stroke, shock, seizure, asthma, anaphylaxis, hyperventilation, and
diabetic emergency.
▪ Section 9.3 – First Aid Guidelines – Environment
Section 9.3 contains ANZCOR Guideline 9.3.2 – 9.3.6 which cover management of
drowning, hypothermia, heat-induced illness, resuscitation of divers who used
compressed gas, and cold injury.

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▪ Section 9.4 – First Aid Guidelines – Envenomation
Section 9.4 contains ANZCOR Guideline 9.4.1 – 9.4.8 which cover management of
snake bites, spider bites, tick bites, jellyfish stings, blue-ringed octopus and cone shell
stings, fish stings. Guideline 9.4.8 details principles and ANZCOR recommendations
for pressure immobilisation technique (PIT).
▪ Section 9.5 – First Aid Guidelines – Poisoning
Section 9.5 contains ANZCOR Guideline covers the management of casualties who
have been poisoned.
Other sections under the ARC Guidelines include:

▪ Section 10 – Education and Implementation
Guidelines under Section 10 discuss principles and recommendations for Basic Life
Support (BLS) Training, Advanced Life Support (ALS) Training, Controlling Infection
Risks and Disinfection of Manikins used in training, Legal and Ethical Issues relating to
resuscitation, and family presence during resuscitation.
▪ Section 11 – Adult Advanced Life Support
Section 11 contains Guidelines 11.1 – 11.10, which is primarily for the management
of adult advanced life support.
Advanced Life Support (ALS) is a set of life-saving protocols and skills that follow Basic
Life Support. It aims to support circulation and provide an open airway and adequate
ventilation.
▪ Section 12 – Pediatric Advanced Life Support
Section 12 contains Guidelines 12.1 – 12.7, which is primarily for the management of
advanced life support for children and infants.
▪ Section 13 – Neonatal Guidelines
Section 12 contains Guidelines 12.1 – 12.7, which is primarily for the management of
advanced life support for newborn infants.
▪ Section 14 – Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS)
Section 14 contains Guidelines 14.1 – 14.3. These guidelines provide information for
the management of adult casualties who have ACS.

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2.2.2 Principles and Procedures for First Aid Management
The sections below discuss principles and procedures for first aid management of the
different types of injuries and illnesses.
2.2.2.1 Allergic Reaction

The Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy defines allergies as the
occurrence of the person’s immune system overreacting to what is usually harmless to most
people.
Allergens are substances that trigger allergies despite normally being harmless. Things such
as dust, pollen, some foods, medicine, and pets are common allergens.
Allergic reactions, meanwhile, are due to the overproduction of histamine in the body. This
happens when an allergen enters the body and triggers an antibody reaction.
The following are signs and symptoms of mild to moderate allergic reaction:
▪ Swelling of lips, face, eyes
▪ Hives or welts
▪ Tingling lips
▪ Abdominal pain and vomiting
(Source: St John Australian First Aid)
As an example, the picture below shows the lips of a male after getting stung by a bee.

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Treatment
1. Lay the casualty flat. Do not let them stand or walk.
2. If the casualty is carrying an adrenaline autoinjector such as EpiPen or Anapen for
their allergy, administer it.
3. Call 000 for medical assistance and ambulance.
4. If the casualty is unconscious, make sure to administer adrenaline autoinjector
immediately, and follow DRSABCD.
Further Reading
For additional information on allergies, the Australasian Society of
Clinical Immunology and Allergy website can be found here:
What is allergy? - ASCIA
2.2.2.2 Anaphylaxis
IMPORTANT: Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction and is potentially life-threatening. It should
always be treated as a medical emergency.
Anaphylaxis is the most extreme allergic reaction, and signs vary from person to person. Some
signs include but is not limited to the following:
Wheezing Difficulty breathing Swelling
Tightness of the Loss of

Hoarse voice
throat consciousness
Rashes, hives, etc.

46
Treatment as recommended by the ARC guidelines:
The injection of adrenaline (epinephrine) is the first-line drug treatment in life-threatening
anaphylaxis. Adrenaline (epinephrine) autoinjectors are safe and effective methods for the
management of anaphylaxis. People who have had a prior episode of anaphylaxis often have
prescribed medication including adrenaline (epinephrine) in the form of an autoinjector and
the early administration of adrenaline (epinephrine) is the priority in the emergency
treatment.
If the casualty’s symptoms and signs suggest anaphylaxis, the following steps on the next
page should be followed (in the absence of a specific anaphylaxis action plan for the person).
1. Lay the casualty flat; do not stand or walk. If breathing is difficult, allow them to sit (if
able).
2. Prevent further exposure to the triggering agent if possible.
3. Administer adrenaline (epinephrine) via intramuscular injection preferably into lateral
thigh.
4. Call an ambulance.
5. Administer oxygen, if available and trained to do so.
6. Give asthma medication for respiratory symptoms.
7. A second dose of adrenaline (epinephrine) should be administered by autoinjector to
casualties with severe anaphylaxis whose symptoms are not relieved by the initial
dose.
8. The second dose is given if there is no response five minutes after the initial dose.
9. If an allergic reaction or anaphylaxis has occurred from an insect bite or sting, follow
the guidelines for Envenomation-Tick Bites and Bee, Wasp and Ant Stings.
10. If the casualty becomes unresponsive and not breathing normally, give resuscitation
following the Basic Life Support Flowchart (ARC Guideline 8).
(Source: ARC guidelines 9.2.7)

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Administering the EpiPen
The use of epinephrine auto-injectors, such as the EpiPen, can be done by following the
instructions below or on the device:
1. Remove the blue safety release cap. This side
should be facing upwards.
2. Hold the device in your fist with fingers wrapped
around it.
3. Gently press the orange end against the outer
mid-thigh. This can be done even without
removing the person’s clothes.
4. Push harder until a loud POP is heard.
5. Hold the device firmly in place for at least three
seconds.
6. Remove the device from the thigh and record the
time it was given.
Further Reading
Step-by-step instructions and video demonstration for
administering EpiPen can be accessed and viewed here:
How to give EpiPen
Translations of the step-by-step instructions can be found here:
How to give EpiPen (Other Languages)

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2.2.2.3 Asthma
Asthma is a lung disorder where a person’s airways constrict in reaction to certain triggers.
Unlike allergies which are caused by allergens, asthma can also be triggered by emotions such
as stress and even physical activity.
The narrowing of the airway can be due to:
Bronchoconstriction – Inflammation – swelling

Excess mucus may be
the muscle around the of the lining of the
produced
airway tightens airways

49
Triggers vary from person to person and can include:
▪ Respiratory infection
▪ Irritants such as smoke (cigarette, wood, automobile exhaust)
▪ Inhaled allergens (dust mites, mould spores, pollen)
▪ Cold air, exercise, laughing, crying
▪ Stress
Signs and symptoms of asthma include:
▪ Dry cough
▪ Tightening of the chest
▪ Shortness of breath
▪ Wheezing
In severe cases, some of these signs and symptoms may also be present:
▪ Gasping for breath
▪ Inability to speak more than very few words per breath
▪ Feelings of distress or anxiety
▪ Little to no effect of ‘reliever’ medication
When managing an asthma attack, the

casualty's asthma action plan should be
followed if they have one.
In the absence of an asthma action plan,
reliever medication is usually in the form of
an inhaler. Salbutamol is the most common
reliever medication, but the casualty may
have their own medication.

50
There are differences in the recommended dosage or interval of doses. The National Asthma
Council Australia recommends taking four puffs of four breaths every four minutes (4 x 4 x 4)
while the Asthma and Respiratory Foundation New Zealand recommend taking the six puffs
over six breaths every six minutes (6 x 6 x 6).
The general management is as follows:
1. Sit the casualty comfortably upright.
2. Reassure the casualty.
3. Without delay, give four to six separate puffs from the reliever inhaler. This reliever
inhaler is administered with the use of a spacer device.
4. Ask the casualty to take four to six breaths from the spacer after each puff.
5. As much as possible, use the casualty’s own inhaler. If it is not with them, use the
inhaler provided in the first aid kit.
6. Dial Triple Zero (000) immediately if there is no improvement in the person’s
condition.
7. Keep giving four puffs every four minutes until the ambulance arrives.
Further Reading
ANZCOR’s guideline for the management of asthma attacks can be
accessed through the link below:
ANZCOR Guideline 9.2.5 - First Aid for Asthma
You may also visit the website of Asthma Australia, the peak clinical
body on Asthma in the country:
Asthma Australia

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2.2.2.4 Bleeding
Managing a bleeding injury usually entails controlling the
amount of blood lost by the casualty, usually through the
application of pressure on or around the wound. Note that
airway and breathing checks must still be done above and
beyond any injury. The body itself has several ways of
controlling bleeding such as lowering the blood pressure of
the affected area, constricting blood vessels close to the
surface and constricting even the ends of the damaged blood
vessels to a certain degree to facilitate clotting.
Here are some of the ways to control significant bleeding:
1. Direct Pressure Method – this prevents further blood loss and gives the injury a
chance to form a clot.
▪ Check for any immediate dangers.
▪ If disposable gloves are available, consider using them to avoid possible
infection.
▪ Check for any embedded objects.
▪ If none, proceed to apply direct pressure to the wound by pressing the skin
edges together.
▪ Firmly apply sterile dressings and bandages.
2. Application of Pads and Dressing:
▪ Check for any immediate dangers, hazard, or risks.
▪ If disposable gloves are available, consider using them to avoid infection.
▪ Firmly apply a clean pad and bandage to secure in place.
▪ In cases where the wound would still bleed through the pad and bandage,
remove the bandage, retain the first pad, apply a second pad and rebandage.
▪ If the wound would still bleed through the bandage, remove all bandages and
pads, reassess the wound if a bleeding point has been missed, then apply a fresh
set of pads and bandages.

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ANZCOR Guideline 9.1.1 outlines three recommendations to manage bleeding:
i. Firm pressure on or around the wound is the most effective way to stop bleeding.
ii. In life-threatening bleeding, control of bleeding takes priority over airway and
breathing interventions.
iii. Use an arterial tourniquet for life-threatening limb bleeding that is not controlled by
direct wound pressure.
If there are embedded objects, the guideline states:
i. Do not remove the embedded object because it may be plugging the wound and
restricting bleeding.
ii. Apply padding around or on each side of the protruding object, with pressure over
the padding.
In some situations, bleeding may be considered as severe or life-threatening, such as in these

situations:
▪ amputated or partially amputated limb above wrist or ankle
▪ shark attack, propeller cuts or similar major trauma to any part of the body
▪ bleeding not controlled by local pressure
▪ bleeding with signs of shock (i.e. pale and sweaty plus pulse rate >100, or capillary
refill > 2 sec and/or decreased level of consciousness)
If the bleeding is identified as severe or life-threatening, controlling the bleeding takes
priority over airway and breathing interventions. You should lie the casualty down, apply
pressure and send for an ambulance.
There are two devices you can use that are designed to help control life-threatening bleeding:
arterial tourniquet and hemostatic dressing.

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Arterial Tourniquet
Arterial tourniquets should only be used for life-threatening bleeding from a limb, where the
bleeding cannot be controlled by direct pressure. Ideally, a tourniquet should not be applied
over a joint or wound and must not be covered up by any bandage or clothing. To use the
arterial tourniquet, the ANZCOR Guideline 9.1.1 recommends the following:
▪ All arterial tourniquets should be applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions (or 5 cm above the bleeding point if no instructions) and tightened until
the bleeding stops.
▪ If a tourniquet does not stop the bleeding, its position and application must be
checked. Ideally, the tourniquet is not applied over clothing nor wetsuits and is
applied tightly, even if this causes local discomfort.
▪ If bleeding continues, a second tourniquet (if available) should be applied to the limb,
preferably above the first.
▪ The time of tourniquet application must be noted and communicated to
emergency/paramedic personnel. Once applied, the victim requires urgent transfer
to hospital, and the tourniquet should not be removed until the victim receives
specialist care.
An improvised tourniquet may be created if there is none available. Although an improvised
tourniquet is unlikely to stop the bleeding and poses a risk of increased bleeding and tissue
damage, an improvised tourniquet is better than none in life-threatening bleeding.
Tourniquets can be improvised using materials found in a first aid kit, clothing, or other
similarly available items. Improvised tourniquets should be tightened by twisting a rod or
stick under the improvised tourniquet band, similar to the windlass in commercial
tourniquets.
If a correctly applied tourniquet(s) has failed to control the bleeding, consider using a
haemostatic dressing in conjunction with the tourniquet.
Haemostatic Dressing
Haemostatic dressings are filled with agents that help stop bleeding, such as kaolin and
chitosan. While commonly used in the surgical and military settings, their use in the civilian,
non-surgical setting (such as first aid) is becoming more common.

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You should use haemostatic dressings in the following situations:
▪ Severe, life-threatening bleeding not controlled by wound pressure, from a site not
suitable for tourniquet use.
▪ Severe, life-threatening bleeding from a limb, not controlled by wound pressure,
when the use of a tourniquet(s) alone has not stopped the bleeding, or a tourniquet
is not available.
The ANZCOR Guideline 9.1.1 advises that haemostatic dressings must be applied as close as
possible to the bleeding point, held against the wound using local pressure (manually initially)
then held in place with the application of a bandage (if available). Haemostatic dressings
should be left on the bleeding point until definitive care is available.
Internal bleeding can also happen when blood escapes from the arteries, veins, or capillaries
into tissues or cavities in the body. Check for signs and symptoms for internal bleeding such
as:
▪ pain, tenderness or swelling over or around the affected area
▪ the appearance of blood from a body opening
▪ shock in the case of severe bleeding
Management of internal bleeding:
1. Assist the casualty in lying down comfortably.
2. If the casualty is coughing up blood, allow them to adopt a position of comfort
(normally half-sitting).
3. Raise the legs or bend the knees.
4. Loosen any tight clothing.
5. Call Triple Zero (000) for an ambulance.

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2.2.2.5 Burns
Burns can be caused by a variety of things such as heat, cold, chemicals, sunlight, etc. The
ARC guideline 9.1.3 would define a severe burn as:
▪ burns greater than 10% of total body surface area (TBSA)
▪ burns of special areas—face, hands, feet, genitalia, perineum, and major joints
▪ full-thickness burns greater than 5% of TBSA
▪ electrical burns
▪ chemical burns
▪ burns with an associated inhalation injury
▪ circumferential burns of the limbs or chest
▪ burns in the very young or very old
▪ burns in people with pre-existing medical disorders that could complicate
management, prolong recovery, or increase mortality
▪ burns with associated trauma.
(Source: ARC Guideline 9.1.3)
The severity of the burn is classified as first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree and is
determined by the affected layers of the skin.

56
57
Generally, burns are classified by the following:
Dry burns
• Caused by flames and hot objects
Wet burns • Caused by hot liquids such as water or oil
Radiation • Sunburns are under this classification

• Extreme exposure to cold, i.e. frostbite
Cold burns
• Caused by corrosive substances such as
Chemical strong acids
burns
• Includes lightning strikes
Electrical
burns
The management of the burns would depend on the history/cause of the injury. For example,
chemical burns must first be treated by removing as many traces of the chemical on the
casualty as possible; while electrical burns must first be approached by avoiding contact with
the source of electricity for the responder, casualty and bystanders.
Removal of the casualty or removal of the cause of injury without compromising the safety
of anyone in the vicinity should also be strictly followed.
The ARC guidelines recommend the initial approach as follows:
▪ Ensure safety for rescuers, bystanders and the casualty.
▪ Do not enter a burning or toxic atmosphere without appropriate protection.
▪ Stop the burning process:
o Stop, Drop, Cover and Roll
o Smother any flames with a blanket.
▪ Move away from the burn source to a safe environment as soon as possible.
▪ Assess the adequacy of airway and breathing.
▪ Check for other injuries.
▪ If safe, and if trained to do so, give oxygen to all casualties with smoke inhalation or
facial injury.
▪ Call for an ambulance.
The aims of the first aid treatment of burns should be to stop the burning process, cool the
burn and cover the burn. This will provide pain relief and minimise tissue loss.

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Further Reading
The Australia First Aid Services has published this page containing
information on burns and how to treat them:
The ARC guideline on burns can be accessed through the link below:
ANZCOR Guideline 9.1.3 - Burns
2.2.2.6 Cardiac Conditions and Chest Pain

Heart attacks are one of the leading causes of death in the world. A heart attack is generally
when a person experiences a partial or complete obstruction in their coronary artery. This
interruption in function can cause permanent damage and even death. This degradation can
happen very quickly, which is why urgent medical care is the utmost importance.
Cardiac arrest is when the heart ceases to function. Although sometimes interchanged with
heart attacks, cardiac arrest is different but connected. A heart attack can lead to cardiac
arrest.
Angina is a symptom of an underlying cardiac condition. It is associated with a squeezing
sensation or pain in the chest.
A heart attack can occur without chest pain or discomfort, but a common symptom is
shortness of breath. Some describe the symptoms as just indigestion.
Make sure that you call Triple Zero (000) first for heart attacks and chest pains.
Here are some recommendations when dealing with someone experiencing a heart attack, as
per the Australian Resuscitation Council:
▪ Encourage the casualty to stop what they are doing and to rest in a comfortable
position.
▪ If the casualty has been prescribed medication such as a tablet or oral spray to treat
episodes of chest pain or discomfort associated with angina, assist them in taking this
as they have been directed.
▪ Call an ambulance if symptoms are severe, get worse quickly or last longer than 10
minutes.

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▪ Stay with the casualty until the ambulance or on-site resuscitation team arrives.
▪ Give aspirin (300 mg). Dissolvable aspirin is preferred. Only withhold if the casualty is
known to be anaphylactic to aspirin.
▪ Administer oxygen if there are obvious signs of shortness of breath, and you are
trained to do so, following The Use of Oxygen in Emergencies
▪ If practical and resources allow, locate the closest AED and bring it to the casualty.
(Source: ARC guideline 9.2.1)
Further Reading
The ARC guideline on heart attack recognition and first aid can be
accessed in the link below.
ANZCOR Guideline 9.2.1 - Recognition and First Aid Management of
Heart Attack
The Heart Foundation is an organisation focusing on research and
support on heart diseases. You may access their website below.
The Heart Foundation

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2.2.2.7 Choking
Choking happens when a foreign material gets stuck in a person's airway (such as throat or
windpipe), causing partial or total obstruction to the airway and breathing. Common signs of
choking include:
▪ gasping sounds
▪ coughing
▪ loss of voice
▪ clutching of throat (universal choking sign)
For Partial Obstruction:
▪ laboured or difficult breathing
▪ breathing may be noisy
▪ some escape of air can be felt from the mouth
For Total Obstruction:
▪ there may be efforts at breathing
▪ there is no sound of breathing
▪ there is no escape of air from nose and mouth

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You need to assess the severity of choking that is happening to a casualty by assessing
effective coughing. The casualty with an effective cough should be instructed to keep
coughing to expel the foreign material. If coughing proves ineffective, here are the steps to
manage a casualty who is choking:
1. Dial 000 and send for an ambulance

2. Perform up to five sharp, back blows with the heel of one hand in the middle of the
back, between the shoulder blades. (For infants, place them in a head downward
position across your lap prior to delivering back blows)
3. Check to see if each blow has relieved the airway obstruction. The aim is to relieve
the obstruction with each blow rather than giving all five blows.
4. If back blows are unsuccessful, place the heel of your hands on the centre of the
casualty's chest on the lower half of the breastbone (the same in chest compression
in CPR) and then perform up to five chest thrusts. Chest thrusts should be sharper and
done at a slower rate compared to chest compressions (For infants, place them in a
head downwards and on their back across your thigh).
5. Check to see if each chest thrust has relieved the airway obstruction. Again, the aim
is to relieve the obstruction rather than delivering all five thrusts.
6. If obstruction is still not relieved and the casualty is still responsive, continue to
alternate between five back blows with five chest thrusts.
7. If the person becomes unresponsive or unconscious, a finger sweep can be used if
solid material is visible in the airway. Call an ambulance and perform CPR.

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Below is a flowchart that summarises key steps on the management of choking (or foreign
body airway obstruction):
(Source: Australian Resuscitation Council Guideline 4)
Further Reading
For further reading, you can access the Australian Resuscitation’s
Council’s Guideline for Choking through the link below:
ANZCOR Guideline 4 - Airway

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2.2.2.8 Diabetes
IMPORTANT: In a medical emergency, including a diabetic coma, call Triple Zero (000) for an
ambulance.
Diabetes is a condition when the body’s blood glucose or blood sugar level is too high.
The body uses insulin, which is a hormone produced in the pancreas, to process glucose from
food so that your body can use this for energy. When the body does not produce enough
insulin or does not use insulin, glucose stays in your blood and does not reach the cells.
High levels of blood sugar lead to health problems.
If one has abnormal levels of blood sugar, they can either be hypoglycaemic or
hyperglycaemic. Signs and symptoms include:
Hypoglycaemia (Low Blood Sugar)
• Weakness, shaking
• Sweating
• Faintness, dizziness
• Teariness or crying
• Hunger
• Numbness around the lips and fingers
Hyperglycaemia (High Blood Sugar)
• Blurred vision
• Excessive thirst
• Feeling tired
• Hot, dry skin
• Smell of acetone on breath

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Treatment for Hypoglycaemia
1. If the casualty was exercising, stop any exercise, rest, and reassure.
2. Assist the casualty into a comfortable position.
4. Give the casualty glucose tablets. If glucose tablets are not available, you can provide:
a. Jellybeans
b. Skittles®
c. Mentos®
d. Sugary drinks or sugar-sweetened beverages
IMPORTANT: Do not give the casualty any ‘diet’, ‘low-cal’, ‘zero’ or ‘sugar-
free’ beverages.
e. Fruit juices
f. Honey or sugar
5. Monitor for improvement.
If the casualty is not improving and their condition is deteriorating, this means that there is
no improvement with the treatment, and you should call Triple Zero (000).
Treatment for Hyperglycaemia
Follow the person’s diabetes management plan. If the person does not have a management
plan, they should be assessed by a health care professional.
▪ If the casualty is unresponsive and not breathing normally, commence resuscitation.
▪ If the casualty is unconscious but breathing, position them on their side and ensure
the airway is clear. See ANZCOR Guideline 3.
(Source: ANZCOR Guideline 9.2.9 First Aid Management of a Diabetic Emergency)

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For additional information on diabetes and first aid:
ANZCOR Guideline 9.2.9 - First Aid Management of a Diabetic
Emergency
Hypoglycaemia - Diabetes Australia
2.2.2.9 Drowning
IMPORTANT:
▪ Do not attempt to rescue a drowning casualty beyond your swimming ability.
▪ If the casualty is vomiting from swallowing water, immediately roll them onto their side
to clear their airway.
▪ If the patient’s stomach is bloated, do not to empty the stomach by applying external
pressure.
Drowning happens when liquid enters the lung and renders the casualty unable to breathe.
Impaired respiratory function due to drowning results in the interruption of oxygen supply to
the brain.
Early response and first aid resuscitation offer the best chance of survival for the casualty.
Management of drowning
▪ Remove the casualty from the water as soon as possible, but do not endanger your
own safety.
▪ Throw a rope or something to provide buoyancy to the casualty. Call for help; plan
and effect a safe rescue.
▪ Assess the casualty on their back with the head and body at the same level to reduce
potential vomiting and regurgitation.
▪ Roll the casualty safely into a recovery position where the airway is not obstructed.
▪ If fluid accumulates in the upper airway while performing CPR, do not attempt to
‘clear’ the casualty.
▪ Seek medical help by dialling Triple Zero (000) for an ambulance.

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The ARC guideline for first aid in drowning can be accessed in the
link below.
Guideline 9.3.2 - Resuscitation of the Drowning Victim
2.2.2.10 Envenomation
IMPORTANT: All snake bites must be treated as potentially life-threatening. Call Triple Zero
(000) for an ambulance.
Australia is home to some of the most

venomous creatures in the world, such as
the jellyfish, snakes, spiders, and molluscs.
These creatures are very dangerous as one
sting or bite from them can lead to major
illnesses and even death.
Envenomation is the injection of venom,
and other poisonous substances, into the
body by means of a bite (e.g. from a snake
or spider), sting (e.g. from an insect or
marine creature) or penetrating wound. This is not to be confused with poisoning, as
poisoning is usually the consumption or absorption of poisonous substances such as
chemicals (e.g. food poisoning).

67
General signs and symptoms of envenomation include:
Effects on the
Bite marks on the cardiovascular Interference with
Headache
skin system blood clotting
(heart/lungs)
Muscle and tissue Swollen and

Pain Paralysis
breakdown tender glands
When treating envenomation, DRSABCD still takes precedence over addressing the
envenomation. Aside from calling 000 for emergency services assistance, you should also call
the Poisons Information Centre hotline at 131 126.

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Pressure Immobilisation Technique (PIT)
The Pressure Immobilisation Technique (PIT) can be used to treat bites and stings from a most
venomous snake, a Funnel Web spider and some other animals such as the blue-ringed
octopus and the cone shell. On the other hand, it is not recommended in the management of
other spider bites, jellyfish stings, fish stings, insect stings such as scorpions and centipedes.
The goal of the PIT is to limit the flow of lymph by which the venom gains access to the
circulation.
Follow the steps below to apply PIT:
1. Put a pressure bandage over the bite tightly.
2. Use a heavy crepe or elasticised roller bandage to immobilise the affected limb.
3. Start above the fingers or toes of the affected limb, move upwards on the limb as far
as the body.
4. Splint the limb, including joints on either side of the bite.
5. Keep the casualty and the affected limb completely at rest.
6. Mark the site of the bite on the bandage with a pen.
IMPORTANT:
▪ DO NOT cut or excise the bitten area or attempt to suck the venom from the bite site.
▪ DO NOT wash the bitten area.
▪ DO NOT apply an arterial tourniquet. (Arterial tourniquets that cut off circulation to the
limb, are potentially dangerous and are not recommended for any type of bite or sting
in Australia).
Further Reading
For further reading:
Guideline 9.4.8 - Pressure Immobilisation Technique
Snake bites - first aid, treatment and symptoms | healthdirect

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2.2.2.11 Eye Injuries
Injuries to the eyes require special care to avoid damage and loss
of functions. It is important to ascertain the history or cause of
the injury for proper treatment.
Some of the most common eye injuries involve foreign irritants
such as dust getting in the eye. In situations such as these, it is
best to wash with running water, making sure to ask the casualty
to keep the eye open. For blunt injuries referred to commonly as
a black eye, it is best to place an ice pack on the affected area for
at most 10 minutes as with soft tissue injuries.
Avoid rubbing or otherwise disturbing the affected eye, and it is
recommended to see an eye doctor afterwards.
General principles for the first aid of eye injuries:

1. Wash your hands thoroughly.
2. Use clean disposable gloves. Make sure to remove the powder from new gloves by
washing them with water.
3. DO NOT attempt to remove the object embedded in or protruding from the eye.
4. Cover the eye with one or more sterile pads, while avoiding any protruding object.
5. Never put direct pressure on the eyeball.
6. Seek medical help immediately.
Further Reading
For further reading, St. John’s Australian First Aid details first aid
treatment for various types of eye injuries on pages 237 – 247.

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2.2.2.12 Fractures, Dislocations, Strains and Sprains
IMPORTANT: If in doubt, treat injury as a fracture. Do not attempt to put the fractured,
dislocated, strained or sprained injury back into place.
Fracture
A ‘fracture’ is a medical term for a broken bone.
These vary in severity from a tiny crack in the
bone, to entire fragments separating causing
the limb to deform. The cause can also vary
from person to person and situation to
situation. A child or an elderly person might get
a fracture from falling on their hand while a
healthy adult might get away with just a sprain.
If you are unsure whether an injury is a sprain, a strain, a dislocation or a fracture, treat the
injury as a fracture.
The general management and treatment for this are as follows:
▪ Call for medical assistance as soon as possible; this must be done without leaving the
casualty. Ask a bystander for help, if possible.
▪ Ensure that the casualty is comfortable, reassure the casualty and have them sit.
▪ Support the injured limb as comfortably as possible.
▪ Avoid moving the injured limb, but if it is possible to elevate the limb without doing
so or without causing discomfort or pain, move it to an elevated position.
▪ Ice packs can be used to reduce swelling. Apply for a maximum of 20 minutes at a
time, at 20-minute intervals in between. Also note that ice should never be applied
directly to the skin, wrap the ice in a towel or another type of clean cloth in the
absence of an ice pack.
There are also other ways to manage a fracture depending on its severity, such as the use of
slings and splints. These are intended to support the injury and prevent any unnecessary
movement of the limb. As with a dislocation, never attempt to reset a fracture.

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Dislocation
A dislocation happens when the joints are displaced or dislocated from their proper position.
These can be caused by sudden trauma to the joint or the extremity. It often happens at the
shoulder, elbow, kneecap, and fingers. A common example of this is a dislocated shoulder
due to a sports injury or from a fall. It is never recommended for a first aid responder to
attempt to reset a dislocated joint. Signs and symptoms of dislocations include:
Pain at the or Difficult or Defomity or

near the site of impossible to Loss of power abnormal
the injury move the joint mobility
Discolouration
Tenderness Swelling
and bruising
Here is how you treat a dislocated joint.

1. Follow DRSABCD.
2. Never replace the dislocated joint nor reduce the dislocation.
3. If the injury is to a limb:
a. Check for any circulation. If absent, move the limb gently to try and restore it.
b. Call Triple Zero (000) for an ambulance.
c. Place and support the limb using soft padding and bandages.
d. Use icepacks if possible, over the joint.
e. If the shoulder is dislocated, support arm in a position of least discomfort and
apply an ice compress.
f. If the wrist is dislocated, support using a sling and apply ice compress.
(Source: St. John, Australian First Aid)
Further Reading
First Aid for Fractures and Dislocations
How to Make A Sling - First Aid Training - St John Ambulance

72
If Your Baby has a Dislocated Joint - First Aid Training - St John
Ambulance
Strains and Sprains
Your bones are connected at the joints by ligaments. These ligaments are bands of fibrous
tissue. A sprain happens when this ligament is stretched or torn.
A strain, on the other hand, is also a stretch or tear but not on the ligaments – they are stretch
or tear on the muscles or a tendon.
(Source: webmd.com)
Management of Strains and Sprains

1. Follow DRSABCD.
2. Follow RICER:
▪ Rest – Rest the casualty and the injured part.
▪ Ice – Ice or other cold compress should be applied to the injury.
▪ Compression – Apply compression by wrapping the injury with an elastic bandage
▪ Elevation – Elevate the injured part
▪ Referral - Seek medical assistance.
(Source: St. John Australian First Aid)

73
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Immobilisation Techniques
Whether a fracture, dislocation, sprain or strain, you need to prevent the injured area from
movement. In an emergency, these tips in immobilising the injured part may help:
▪ use broad bandages (where possible) to prevent movement at joints above and below
the fracture
▪ support the limb, carefully passing bandages under the natural hollows of the body
▪ place a padded splint along the injured limb
▪ place padding between the splint and the natural contours of the body and secure
firmly
▪ for leg fracture, immobilise foot and ankle
▪ check that bandages are not too tight (or too loose) every 15 minutes
(Source: HealthyWA)
2.2.2.13 Head, Neck, and Spinal Injuries

Head Injuries
IMPORTANT: If the casualty is unconscious, the spine may have potentially been injured. Take
extreme care to maintain the alignment of the spine; immobilise as soon as possible.
A head injury does not always result in a loss of consciousness or memory. If there is a
suspected head injury, then it should be treated with the utmost care. A final assessment of
the injury should still be done by a health care professional.
There are various causes of head injury, such as falls, vehicular accidents, sports, etc. The
severity of the head injury can indicate neck and spinal injury as well.
Signs and symptoms include:
Loss of memory
Headache Confusion
or amnesia
Wounds to the
Nausea and
scalp or to the
vomitting
face

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In severe instances:
▪ Blood or clear fluid is escaping from the nose or ears
▪ Pupils are becoming unequal in size
▪ Blurred vision
Head injuries may involve:

Fractures Concussion Compression
▪ May occur in the ▪ Means altered state of ▪ This is the excess

cranium, at the base of consciousness. pressure on a part of the
the skull, or in the face. brain.
▪ Caused by a blow to the
▪ The fracture may be head or neck from car ▪ Caused by depressed
caused by blow or accidents, falls, and skull fracture where the
trauma to the head or sports injuries. broken bones put
falling from a height. pressure on or directly
▪ Characterised by feeling
damage the brain, or by a
dazed and confused and
build-up of blood inside
experiencing dizziness
the skull.
and headaches.
Management of head injuries

1. Follow DRSABCD.
2. If the casualty is unconscious, place in Recovery Position, clear and open airway, and
monitor breathing.
3. If they are conscious, assist them to lie in a comfortable position with the head and
shoulders slightly elevated.
4. Keep casualty’s airway open with a chin lift.
5. Control bleeding but avoid applying any pressure to the skull. There might be a
depressed fracture.
6. If blood or spinal fluid is coming out of the ears, cover with a sterile dressing. Make
sure the casualty is lying on their side to allow the blood or fluid to drain.
(Source: St. John Australian First Aid

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Further Reading
St John Victoria Blog | Head Injury First Aid
Head Injury Symptoms & Advice - First Aid Training - St John
Ambulance
Neck and Spinal Injuries

The neck is the upper part of the spine, so any first aid treatment and management points for
spinal injuries also apply to neck injuries.
Some causes of neck and spinal injuries include:
▪ Motor vehicle, motorbike/cycling accidents
▪ Falls from a height or stairs
▪ Minor falls in the elderly who have osteoarthritis
▪ Gunshot injuries
▪ Stab wounds
▪ Sport injuries
▪ Pedestrians struck by vehicles
Management of neck and spinal injuries

If unconscious:
1. Follow DRSABCD.
2. Place casualty in the recovery position, while supporting the neck and spine in a
neutral position at all times.
3. Maintain a clear and open airway.
4. Maintain head and spine in a neutral position. Avoid twisting or any bending
movement.

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If conscious:
3. Do not move them unless they are in any danger.
4. Maintain head and spine in a neutral position. Avoid twisting or any bending
movement.

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2.2.2.14 Hypothermia
Cold-induced illnesses do not necessarily happen exclusively in freezing temperatures. As
long as the body’s internal temperature starts to drop below 35 degrees Celsius, hypothermia
can occur. This process can be mild to severe and can be abrupt (such as when falling into icy
water) or be a gradual process.
According to the Australian Resuscitation Council Guidelines 9.3.3, some ways to recognise
hypothermia are:
Mild
▪ Shivering
▪ Pale, cold skin
▪ Impaired coordination
▪ Slurred speech
▪ Responsive but with apathy or confusion
Moderate to severe hypothermia

▪ Absence of shivering
▪ Increasing muscle stiffness
▪ Progressive decrease in consciousness
▪ Slow, irregular pulse
▪ Hypotension
In more severe cases, there may be dangerous cardiac arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, or fixed
dilated pupils. The casualty may also appear dead, particularly if they have a weak, slow pulse.
Treatment
1. Follow DRSACBCD.
2. Move the casualty to a warm, dry place.
3. Assist the casualty in lying down to a comfortable position. Avoid any excess activity.
4. Remove any wet clothing from the casualty.
5. Place the casualty between blankets or in an emergency blanket.
6. Cover the casualty’s head to maintain body heat.
7. Give the casualty warm drinks if they are conscious.
8. Use heat packs and place them on the neck, armpits, or groin. Be careful not to burn
the casualty.

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9. Dial Triple Zero (000) for an ambulance if the casualty’s condition is severe.
10. Reassure and stay with the casualty until medical aid arrives.
Further Reading
The ARC guideline for first aid and management of hypothermia can
be accessed in the link below.
Guideline 9.3.3 - Hypothermia: First Aid and Management
2.2.2.15 Hyperthermia
Heat-induced illnesses, also known as hyperthermia, may be caused by the following:
▪ Excessive heat due to the environment
▪ Excessive heat due to metabolic activity
▪ Failure of the body’s cooling mechanisms
▪ An alteration in the body’s set temperature
Aside from the dehydration and other illnesses, things such as excessive physical activity,
medication and inadequate fluid intake are also some of the factors that can cause heat-
induced illnesses.
Heat Exhaustion
Heat exhaustion is characterised by fatigue, headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness and may
also be accompanied by collapse or fainting. Body temperature will be less than 40 degrees
Celsius and can be remedied once the casualty lies down and rest.
Heatstroke
A more severe form of heat-induced illness and may lead to unconsciousness, multiple organ
failure, and death. It can be characterised by the lack of sweating, body temperature above
40 degrees Celsius, altered conscious state, and collapse. Make sure to call Triple Zero (000)
first-up when dealing with heatstroke.
Treatment for heat-induced illnesses is generally to cool the person’s body temperature by
means of:
▪ moving the person to a cooler location, in the shade or in an air-conditioned room.

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▪ raising the legs and pelvis to improve blood pressure
▪ removing excess clothing
▪ cooling by wetting the skin with towels and ice packs and fanning
▪ giving cool water if the person is conscious.
Further Reading
The ARC guideline for first aid and management of heat-induced
illnesses can be accessed in the link below.
ANZCOR Guideline 9.3.4 - Heat-Induced Illness (Hyperthermia)
2.2.2.16 Minor Wounds

Wounds are damages or break on the surface of the skin. Wound treatment comes after
checking the casualty’s breathing and consciousness. Wound care is the prevention of the
worsening of the condition of the casualty, such as preventing infection, controlling blood
loss, or hindering further injury.

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Infection Control
Infection control is not just for the benefit of the casualty but also for the first aid responder.
First responders must ensure infection control to maximise the chance of recovery while
minimising the possibility of long-term damage.
Some of the principles of infection control include the prevention of transmission by proper
disposal of used medical equipment, proper disinfection through hand washing and asepsis,
etc.
Standard Precautions
Standard precautions are some steps that can be taken to avoid the spread of infection. The
use of protective equipment (disposable gloves, masks, and protective glasses), the proper
disposal of used dressings and bandages, and the washing of hands before and after contact
are some examples.
Minor Wound Management
For small scrapes and scratches, similar principles of wound management and infection
control apply.
1. Ensure that the wound is clean and that there is no risk of infection for both the
responder and the casualty.
2. Clean the wound with soap and water. It is not recommended to use rubbing alcohol
to wash a wound.
Use sterile dressings, if available.

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Some other things to consider when treating a wound:
▪ When removing dirt and debris from the wound, use clean water and soap, if
available.
▪ When wiping away blood, dirt or debris from the wound, wipe from the centre going
out the wound to prevent further foreign material being introduced.
▪ Pat-dry the wound with fresh, dry gauze. Do not use the same gauze as the dressing
for the wound.
▪ If the wound continues to bleed through the initial dressing, apply a second dressing
on top of the first one.
Minor wounds may be in the form of abrasions or incised wounds.

Abrasion Incised Wounds/Cut
The top layer of the skin has been broken Incised wounds are caused by sharp objects,
Skin in the knees, ankles, and elbows are prone e.g. knives or broken glass.
to abrasion.

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Management of Minor Skin Abrasions
▪ Clean the wound with sterile gauze. Use an antiseptic such as Betadine.
▪ Use Savlon if there is dirt on the skin abrasion. Rinse the wound after five minutes
with sterile saline or running water. Avoid scrubbing the dirt from the abrasion.
▪ Cover the wound with a non-stick sterile dressing.
▪ Change the dressing according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
▪ If you reapply antiseptic, wash it off after five minutes and then re-dress the wound.
(Source: betterhealth.vic.au)
Management of Incised Wounds

▪ Remove any clothing surrounding the cut.
▪ Control bleeding using a clean towel and apply light pressure to the wound.
▪ Do this until bleeding stops (this may take a few minutes).
▪ Rinse the wound with running water.
▪ Sanitise your hands before proceeding to cleaning or dressing the wound.
▪ Cover the wound with a non-stick sterile dressing.
▪ Change the dressing according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
▪ If you reapply antiseptic, wash it off after five minutes and then re-dress the wound.
Further Reading
Access and review Department of Western Australia page on
wounds first aid through the link below for further reading:
Wounds First Aid

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2.2.2.17 Nosebleed
Nosebleeds are very common, especially in children and in people over 65. They can be
distressing but can be easily treated and do not cause any longer-lasting problems. Causes of
nosebleeds include:
▪ picking your nose
▪ blowing your nose too hard
▪ straining too hard on the toilet
▪ having an infection in the nose, throat, or sinuses
▪ having a cold
▪ receiving a bump, knock or blow to the head or face
▪ having a bunged-up or stuffy nose from an allergy
▪ are taking some types of medicines, such as anti-inflammatories, blood thinners or nose
spray
Nosebleeds are more common if you have other medical conditions, such as allergies,
leukaemia, nasal polyps or sinusitis. Recurring nosebleeds should be discussed with a medical
professional to check if there may be an underlying medical condition causing the nosebleeds.
Management of Nosebleed
▪ Pressure must be applied equally to both sides of the nose, over the soft part below
the bony bridge (usually between the thumb and index finger).
▪ The victim should lean with the head forward to avoid blood flowing down the throat.
▪ Encourage the victim to spit out blood rather than swallow it as swallowed blood
irritates the stomach and causes vomiting, which can worsen the bleeding.
▪ The victim should remain seated at total rest for at least 10 minutes. On a hot day or
after exercise, it might be necessary to maintain pressure for at least 20 minutes.
▪ If bleeding continues for more than 20 minutes seek medical assistance.

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2.2.2.18 Poisoning
Poisons are anything that can cause harm or threaten a person. Toxic substances, on the
other hand, are chemicals that are poisonous and can cause health effects. They enter the
body by being swallowed, inhaled, injected, or absorbed through the skin, and how they
affect the body depends on the type of the poison.
Below are some signs and symptoms of poisoning:
Burns to the lips Nausea and

Abdominal pains
and mouth vomiting
Tightening of the
chest and laboured Sweating Unconcsiousness
breathing
Management of Poisoning
IMPORTANT: Do not induce vomiting.
▪ Check for any hazards or dangers before assisting the casualty. Do not put yourself in
unnecessary danger.
▪ Monitor the airway and breathing; if the patient is unconscious, clear the airway and
follow basic life support flow chart.
▪ Dilute substance with small sips of water. Sips are to be done at regular intervals.
▪ Contact the Poisons Information Centre for advice (Ph: 131 126). They are open 24
hours a day, seven days a week.
▪ Call Triple Zero (000) if advised by the Poisons Information Centre.
▪ If the casualty vomits, clear the airway immediately. You can send a sample to the
hospital for further analysis.

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Further Reading
The ANZCOR Guideline for managing a casualty who has been
poisoned can be accessed through the link below:
ANZCOR Guideline 9.5.1 - Emergency Management of a Victim Who
Has Been Poisoned
2.2.2.19 Seizures
A seizure may happen when the regular pattern of electrical impulses of the brain is
disrupted. This can cause changes in sensation, awareness and behaviour, or sometimes
convulsions, muscle spasms or loss of consciousness. Seizures vary greatly, and most are over
in less than 5 minutes. Signs and symptoms of seizure include:
▪ a sudden spasm of muscles producing rigidity. If standing the victim will fall down;
▪ jerking movements of the head, arms and legs;
▪ Shallow breathing or breathing may stop temporarily;
▪ dribbling from the mouth; the tongue may be bitten leading to bleeding;
▪ incontinence of urine and/or feces;
▪ changes in conscious state from being fully alert to confused, drowsy, or loss of
consciousness; and
▪ changes in behaviour where the victim may make repetitive actions like fiddling with
their clothes.
The general management of a seizure, as recommended by the Australian Resuscitation

Council, is if the casualty is unconscious and actively seizing, the rescuer should follow the
casualty’s seizure management plan, if there is one in place:
▪ Follow DRSABCD.
▪ Dial Triple Zero (000) for an ambulance.

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The rescuer should:
▪ Manage the casualty as for any unconscious person.
▪ Remove the casualty from danger or remove any harmful objects which might cause
secondary injury to the casualty.
▪ Note the time the seizure starts.
▪ Protect the head.
▪ Avoid restraining the casualty during the seizure unless this is essential to avoid injury.
▪ Lay the casualty down and turn the casualty on the side when practical.
▪ Maintain the airway.
▪ Reassure the casualty who may be dazed, confused or drowsy.
▪ Call an ambulance.
Further Reading
The ARC guideline for the management of a seizure event can be
accessed in the link below.
Guideline 9.2.4 - First Aid Management of a Seizure
2.2.2.20 Shock
Shock is when there is a disruption in the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues of
the body. Shock is dangerous as it may lead to organ failure and death. There are various
causes such as massive loss of blood called hypovolaemic shock and cardiac causes called
cardiogenic shock. There is also distributive shock where there is an abnormal dilation of
blood vessels and obstructive shock where there is blockage of blood flow in or out of the
heart.
There are varied signs and symptoms, ranging from dizziness and restlessness to collapse and
vomiting.
When manging a casualty of shock, follow DRSABC. If the casualty is conscious, place them in
the supine position with their legs slightly raised. Call Triple Zero (000) for an ambulance.
While waiting for medical aid, treat any other injuries such as bleeding, wounds, and burns.

88
Ensure the casualty is comfortable – loosen tight clothing around the neck, chest, and waist,
and maintain body warmth—also, monitor and record breathing pulse.
If the casualty is unconscious, carefully place them in the recovery position, on their side, as
shown below:
Further Reading
The ANZCOR guideline for shock can be accessed through the link
below:
ANZCOR Guideline 9.2.3 - Shock
2.2.2.21 Sharps Injuries

89
Also known as needlestick injuries, sharps injury is a puncture wound generally caused by
needles, blades, and other medical instruments. They are common to people who work with
hypodermic syringes and other needle equipment.
Sharps injuries bring the risk of transmitting blood-borne diseases found in needles and other
medical tools, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis
C (HCV). Therefore, standard precautions, infection control procedures and basic wound
management must be followed.
▪ Flush the area with warm running water.
▪ Wash with warm water and soap. If they are not available, use alcohol-based hand
rubs and solutions.
▪ Pat the area dry and cover with a waterproof occlusive dressing.
▪ Apply pressure through the dressing.
▪ Ensure any sharps are disposed of safely. Check your local, state/territory
requirements for the disposal of sharps.
▪ Seek medical assistance.

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2.2.2.22 Stroke
People, especially the elderly, who smoke, have high blood pressure, heart disease or
diabetes, and those who had a stroke previously are at most risk for stroke.
A stroke occurs when there is a significant lack of oxygen due to blockage of blood flow or a
rupture of an artery to the brain. The lack of oxygen leads to the sudden death of brain cells.
(Source: MedicineNet)
Due to the interruption of blood to the brain, the risk of brain damage is high. Rapid response
to a stroke by early recognition and support can spell the difference in reducing the chance
of death and long-term damage.
A stroke can be recognised by keeping in mind the
FAST acronym, as shown on the right.
F Facial Weakness
The Australian Resuscitation Council Guideline 9.2.2 • Can the person smile, is one
recommends the following: side of the face drooping?
▪ Call an ambulance immediately.
▪ Do not give the casualty anything to eat or A Arm Weakness
drink.
• Can the person raise both
▪ Administer oxygen if available, and you are arms?
trained to do so.
▪ Reassure the casualty.
S Speech Difficulty
▪ If they are unconscious but breathing, lay • Is the person's speech
them on their side. slurred?
▪ Ensure the airway is clear (see ANZCOR
Guideline 3).
T Time to Act Fast
▪ If the casualty is unresponsive and not
• Call (000) for an ambulance.
breathing normally, commence
resuscitation following the Basic Life Support
Flowchart (see ANZCOR Guideline 8).

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2.3 Display Respectful Behaviour Towards Casualty
Remember that incidents and emergencies are extremely stressful situations for both the
casualty and the responders. The casualty, who is already injured and suffering from an illness
or a potentially life-threatening situation, needs to be reassured and provided with utmost
care and respect. After all, if you were the casualty’s shoes, you would also hope for the same.
Following simple ethics, legislation, and cultural and moral beliefs and principles, it is always
important for first aiders or first aid responders to practice ethical first aid response. This
includes displaying respectful behaviour, maintaining respect for the casualty and their
family’s beliefs, privacy, and dignity, while observing consent and confidentiality.
Below are some examples of how a first aider can demonstrate respect towards the casualty
during a first aid situation:
Asking for their consent to provide treatment for their injuries or asking for
their consent to touch them.
Respecting and abiding by the casualty’s customs, traditions, and values.
Demonstrating awareness and sensitivity to their specific needs.
Demonstrating empathy.
Avoiding bias, judgement, and stereotypes.
Treat everyone with respect regardless of their race, culture, ethnicity, gender,
age, or disability.
Respect their dignity and privacy.

92
Additionally, below are some simple strategies for communicating with a casualty:
▪ Explaining to them what first aid treatment you are going to perform on them.
▪ Speaking slowly, clearly, and calmly.
▪ Speaking concisely.
▪ Avoiding jargon or technical words and using simple words that the casualty can easily
understand.
▪ Prioritising and sequencing instructions.
▪ Responding to their expressed emotions, e.g. crying or wincing in pain.
2.4 Obtain Consent from Casualty Where Possible
Remember that Australian laws are founded on the basis that everyone has the right to have
control over their own body.
Before assisting a casualty, it is important to seek their consent if they are conscious. Failure
to do so could constitute to assault or medical trespass, and those affected can seek
restitution or seek damages.
If the casualty is unconscious or otherwise has impaired decision-making capacity, it may be
possible to seek the consent from a substitute decision-maker, such as their close family
members, partners, parents, or caretakers (especially for children and young people), if they
are present.
A person is deemed to have impaired decision-making capacity for instances that they cannot
retain, understand, process, or communicate a medical or health care decision.
Children under 18 years old are considered to also have impaired decision-making capacity,
but some states/territories permit younger persons to make these decisions themselves.
There exist situations where treatment can be given without consent aside from those stated
above (impaired decision-making, those with advanced care directives, presence of a
secondary decisions maker).
There may also be situations where a casualty refuses to give consent. Therefore, refusal of
treatment is a legal right. There are legislations per state, and there are even other means to
refuse treatment such as Do Not Resuscitate or Not for Resuscitation order.

93
2.5 Use Available Resources and Equipment to Make the Casualty as Comfortable as Possible
When providing first aid, always consider the welfare of the casualty by relieving their pain
and discomfort and reducing their distress to the best of your ability and to whatever
resource is available.
This may involve while following first aid principles discussed in Section 2.2.2:
▪ Moving them to where there is a shade when they are under the extreme heat of the
sun (if it is safe to do so).
▪ Using pillows to support the neck and head if there is a head injury.
▪ Removing or loosening tight clothing.
▪ Assisting the casualty to sit or lie in a more comfortable position.
▪ Assisting them in their prescribed medication (e.g. prescribed medication for a pre-
existing heart condition).
▪ Maintaining their dignity and privacy – assisting them in cleaning up or covering
exposed body parts, if possible.
▪ Constant reassurance to the casualty.

94
2.5.1 First Aid Kit
A first aid kit includes all materials, supplies, and equipment needed to give medical
treatments focusing on first aid. The first aid kit will be your primary resource in treating the
casualty’s conditions and helping them become more comfortable while waiting for advanced
medical care to arrive.
Contents of a first aid kit may vary greatly depending on size and use of a first aid kit. Common
items included in a first aid kit are:
▪ Bandages of varying widths
▪ Hypoallergenic (skin) Tape
▪ Adhesive Dressing Strips in different sizes
▪ Cotton or Gauze Swabs
▪ Dressing Pads
▪ Sterile Eye Pads
▪ Alcohol swabs
▪ Stainless Steel Scissors and Tweezers
▪ Disposable Gloves
▪ Shock (Thermal) Blanket
▪ Safety Pins
▪ Notepad and Permanent Marker
▪ Sterile Saline Tubes/Sachets
▪ Disposable Resuscitation Face Shield
▪ First Aid Booklet
▪ Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

95
You may also customise the first aid kit to accommodate specific conditions or situations:
▪ For use at home — add extra items according to the number of people in your home
and their age, such as thick crepe bandages if you have older children who play sports
or for use as a pressure immobilisation bandage.
▪ For the car or caravan — add a highly reflective (day/night) safety triangle and vest as
you may be near a road and traffic.
▪ For travelling and camping — add heavy crepe bandages, instant cold packs,
disposable poncho, plastic bags, whistle, compass, torch, and glow stick.
▪ For use on a boat — add a disposable poncho, plastic bags, whistle, and glow stick. If
you are boating in waters where marine stingers are present, include vinegar to pour
over potential stings
▪ For babies — add extra items such as a digital thermometer, basic pain reliever
medications and plastic syringes for accurate dosing.
▪ For known medical conditions — add extra items, such as medicines and or equipment
you usually use to manage the condition

96
2.6 Operate First Aid Equipment According to Manufacturer’s Instructions
During an emergency, the responder(s) must use all available resources to ensure the
casualty is comfortable and cared for.
First Aid Equipment
First aid equipment includes:
▪ Auto-injector, e.g., Epi-Pen
▪ Automated external defibrillator (AED)
▪ Bronchial and spacer device
▪ First aid kit containing bandages, eyewashes, gloves, and salves
▪ Personal protective equipment (PPE)
▪ Puffer/inhaler
▪ Resuscitation mask or barrier
▪ Stretcher
When using first aid equipment, ensure that you follow the manufacturer’s instructions. If
you are unsure how to use any of it, review the manufacturer’s instructions or procedures or
seek training or advice from trained and experienced first aid responders.
Further Reading
The links below direct you to videos on how to correctly use the
following first aid equipment.
Auto-injector
Automated external defibrillator (AED)
Bronchial and spacer device

97
2.7 Monitor the Casualty’s Condition and Respond in Accordance with First Aid Principles
Upon providing the casualty first aid treatment, remember to continue to monitor their
condition. It will help if you take notes of important details of the first aid treatment you
administered: medication; first aid procedures followed; CPR, as well as your observations of
their conditions and any changes that may occur.
Be sure to check their vital signs:
Breathing &
Blood Pressure Body Temperture Heart Rate
Respiration Rate

98
It is critical that you closely monitor the casualty’s vital signs. Any slight changes to them could
mean they are descending into unconsciousness or regaining consciousness.
You must respond accordingly following the first aid principles discussed in Section 2.2 to any
critical changes in their conditions while waiting for medical assistance to arrive.
Appropriate responses to different injuries and illnesses are also thoroughly discussed in the
earlier parts of this Learner Guide.
If you are in a remote area or under unusual circumstances, you may consider transporting
the casualty to a nearby hospital yourself. However, you have to be careful not to aggravate
their condition or cause undue pain when transporting them. Only consider this option when
the casualty’s condition is not life-threatening.

99
III. Communicate Details of the Incident
In Chapters 1 and 2, responding to an emergency as well as applying first aid principles and
appropriate procedures for different types of injuries were discussed.
In this chapter, you will learn about how to communicate details of the incident, which is an
essential part of the handover to the medical response team. Details of the incident, such as
the cause and events leading to it, the last thing the casualty ate or drank, and or any allergies
or medications taken are some of the pertinent information relayed to the medical response
team.
These pieces of information are critical for the medical team to deliver the best medical
response to the casualty.
This chapter will also discuss applying appropriate first aid procedures. Specifically, it will
cover the following:
▪ Accurately conveying incident details to emergency services
▪ Reporting details of incident in line with appropriate workplace or site procedures
▪ Completing applicable workplace or site documentation, including incident report
form
▪ Maintaining privacy and confidentiality of information in line with statutory or
organisational policies

100
3.1 Accurately Convey Incident Details to Emergency Services
Once more qualified personnel arrive, such as emergency responders, it is vital to continue
to provide CPR and monitor the casualty until they tell you they are taking over. This gives
the emergency medical personnel ample time to prepare the equipment necessary to
transition into advanced care.
It is very crucial to remain calm to be able to convey an accurate, clear, and concise idea of
the casualty’s history, signs, symptoms, and administered aid. If multiple rescuers are present
on the incident, include them in providing details of the incident to make sure no detail is
overlooked or missed. In doing so, the emergency medical personnel can provide the correct
and maximum amount of care to the casualty. The best place to obtain this information is
with the first responder.
Some of the details of the emergency and casualty include but are not limited to:
Introduction of the patient
Cause and history of the incident
Injuries and or illnesses identified
Description of signs and symptoms
Description of treatments applied as well as time
Vital signs
Monitored changes during and after the treatment
Other details such as allergies, medications taken or prescribed, prior injuries or illnesses, last
thing eaten or drunk, and events leading up to the incident such as physical activity are also
very important details that need to be reported to the medical team.
If multiple rescuers are present on the incident, include them in providing details of the
incident to make sure no detail is overlooked or missed. In doing this, emergency responders
can provide

101
3.2 Report Details of Incident in Line with Appropriate Workplace or Site Procedures
In cases where the incident happens in the workplace, it is necessary to report the details of
it as indicated in the workplace or site procedures.
Reporting to the relevant supervisors is necessary to call out the incident into their attention
immediately. You may report the incident through consulting them directly and
communicating a summary of the incident verbally. Afterwards, you may be asked to fill out
or write an incident report for a more detailed explanation of the incident, which will be
discussed further in the next section.
Supervisors, in turn, will report to the other high-ranking executives, as well as health and
safety officers (e.g. in-house doctor or nurse), and may need you to be present as well when
reporting to them.
Reporting the incident will help your workplace determine what future actions should be
done to:
▪ prevent, or reduce the chance of, the incident from happening, and
▪ prepare in case incidents of a similar kind occurs again.
This presents your health and safety obligations to the workplace, your fellow workers and
the entire organisation. Reporting the incident promptly is also a prerequisite to complying
with legal obligations on workplace health and safety, as your organisation will also report
notifiable incidents to your state/territory WHS regulator as demanded by WHS laws and
regulations.
Further Reading
For more information on reporting incidents to your state/territory
WHS regulators, access the information sheet on Incident
Notification by Safe Work Australia
Incident Notification Information Sheet

102
3.3 Complete Applicable Workplace or Site Documentation, Including Incident Report Form
Part of reporting the incident in the workplace is completing workplace or site

documentations. One major workplace document you should accomplish is an incident report
form. An incident report form usually calls for similar information given to the emergency
medical personnel such as people involved (including witnesses), history of the incident,
injury/illnesses identified, treatments given and the casualty’s vital signs. Below is an example
of a completed incident report form:
INCIDENT REPORT
Workplace Details
Location 34 Glen William Road, Qld, 4871
Contact phone 04 5687 4545
Setting Client’s home
Incident details
Day Thursday Date and time 28 Mar 20xx, 10:30AM
Report completed by Claire Lewis
Incident details
 Personal injury  Staff  Customer  Others:
Name of person Jane Smith
Part of body injured (if relevant). Encircle part(s) of body Nature of injury sustained
injured.  Abrasion, scrapes
 Bite
 Broken bone/fracture
 Burn
 Concussion
 Cut
 Rash
 Sprain
 Others (please specify):
Describe the incident

Jane just finished using the vacuum cleaner at a client’s home. She went to unplug the vacuum cleaner from
the power board behind the refrigerator; the power board short-circuited, and she received an electric shock.
Describe the injury (if applicable)
Jane sustained minor burns to the fingers of her right hand, which was being used to unplug the vacuum
cleaner, and to the palm of her left hand which was supporting her as she leaned against the refrigerator
trying to reach the power.
Person reporting the incident
Signature C. Lewis, 28 Mar 20xx
Name of person Claire Lewis

103
Be sure to fill out the incident report as accurately as possible. If necessary (or required by
workplace procedures), create a separate document of the detailed testimony of the incident.
If available, include photos or videos of the incident to show further evidence (often from
footage of security cameras).
Further Reading
See below a sample of Information and Records Policy and
Procedures
Lotus Compassionate Care Information and Records Policy
3.4 Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality of Information in Line with Statutory or Organisational
Policies
When noting details of the incident and reporting these to your workplace or emergency
services personnel, keep in mind that these pieces of information must be kept confidential
to preserve the casualty’s right to privacy and dignity.
When recording details of the incident, ensure that you write them clearly and concisely. At
times, it is required that these notes are handwritten, with any alterations marked and
signed.
Be sure to act in accordance with privacy laws, especially the Privacy Act 1988. The Privacy
Act 1988 outlines the 13 Australian Privacy Principles that service providers must observe
when handling personal and sensitive information of people. These principles cover:
the collection, use and disclosure of personal information
an organisation or agency’s governance and accountability
integrity and correction of personal information
the rights of individuals to access their personal information

104
Keep in mind that information about the casualty, even details that could lead to their
identification, and the nature of the incident, must only be conveyed to Emergency Services
Personnel and/or your workplace supervisor, if appropriate.
If the incident is a notifiable incident (an incident is considered notifiable if a person has died,
if it is a serious injury or illness, or it is a dangerous incident, and it has occurred out of the
conduct of a business or undertaking at a workplace), WHS laws require your workplace to
report the incident to the regulator.

105
IV. Review the Incident
In the previous chapters, you learned about recognising and responding to an emergency,
applying first aid principles and procedures for various types of injuries, and communicating
the details of the incident.
Once the incident is called into attention, it is necessary to perform a review of the incident.
Therefore, this last chapter will focus on how to review the incident that occurred to help
bring the incident to a close. Specifically, it will cover the following:
▪ Recognising the possible psychological impacts on self and other rescuers and seek
help when required
▪ Contributing to a review of the first aid response as required

106
4.1 Recognise the Possible Psychological Impacts on Self and Other Rescuers and Seek Help when
Required
Witnessing incidents and emergencies are not

only stressful to the casualty and witnesses but
also to first aid responders, and this could
potentially affect one’s mental and emotional
wellbeing negatively. It is therefore vital to
carefully monitor any possible psychological
impacts of incidents and emergencies on self and
other rescuers so that you can manage them
appropriately.
The aftermath of an emergency drains a lot of energy and resources in order to cope or
continue acting normally. These resources are not only physical but also mental and
emotional. Because of these additional demands, your normal reserves are drained much
quicker, and you begin to exhibit signs of stress.
Apart from that, various experiences that first responders undergo when performing their
job are particularly distressing:
▪ Pre-emergency:
o The feeling of being unfit or unprepared to take on emergency
o Inadequate training and instruction
o Unrealistic expectation
▪ During emergency:
o Direct and long exposure to actual event or incident
o Direct contact with survivors and/or their family, friends, relatives
o Dealing with serious injuries or dead bodies
o Extra, unfamiliar, or conflicting duties/tasks
o Exposure to health and safety hazards
▪ Post-emergency:
o Recall of incident, mainly through publicity and media coverage
o Criticism and lack of acknowledgement to rescuers

107
These experiences, when encountered by rescuers (usually a combination of them), can lead
to several mental and psychological health issues, including:
Stress and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Burnout
Depression
Anxiety
Substance Abuse (alcohol or drugs)
Suicide and Suicide Ideation (thoughts of suicide)
Identifying these factors will help you and other rescuers to recognise and acknowledge the
psychological impact of their work to themselves. Recognition and acceptance of
psychological or mental health issue is the first step towards. You can manage these
psychological issues through seeking help, especially when they are apparent and are
affecting you and other first responders heavily.
You may rely on your family and friends first as they are likely the one whom you most trust
and will give unconditional support to help you cope with the mental and psychological
difficulties you are facing.
You may also rely on your fellow first responders and those in a similar field as they are the
ones who can most likely relate to your experiences, thoughts, and feelings. The sense of
camaraderie and support from those with a similar ordeal can help your psychological well-
being as well as theirs.
In instances of severe psychological difficulties, it is best to consult a mental health
professional for diagnosis, counselling, and treatment of psychological disorders. You may
first consult with your doctor (who you are most comfortable with) to help you assess and
refer to the appropriate mental health professional you need.

108
4.2 Contribute to a Review of the First Aid Response as Required
After providing the necessary aid in an emergency and handing over the casualty to
emergency medical personnel, it is recommended to undergo a review or debriefing of the
incident.
Debriefing can be defined as:
Debriefing is a specific technique designed to assist

others in dealing with the physical or psychological
symptoms that are generally associated with trauma
exposure. Debriefing allows those involved with the
incident to process the event and reflect on its
impact.
(Source: Psychology Today)
Debriefing helps the relevant people in the organisation find out what happened so they can
use this information to develop appropriate procedures for responding to similar incidents in
the future. The information gathered during a debriefing will also serve to create an accurate
record for archiving purposes. Conducting a debrief can also help identify the individuals
affected or the individuals who could potentially be affected by the aftermath of the incident.

109
In a general debriefing process, the following steps can be followed:
1. Discuss to assess the impact of the incident on the first aid responders and the
casualty (or casualties) and/or witnesses.
2. Discuss to review immediate issues surrounding an individual’s safety and security.
3. Provide a safe space for people to voice their thoughts, emotions or experiences
associated with the incident while providing reassurance and constant validation.
4. Predict possible reactions in future incidents.
5. Review individual’s emotional, cognitive, and physical responses to incidents. Look
out for maladaptive responses such as alcohol and substance abuse.
6. Bring closure to the incident.
7. Re-integration of the first aid responders and the casualty (or casualties) and/or
witnesses back into the community or the workplace.
To contribute to the review or debriefing process, you need to prepare all available
information regarding the incident. Apart from the incident reports, supplementary
information and evidence (e.g. photos, other testimonies from those who were present in
the incident) should also be ready.
You should also be prepared to share your insight and experience of the incident and the
response it was given. But you do not have to force yourself if the incident proves distressing
to you (see Section 4.1). Remember that the responders’ well-being is also part of what
should be assessed and worked on in future emergency responses.

110
References
Davis, J. A. (2013). Critical incident stress debriefing from a traumatic event. Psychology
Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/crimes-and-
misdemeanors/201302/critical-incident-stress-debriefing-traumatic-event
First aid training. (2019). St John Ambulance Australia. https://stjohn.org.au/first-aid-training
Haines, J. (2018). Emergency first aid. APL Health Care.
Kahn, A. (2019, September 23). First aid for unconsciousness. Healthline; Healthline Media.
https://www.healthline.com/health/unconsciousness-first-aid
Role of a first aider - first aid advice. (2019). St John Ambulance Australia.
https://www.sja.org.uk/get-advice/i-need-to-know/the-role-of-the-first-aider/
Shiel Jr, W. C. (2017, January 25). Definition of stroke. MedicineNet.
https://www.medicinenet.com/stroke/definition.htm
Skin cuts and abrasions. (2012). Victoria State Government.
https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/skin-cuts-
and-abrasions
St John first aid guide to assessment procedures. (n.d.). Www.Stjohn.org.Nz. Retrieved 2020,
from https://www.stjohn.org.nz/First-Aid/First-Aid-Library/Immediate-First-
Aid1/Resuscitation
Triple zero. (2020, October 30). Australian Government - Department of Home Affairs.
https://www.triplezero.gov.au/
Welcome to the australian resuscitation council (ARC). (2013). Australian Resuscitation
Council. https://resus.org.au/
What’s the difference between a sprain and a strain? (n.d.). WebMD. Retrieved 2020, from
https://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/qa/whats-the-difference-between-a-
sprain-and-a-strain
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Provide First Aid

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HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

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Specific licensing/regulatory requirements relating to this competency, including

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

This Learner Guide Covers

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

What is First Aid?

PROTECT the unconscious

PREVENT the condition from worsening

SEEK medical assistance

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

The Role of the First Aider

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

Codes of Practice on Minimising Risks and Potential Hazards

1. Model Code of Practice: First aid in the workplace

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

Currency of Skill Requirements

Limitations of Own Skills

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

1.1 Recognise and Assess an Emergency Situation

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

1.1.1 Signs of Possible Emergencies

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

• Approach the casualty to try and get a response

• Call 000 (Ambulance) or ask a bystander to do so

• Is the casualty's airway blocked?

• Check whether the casualty is breathing normally

• Perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation or chest compressions

• Use an automated external defibrillator (AED), as soon as possible

(Source: Emergency First Aid, Edition 19)

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

1.2.1 Emergency Hazards

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1. Look down below to see:

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

Putting out a small fire Instructing bystanders to

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

1.3.1 Assessment Principles

History Signs Symptoms

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid

Assessing the casualty through history, signs, and symptoms

Casualty’s left shin looks swollen and deformed.

HLTAID011 – Provide First Aid