Hindawi

Advances in Civil Engineering

Volume 2021, Article ID 4309569, 17 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/4309569

Research Article
Study on the Production Factors in the Process of Production and
Properties of Fly Ash-Based Coarse Aggregates

1 2
K. N. Shivaprasad and Bibhuti Bhusan Das
1
Department of Civil Engineering, JSS Science and Technology University, Mysuru 570006, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore 575025, India

Correspondence should be addressed to K. N. Shivaprasad; [email protected]

Received 19 April 2021; Revised 30 July 2021; Accepted 19 August 2021; Published 2 September 2021

Academic Editor: Eleftherios K. Anastasiou

Copyright © 2021 K. N. Shivaprasad and Bibhuti Bhusan Das. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.
An optimization study was carried out for the sustainable production of coarse aggregates from fly ash and alkaline solution,
considering the combined effect of alkaline solution and production process. The trial mixes during the process of producing the
artificial aggregates were designed through Taguchi’s experimental design method. The combined effect of alkaline solution
(geopolymerisation) and production process (pelletization factors) along with engineering properties of the produced coarse
aggregates was evaluated using response indices at different curing ages. Furthermore, the influence of each individual factor of
geopolymerisation and pelletization on the engineering properties was determined through grey relational analysis to identify the
most influencing factors in the production of coarse aggregates. The results obtained from grey relational analysis indicate that the
properties of produced aggregates are governed mostly by geopolymerisation. It is also observed that water content of 20% by mass
of fly ash is found to be essential for the suitable production of coarse aggregates and factors such as Na2O content and curing
regime improved the engineering properties.

1. Introduction noted that different techniques are available such as ag-

glomeration, expansion (bloating), pressing and crushing,
The statistic depicts global concrete production is approx- etc., [4–6]. However, it is observed that the pelletization
imately 5.3 billion cubic meters per year [1]. Typically, or- process is well developed agglomeration technique for
dinary concrete contains about 70–80% aggregate, 12% producing artificial aggregates [4, 7–9]. However, the
cement, and 8% mixing water by mass [2]. On the other adoption of pelletization process in producing the artificial
hand, the use of aggregates in the construction of aggregates aggregates is still not being adopted widely by the con-
is enormous. In the year 2019, global demand for con- struction industry and hence the production cost of artificial
struction aggregates was more than 51.7 billion tonnes, aggregates is found to be high as compared to the cost of
which is estimated to grow 5.2% annually. In India alone, it is natural aggregates.
predicted that consumption of aggregates is more than 5 For artificial fly ash aggregates it has been reported that
billion metric tonnes in the year 2020 [3]. At present, the production and properties of the aggregates mainly depend
consumption rate of natural aggregates in global level has on the raw materials, size of the particles in the raw ma-
reached an alarming level. Hence, there is a necessity of terials, type of binder, specific surface area, the wettability of
producing an alternative and sustainable material which particles, and production process involved [4, 9–14].
could replace the natural aggregates in concrete. However, researchers reported that the engineering prop-
Many researchers have reported on the aggregates erties of produced fly ash aggregates are mainly influenced
production using fly ash with suitable binding materials by the type and composition of binder used in the pro-
through artificial process [4]. In the production process, it is duction process along with the dosage of the binder [12–14].
2 Advances in Civil Engineering

From the literature it is to be noted that the production The production of the artificial aggregates is having
process can be controlled in a better way with a disc type different methods as per requirements or the end use in the
pelletizer as compared to other types of pelletizers such as products, whereas many researchers reported on the process
drum or cone pelletizers [4, 11]. Furthermore, it is reported with different raw materials as well as the different binders
by the researchers that, in the pelletization process, different for the production of artificial aggregates. The present study
factors such as water content during pelletization, the angle is concentrated on the production process by pelletization
of pelletizing disc, speed of pelletizing disc, and duration of technique and alkaline solution content and on character-
the pelletization are the most influencing factors that affect istics of produced coarse aggregate simultaneously.
the production process of aggregates [4, 11, 12]. The pro-
duced aggregates are subjected to different hardening 2. Materials and Methodology
methods such as sintering, normal water curing, cold
bonding, steam curing, and autoclaving [4, 8, 10, 12–14]. 2.1. Materials. Locally available fly ash was used in the
The alkali activator solution, which acts as an activator in production of artificial fly ash aggregate. The fly ash had a
the geopolymerisation process, plays an important role in specific gravity of 2.20 and a specific surface area of
the surface hydrolysis of the raw material particles [15]. The 260.30 m2/kg. The chemical compositions are presented in
alkaline solution with different types [15–19], concentrations Table 1 and the particle size distribution of fly ash analysed in
[16–24], raw material to solution ratio [17, 25–27], and the laboratory is presented in Figure 1. As per IS 3812 (Part
curing regime [15, 23, 24, 27, 28] has a significant influence 1) 2013 classification [39], fly ash has been classified as class F
in the geopolymerisation process. However, there are a type. The laboratory grade sodium silicate solution
limited number of studies reported in the literature on the (Na2SiO3) with alkali ratio (SiO2/Na2O) of 3.3 (8.0% Na2O,
utilization of alkaline solutions for the production of arti- 26.5% SiO2, 65.5% H2O by mass) and sodium hydroxide
ficial fly ash aggregates, whereas the factors responsible for (NaOH) flakes of 98% purity were used to prepare the al-
fly ash aggregates production through pelletization process, kaline solution.
combined with the factors of geopolymerisation, are very
much essential to understand the efficient and effective
production. 2.2. Experimental Programme. The production of artificial
To investigate the combined effect of geopolymerisation aggregates is significantly affected by several factors such as
and pelletization factors on the properties of artificial fly ash type of alkali content and its dosage, raw material and its
aggregates, an experimental study is very much essential composition, and also the process of pelletization. In the
which could be carried out with the help of design of ex- present investigation, the raw material is fly ash and alkaline
periments. Various optimization techniques are available solution. To study the relative influence of several factors in
such as factorial designs [11, 29–33], central composites the production process and aggregates properties, the fol-
[34–36], response surface methodology [11, 35, 36], and lowing experimental programme was carried out.
Taguchi method [11, 37, 38]. Taguchi’s experimental design The most influencing factors related to alkali content in
method is one of the best optimization methods defined by geopolymerisation process and the factors related to geo-
Genichi Taguchi which allows experimental trial runs to a polymerisation were identified as Na2O content, SiO2/Na2O
small number and also to identify the influence of factors ratio, water content, and curing methods [22–24, 26]. An
selected [11, 29]. Considering all the factors mentioned increase of Na2O content and SiO2/Na2O ratio in alkaline
above, this experimental investigation was carried out to solution will lead to higher level of binding property in the
determine the combined effect of geopolymerisation and geopolymer [22–26]. The initial trial mixes were carried out
pelletization factors in the sustainable production of artificial with different composition of Na2O content from 3% to 7%
aggregates using Taguchi’s experimental design method (percentage of the mass of fly ash), water content from 18%
followed by grey relational analysis. to 22% (percentage of the mass of fly ash), and SiO2/Na2O
ratio from 0.3 to 0.5. This alkaline solution was then sprayed
to the pelletization disc. It was observed that, with increase in
1.1. Significance of the Study. The natural aggregates con- Na2O content (from 3 to 7%) and SiO2/Na2O ratio (from 0.3
sumption is increasing rapidly because of the faster rate of to 0.5) with constant water content (21%), the alkaline so-
infrastructure development worldwide. However, the mining lution was found to be highly viscous. This can be attributed
of natural aggregates is creating a serious environmental to high content of solids in the solution [19, 40]. Hence, in
imbalance. In the present situation, the challenge before the the present study alkaline solution composition is restricted
world is to have innovative and less carbon footprint materials to 4 to 6% of Na2O content along with the varying SiO2/
for the construction industry. Hence, there is a need for an Na2O ratio from 0.3 to 0.5 and water content from 19% to
alternate material that can substitute the natural aggregate. 21%.
Using artificial methods to produce substitute materials from Furthermore, factors related to pelletization process such
industrial waste or byproducts will solve the disposal problem as the angle of pelletizing disc, speed of pelletizing disc, water
and at the same time, it is going to save natural resources. The content, and duration of the pelletization were identified
use of artificially produced fly ash aggregate will gain sig- [4, 7, 11]. The angle and speed of pelletizing disc were varied
nificant importance for infrastructure development which can from 35° to 55° with every 10° interval and 30 to 50 RPM with
replace the naturally available materials. every 10 RPM interval, respectively. It is also observed from
Advances in Civil Engineering 3

Table 1: Chemical compositions of fly ash. 2.3. Design of Experiments with Taguchi’s Orthogonal Array.
Chemical constituents (%)
Experimental design was carried out using Taguchi’s or-
thogonal array. This orthogonal array was identified based
SiO2 60.65
on the factors and the levels which influence the most as
Al2O3 28.62
Fe2O3 3.95 described in the previous section and the same is presented
MgO 1.84 in Table 2. In this phase the pelletization factors are allied
CaO 1.70 with geopolymerisation factors and were investigated as the
SO3 1.26 combined effect. The same was carried out with L27 (37)
Na2O 1.11 Taguchi orthogonal array to study the engineering prop-
K2O 0.11 erties of the artificial aggregates. The essential variables for
LOI 2.6 each experimental trial run are labelled from TMC 1 to TMC
27 and they are presented in Table 3.
In the second phase, the response index for individual
factor was analysed with the help of Minitab software to
100 evaluate the response indices for all the selected factors from
the experimental test results. Further, grey relational analysis
80
of a statistical approach was analysed to understand the
effect of combined factors from their responses all together
Percentage passing

in the production of sustainable aggregates.

60

2.4. Alkaline Solution Preparation. The required quantity of

40
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) flakes was dissolved in normal
tap water to prepare NaOH solution. The alkaline solution
20 was prepared by mixing both NaOH solution and Na2SiO3
solution such that required proportions of Na2O content
(%), water content (%), and SiO2/Na2O ratio are maintained
0
1 10 100 1000 as per each trial mix provided in Table 3. With required
Particle size (mm) proportion as specified in Table 3, alkaline solution is
Figure 1: Particle size distribution of fly ash.
prepared and preserved in a closed container and allowed to
cool, before using it in the production process.

the literature, for the formation of pellets, a minimum of 10 2.5. Sustainable Aggregates Production. A laboratory scale
to 15 minutes is needed [7] and 12 to 18 minutes were disc pelletizer was used in this study [41, 42]. Pelletization
selected with an interval variation of 3 minutes in the present was carried out in the following steps:
study.
Although water content is a factor where both geo- (i) The required proportion of alkaline solution was
polymerisation and pelletization are getting affected, in the prepared
present study it was restricted; 19 to 21% of water content (% (ii) The necessary adjustment was made to the pelletizer
is with respect to mass of fly ash) was selected based on the (iii) Weighed fly ash was transferred to the pelletizing
previous study [41]. The water added in the preparation of disc
sodium hydroxide solution and water present in the sodium
silicate solution together reference as the water content in (iv) Required alkali solution was sprayed to the disc
the alkaline solution. pelletizer directly within first three minutes during
After the production of aggregates, it is subjected to the pelletization process
different curing conditions as follows: (i) curing at ambient
temperature (28 ± 2°C), (ii) heat curing at 80°C for 24 hours 2.6. Curing of Aggregates. In the present investigation arti-
[15, 23, 24, 27, 42], and (iii) solution curing for 30 minutes ficially produced fly ash (APFA) aggregates were subjected to
[10] which will improve the properties of aggregates. different curing conditions as per experimental programme
The objective of the present study is concerned with and the details of each curing condition are as follows:
the investigation on the effect of geopolymerisation
factors and pelletization factors as a combined factor in Ambient curing (A): the APFA aggregates through the
the aggregates production using fly ash as a raw material pelletization process are kept at a temperature of
with alkali solution. To optimize the mixtures of fly ash 28 ± 2°C and relative humidity of 80% and were
and alkali solution in the production of artificial aggre- characterised at 14, 28, and 56 days.
gates and to evaluate the interaction with the study pa- Heat curing (H): the APFA aggregates through the
rameters in the production and engineering properties of pelletization process are allowed to set for 24 hours in
produced aggregates, the following design of experiments ambient temperature conditions. After that, fly ash
was used. aggregates are subjected to a temperature of 80°C for 24
4 Advances in Civil Engineering

Table 2: Different individual factors and their values considered in the study.
Factors L1 L2 L3
Na2O content (%) 4 5 6
SiO2/Na2O ratio 0.3 0.4 0.5
Water content (%) 19 20 21
Speed of pelletizing disc (RPM) 30 40 50
Angle of pelletizing disc (°) 35 45 55
Duration of pelletization (minutes) 12 15 18
Curing regime A H S
L: level; A: ambient temperature; H: heat cured; S: solution cured.

Table 3: Combined factors and values used in the production trial runs.
Factors
Trial
runs Na2O SiO2/Na2O Water Speed of pelletizing Angle of pelletizing Duration of Curing
content ratio content disc disc pelletization regime
TMC 1 4 0.3 19 30 35 12 A
TMC 2 4 0.3 19 30 45 15 H
TMC 3 4 0.3 19 30 55 18 S
TMC 4 4 0.4 20 40 35 12 A
TMC 5 4 0.4 20 40 45 15 H
TMC 6 4 0.4 20 40 55 18 S
TMC 7 4 0.5 21 50 35 12 A
TMC 8 4 0.5 21 50 45 15 H
TMC 9 4 0.5 21 50 55 18 S
TMC 10 5 0.3 20 50 35 15 S
TMC 11 5 0.3 20 50 45 18 A
TMC 12 5 0.3 20 50 55 12 H
TMC 13 5 0.4 21 30 35 15 S
TMC 14 5 0.4 21 30 45 18 A
TMC 15 5 0.4 21 30 55 12 H
TMC 16 5 0.5 19 40 35 15 S
TMC 17 5 0.5 19 40 45 18 A
TMC 18 5 0.5 19 40 55 12 H
TMC 19 6 0.3 21 40 35 18 H
TMC 20 6 0.3 21 40 45 12 S
TMC 21 6 0.3 21 40 55 15 A
TMC 22 6 0.4 19 50 35 18 H
TMC 23 6 0.4 19 50 45 12 S
TMC 24 6 0.4 19 50 55 15 A
TMC 25 6 0.5 20 30 35 18 H
TMC 26 6 0.5 20 30 45 12 S
TMC 27 6 0.5 20 30 55 15 A

hours. Further, these aggregates are kept in ambient ambient temperature conditions and were charac-
temperature conditions and were characterised at 14, terised at 14, 28, and 56 days.
28, and 56 days.
Solution curing (S): the APFA aggregates through the
pelletization process are first allowed to set for 24 hours 2.7. Testing on Aggregates. The pelletization efficiency in the
in ambient temperature conditions. After that, fly ash aggregate production is calculated using equation (1). The
aggregates are dipped in sodium silicate solution for 30 particle size distribution in the production was determined
minutes. Further, these fly ash aggregates are kept in using standard set of sieves (IS 383–2016) [43]:

weight retained on the IS sieve no. 480

efficiency of pelletization � ∗ 100. (1)
total weight of materials used
Advances in Civil Engineering 5

The APFA aggregates were assessed for basic engineering 25.47%, further increase of SiO2/Na2O ratio from 0.4 to 0.5
properties such as water absorption, aggregate impact value, has marginal effect, and heat curing of artificially produced
and aggregate crushing value as per IS 2386 [44, 45]. aggregates has significantly improved the aggregate impact
Crushing strength of individual pellet was estimated using a value 23.69% when compared to aggregate impact values of
compression testing machine (ring type unconfined com- 28.74% and 25.58% for ambient cured and solution cured
pression test apparatus) and crushing strength (σ) of fly ash aggregates at 56 days. The aggregate impact value gets
aggregate was calculated from the following equation [7]: marginally improved from 25.83% to 24.98% at 56 days with
2.8 ∗ P an increase in water content from 19% to 20%; further
σ� , (2) increase in the water content from 20% to 21% was found to
π ∗ x2 have an adversarial effect on the aggregates impact value that
where P represents the failure load on the pellet and x is the decreased from 24.98% to 27.21% at 56 days. It is also noted
size of pellets. from Figure 4 that the aggregates impact value has mar-
ginally improved from 25.93% to 25.59% due to the increase
3. Experimental Results in the speed of pelletizing disc from 30 RPM to 50 RPM.
Further increase in the angle of pelletizing disc from 35° to
Sustainable aggregates are artificially produced as explained 55° and duration of pelletization of 12 to 18 minutes has
in aggregate production section with trial runs as described shown the negligible improve on the aggregate impact values
in experimental program and they were evaluated for their from 26.04% to 25.96% and 26.08% to 26.25% at 56 days,
production efficiency, particle size distribution, and engi- respectively.
neering properties.
The experimental results were obtained at end of 14, 28, 3.4. Aggregate Crushing Value. The experimental test results
and 56 days; however, for the sake of brevity only 56 days’ are used to determine the response indices and the response
results are discussed in the subsequent sections. index relationship for aggregate crushing value with com-
bined factors is presented in Figure 5. From Figure 5, it can
3.1. Efficiency and the Particle Size Distribution of the be observed that, with the geopolymerisation factors such as
Aggregate. The pelletization efficiency of the produced ag- Na2O content increase from 4% to 6%, aggregate crushing
gregates with respect to water content was estimated using value is improved from 27.21% to 23.92% at 56 days.
equation (1) and it is presented in Figure 2. It can be ob- Similarly, increase in SiO2/Na2O ratio from 0.3 to 0.5 has
served from Figure 2 that the efficiency is increased from marginally improved the aggregate crushing value from
77.96% to 96.41% as water content increased from 19 to 21%. 26.72% to 25.33% at 56 days. It is also observed that heat
The distribution of aggregates size in the production of curing and solution curing of aggregates have significantly
fly ash aggregates with respect to different water content improved the aggregate crushing value of 23.37% and
used is compared with nominal size of 20 mm graded ag- 25.34%, respectively, at 56 days when compared to the
gregates as per IS 383–2016 [43] and presented in Figure 3. aggregates crushing value 28.72% at 56 days of ambient
From Figure 3, it is observed that production of aggregates cured fly ash aggregates. Aggregates crushing value has
has a significant influence on the particle size distribution in declined from 25.13% to 26.35% at 56 days due to increase in
production process. However, the APFA aggregates particle the water content in the trial mixes. However, from Figure 5,
size distribution is within the limits of IS 383–2016 standards response indices of pelletization factors indicate that the
[43]. duration of pelletization of 12 to 18 minutes has improved
the aggregates crushing value from 26.62% to 24.17% at 56
days. Further, increase in speed of pelletizing disc from 30
3.2. Specific Gravity and Bulk Density. The APFA aggregates RPM to 50 RPM and angle of pelletizing disc from 35° to 55°
which are subjected to different curing conditions were has negligible improvement on the aggregate crushing value
assessed for specific gravity, bulk density, and percentage of from 26.01% to 25.93% and 25.93% to 25.98%, respectively,
voids. The average value of apparent specific gravity, satu- at 56 days.
rated surface dry specific gravity, loose and compacted bulk
density of aggregates, and percentage of voids for different
fly ash aggregates subjected to curing conditions are pre- 3.5. Crushing Strength of Individual Pellets. The response
sented in Table 4. indices are calculated from the experimental test results and
the response index relationship for the crushing strength of
individual pellets with combined factors is presented in
3.3. Aggregates Impact Value. The response indices are de- Figure 6. From Figure 6, it can be observed that, with the
termined from the experimental test results and the response geopolymerisation factors such as the Na2O content increase
index relationship for aggregate impact value with combined from 4% to 6%, crushing strength of individual pellets is
factors is presented in Figure 4. From Figure 4, it can be improved from 3.04 MPa to 3.79 MPa at 56 days. Similarly,
observed that, with increase in Na2O content from 4% to 6%, increase of SiO2/Na2O ratio from 0.3 to 0.5 has improved the
aggregate impact value is improved from 27.88% to 22.78% crushing strength of individual pellets from 3.24 MPa to
at 56 days. Similarly increase in SiO2/Na2O ratio from 0.3 to 3.57 MPa at 56 days and heat curing has significantly im-
0.4 has improved the aggregate impact value from 26.71% to proved the pellets crushing strength value to 3.81 MPa when
6 Advances in Civil Engineering

100 50 RPM has shown the negligible improvement on the

pellets crushing strength from 3.38 MPa to 3.39 MPa and
95 3.39 MPa to 3.41 MPa, respectively, at 56 days.

3.6. Water Absorption. The experimental test results are used

90
Efficiency

to determine the response indices and the response index

relationship for water absorption with combined factors is
85 presented in Figure 7. From Figure 7, it is found that, with
geopolymerisation factors such as Na2O content from 4% to
80 6%, water absorption value improved from 11.37% to 9.04%
and with increase in SiO2/Na2O ratio from 0.3 to 0.5 the
75
water absorption also reduced from 10.91% to 9.92% at 56
18 19 20 21 22 days. It is also observed that solution curing of artificially
Water added (%) produced aggregates has significantly reduced the water
Figure 2: Pelletization efficiency with respect to water content. absorption value to 8.42% when compared to water ab-
sorption values of 10.58% and 12.44% for ambient cured and
heat cured aggregates at 56 days. However, increase in speed
100 of pelletizing disc from 30 RPM to 50 RPM and change in the
angle of pelletizing disc from 35° to 55° have improved the
80 water absorption of aggregates marginally from 10.47% to
9.82% and 10.76% to 10.26%, respectively, at 56 days. It is
Percentage passing

60 observed that duration of pelletization of 12 to 18 minutes

has the water absorption values of 10.42% to 10.68% which
40
has negligible effect on water absorption of aggregates.

4. Grey Relational Analysis

20
Sahoo et al. have presented the advantages of grey relational
0 analysis in categorizing the most influencing parameters
1 10 100 with respect to the material properties [46]. In this inves-
Particle size (mm)
tigation, experimental test results on the APFA aggregates
Water content - 19 % IS 383 2016 - Lower limit were considered as responses and grey relational analysis
Water content - 20 % IS 383 2016 - Upper limit was carried out as follows.
Water content - 21 %
Figure 3: Particle size distribution of produced aggregates along 4.1. Determination of Grey Relational Generations. The ag-
with IS 383–2016 limits. gregate properties results such as aggregate impact value,
aggregate crushing value, crushing strength of individual
Table 4: Average specific gravity and bulk density of artificial fly pellets, and water absorption are considered as responses
ash aggregates subjected to different curing conditions. for the grey relational analysis. In this analysis, stan-
dardization of responses is carried out such that the lower
Specific gravity Bulk density (kg/m3) the obtained value for the produced aggregates the better
Curing
regime Saturated for aggregate impact value, aggregate crushing value, and
Apparent Loose Compacted
surface dry water absorption, whereas the higher value obtained is
Ambient 1.95 1.65 1100 1210 better for crushing strength of individual pellets of APFA
Heat 1.97 1.62 1050 1170 aggregates. Grey relational generation was obtained with
Solution 1.97 1.71 1110 1220 the experimental values to scale of 0–1 and it was calculated
using equation (3). Computed grey relational generations
on the responses are presented in Tables 5–7 at different
compared to crushing strength of individual pellets values curing ages.
3.08 MPa and 3.28 MPa of ambient cured and solution cured
aggregates at 56 days. Aggregate crushing strength of in- max yi (k) − yi (k)
xi � , (3)
dividual pellets has declined from 3.50 MPa to 3.21 MPa at max yi (k) − min yi (k)
56 days with increase in the water content from 19% to 21%.
where xi(k) � value after the GRG; min yi(k) � smallest value
It can be also understood from Figure 6 that pelletization
of yi(k) for the kth response; and max yi(k) � largest value of
factors response indices indicate a trivial improvement in
yi(k) for the kth response.
pellets crushing strength from 3.36 MPa to 3.49 MPa due to
the increase in the duration of pelletization from 12 to 18
minutes. However, increase in the angle of pelletizing disc 4.2. Assessment of Grey Relational Coefficients and Grey Re-
from 35° to 55° and speed of pelletizing disc from 30 RPM to lational Grades. The assessment of Grey relational
Advances in Civil Engineering 7

32 32

Aggregate impact value (%)

30 30

Aggregate impact value (%)

28 28

26 26

24 24

22 22

20 20
4 5 6 0.3 0.4 0.5
Na2O Content (%) SiO2/Na2O
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
32 32
Aggregate impact value (%)

30 30

Aggregate impact value (%)

28 28

26 26

24 24

22 22

20 20
19 20 21 Ambient Heat Solution
Water content (%) Curing Regime
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days

32 32
Aggregate impact value (%)

Aggregate impact value (%)

30 30

28 28

26 26

24 24

22 22

20 20
30 40 50 35 45 55
Speed of pelletizing disc (RPM) Angle of pelletizing disc (°)
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days

32
Aggregate impact value (%)

30

28

26

24

22

20
12 15 18
Duration of pelletization (min)
14 days
28 days
56 days

Figure 4: Response index relationship for aggregate impact value with combined factors.
8 Advances in Civil Engineering

32 32

Aggregate Crushing value (%)

Aggregate Crushing value (%)

30 30

28 28

26 26

24 24

22 22

20 20
4 5 6 0.3 0.4 0.5
Na2O Content (%) SiO2/Na2O

14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
32 32
Aggregate Crushing value (%)

Aggregate Crushing value (%)

30 30

28 28

26 26

24 24

22 22

20 20
19 20 21 Ambient Heat Solution
Water content (%) Curing Regime
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
32 32
Aggregate Crushing value (%)
Aggregate Crushing value (%)

30 30

28 28

26 26

24 24

22 22

20 20
30 40 50 35 45 55
Speed of pelletizing disc (RPM) Angle of pelletizing disc (°)
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
32
Aggregate Crushing value (%)

30

28

26

24

22

20
12 15 18
Duration of pelletization (min)
14 days
28 days
56 days

Figure 5: Response index relationship for aggregate crushing value with combined factors.
Advances in Civil Engineering 9

5 5

Crushing strength (MPa)

Crushing strength (MPa)

4 4

3 3

2 2
4 5 6 0.3 0.4 0.5
Na2O Content (%) SiO2/Na2O
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
5 5
Crushing strength (MPa)

Crushing strength (MPa)

4 4

3 3

2 2
19 20 21 Ambient Heat Solution
Water content (%) Curing Regime
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
5 5
Crushing strength (MPa)
Crushing strength (MPa)

4 4

3 3

2 2
30 40 50 35 45 55
Speed of pelletizing disc (RPM) Angle of pelletizing disc (°)
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
5
Crushing strength (MPa)

2
12 15 18
Duration of pelletization (min)
14 days
28 days
56 days

Figure 6: Response index relationship for crushing strength of individual pellets with combined factors.
10 Advances in Civil Engineering

13 13

12 12

Water Absorption (%)

Water Absorption (%)

11 11

10 10

9 9

8 8
4 5 6 0.3 0.4 0.5
Na2O Content (%) SiO2/Na2O
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
13 13

12 12
Water Absorption (%)

Water Absorption (%)

11 11

10 10

9 9

8 8
19 20 21 Ambient Heat Solution
Water content (%) Curing Regime
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
13 13

12 12
Water Absorption (%)

Water Absorption (%)

11 11

10 10

9 9

8 8
30 40 50 35 45 55
Speed of pelletizing disc (RPM) Angle of pelletizing disc (°)
14 days 14 days
28 days 28 days
56 days 56 days
13

12
Water Absorption (%)

11

10

8
12 15 18
Duration of pelletization (min)
14 days
28 days
56 days

Figure 7: Response index relationship for water absorption with combined factors.
 Table 5: Grey relational generation, grey relational coefficients, and grey relational grade for different trial runs at 14 days.
Grey relational generations Δ0i Grey relational coefficients
Grey
Runs Aggregate Aggregate Crushing Aggregate Aggregate Crushing Aggregate Aggregate Crushing relational
Water Water Water
Advances in Civil Engineering

impact crushing strength of impact crushing strength of impact crushing strength of grade (ci)
absorption absorption absorption
value value pellets value value pellets value value pellets
TMC 1 0.000 0.036 0.100 0.129 1.000 0.964 0.900 0.871 0.333 0.342 0.357 0.365 0.349
TMC 2 0.516 0.514 0.508 0.235 0.484 0.486 0.492 0.765 0.508 0.507 0.504 0.395 0.479
TMC 3 0.236 0.197 0.198 0.412 0.764 0.803 0.802 0.588 0.396 0.384 0.384 0.459 0.406
TMC 4 0.164 0.032 0.000 0.329 0.836 0.968 1.000 0.671 0.374 0.341 0.333 0.427 0.369
TMC 5 0.695 0.538 0.321 0.165 0.305 0.462 0.679 0.835 0.621 0.520 0.424 0.374 0.485
TMC 6 0.390 0.321 0.136 0.388 0.610 0.679 0.864 0.612 0.450 0.424 0.367 0.450 0.423
TMC 7 0.072 0.000 0.060 0.588 0.928 1.000 0.940 0.412 0.350 0.333 0.347 0.548 0.395
TMC 8 0.478 0.442 0.345 0.200 0.522 0.558 0.655 0.800 0.489 0.472 0.433 0.385 0.445
TMC 9 0.129 0.149 0.169 0.729 0.871 0.851 0.831 0.271 0.365 0.370 0.376 0.649 0.440
TMC 10 0.346 0.245 0.079 0.588 0.654 0.755 0.921 0.412 0.433 0.398 0.352 0.548 0.433
TMC 11 0.179 0.052 0.097 0.353 0.821 0.948 0.903 0.647 0.379 0.345 0.356 0.436 0.379
TMC 12 0.689 0.586 0.612 0.153 0.311 0.414 0.388 0.847 0.616 0.547 0.563 0.371 0.524
TMC 13 0.094 0.213 0.174 0.600 0.906 0.787 0.826 0.400 0.356 0.388 0.377 0.556 0.419
TMC 14 0.138 0.036 0.129 0.471 0.862 0.964 0.871 0.529 0.367 0.342 0.365 0.486 0.390
TMC 15 0.519 0.510 0.429 0.000 0.481 0.490 0.571 1.000 0.510 0.505 0.467 0.333 0.454
TMC 16 0.336 0.522 0.204 0.647 0.664 0.478 0.796 0.353 0.430 0.511 0.386 0.586 0.478
TMC 17 0.239 0.209 0.160 0.376 0.761 0.791 0.840 0.624 0.397 0.387 0.373 0.445 0.401
TMC 18 0.519 0.470 0.483 0.247 0.481 0.530 0.517 0.753 0.510 0.485 0.491 0.399 0.471
TMC 19 0.717 0.795 0.597 0.329 0.283 0.205 0.403 0.671 0.639 0.709 0.554 0.427 0.582
TMC 20 0.396 0.165 0.177 0.612 0.604 0.835 0.823 0.388 0.453 0.374 0.378 0.563 0.442
TMC 21 0.305 0.261 0.166 0.447 0.695 0.739 0.834 0.553 0.418 0.404 0.375 0.475 0.418
TMC 22 1.000 1.000 0.605 0.388 0.000 0.000 0.395 0.612 1.000 1.000 0.559 0.450 0.752
TMC 23 0.594 0.333 0.496 0.824 0.406 0.667 0.504 0.176 0.552 0.429 0.498 0.739 0.554
TMC 24 0.381 0.205 0.194 0.788 0.619 0.795 0.806 0.212 0.447 0.386 0.383 0.702 0.479
TMC 25 0.925 0.871 1.000 0.235 0.075 0.129 0.000 0.765 0.869 0.796 1.000 0.395 0.765
TMC 26 0.462 0.305 0.273 1.000 0.538 0.695 0.727 0.000 0.482 0.418 0.407 1.000 0.577
TMC 27 0.355 0.036 0.285 0.753 0.645 0.964 0.715 0.247 0.437 0.342 0.412 0.669 0.465
11
 12

Table 6: Grey relational generation, grey relational coefficients, and grey relational grade for different trial runs at 28 days.
Grey relational generations Δ0i Grey relational coefficients
Grey
Runs Aggregate Aggregate Crushing Aggregate Aggregate Crushing Aggregate Aggregate Crushing relational
Water Water Water
impact crushing strength of impact crushing strength of impact crushing strength of grade (ci)
absorption absorption absorption
value value pellets value value pellets value value pellets
TMC 1 0.132 0.058 0.092 0.167 0.868 0.942 0.908 0.833 0.366 0.347 0.355 0.375 0.361
TMC 2 0.431 0.602 0.475 0.117 0.569 0.398 0.525 0.883 0.468 0.557 0.488 0.362 0.468
TMC 3 0.268 0.394 0.239 0.333 0.732 0.606 0.761 0.667 0.406 0.452 0.397 0.429 0.421
TMC 4 0.000 0.149 0.000 0.222 1.000 0.851 1.000 0.778 0.333 0.370 0.333 0.391 0.357
TMC 5 0.637 0.593 0.309 0.000 0.363 0.407 0.691 1.000 0.580 0.551 0.420 0.333 0.471
TMC 6 0.298 0.473 0.088 0.346 0.702 0.527 0.912 0.654 0.416 0.487 0.354 0.433 0.423
TMC 7 0.275 0.000 0.095 0.407 0.725 1.000 0.905 0.593 0.408 0.333 0.356 0.458 0.389
TMC 8 0.420 0.485 0.283 0.080 0.580 0.515 0.717 0.920 0.463 0.493 0.411 0.352 0.430
TMC 9 0.108 0.382 0.176 0.525 0.892 0.618 0.824 0.475 0.359 0.447 0.378 0.513 0.424
TMC 10 0.403 0.340 0.114 0.630 0.597 0.660 0.886 0.370 0.456 0.431 0.361 0.574 0.456
TMC 11 0.098 0.041 0.266 0.469 0.902 0.959 0.734 0.531 0.357 0.343 0.405 0.485 0.397
TMC 12 0.671 0.618 0.554 0.154 0.329 0.382 0.446 0.846 0.603 0.567 0.528 0.372 0.518
TMC 13 0.183 0.485 0.258 0.451 0.817 0.515 0.742 0.549 0.380 0.493 0.402 0.476 0.438
TMC 14 0.251 0.100 0.033 0.346 0.749 0.900 0.967 0.654 0.400 0.357 0.341 0.433 0.383
TMC 15 0.468 0.622 0.540 0.006 0.532 0.378 0.460 0.994 0.484 0.570 0.521 0.335 0.477
TMC 16 0.498 0.602 0.190 0.525 0.502 0.398 0.810 0.475 0.499 0.557 0.382 0.513 0.488
TMC 17 0.149 0.207 0.193 0.290 0.851 0.793 0.807 0.710 0.370 0.387 0.383 0.413 0.388
TMC 18 0.414 0.618 0.423 0.136 0.586 0.382 0.577 0.864 0.460 0.567 0.464 0.367 0.464
TMC 19 0.569 0.813 0.499 0.160 0.431 0.187 0.501 0.840 0.537 0.728 0.499 0.373 0.535
TMC 20 0.424 0.515 0.115 0.660 0.576 0.485 0.885 0.340 0.465 0.507 0.361 0.596 0.482
TMC 21 0.386 0.573 0.188 0.432 0.614 0.427 0.812 0.568 0.449 0.539 0.381 0.468 0.459
TMC 22 1.000 0.946 0.613 0.358 0.000 0.054 0.387 0.642 1.000 0.903 0.564 0.438 0.726
TMC 23 0.786 0.701 0.495 0.920 0.214 0.299 0.505 0.080 0.701 0.626 0.497 0.862 0.671
TMC 24 0.600 0.295 0.153 0.654 0.400 0.705 0.847 0.346 0.556 0.415 0.371 0.591 0.483
TMC 25 0.851 1.000 1.000 0.235 0.149 0.000 0.000 0.765 0.770 1.000 1.000 0.395 0.791
TMC 26 0.736 0.432 0.364 1.000 0.264 0.568 0.636 0.000 0.654 0.468 0.440 1.000 0.641
TMC 27 0.525 0.299 0.351 0.821 0.475 0.701 0.649 0.179 0.513 0.416 0.435 0.736 0.525
Advances in Civil Engineering
 Table 7: Grey relational generation, grey relational coefficients, and grey relational grade for different trial runs at 56 days.
Grey relational generations Δ0i Grey relational coefficients
Grey
Runs Aggregate Aggregate Crushing Aggregate Aggregate Crushing Aggregate Aggregate Crushing relational
Advances in Civil Engineering

Water Water Water

impact crushing strength of impact crushing strength of impact crushing strength of grade (ci)
absorption absorption absorption
value value pellets value value pellets value value pellets
TMC 1 0.106 0.032 0.000 0.163 0.894 0.968 1.000 0.837 0.359 0.341 0.333 0.374 0.352
TMC 2 0.413 0.498 0.511 0.068 0.587 0.502 0.489 0.932 0.460 0.499 0.506 0.349 0.453
TMC 3 0.364 0.330 0.155 0.524 0.636 0.670 0.845 0.476 0.440 0.427 0.372 0.512 0.438
TMC 4 0.099 0.045 0.055 0.143 0.901 0.955 0.945 0.857 0.357 0.344 0.346 0.368 0.354
TMC 5 0.650 0.575 0.202 0.000 0.350 0.425 0.798 1.000 0.588 0.540 0.385 0.333 0.462
TMC 6 0.459 0.516 0.147 0.537 0.541 0.484 0.853 0.463 0.480 0.508 0.370 0.519 0.469
TMC 7 0.173 0.000 0.048 0.469 0.827 1.000 0.952 0.531 0.377 0.333 0.344 0.485 0.385
TMC 8 0.470 0.543 0.242 0.129 0.530 0.457 0.758 0.871 0.485 0.522 0.397 0.365 0.442
TMC 9 0.205 0.385 0.229 0.701 0.795 0.615 0.771 0.299 0.386 0.448 0.394 0.626 0.463
TMC 10 0.438 0.271 0.106 0.735 0.562 0.729 0.894 0.265 0.471 0.407 0.359 0.653 0.472
TMC 11 0.152 0.109 0.167 0.367 0.848 0.891 0.833 0.633 0.371 0.359 0.375 0.441 0.387
TMC 12 0.657 0.525 0.526 0.129 0.343 0.475 0.474 0.871 0.593 0.513 0.513 0.365 0.496
TMC 13 0.191 0.448 0.266 0.524 0.809 0.552 0.734 0.476 0.382 0.475 0.405 0.512 0.444
TMC 14 0.304 0.122 0.150 0.313 0.696 0.878 0.850 0.687 0.418 0.363 0.370 0.421 0.393
TMC 15 0.470 0.566 0.430 0.054 0.530 0.434 0.570 0.946 0.485 0.535 0.467 0.346 0.458
TMC 16 0.611 0.787 0.310 0.578 0.389 0.213 0.690 0.422 0.563 0.702 0.420 0.542 0.557
TMC 17 0.000 0.308 0.302 0.265 1.000 0.692 0.698 0.735 0.333 0.419 0.417 0.405 0.394
TMC 18 0.449 0.525 0.467 0.177 0.551 0.475 0.533 0.823 0.476 0.513 0.484 0.378 0.463
TMC 19 0.611 0.842 0.479 0.095 0.389 0.158 0.521 0.905 0.563 0.759 0.490 0.356 0.542
TMC 20 0.562 0.371 0.220 0.810 0.438 0.629 0.780 0.190 0.533 0.443 0.390 0.724 0.523
TMC 21 0.378 0.348 0.183 0.401 0.622 0.652 0.817 0.599 0.446 0.434 0.380 0.455 0.429
TMC 22 1.000 1.000 0.653 0.449 0.000 0.000 0.347 0.551 1.000 1.000 0.590 0.476 0.766
TMC 23 0.724 0.729 0.606 0.939 0.276 0.271 0.394 0.061 0.645 0.648 0.559 0.891 0.686
TMC 24 0.576 0.407 0.307 0.707 0.424 0.593 0.693 0.293 0.541 0.458 0.419 0.631 0.512
TMC 25 0.880 0.977 1.000 0.320 0.120 0.023 0.000 0.680 0.806 0.957 1.000 0.424 0.797
TMC 26 0.845 0.611 0.462 1.000 0.155 0.389 0.538 0.000 0.763 0.562 0.482 1.000 0.702
TMC 27 0.604 0.321 0.529 0.864 0.396 0.679 0.471 0.136 0.558 0.424 0.515 0.786 0.571
13
14 Advances in Civil Engineering

Table 8: Grey relational grade with respect to combined factors at various ages.
Grey relational grade
Factor Curing ages Maximum value–minimum value Rank
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Na2O content (%) 0.421 0.439 0.559 0.138 2
SiO2/Na2O ratio 0.446 0.481 0.493 0.047 6
Water content (%) 0.486 0.491 0.443 0.048 4
Speed of pelletizing disc (RPM) 14 days 0.478 0.452 0.489 0.037 7
Angle of pelletizing disc (°) 0.505 0.461 0.453 0.051 3
Duration of pelletization (min) 0.460 0.456 0.504 0.048 4
Curing regime 0.405 0.551 0.464 0.146 1
Na2O content (%) 0.416 0.445 0.590 0.175 1
SiO2/Na2O ratio 0.455 0.492 0.504 0.049 4
Water content (%) 0.497 0.509 0.446 0.062 3
Speed of pelletizing disc (RPM) 28 days 0.501 0.452 0.499 0.049 4
Angle of pelletizing disc (°) 0.504 0.481 0.466 0.038 6
Duration of pelletization (min) 0.484 0.469 0.499 0.030 7
Curing regime 0.416 0.542 0.494 0.126 2
Na2O content (%) 0.424 0.451 0.614 0.190 1
SiO2/Na2O ratio 0.455 0.505 0.530 0.076 3
Water content (%) 0.513 0.523 0.453 0.070 4
Speed of pelletizing disc (RPM) 56 days 0.512 0.466 0.512 0.047 5
Angle of pelletizing disc (°) 0.519 0.493 0.478 0.041 6
Duration of pelletization (min) 0.491 0.482 0.517 0.034 7
Curing regime 0.420 0.542 0.528 0.123 2

coefficients (GRC) plays a vital role in grey relational role in geopolymerisation and pelletization process, it is ob-
analysis, which correlates the desired and actual obtained served that higher GRG is observed for 20% of water content
results. The GRC was calculated by using equation (4) and (level 2).
computed GRC are presented in Tables 5–7 with respect to The level of significance of each individual factor is esti-
different trial runs at different curing ages. mated through difference of maximum and minimum values.
Δmin + ψΔmax It is ranked according to the higher differences in the values of
ξ i (k) � , (4) Grey relational grade and is presented in Table 8. From the
Δ0i (k) + ψΔmax
table, based on the rank given in the grey relational analysis for
where Δ0i � ‖x0 (k) − xi (k)‖ is the difference of the absolute the geopolymerisation factors, it clearly indicates that the
value between x0(k) and xi(k) and Δmax and curing regime and higher Na2O content have major role in the
Δmin � maximum and minimum values of the absolute aggregates production at early ages. However, the higher Na2O
differences of all comparing sequences, respectively. ψ is a content plays significant role in improving the engineering
distinguishing coefficient (0 ≤ ψ ≤ 1) and in the present properties of the produced aggregates. Further, it is observed
study, ψ � 0.5 is taken. that curing regime rank is changed since solution curing of
The Grey relational grade (GRG) ci is calculated using produced aggregates has improved overall engineering prop-
equation (5) and presented in Tables 5–7 at various curing erties of aggregates at later ages. It is clear that, in the fly ash
ages. If the Grey relational grade is higher it signifies a aggregate production with alkaline solution, Na2O content,
stronger relational degree between the investigated trial run curing regime, and SiO2/Na2O ratio play major role in the rate
and the ideal sequence. of geopolymerisation of fly ash. Further, the GRG for factors of
pelletization such as speed of pelletizing disc, angle of pellet-
1 n izing disc, and duration of pelletization has relatively less in-
ci � 􏽘 AP(k)ξ i (k), (5)
n k�1 fluence as compared to the factors of geopolymerisation such as
Na2O content, SiO2/Na2O ratio, water content, and curing
where n � number of process responses. regime in the production of artificial aggregates. However,
The GRG was computed for individual factors with respect water content plays a prominent and dual role in geo-
to combined factors and the values of GRG are presented in polymerisation process and pelletization which acts as a me-
Table 8. From Table 8, it is observed that the highest GRG dium in the process.
among the geopolymerisation factors is 6% of Na2O content
(level 3) followed by curing regime–heat curing (level 2) and 0.5 5. Discussion
of SiO2/Na2O ratio (level 3) and among the pelletization factors
the highest GRG is observed for angle of pelletization disc (level The response indices of individual properties of aggregates
1) and followed by 18 minutes of duration of pelletization (level from Figures 4 to 7 and combined effect in the grey relational
3) and speed of pelletization disc at 50 RPM (level 3). Whereas analysis from Table 8 clearly show that higher Na2O content,
water content is the important factor which plays important higher SiO2/Na2O ratio, and heat curing have significant
Advances in Civil Engineering 15

influence on the properties of APFA aggregates due to Conflicts of Interest

higher rate of geopolymerisation [15, 24]. Whereas the heat
curing of aggregates increased the water absorption in the The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
aggregates, solution curing has significantly improved water
absorption in the aggregates which can be observed in the Authors’ Contributions
response indices in Figure 7, which corresponds to the
higher degree of geopolymerisation of fly ash particles on the The manuscript has been read and approved by all authors.
surface of the aggregates [10, 15, 24]. On the other hand,
response indices of individual aggregates properties with
different pelletization factors observed in Figures 4 to 7 and References
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