The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3.

April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
The Eurasia Studies Society Journal, Vol.2. No.3. April 2013.
1

Khazar Studies locked between scarcity of Research

Sources and Contemporary Policy Concerns.

Farda Asadov
(Visiting Research Scholar, Near Eastern Studies, Princeton University, USA)

The Khazar Turks established an early medieval era state-the Khazar Khaganate 1 -and is
generally discussed as one of the longest surviving ‘empires’ in the history of Eurasian nomadic
peoples. 2 The majority of scholars consider the Khazar Khaganate as a continuation of the
Western Turkic Khaganate tradition after its disintegration and final collapse circa 631-658 AD.
In the available primary sources the linking event between two state chronologies is the rule of
the offspring of the Ashina (Ansa) dynasty of the Western Turkic Khaganate in Khazaria.3 We
should, however, notice that Vladimir Monorsky, the translator of the original Persian text into
English, later confessed to having a hesitation due to the confusion about the term Khazar ruler
(shad) and the origin of the Ashina dynasty. 4 Nevertheless, besides the textual analysis, the
scholars of Khazar studies collected a number of historical comparisons of khagan institutions

‘Khazar king or rulОr’ is translated as khagan.

1
2
A map showing the territory of the Khazar realm, Kharazia, circa 850 AD is available here: Bibliotecapleyades.net.
http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/imagenes_sociopol/khazar03_01.jpg accessed 21 March 2013.
3
Hudud Al-Alam. The Regions of the World : A Persian Geography 372 A.H.-982 A.D, trans. V.Minorsky
([London]1937)., p. 162.
4
V. Minorsky, "Addenda to the ḤuНūН Al-'ĀlКm," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University
of London 17, no. 2 (1955)., p. 260.
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
which allow us to understand the dynastic transfer from the Western Turkic Khaganate to the
2
Khazars.5

Disagreements exist about the date of the demise of the Turkic Khaganate. This debate
originates in the discrepancy about the dating of two important milestones in the history of
nomadic states in the region: (1) the end date of the Western Turkic Khaganate and (2) the
starting date of independent rule by the Khazar Khagan. In my opinion the date could be more
precisely set by those scholars who accept Khazar khagans as descendants of the Ashina dynasty.
This has been discussed by Russian historian Mikhail Artamonov, who persuasively argued that
the Ashina dynasty offspring could not get the title of Khazar khagan before the final defeat in
Central Asia and the last khagan, presumably, Irbis Shegui-Khagan in 651 AD.6

Thus the emergence of the Khazar state coincided with two significant events in the
history of the Middle East and Eurasia–the fall of the Western Turkish Khaganate (552-651 AD)
and the rise of Arab-Muslim Caliphate, which had started advancing northwards and the
eastwards after the notable military defeat of the Persian Sassanid army at Nehavend in 642 AD.
Arabs superseded the Persian Sassanid ‘superpower’ in the region and were even more
ambitious, going beyond the borderlands of Persian empire. The Arab vis-a-vis China resulted in
the battle of Talas in 751 AD, when the Chinese expansion was set back as the Islamic
civilization expanded and started converting the peoples of Central Asia (the Turkic nomads and
the Iranian sedentary population). The Arab struggle in the north with Khazaria was tense. Since
the Arab advancement until the end of eighth century ferocious confrontations presumably
brought to a stand by peace treaties made the enemies into ‘ОМonomiМ partners’; especially in a
lucrative international trade on Silk Road routes. Stability and abundant incomes from the trade
routes made the Khazar Khaganate a powerful state, keeping in check borderlands incursions
from nomads incursions. Three major superpowers delimited between themselves the zones of

5
Peter B. Golden, Khazar Studies : An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars, 2 vols.,
Bibliotheca Orientalis Hungarica (Budapest: Akadâemiai Kiadâo, 1980).,Vol. I, p. 220.
6
. . ,И яХ .( :Э , 1962; rОpr., 2002)., p. 171.
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
influences in Eurasia and the Middle East: the Muslim Caliphate, the Christian Byzantine
3
emperor, and the king of Khazaria. At this time the latter professed the ancient Turkic religion of
Tengri.

Missionaries armed sent by monotheistic Abrahamic doctrines from both Byzantium and
Caliphate rulers inevitably worked to promote their beliefs and values amongst the indigenous
population of Eurasian steppe lands. We have a report about famous Constantine the
PСilosopСОr’s mission in 861 AD,7 and at least evidence of two Muslim missions to the Khazars,
both taking place under the caliphate of Al-Wasiq (842-847 AD), that is to say, a little bit earlier
than emperor ConstКntinО’s mission.8

There were supposedly intensive religious debates in Khazaria between adherents of

Christianity and Islam, triggering the creation of so called ‘religious choice legends’ about the
KСКгКr’s ОvОntuКl МonvОrsion to JuНКism. Whatever was the reality of those disputes it was
evident that the ruler in Khazaria had made the decision to adopt Judaism. He was influenced by
the Jewish community and merchants living in Khazaria and most importantly by Khazar ОlitО’s
own political will to sustain themselves against the ideology of their Christian and Islamic
counterparts, and to constitute a third conversion alternative.9 It was noticed that the growth of
nomadic states and their domination over the sedentary population generated a demand to adopt
one or another of the regional established universal religions. Why? Perhaps vernacular beliefs
provided a divine mandate to conquer and rule, but could not serve for the needs of empire
building, which embraced numerous ethnic groups, nomads and settler communities.10

7
Constantin Zuckerman, "On the Date of the Khazars' Conversion to Judaism and the Chronology of the Kings of
the Rus Oleg and Igor. A Study of the Anonymous Khazar Letter from the Genizah of Cairo," Revue des études
byzantines 53, no. 1 (1995)., pp. 242-243.
8
Golden, Khazar Studies : An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars., p. 77.
9
,И яХ . .p. 264.
10
Peter B. Golden et al., The World of the Khazars : New Perspectives, Handbook of Oriental Studies = Handbuch
Der Orientalistik Section Eight, Central Asia, (Leiden ; Boston,: Brill, 2007)., p. 123.
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
Thus we might say that the emergence of the Khazar state established in mid-seventh
4
century (600 AD) by people of an ethnic Turkic origin, and had adopted Judaism, contested the
two neighbouring superpowers: the Muslim Caliphate and the Christian emperor of Byzantium.
However, this was soon followed by the disintegration and disappearance of the Khazar state.
And this left behind an enigma of the ‘Jewish Khazars’, their heritage and descendants. These
are still debated issues within the context of Khazar history. Such ‘historical mysteries’ inМluНО
speculations of later generations. And quite consequently the history of the Khazar state
continued to be subject to clashing interests throughout history and international policy planning.

A few examples can demonstrate how closely related to contemporary challenges the
history of the Khazars is, and how controversially it is interpreted by different groups of scholars
and political actors. It is worthwhile starting from the Israeli scholarship perspective as they
might be more interested in insightful research of the early adherents of Judaism from people of
non-Jewish ethnic origins. However, on the other side, the fact of the adoption of Judaism by an
ethnic Turkic people apparently generated a kind of contradiction with the dominating Rabbinic
doctrine of Judaism that does not provide for the possibility of Jewish proselytism. That is why
until recent times Jewish scholarship has only approached the issue of Khazar Judaism from the
view point of theological debates with Christian and Moslem opponents and also the internal
dogmatic contest with Karaite doctrine, which only accepts the authority of Tanakh (Biblical
texts) and do not consider themselves bound by oral traditions and their written sources of
Mishnah and Talmud.

The above mentioned tradition of Jewish scholarship starts with celebrated Jewish
scholar of Middle Ages, born in Muslim Spain in 1075 AD just 100 years after the extinction of
the Khazar Khaganate. Judah Halevi wrote his book Kitab al-Khazari in Arabic, in which he
argues against religious opponents of Rabbinistic Judaism in the form of theological dispute
arranged by a legendary Khazar khagan. The book was translated into Hebrew, and in 1905 AD
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
an English translation from Arabic version was published.11 This has influenced the views of
5
Jewish scholarship of Khazar Judaism and the history of the Khazars. Only after the
establishment of the Israeli state after the Second World War was there a gradual and growing
interest in the history of the Khazar Turks. The first international Khazar colloquium hosted by
the Ben Zvi Institute in Tel-Aviv, 1999 was an important milestone for Israeli scholars of Khazar
studies. Haggai ben Shammai, one of organizers of the colloquium, in his opening remarks
recognized that Khazar studies had not received much attention in Israel, and for a number of
reasons Jewish scholarship was focused upon ВОСuНК HКlОvi’s Лook tСКt аКs аrittОn soon КПtОr
the end of Khazaria.12 Indeed in the following decades the Israeli authorities sponsored a number
of initiatives in Khazar studies such as conferences, publications and development of web
resources.

Curiously enough the above mentioned Karaite Jewish scholarship has been most
enthusiastic in the promotion of Khazar studies. Karaite scholar and community leader Abraham
Firkovich (1787-1874 AD) was an eminent collector of Jewish literature and the person who
found and presented the so called complete edition of Khazar KinР JosОpС’s lОttОr to KСКsНКi iЛn
Shaprut, the Jewish vazir of the Umayyad rulers in Muslim Spain. The letter is the lengthiest
narration preserved as an primary source concerning the Khazars. In the historical turbulences of
emerging anti-Semitism in Russia and Europe, Karaites turned to Khazar heritage to separate
themselves from the other Jewish communities and justify their early coming to the land of
‘Russia’. AММorНinР to FirkoviМС’s theory, the Khazars were not Rabbinic, but Karaite Jews and
their ‘glory’ was an evidence of historical presence and magnificence of Karaite Judaism in
Eurasia and Europe.13 Schlolars of both Karaite and even of non-Jewish origin further developed
the assumption of the Khazar roots of Jewish community in Eastern Europe into a
comprehensive concept of non-Semite ancestry of Eastern European Jewry, particularly in
Poland and Germany. That was also an argument to escape the tragedy of Holocaust under the

11
Judah and Hartwig Hirschfeld, Sefer Ha-Kuzari = Book of Kuzari (New York: Pardes Pub. House, 1946). This is
the reprint of the year 1905 publication.
12
Golden et al., The World of the Khazars : New Perspectives., p. 5.
13
Mikhaylova D. Kizilov M., "The Khazar Kaganate and the Khazars in European Natinalist Ideologies and
Scholarships," Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 14(2005)., pp. 37-38.
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
Nazi occupation. Well known Jewish scholar Abraham Poliak has made the theory of non-
6
Semite roots of European Jewry a central place in his post-war monograph published in Hebrew
in Israel in 1948.14

PoliКk’s Лook аКs not ОntСusiКstiМКllв КММОptОН in IsrКОl, but it did well amongst Arab
nationalists and their views about Palestinian historical rights on the land of Palestine. If one
accepts that the majority of European Jews are not of Semite origin, but descendants of the
Khazar Turks, the considerable part of the Israeli population should have no rights for the
settlement in Palestine in spite of their arguments. And it is not surprising then, that these type of
arguments are found on the internet as part of the ideological struggle.15 This topic continues
attracting Muslim scholars nowadays.16

On the other hand, the assumption of Khazar Turkish ancestry has got more popularity
and acceptance in post 1945 European Jewry. The limits of this space do not allow me to present
the key sources of such scholarship. However the best samples belong to widely known work by
British Jewish author Arthur Koestler17 and the American writer and the scholar Kevin Brook.18
Curiously enough the development of DNA testing research brought about outcomes which
might be interpreted in favour of the Eurasian (Khazar) roots of the East European Jews. E.
Elhaik has come to the conclusion that the genome of European Jews is a tapestry of ancient
populations including Judaized Khazars, Greco–Roman Jews, Mesopotamian Jews, and Judeans
and their population structure was formed in the Caucasus and the banks of the Volga with roots

14
Ibid., pp. 43-44.
15
Here are some such examples: Gog and Magog and the Kingdom of Khazars:
http://www.apfn.org/thewinds/library/khazars.html; Yajuj and Majuj. Excerpted from the New World Order by
AhmadThomson. Copyright 1994. http://www.islamawareness.net/Yajuj/gog.html;
16
‫ ع د العزيز محمد علي‬،‫عامر‬. and ‫ تأليف ع د العزيز عامر‬/ ‫ شع ا ليس من بني إسرائيل التوراتيين‬: ‫ إسرائيل لة ال زر المت و في فلسطين‬.
ДIsr l НКаlКС Кl-KСКгКr Кl-mutКСКааiНКС Пi FilКs n : sСК ЛuС lКвsК min Кn Isr l Кl- Каr t в n (Кl- СirКС:
КktКЛКt JКг rКt Кl-Ward: 2011 , . ‫ مكتلة جزير الور‬: ‫)القاهر‬., p. 21.
17
Arthur Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe : The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage (London: Hutchinson, 1976).
18
Kevin Alan Brook, The Jews of Khazaria, 2nd ed. (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006); The Jews of
Khazaria (Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1999).
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
stretching to Canaan and the banks of the Jordan.19 Unfortunately such research has not been
7
completed by scholars, partly because of a lack of historical knowledge, or relevant linguistic
and social science understanding. However the outcomes of their efforts require further research
by the academics of Khazar studies and the history of Eastern European Jewry. The first
responses to E. ElСКik’s puЛliМКtion СКvО already come out, indeed from his colleague, a genetics
expert.20

In the Republic of Turkey the interest in the Khazars was associated with particular
political situations, for example, in the early twentieth century at the dawn of Turkish
nationalism, and after the 1990s, when the breakdown of the Soviet Union gave a birth to shared
ethnic aspirations of the Turkic nations of Central Asia and Azerbaijan. The uniqueness of the
Azerbaijani situation was the traditional historiography in this Turkic country was used to
oppose the overwhelming trend of neighboring Armenia scholarship which asserted the
Armenian origins of the heritage of Caucasian Albania21–the country and the state located on the
territory of contemporary Azerbaijan since presumably the second century BC and continued in
existence almost to the Arab conquest in mid seventh century AD. Arab advancement in the
Caucasus faced Khazar Khaganate as a form of organised resistance. Local rulers were
maneuvering between contesting powers. And concepts of national identity and historiography
during the Soviet time and after independence in 1991 were about the sufficiency of Albanian
statehood. However the Azerbaijani scholar Ziya Bunyadov postulated a view point of almost
complete Khazar control over the Albanian lands through almost 150 years since the first clashes

19
Eran Elhaik, "The Missing Link of Jewish European Ancestry: Contrasting the Rhineland and the Khazarian
Hypotheses," Genome biology and evolution 5, no. 1 (2013)., p. 73.
20
Danielle Venton, "Highlight: Out of Khazaria--Evidence for "Jewish Genome" Lacking," ibid., pp. 75-76.
21
Rulers of the Caucasian Albanians–tribes of the Caucasian origin that inhabited the territory of contemporary
Azerbaijan-adopted Christianity in fourth century. The language of Albanians has left actually no monuments except
a few inscriptions still not sufficiently deciphered. The Arab conquest promoted the adoption of Islam and
consequent enlargement of the significance of first Arabic, then Persian and Turkic languages. The remnants of the
Christian population of Albania started getting assimilated mostly by Armenians, although a small community of
Albanian descendants still survived in the north-west of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijani and Armenian national scholarships
are contesting about the existence of Albanian identity and literature. While Armenian scholars assert the common
origin and traditions for both Albanians and Armenians, Azerbaijani scholarship stands for the independent ethnicity
and heritage.
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
with Arabs. 22 This did not comply with either Soviet or post Soviet priorities of nation-state
8
construction and history of Azerbaijan, and it contradicted the dominating approaches of Soviet
Russian historiography of the Khazars.

Khazar history has been closely related with the history of Eastern Slavic statehood and
more precisely the history of Kievan Rus. Considerable academic literature exist concerning
their interrelationship and in a wide range of the Khazar origins of Kiev23 to a denial of any role
the Khazars could have played in the history of early Russian State. It is not possible to provide a
survey of vast academic literature, which has started emerging in Russia since first publications
of nineteenth century.24 There always used to be two trends in Russian studies of Khazar history,
firstly, a purely academic one which aimed to collect and analyse written sources, and introduce
the findings of archaeological excavations, and the politicized responses to a discourse of the
Khazars’ rolО in tСО Сistorв. AmonР the works from the first group, the frequently cited
monograph by Mikhail Artamonov should be mentioned as the founding work of contemporary
Soviet Russian historiography of the Khazars. However his work was affected by the pressure of
political leadership as well, which later was disclosed by his student and colleague in the second
edition of his History of Khazars. 25 The latest comprehensive research of the history of the
Khazars in Russian scholarship belongs to A.P. Novosleltsev, and his review of the past studies.
But even at the time of its publication he could not reconcile all controversies of Russian
historiography of the Khazars.26

22
я . ., " яХ Vii-Viii ," И яА А . ,
я щ e , no. №1 (1961)., p. 22-24.
23
Ju. Brutzkus (Bruckus), "The Khazar Origins of Ancient Kiev " Slavonic and East European review, no. May
1944.
24
Part of Russian and international literature about the history of Khazars could be found here: . . .
я Х (A.A. Astaykin, Bibliographiya po istorii Khazarii)
http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/Rest/rest0600.htm accessed 18 March 2013
25
. . ,И яХ , . 2. ОН., Э ( - :
Э ( я) 2002)., p. 16.
26
. . ц ,Х ИЕ И ч Е ИК ( :
" ", 1990).
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
The second trend in Russian literature has got a fresh breath due to the growing
9
nationalist aspirations in contemporary Russia, somewhat closely associated with Orthodox
Church. It considers the relationship between ancient Russia and Khazaria as a struggle between
Christianity and Judaism, good and evil. 27 In general one can sum up that political groups,
movements, or ethnic entities which have strived to challenge the Russian domination in the
south and south-east of the Eurasian territory, used to declare their links with Khazars and
emphasize the domination of Khazaria over the early Russian state. Some related concepts and
views of Russian scholarship and political movements in Russia have been reviewed in a special
article.28 A special niche in Russian historiography of Khazars is occupied by Russian historian
L.N. Gumilev. While having been a contributor to the struggle against prejudices concerning
nomadic people and states in the history of Eurasia, he has been limited, and influenced by
circumstances and anti-Israel rhetoric of the Soviet political space. His view points to the history
of the Khazar statehood and its role in the history Eurasia and are scattered in a considerable
number of his publications, but most comprehensively were solidified in his book The Ancient
Russia and the Great Steppe. The role of Judaism and the KСКгКrs’, and the adoption of the
Judaism by the Khazars were presented as a negative factor in the development of ‘nomadic
statehood’ and the relationship of Khazaria with their neighbours.29

The subject of political circumstances and the environment, in which the Khazar studies
have always been developed and have ended up until now in the twenty-first century has
produced a specialist field of study.30 The well respected expert of Khazar studies, Peter Golden
shared a sobering reflection about specifics of Khazar studies with his readers: ‘Any presentation
of the achievements of Khazar studies, I might add, is necessarily idiosyncratic, inevitably

27
Po materialam trekh nauchno-prakticheskikh konferentsiy. Velikii knyaz Svyatoslav. Razgrom Khazar. M., 2006,
pp. 69-71, 83-85.
28
Kizilov M., "The Khazar Kaganate and the Khazars in European Natinalist Ideologies and Scholarships."
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 14 (2005): pp. 31-53.
29
. . . яя я (L.N. Gumilev. Drevnyaya Rus i Velikaya Step). , 1989.
30
Ш . ., Х :И я ч ИЕ И .
( : - ш , 2012).; Kizilov M., "The Khazar Kaganate and the Khazars in European
Natinalist Ideologies and Scholarships."
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
reflecting personal interests, languages, political and cultural education etc.’31 Responding to
10
this well-known concern, the two Russian scholars, it was suggested that in the twenty-first
century when totalitarian regimes fade away ‘Khazar Studies will be less subjected to ideological
pressure of political currents.’ 32 Indeed what the historiography of Khazars lacked was the
respectful and careful insight into their heritage without the interests of political contestation
taking place. And this can only happen when the historiography puts value upon human needs
and wants in the centre of the research project, as a democratic alternative to the interests of
political elites and ideologies.

Works Cited

Brook, Kevin Alan. The Jews of Khazaria. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.
———. The Jews of Khazaria. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1999.
Brutzkus (Bruckus), Ju. "The Khazar Origins of Ancient Kiev ". Slavonic and East European review, no.
May 1944 (pp. 108-24.
Elhaik, Eran. "The Missing Link of Jewish European Ancestry: Contrasting the Rhineland and the
Khazarian Hypotheses." Genome biology and evolution 5, no. 1 (2013): 61-74.
Golden, Peter B. Khazar Studies : An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars.
Bibliotheca Orientalis Hungarica. 2 vols Budapest: Akadâemiai Kiadâo, 1980.
Golden, Peter B., Haggai Ben-Shammai, Andrâas Râona-Tas, and Mekhon Ben-Tsevi le-òheòker òkehilot
Yiâsra®el ba-Mizraòh. The World of the Khazars : New Perspectives. Handbook of Oriental
Studies = Handbuch Der Orientalistik Section Eight, Central Asia,. Leiden ; Boston,: Brill, 2007.
Hudud Al-Alam. The Regions of the World : A Persian Geography 372a.H.-982 A.D. Translated by
V.Minorsky. [London]1937.
Judah, and Hartwig Hirschfeld. Sefer Ha-Kuzari = Book of Kuzari. New York: Pardes Pub. House, 1946.
Kizilov M., Mikhaylova D. . "The Khazar Kaganate and the Khazars in European Natinalist Ideologies
and Scholarships." Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 14 (2005): pp. 31-53.
Koestler, Arthur. The Thirteenth Tribe : The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage. London: Hutchinson, 1976.
Minorsky, V. "Addenda to the Ḥudūd Al-'Āla ." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies,
University of London 17, no. 2 (1955): 250-70.
P.B., Golden. "Khazar Studies: Achievements and Perspectives." In The World of the Khazars: New
Perspectives. Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium Hosted
by the Ben Zvi Institute. , 7-57. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
Venton, Danielle. "Highlight: Out of Khazaria--Evidence for "Jewish Genome" Lacking." Genome biology
and evolution 5, no. 1 (2013): 75-76.

31
Golden P.B., "Khazar Studies: Achievements and Perspectives," in The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives.
Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium Hosted by the Ben Zvi Institute.
(Leiden: Brill, 2007)., p. 12.
32
Kizilov M., "The Khazar Kaganate and the Khazars in European Natinalist Ideologies and Scholarships.", p. 53.
 The Eurasia Studies Society Journal Vol.2. No.3. April 2013
© The Eurasia Studies Society, 2013. All Rights Reserved.
Zuckerman, Constantin. "On the Date of the Khazars' Conversion to Judaism and the Chronology of the
Kings of the Rus Oleg and Igor. A Study of the Anonymous Khazar Letter from the Genizah of 11
Cairo." Revue des études byzantines 53, no. 1 (1995): 237-70.
т о о , . . И то я Х [i Su ary a d added ta le of o te ts i й glish.]. Кл к
Э т . д. . ed. кт- ете у : о уд т е Э т о я .
———. И то я Х . [i Russia ]. Ле д: Э т , 96 . . 96 .
. ., Ш ел . Х к : Идеоло я ол т че ко о д к л о И Ее
И ток . о к : о т кул ту - еш , .
. ., у ято . "О Дл тел о т е яХ л Vii-Viii ." И е т я А А . ,
е я о ще т e ук, o. № 96 : . -34.
о о ел це , . . Х кое о уд т о И Е о ол И то о точ о Е оп И К к .
о к : " ук ", 99 .
‫ ع د العزيز محمد‬،‫ عامر‬,.‫علي‬, and / ‫ شع ا ليس من بني إسرائيل التوراتيين‬: ‫إسرائيل لة ال زر المت و في فلسطين‬
‫ تأليف ع د العزيز عامر‬. [ sr l da lah al-ыha ar al- utaha idah fi нilas : sha uh laysa i
a sr l al- a r t y ]. al- hirah: a ta at a rat al-Ward: , . ‫ مكتلة جزير الور‬: ‫القاهر‬.