Chapter 1

What is communism? Communism is the belief that a country’s wealth should be fairly
distributed amongst all its people so that there will be no very poor people or very rich
people…
Communism works well for the poor, but not for the rich, it works well for those who do not
work hard but does for those who work hard.

Communism has been around for hundreds of years, Karl Marx of Germany, with his friend
Friedrich Engels, thought up the idea of communism and published The Communism
Manifesto in 1848. Their slogan was “Workers of the world unite! You have nothing to lose
but your chains!”

Marx believed that there were two classes of people in each industrialised country: the
bourgeoisie (bosses who owned means of production and employed workers) and the
proletariat (those who worked for the bourgeoisie and earned low wages while the
bourgeoisie earned high).

Marx also believed that the bourgeoisie would overthrow their rulers and eventually bring
in democracy (1st revolution), however, the two classes were bound to clash and the
proletariat would emerge victorious and overthrow their bosses. The proletariat would then
seize the entire country’s wealth and equally redistribute it throughout the country, Marx
predicted that the bourgeoisie would then disappear resulting in a classless society, he said
there’d be no need for a ruling state any longer and this would then eventually lead to the
country officially becoming a communist state.

Lenin’s Interpretation of Marxism:

Vladimir Lenin (Founder of the Soviet Russian Movement)
More than 80% of the Russian population was peasants, revolution could not be achieved by
the proletariat alone, and peasants would have to join in if the Tsarist government was to be
overthrown.
Following the revolution, the state would control the wealth and supervise its wealth under
the “proletariat dictatorship.” Eventually, the USSR came around.
Chapter 2

In the late 19th century, Russia still had a political and social structure, it was ruled by the
Tsar, who was also supported by the Russian Orthodox church. At this stage, more than 85%
of the population were still peasants.
Peasants were forced to pay heavy taxes, forced to do military services, allowed land
owners to beat them and also were banned from leaving the country without a passport.
1861 is when the slaves were officially emancipated, this meant that they could own
businesses, buy land and be free in general. They were, however, forced to pay heavy
redemption taxes. By 1900 the proletariat numbered around 3 mil out of 130 mil in the
population (2%).

The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905):

The two sides were competing for land in the Far East (Manchuria and Korea). Russia
suffered major defeats on both land at sea, this made the government very unpopular.
Liberals demanded a change in constitution.

Chapter 3

The Revolution of 1905:

On Sunday 9 January 1905, a priest, Georgi Gapon, led thousands in a peaceful protest
outside the Winter Palace in St Petersburg to bring their economic concerns to the Tsar.
Many were killed after troops attacked the protestors, this day was known as Bloody
Sunday, it marked the beginning of the 1905 revolution.
In August 1905, the Tsarist regime was more relaxed after peace was made with Japan after
signing the Treaty of Portsmouth. Troops could now be brought back by railroad to
strengthen the state.
In October 1905, Tsar Nicholas II signed the October Manifesto, a promise to allow a
nationally elected parliament. With this, most liberals withdrew from the revolution and
prepared for elections.
In October the St Petersburg Soviet was set up, with Leon Trotsky as a prominent member.
In December the police closed the party down.
In April 1906 the government issued the Fundamental Law, Autocracy was still the main
form of government. The Tsar decided to dissolve the two main parties as they were
uncooperative.

Trotsky’s Role:
After Bloody Sunday, Trotsky returned to Russia from exile, he soon joined the St Petersburg
Soviet and was elected chairman. In December of 1905 he was arrested and deported to
Siberia, but then later escaped back to Russia. He joined the Bolsheviks in October 1917 and
was again elected the chairman of the Petrograd (St Petersburg) Soviet, during his time
away, he decided on the idea that all countries should follow the same communist and the
same proletariat revolutionistic ways.

Influence on Lenin’s Revolutionary Theory:

During the revolution of 1905, Lenin moved between Finland and Russia in an unsuccessful
attempt to influence the course of events, while escaping arrest.
Some of the main lessons Lenin learnt during the course of the revolution were:
- That the proletariat should take the lead in revolution.
- That the Bolsheviks should lead the proletariat as their ‘vanguard’.
- That the peasants need to be involved in order to achieve revolutionary success.

World War I:
In August 1914, WWI broke out. Russia fought alongside France and Britain against Germany
and Austria-Hungary. There was a large sense of patriotism, but this soon faded when Russia
suffered heavy losses by 1915 in which they lost 4 million people.
In August 1915, Tsar Nicholas II decided to personally take control of the army himself. This
meant that he would be away for a long time leaving his German-born wife, Alexandra, in
charge of the government. She soon came under the influence of Rasputin (assassinated in
1916 by Russian nobles), a so-called holy man who somehow had the power to control his
soon haemophilia. Alexandra appointed unsuitable people to control the government,
which made the Russian population even more dissatisfied.
Ordinary people, both peasants and workers suffered greatly for the following reasons:
- Inflation.
- Food Shortages.
- Fuel Shortages.

The February 1917 Revolution:

On 23 Feb 1917, women came out to the streets of Petrograd in a march to commemorate
Women’s Day. They were joined by striking metalworkers and female textile workers. The
process continued for two more days.
On the 26th, the Tsar ordered troops to open fire on the crowds and many were killed. The
Tsar dissolved the Duma but the Duma set up a temporary committee to watch
developments, on the 27th the demonstrations turned into a revolution when many troops
sided with the people. There was said to be no named organization behind it.
On the same day, the Petrograd Soviet set up an executive committee and on March 1 it
issued Order Number One which put troops under its direct command.
On 2 March the Duma’s temporary committee set up a “Provisional Government”, on the
same day the Tsar abdicated in favour of his brother, Grand Duke Michael, who refused the
post, this meant that for the first time in 300 years, Russia was without a Romanov Tsar.

Causes of the February Revolution:

- Political Causes: After the reforms of 1905, the Tsar was still an autocratic monarch.
Duma’s elected after 1905 were too critical for the Tsar’s liking, so they were
dissolved. Political conditions during WWI made things worse, this was because
Rasputin influenced Tsarina Alexandra to make poor political decisions. Many people
thought of Rasputin and Alexandra’s relationship as disgraceful.

- Economic Causes: Rapid industrial growth brought many workers to the towns
where they suffered from very poor working and living conditions. WWI made things
worse due to inflation on food and fuel which caused shortages.
 - Social Causes: Diversion between different classes in Russia caused ancient
bitterness, The War made the revolution come sooner when ordinary people lost
faith in their government.

The October 1917 Revolution:

In this revolution, the Bolsheviks took power. Two groups were competing with each other
for power, The Petrograd Soviet, and The Temporary Government of the Duma. The Duma’s
government became the “Provisional Government” of Russia, however, they couldn’t
operate fully without the support of the Petrograd Soviet.
The day before the February revolution, the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet
issued Order Number One, instructing all soldiers to set up their own committees, which
were answerable to the Petrograd Soviet rather than the Provisional Government.
This situation known as “Dual Authority”, it made life for the members of the Provisional
Government very difficult, when the foreign minister announced members of the
government, people from the crowd shouted, “who elected you?”. This was awkward as no
one had directly elected them, to make matters worse, the two governmental bodies
occupied the same building, the Tauride Palace.
The Provisional Government introduced many reforms, which made Russia freer than any
other country, even at peace. Trotsky, who was in exile (United States) was allowed back to
Russia, this was perhaps too much freedom and too soon. Russia, mainly Petrograd, became
a political hotbed. This caused the country’s crime rate to soar when peasants seized land
owners’ estates, workers took over factories and soldiers disobeyed their commanding
officers. Inflation shot up, the government continued printing money at their expense and
poverty got worse.
In April of 1917, the Germans allowed Lenin, the Bolshevik leader, back to Russia hoping
that he would cause so much disorder that Russia would withdraw from the war.
When he arrived, Lenin took a completely different approach than the socialists who
believed like Marx. He immediately called for support towards the Provisional Government
to end.
He made the following demands:
- Down with the Provisional Government.
- All Power to the Soviets.
- End the war!
- Land, Peace, and Bread!

These demands were known as Lenin’s Theses, Lenin represented the Bolsheviks as the
party of poor workers and peasants, their support grew significantly. This also caused
support for the Provisional Government to decline. They insisted that land could not be
redistributed until an elected constituent assembly had agreed to it. The election didn’t
happen until November 1917, by which time the Provisional Government was overthrown.
In July 1017 the Russian army launched a new offensive, but the Germans and Austrians
pushed them back with huge losses.
In July, mass demonstrations occurred in Petrograd in protest against living conditions,
troops loyal to the Provisional Government chased protesters away, the government
cracked down on the Bolsheviks, arresting hundreds of them and banning their newspaper.
Lenin escaped to Finland.

In August of 1917, Commander-in-Chief of the army, General Kornilov, marched to

Petrograd to try and restore order but was stopped by striking railroad workers. His actions
were seen as a use of military force to overthrow the government. This caused support for
the Bolsheviks to rise again.
Lenin returned to Petrograd in October and encouraged the Bolsheviks to overthrow the
government.
Trotsky, a member of the Bolshevik party, planned to overthrow the government. The
Bolsheviks took over power and captured many members of the Provisional Government,
except for their leader, Alexander Kerensky, who escaped from the city to gather troops.
On the night of the 25th Lenin announced the formation of a new government in which only
the Bolsheviks could serve. Other socialists such as the Mensheviks and the Social
Revolutionaries marched out of the meeting in protest.

Chapter 4
Russian Civil War:
After the Bolshevik Revolution, many opposition groups appeared in Russia.
Some parts of the Russian Empire, encouraged by Lenin’s Decree on Nationalities, broke
away and formed separate states.

Reasons why Russia lost its allies:

- In November 1917, the Bolshevik government published secret treaties signed by
their allies during the war. These showed that they hoped to gain new territories,
they weren’t only fighting for democracy, but also for land and resources.
 - Bolsheviks refused to repay loans that the Tsarist government borrowed from allied
countries.

- The treaty of Brest-Litovsk took Russia out of the war, this increased the pressure on
the Western Allies. Russia’s old allies became enemies of its new government.

- The main thing that the Bolsheviks stood for was communism, which is something
that the Western Allies stood against.

The above factors resulted in civil war.

There were several phases of the civil war:

- After early resistance was crushed by the Red Army, fighting took place against Social
Revolutionaries, including a Czech army trapped in Russia.

- The next phase of the war was against the Whites (those who stood for old ways)
this was the worst phase which lasted from 1918-1921. Both groups committed
horrific crimes against civilians. The Whites were defeated and driven from Russian
soil even with the power and help of the Allied powers.

- The last phase was against the Greens, armed peasants who stood against the
Bolsheviks. This period ended in 1921.

Why did the communists win the war?

- They had a bigger army. Red Army consisted of 5 million troops.

- Communists controlled the heartland of Russia.

- Communists were committed to their cause.

- The Cheka carried out Red Terror against opponents and deserters.

- Trotsky was a ruthless and dedicated leader.

Why did the Whites lose?

- They relied on help from hated capitalist countries.

- The Whites were separated into smaller armies that had different aims and beliefs.

- Soldiers in the White army lacked commitment.

War Communism
Acute food shortages developed after the Treaty of Brest Litovsk with Germany. Hundreds
of thousands of people left the cities for the countryside in search of food. The Civil War was
becoming far worse, and a change of economic policy was urgently needed.
In May 1918, the government decreed a monopoly on trading grain and sent out requisition
squads to bring back the grain that the Red Army and urban workers needed.
Many peasants resisted the grain requisitioning of 1918 and refused to grow surpluses,
there were very few consumer goods available for them to buy at the time, so they had little
incentive to sell their grain. The crisis continued from 1919-1920, the result was hunger,
starvation, and famine.
In June 1918 the government nationalised all major industries; however, the transport of
goods and raw materials had been totally disrupted by the Civil War. By this time, the
population of Petrograd and Moscow was almost halved.
The government had also placed a ban on private trade and introduced rationing of key
consumer items. The state was, however, unable to enforce these regulations, which led to
the growth of illegal trade. So-called 'bagmen' travelled around the country with consumer
goods. They traded these for foodstuffs, which they sold at extremely high prices in the
towns.
By the end of 1920, the Red Army had virtually won the civil war, but another major crisis
immediately arose for the government. Hundreds of peasant uprisings broke out, as well as
a wave of strikes in the cities. These strikes often turned into mass demonstrations, and
sailors and soldiers joined in.
Famine continued for about 30 years, eventually, 5 million people died of hunger.
In February 1921, the Kronstadt rebellion broke out. The sailors of Kronstadt, who were
committed socialists, demanded:
- an end to communist dictatorship
- new elections
- release of political prisoners
- an end to grain requisitioning.
- freedom of speech, press, and assembly

In 1917, the Kronstadt sailors had played a key role in the revolution. Trotsky called them
'the pride and glory of the Russian Revolution', the same Trotsky was now sent by Lenin to
crush the Kronstadt rebellion. He ordered the sailors to surrender within 24 hours, failing
which the mutineers would be shot like birds, he said. He ordered their families to be
arrested as hostages.
Lenin seizes control of the state:

Not all socialists were Bolsheviks, but they were members of other socialist parties. The
Bolsheviks wanted as many socialists in their party and so they presented their cause to the
All-Russian Congress of Soviets.

Upon taking power of the state, Lenin made the following changes:
- Announced the Decree on Peace, which meant all countries involved in WWI began
negotiations for peace.

- He also introduced the Decree on Land which called for all landowners to give up
their land and distribute it amongst the peasants.

- Abolishment of noble titles (Mr, Mrs, Sir, Ma’am) and introduction to the common
title of “Comrade”.

- In December 1917, the Cheka was set up and operated outside the law, they
rounded up all government opposers and killed them without trial. Labour camps
were also set up for political prisoners.

In November 1917, the Russians finally set up and elected a Constituent Assembly, but the
Bolsheviks won far fewer votes than the Socialist Revolutionaries.
In March of 1918, the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which meant peace with
Germany. Lenin argued that this sacrifice was necessary in order for the Communist state of
Russia to survive.

Stalin’s Russia
Vladimir Lenin died of a stroke in 1924 and it seemed as though Joseph Stalin would be his
obvious successor.
 - Some party members were afraid of Trotsky as they feared he might use the Red
Army to make himself a dictator.
- Lenin opposed Stalin being his successor.

To balance power in the country, 3 men were appointed as leaders of the party:
- Kamenev – Moscow Party Leader
- Zinoviev – Leningrad Party Secretary and President of Comintern
- Stalin – General Secretary of Party.
Trotsky was still the leader of the Red Army.

The overall party was divided about how to proceed:

- Left: Kamenev, Zinoviev, and Trotsky wanted a world revolution and believed on
international communism. They wanted to abandon the New Economic Policy which
was set up by Lenin.

- Right: Stalin mainly belived in strengthening the USSR first and then eventually
proceed to a worldwide revolution. He also stood for the NEP because of the
economic progress it brought.

Stalin sided with the Right as he needed support from the government to defeat his rivals.
He slowly placed his most trusted supporters into key positions in the government.
In 1927 Stalin accused Kamenev and Zinoviev of plotting to overthrow the government.
- They were expelled from the party and Trotsky went into exile.
Stalin then accused the Right of trying to return to capitalism by using the NEP.
- He discredited many on the Right.
By 1928, Stalin was the clear and only leader of the USSR.
- Most officials believed they were building a bigger and better Russia under Stalin.

Stalin’s Rule:
Stalin successfully established a dictatorship.
 - He developed a cult of personality – he was made out to be a great and wise man
and all the successes of the USSR were due to his achievements.
He brutally crushed any opposition within the party and within the country.
- Controlled the population through terror.
The government was incredibly centralized and every aspect of the economy was
controlled.
Media censorship was extreme, people were not allowed any foreign media or contact.
- Propaganda was used to heavily indoctrinate the population.

Stalin claimed he was using an ideology of Marxism-Leninsim.

- One view states that Lenin established a dictatorship and Stalin built off of it.

- Another states that Stalin created the dictatorship and then perverted the goal of
the communists for his own agendas.

- This is called Stalinism.

Stalin’s slogan was “Socialism in one country”.
- He wanted to build a powerful industrial and socialist state.

He eventually abandons the NEP and introduced the Five Year Plans.
- The focus was on industrial might, but for that to happen agriculture had to be
modernized.

- More food = more exports = more money = more purchasing of industrial tech =
more industrialised state.

Peasants would have to move to the cities to work in factories as there were not going to be
enough urban citizens.
For Stalin, building up Soviet power was the most important issue.
- The country had basically collapsed after WWI and the civil war.

- Strong Soviet power would prevent this from happening.

- The easiest way was to forcefully industrialise the country.

- Exploitation of the masses was necessary.

Prior to 1928, Communist hierarchy had been against forcing peasants into government
collectives.
Stalin believed that for his Five Year Plans to work, he’d need the following:
- Planned crops, planned harvests, and planned harvest sizes.
Stalin introduced collectivisation reform agriculture.
- Most peasants were subsistence farmers – produced enough for families and sold off
extra as bonus income.

- Under Stalin, farms would be joined together and every aspect of food production
would be controlled by the state.

- Most peasants didn’t support Stalin or communism so it was also a way to control
them.

Most peasants resisted, often violently.

- They wanted to keep their land and didn’t want to hand over their crops/livestock.
- They burnt their crops and killed their livestock.

Wealthy peasants, Kulaks, resisted the most.

- In response, Stalin had 5-10 million moved to gulags in Siberia, or executed whole
towns.
In 1932-1933 many peasants died from starvation as food was taken to feed the army and
workers.
- Stalin also refused to aid famine-stricken areas that resisted collectivisation or other
government policies.
By 1935, most of Russia’s farming was collectivised.
- Farmers followed what the government wanted.

There were two different types of collective farms.

 - Sovkhoz: government collective farm. It did what the government mandated,
farmers were paid wages.

- Kolkhozes: collective farm that was seen as an “agricultural production cooperative”.

They had more independence than Sovkhoz, allowed to manage themselves among
socialist and democratic lines.

Industrialisation:
Stalin’s main focus was industrialisation.
- From 1928-1937, the Five Year Plans turned the USSR into a modern industrial state.

- Focused mainly on industries such as mining, iron, steel, electricity and oil.

- Special industrial houses were built to house factories, railways canals and roads
were also built.

- Oil wells were also built in the South of the USSR.

For all this industrialisation to work, Stalin needed an educated and healthy work force.

- Schooling and health care were provided by the government.

- Adult literacy went from 50% in 1924 to 80% in 1939.

The first two Five Year Plans transformed Russia but at a massive price.

- Quality of goods was generally quite bad, which then caused agricultural issues.

- There was serious shortage of skilled labour in the beginning.

- Many factories and projects used forced labour.

- Conditions were terrible, people died from being overworked, and had lack of food.
Forced Industrialisation allowed Russia and the USSR to survive Germany’s invasion of
WWII.
- It allowed the USSR to emerge as a global superpower after WWII.

- The Five Year Plans were “successful”, but at massive human cost.

Stalin’s Rule:
Obviously, Stalin accepted no opposition to his power.
- In the 1930s, he purged the USSR of millions of people who went against his policies
or those he saw as a threat.

- People were executed, sent to labour camps, or just disappeared.

- One of the reasons why the German invasion in WWII was so devastating as he had
purged all useful people.

Stalin turned Russia back into a totalitarian state.

- Conditions were worse than when the Tsar ruled.

- Needed a “new man” that could build towards Soviet industrialisation.

- Stalin wanted total control.

- Anybody who thought about power was an enemy.

Show trials were given to Bolsheviks where they confessed to various crimes.
- All made up – plotting to assassinate Stalin or attempting to restore capitalism.

- Almost all original Bolshevik and Communist leadership from Lenin’s time was
executed.

Around 1 million party members were expelled over time.

- Around 70% of the Central Committee were imprisoned or killed. These empty
positions were filled by Stalin’s supporters.

- In 1936 he purged many of the founding members of the Communist Party for
“conspiring” with Trotsky.
 - In 1937 many Communists from Lenin’s time were executed for working with foreign
agencies to subvert the revolution.

Stalin even purges the army and its generals and soldiers.
- Stalin had around 1/3 of his officers executed or imprisoned.

- Aprox 35,000 officers were executed or sent to the gulags.

- This affected the morale, discipline and effectiveness of the Red Army.

Academically skilled people were seen as threats to the Soviet Regime, this included writers
as well.
- People from the Leninst/Tsarist era were seen as major threats.

- Scientists, engineers and technology specialists were also seen as threats.

An estimated 20 million people were executed or died in the gulags simply because they
seemed to be threats.

Many people followed Stalin’s purges as they remembered the 1917 Revolutions and the
Civil War.
Problems had to be stopped before they even existed.
This created a dangerous mentality within the party.
- Everywhere they saw plots to overthrow Communism.

- By following Stalin they protected the party, and themselves.

By 1939 the purges had stopped.

- Stalin crushed all opposition.
Reasons as to why he pursued purging are as follows:
- Was paranoid, distrustful and power-hungry.
- Wanted to easily control the population.
- Wanted to easily control the party.
- Wanted to silence critics or any people who might be left over from the
Lenin/Trotsky era.
Everyday life under Stalin:
Stalin controlled every aspect of life.
- Being late for work, working slowly, telling anti-communist jokes could result in
being sent to the gulags.

Propaganda was used to indoctrinate the population, especially children.

- Pioneers - children under 15.
- Komsomol – older teens and those in their 20s.
- Taught to spy on their parents, report disloyal communists, praise Stalin, and spread
communist propaganda and ideology.
Younger generations were more enthusiastic and were very patriotic about the new Russia.
- Many got the chance to be educated and work for the party.
The Party controlled all aspects of the media as well.
- It was designed to create an aura of cheerfulness.

- Creativity was redesigned to boost the productivity of the people.

Work was strictly controlled.

- Force and propaganda were used to motivate people.
- Food was rationed.
- Work hours were increased.
- Production targets were enforced.

The government used propaganda to make those who worked hard into heroes and role
models.

Soviet POWs held in Germany were suspected of being Nazi sympathisers.

- Over 20,000 were sent to labour camps.
Many civilians and ex-soldiers were conscripted back to the army.
Civilians were forced into labour battalions in order to rebuild the country.
Post WWII:
The USSR emerged as an international superpower after WWII due to its large army and
industrial strength.
Stalin was able to revitalise the economy through similar methods used in the 1920s and
1930s.
All Eastern European nations had been liberated and fell under the control of Moscow.
Consumer goods were nearly non-existent during the first Five Year Plan.
Urban migration also caused shortage in housing.
- Nearly 6% of people living in Moscow had more than one room.
During the second Five Year Plan, more consumer goods were made.
- Quality was improved.
- Standard of living was also improved.
Overall quality of life was improved in the 1930s unless one posed a threat to the state.
- Everyone was given a job, unemployment was non-existent.

- The government provided free healthcare and education.

- Collective farms often had sports facilities and sports clubs as well as cinemas.

Women in the USSR:

The Bolsheviks had a family code in 1918.
Women were given equality with men in terms of work.
Things such as abortion and divorce were unacceptable to the government.
Independent women were frowned upon.

In 1938 the Bolshevik Code was rescinded and women were expected to devote themselves
to their families rather than the Party or communism.
Women were heavily involved in WWII on the frontlines as soldiers due to the losses of men
in the army.
WWII:
Initially, the USSR and Nazi Germany had a non-aggression policy with each other.
However, in 1941, Germany invaded the USSR.
- The Red Army was still struggling with losses from the purges and was not able to
stand up to the German army.
Due to its size, the USSR was able to move its factories beyond German reach and was able
to re-equip and ultimately drive Germany back.
- Russia lost 25 million people.
- Many of the successes of the first two Five Year Plans were destroyed.
- But the Five Year Plans allowed the USSR to survive.