Report On Mix Design

General degradation of concrete
Relevant degradation of concrete can be classified as: physical (caused by natural thermal variations
such as freeze-thaw cycles, or artificial ones, such as those produced by fire), mechanical (abrasion,
erosion), chemical (attack by acids, sulfates, ammonium and magnesium ions or alkali aggregate
reactions), biological (fouling, biogenic attack) and structural (overloading, cyclic loading).
The requirements for durability of each exposure class are mostly dealing with water to cement ratio,
mechanical strength and curing time. Apart from exposure classes driven from the standards (as
already have been stated), there are some other considerations related to the concrete mix
components such as cement and aggregates, which may influence the durability of the concrete
structure. Below more specific considerations have been stated for each degradation mechanism
related to the concrete mix components.
1 Recommendation for Frost resistance

1.1 Cement
Factors influencing frost resistance is the degree of saturation of the pores. In general, there is critical
value about 80-90% of the total pore volume is water filled. Obviously, low water to cement ratio is
favorable for frost resistance. In addition, prolonged curing of concrete before it undergoes freezing is
beneficial.
1.2 Aggregates
Finally, aggregates must also be able to withstand freeze-thaw attack. Although cement pate is more
susceptible substance compared to aggregates, certain types of aggregates may also be damaged by
frost action. A threshold value of water absorption is often considered to classify the aggregates: when
water absorption is lower than 1-2%, the aggregate can usually be considered durable. However, the
aggregate with very high porosity are usually frost resistant. If frost-susceptible aggregates cannot be
avoided, aggregates size reduction could be taken into account, because below a certain aggregate
size threshold produced hydraulic pressure of frost action is low. Another way is to reduce
permeability of concrete by reducing the water content. Air-entrained concrete could be another way to
reduce frost attack. It is important to realize that the air-entrained concrete will have lower
compressive strength than normal concrete. As a rule, increase of 1% in the content of air
corresponds to a reduction of 5% in compressive strength.
2 Recommendation for sulfate attack

2.1 Cement
With regard to protection recommendation to external sulfate attack, quality of the concrete is crucial
factor. A low permeability is the best defense against this type of attack. Reducing water to cement
ratio is favorable for sulfate resistance. Using pozzolanic or blast furnace slag cement that reduce the
calcium hydroxide content and refine the pore structure. Severity of the attack depends on the calcium
aluminate (C3A) content and, to a lesser extent, on Tetracalcium alumino ferrite (C4AF) in the cement.
Standards in different countries provide for sulfate-resistant cement with a C 3A content below 3-5%.
Medium and high aggressive exposure classes require usage of the sulfate-resistant cements.
2.2 Aggregates
Sulfates can be found in the aggregates as bi-hydrate calcium sulfate (gypsum) or anhydrite. If sulfate
in aggregates exceeds the limit of 0.2% (as SO 3), the concrete is at risk of cracking due to expansive
ettringite formation. Aggregates containing minerals which are based on sulfides (such as pyrite, FeS 2
and marcasite) on long time scale, they may transform into sulfates through oxidation due to presence
of oxygen and water.
2.3 Recommendation on High Performance Concrete

Another recommendation for sulfate attack and carbonates leaching attack in the most aggressive
exposure class could be adequately managed by high performance concrete (HPC). In particular, a
combined presence of silica fume and superplasticizer. This combination allows to have perfect bond
in interfacial transition zone (ITZ) provided that the surface of the aggregate is rough enough.
Moreover, strong aggregate such as Basalt and Granite or Quartz are needed in order that the
aggregate bulk does not become the week zone of the chain. Finally, relatively small aggregates (4-15
mm) are preferable with respect to normal coarse aggregates (4-25 mm) to reduce the risk of water
entrapped below the aggregates. A proposed composition can be called as densified small particles
(DSP) concretes. These types of mix could contain very low water to cement ratio (<0.2) by combining
relatively high cement content and high amount of silica fume. The amount of water and workability is
so low. DSP concretes must be carefully cured under water for at least 16 hours.
3 Recommendation for DEF

3.1 Cement
With regard to prevention of delayed ettringite formation (DEF), attention during production, such as
keeping curing temperature within limits (below 65-70 °C) and delayed steam-curing treatment, is
believed to avoid the occurrence DEF. DEF is often associate with cement with high early strength as
in this case for precast concrete. Usage of cement with mineral addition such as fly ash and slag
maybe of help.
3.2 Aggregates
Limestone aggregates have been reported to be beneficial in sulfate resistance compared to quartz
aggregates.
4 Recommendations for Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)

4.1 Cement
To prevent ASR, it is preferable to use nonreactive aggregate, low alkali Portland cement or blended
cements with sufficient amount of fly ash or slag such as CEM II/B-V (>25% fly ash), CEM III/A with
>50% slag.
4.2 Aggregates
Since it is normally difficult to evaluate reactivity of the aggregates, the alkali content of concrete
should be limited.
5 Recommendations for Chloride

5.1 Aggregates
Aggregates which are contaminated with chloride are mainly sea sands. The limit for chloride content
in aggregates is 0.05%.
6 Recommendations for Alkali Carbonate Reaction
6.1 Aggregates
It is a form of degradation happens in presence of reactive aggregates characterized by the presence
of very fine dolomite and limestone crystals. The reaction does not cause any volume increase.
7 Recommendations for Carbonation

7.1 Cement
Capacity of concrete to fix CO 2 is proportional to the alkalinity in its cement paste. For blended
cement, hydration of slag or fly ash leads to lower CaOH 2 content in the hardened cement paste that
may increase carbonation rate.
8 Recommendations for aggregates grading distribution

Grading distribution is the particle size distribution from finest materials to the coarsest one. To
achieve the highest possible density of the concrete i.e., lowest volume of interstitial voids among
individual aggregate particles, Fuller and Thompson method must be followed for grading distribution
of aggregates. The proportion of fine aggregates and coarse aggregates must be as close as possible
to the Fuller-Thompson curve. Due to the fact that presence of extra coarse aggregate is detrimental
from aspect of durability of concrete, maximum dimension of the selected aggregates should follow
the criteria: It must not exceed 25% of the minimum section of the concrete structure; it must be 5 mm
lower than distance between metallic reinforcements; it must not exceed by 30% the cover thickness.
9 Recommendations for water

With regard to minimum distance between the reinforcement of the concrete segment, the consistency
class of the final concrete mix must be designed in accordance to standards. Maximum size of the
coarse aggregates influences the consistency class. So, to be in accordance to the standards
requirement for consistency class, minimum water content, which depends on maximum aggregate
size, should be in accordance to the standards (e.g., ASTM vol. 32, 1932).
Regarding sections 8 and 9, a detailed size distribution of the aggregates, both fine and coarse
aggregates, is needed.
10 Criteria for cement selection

All above, the cement should be selected in accordance to the most critical degradation present in the
project. There should be a balance between the alkalinity content of selected cement, since a high
alkalinity is beneficial for some degradation mechanisms, e.g., passivity film formation of the
reinforcement and carbonation, but, on the other hand, a low alkalinity is beneficial for other
degradations e.g., ASR and sulfate attack.
10.1 Composition and notation

Overall, usage of blended cement with mineral addition such as fly ash or slag is recommended based
on the availability and cost evaluation considerations, because fly ash and slag lead to finer
microstructure in cement paste. In addition, due to high risk of sulfate attack, usage of sulfate
resistance cement is recommended. Necessarily C3A content should be kept below 5% for sulfate
resistance. Table 1 shows seven sulfate resistance cement type according to the standards (UNI EN
197).
Table 1 Seven products in the family of sulfate resisting common cements from UNI EN 197.
Considering all recommendations above, the following cements are suggested based on the
availability and cost evaluation considerations:
- Blast furnace cement CEM III/B-SR 52.5 R, clinker 34% (no requirement on C 3A content of
clinker)
- Pozzolanic cement CEM IV/A-SR (V) 52.5 R, siliceous fly-ash 35% (C3A content of clinker 5%)
- Portland-slag cement CEM II/B-S 52.5 R, slag content 35% (C 3A content of clinker 5%) (from
National Standards in different CEN members not listed in table 1)
10.2 Mechanical requirements

The standard strength of a cement is the compressive strength determined in accordance with EN
196-1 at 28 days and shall conform to the requirements in table 2. Mechanical strength class of 52.5R
shall be selected and seems to be compatible with cement SL(SR) Maldon of the table 3.
Table 2 Mechanical and physical requirements given as characteristic values from UNI EN 197.
Table 3 Main properties of cement from the “Technical Report – Concrete Mix Design - summary of
raw materials” (S2-FGJV-TEC-REP-0002).
10.3 Chemical requirements
The properties of the cements of the cement type and strength class shown in columns 3 and 4
respectively of table 4 shall conform to the requirements listed in column 5 of this table when tested in
accordance with the standard referred to in column 2. According to the selected items, the LoI should
be ≤ 5 %, sulfate content (SO3) should be ≤ 4 %. According to table 2, the values reported in Technical
Report – Concrete Mix Design - summary of raw materials, are in the range recommended by the
standard.

Report On Mix Design

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General degradation of concrete

1 Recommendation for Frost resistance

2 Recommendation for sulfate attack

2.3 Recommendation on High Performance Concrete

3 Recommendation for DEF

4 Recommendations for Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)

5 Recommendations for Chloride

7 Recommendations for Carbonation

8 Recommendations for aggregates grading distribution

9 Recommendations for water

10 Criteria for cement selection

10.1 Composition and notation

10.2 Mechanical requirements

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