118

ANIMAL MODELS OF AGGRESSION

BEREND OLIVIER
LARRY J. YOUNG

Over the past several decades, various animal models have (1). Moreover, there is little understanding of the biological
been used extensively to characterize the activity of various factors underlying pathologic aggression in humans, so it is
drugs and drug classes, and from these results, to anticipate difficult to formulate a rational research program. A discus-
their activity in humans. However, the value of animal sion of the characteristics of pathologic aggression is needed
models that purport to predict the potential therapeutic for the development of animal models of this disorder.
value of new drugs is often accepted with considerable reser- Despite the drawbacks adherent to aggression research,
vation and, when the therapeutic objective involves psychi- there is an increasing knowledge of the effects of psychoac-
atric disease, is perhaps viewed with outright suspicion. tive drugs on aggressive behavior, both in animals and in
In general, the animal models most readily accepted as patients. Thus, two roads are emerging: one studying the
a basis for predicting responses in humans are those that fundamental causes of aggression and dysfunctions, the
are homologous, that is, those in which both the condition other studying the modification of behavior by pharmaco-
being observed and its origin are similar to those in humans. logic interventions.
Examples may include suppression of bacterial infections
by antibiotics or hypertension in monkeys. Few, if any,
models of psychiatric dysfunction, however, can be consid-
ered homologous, if only because the origin of the psychiat- CLASSIFICATION OF AGGRESSION
ric condition is unknown.
In the absence of homologous models, isomorphic Despite many attempts, a generally acceptable definition
models (in which the observed condition is apparently simi- of aggression, particularly as it applies to individual human
lar even if the cause is not) may be fairly rapidly accepted. behavior, has not yet emerged. This failure arises in part
An example may be amphetamine-induced psychosis as a from the following: (a) the varying theoretic or philosophic
putative model for schizophrenia. Finally, there are many persuasions of those offering definitions; (b) the inherent
models in which neither the condition nor the origin can difficulty in capturing the essence of a multifaceted behav-
be clearly linked with the disease being modeled, but in ior; and (c) the attempt to include within the definitions
which there is empiric evidence of some predictive validity elements of motivation that cannot readily be observed or
either for the disease or some aspect of its therapy. In psy- elicited. However, a generally acceptable working definition
chopharmacology, the evidence is usually the discovery that from the perspective of animal research is somewhat easier
agents with known therapeutic activity in humans consis- to obtain and could read ‘‘any overt behavior that produces
tently correlate with some response in an animal model. It aversive or noxious stimuli or harm to another organism.’’
can be argued that before animal models are developed for In this definition, the ‘‘motivation’’ of the behavior is not
any disorder, the essential features of the disorder should an essential element, but it may be deduced directly from
be known. Here researchers run into trouble because the the stimuli that elicit the behavior and from the overt behav-
essential features of many disorders in humans are unclear. ior itself. Different types of animal aggression can be distin-
Pathologic aggression is not a DSM-IV disorder for which guished based on the environmental situations eliciting
criteria are set for determining what is normal or abnormal those behaviors. Moyer was the first to describe such a classi-
fication (2), later followed by alternative classifications (3).
All these classifications have their own inherent prob-
Berend Olivier: Department of Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Phar- lems, such as to link the aggression to connotations of offen-
macy, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, sive and defensive aggression, using the ethology-derived
Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.
Larry J. Young: Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, term agonistic behavior as an important distinction to classify
Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia. aggression models.
1700 Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress

The distinction of aggression into offensive and defensive face, construct, and predictive validity are discussed. In ad-
models is universal (4), is functional, and seems to be paral- dition, several models providing insights into novel neural
leled in brain mechanisms involved in the behavior. Offen- mechanisms of aggression as well as interactions between
sive behavior is characterized by the initiative of the aggressor genes and early environment are presented. Moreover, new
and intended damage to the opponent (5,6). In contrast, data are introduced regarding mutant mice showing pheno-
defensive behavior lacks active approach (initiative), and the typic changes in aggression, such as the serotonin (5-HT1B)
defensive animal (6) inflicts no intentional damage. Preda- and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) knockouts. The informa-
tory aggression represents separate classification of aggression tion coming from these new genetic models can be of help
that seems to be primarily driven by appetite mechanisms in understanding possible causes of human pathologic ag-
and apparently has a distinct brain system involved. gression.
Neither in humans nor in animals is agonistic behavior
pathologic. In the framework of evolutionary theory, these
Isolation-Induced Offensive Behavior
behaviors are understood to encourage survival of the fittest,
to disperse populations, to aid adaptation to threatening A manipulation often used to induce aggression is isolation
environments, and generally to improve the probability of of male animals, typically mice, for several weeks. Many
individual and species survival. In humans, agonistic behav- such isolated animals, on encountering another male, will
ior is considered acceptable or not based on certain predeter- reliably exhibit attack behavior (7). The effect of isolation on
mined rules. Although ‘‘aggressive’’ behavior is associated aggressive behavior is strain dependent (8). This isolation-
with certain somatic and psychiatric disease states, and such induced aggression paradigm in mice is one of the most
behavior may be considered in establishing a diagnosis, there frequently used aggression models in behavioral pharmacol-
is no diagnostic category of ‘‘aggressive disease’’ or ‘‘offen- ogy (9), and it has engendered an extensive pharmacology
sive syndrome’’ per se. In the clinical literature, such behav- mainly described in median effective dose (ED50) values.
iors may be referred to as ‘‘violent,’’ ‘‘hostile,’’ ‘‘agitated,’’ Because there are many ways to affect aggression in a non-
‘‘impulsive,’’ or ‘‘pathologic aggressive.’’ Although animal specific way (sedation, motor disturbances, psychostimula-
models of aggression try to simulate the human conditions tion) an ED50 value is not at all helpful in delineating how
as much as possible, this is difficult because we know so and why drugs reduce aggression.
little about the underlying mechanisms of aggression in dis- Because isolated male mice show a full repertoire of ago-
ease states. By studying several paradigms in animals with nistic behaviors (10), ethologic techniques have been used
the expectation that they have at least some predictive valid- to detect very specific drug effects (11). Although most tests
ity for human disorders with pathologic aggression, we hope are performed in the home cage of the isolated male mouse,
(a) to develop new drugs for treatment of patients and (b) performing the test in a neutral arena is attractive because
to gain insights into the underlying mechanisms resulting the situation delivers a mix of offensive-defensive and flight
in the disorder. With the emergence of molecular genetic behaviors, which are not seen or are infrequently seen in
technologies, we increasingly understand the roles of certain the home cage confrontation (11).
genes in aggression, which may ultimately lead to develop- The latter model is very interesting because it shows
ment of novel treatment strategies for pathologic aggression. properties of drugs that are revealed only partially, or not
Instead of being exhaustive, the present chapter focuses at all, by common pharmacologic test models (10,12,13).
on some selected animal models of aggression with some An extensive literature exists about the effects of ␥-amino-
bearing for human pathologic conditions. Specific examples butyric acid (GABAA)–benzodiazepine agonists in this para-
of drug effects and underlying mechanisms are also dis- digm. Interestingly, classic non–subunit-selective benzodi-
cussed. azepine-receptor agonists show inverse U-shaped
dose–response curves in this model. At lower doses, in-
creases in aggression are seen, whereas at higher doses, no
MODELS OF OFFENSIVE BEHAVIORS effects or decreases are observed (14), probably because of
nonspecific effects such as muscle relaxation or sedation (11,
Several paradigms are used to study offensive aggression, 15). A similar pattern of activity can be found after alcohol
such as isolation-induced offensive behavior (mouse), resi- administration or consumption. Miczek et al. extensively
dent-intruder offensive behavior (rat/mouse/hamster), of- investigated the effects of various doses of alcohol on aggres-
fensive behavior after electrical stimulation of the brain (rat), sive behavior of male mice, rats, and monkeys and consis-
maternal offensive behavior (mouse/rat), offensive play- tently found that individual animals respond differentially
fighting among juvenile rats, and offensive behavior among to alcohol (14,16–18). Approximately 25% of mice show
piglets. heightened aggression after receiving low doses of alcohol
Some of these models are described, and some relevant (AHA mice), whereas the remainder show no increase in
pharmacology is outlined (benzodiazepines, neuroleptics, aggression (ANA mice). Interestingly, this alcohol-height-
psychostimulants, antidepressants, serenics). The putative ened aggression is attenuated by pretreatment of 5-HT1A
 Chapter 118: Animal Models of Aggression 1701

and 5-HT1B receptor agonists (19,20), a finding indicating showed that the knockouts where more aggressive than the
an essential role the serotonergic system in the modulation wild types. The significant findings from these studies were
of offensive aggressive behavior. Enhanced aggression after that, although these animals displayed higher levels of offen-
benzodiazepines and alcohol treatment in some, but not all, sive aggression with a faster onset, other behaviors, includ-
animals is highly similar to the pattern found in humans ing social investigation, defense, and exploration were com-
(21–23) and supports the predictive validity of this kind pletely normal (Table 118.1).
of animal models for some types of human aggression. Telemetric data on heart rate and body temperature
Psychostimulants also disturb the normal agonistic be- showed no obvious abnormalities during the fight, although
havior, although the resulting behavior is clearly differen- 5-HT1B knockouts responded faster to all types of sensory
tially affected (10,11,19). D-Amphetamine–treated animals stimuli such as opening the cage, handling, and injection
show aberrant ‘‘stimulated’’ behavior, which severely inter- (33). This pattern of reactivity was in line with the presumed
feres with normal agonistic behavior (11,15,24). Neurolep- impulsivity of this mutant and lends support to the use of
tics (chlorpromazine, haloperidol) exert antiaggressive ef- this animal model in research into the mechanisms underly-
fects, but nonspecific effects, such as motor disturbances ing impulse and aggression disorders, and it will be of help
(catalepsy) (11,15), cause this. Serenics (serotonergic 5- in screening new potential antiaggressive or antiimpulsive
HT1B/1A -receptor agonists) have a highly selective antiag- drugs. Much more fundamental work, including pharma-
gressive profile in this test, reducing aggression specifically cology, has to be done on this mutant, but the appearance
without dramatically affecting other behaviors dramatically of new animal models of human diseases seems a realistic
and certainly not causing any unwanted side effects (25, option (34,35).
26). Isolation-induced aggression in mice is an animal model
In the 1990s, molecular biological techniques provided of offensive aggression with excellent predictive validity to-
us with potentially very exciting ways of studying aggres- ward human aggression. Although some face validity is
sion. Several gene knockout mice were generated, and some clearly present (offensive impulsive aggression in human ag-
have been tested on their aggressive behavior. Several knock- gression), the construct validity is as yet largely unknown.
outs seem to be more aggressive than their wild types, in-
cluding, among others, the 5-HT1B receptor (27), the neural
form of nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) (28), monoamine Resident-Intruder Offensive Behavior
oxidase A (MAO A) (29) and calcium-calmodulin kinase
II (CAMKII) (30). Interestingly, mice with a deletion in This model, very frequently used in psychopharmacology,
the endothelial form of the nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) uses the resident animal’s response to a conspecific intruder
(31) exhibit a virtual elimination of aggressive behavior. (24,36,37). In the resident-intruder paradigm, a male rat is
One has to be careful to consider the hyperaggression ob- housed with a female, a situation resembling the natural
tained after the mutation directly caused by the absence situation in which animals establish and defend territories
of the gene. Genetic background effects may cloud a clear (38). When resident or territorial males meet an unfamiliar
interpretation, whereas adaptational processes over time male intruder in their territory, heavy fighting may ensue,
may also influence the outcome. Most studies reported do considered natural fighting (39,40). The attacking male per-
not use extensive description of the behavioral phenotype, forms a complete agonistic repertoire including both appeti-
and conclusions whether the observed ‘‘aggressive’’ pheno- tive and consummatory behaviors Aggressive behavior in
type of the mutant is directly caused by the absence of the this situation may consist of searching (patrolling), ap-
gene or results from maladaptation of the mutant to external proach, investigation, threats fighting, chasing, and domi-
stimuli have to be investigated before a mutant can be con- nant posturing The nature of such interactions between an
sidered as a putative model for a certain kind of aggression. attacking resident and an opponent varies with the quality
Nonetheless, studies screening knockout mice for altera- of the intruder, especially age and hormonal status, and the
tions in aggressive behavior should prove useful in identify- resident’s experience. The types of behaviors displayed by
ing novel mechanisms involved in aggression and provide the resident toward the intruder are not random but follow
useful models for development of novel drug intervention certain rules (15), a strong indicator of the neural substrates
targets. involved (4).
The 5-HT1B-receptor knockout mouse (27) has been The resident-intruder model differs both from isolation-
evaluated most extensively on different aspects of its hyper- induced aggression in mice and intermale aggression in rats,
aggressiveness and has been proposed as an animal model of because there is no isolation, which may lead to behavioral
impulsivity (32,33). The latter study investigated territorial abnormalities (8). Moreover, resident-intruder paradigms
aggression in 5-HT1B knockout males and corresponding have a very wide species generality (41), including humans
wild types (in a 129SV background) while equipped with (42). Isolation-induced aggression, in contrast, is far more
telemetric senders to record heart rate and body temperature restricted to certain species (10). This model discriminates
during the experiment. Ethologic analysis of the behavior effectively the quality and behavioral mechanisms of action
1702 Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress

TABLE 118.1. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

Frequency Duration

Behavior Wild-Type Knockout Wild-Type Knockout

Nonsocial activity
Attention 28 (19–33) 22.5 (17–26) 74.2 (53–137) 61.1 (50–90)
Rear 0.5 (0–2) 4.5 (0–9) 0.5 (0–4) 7.1 (0–28)
Sniff 22 (22–26) 17 (14–21) 60.3 (55–83) 42.4* (33–49)
Walk 23.5 (17–25) 22 (14–27) 39.0 (36–51) 28.7 (21–47)
Body care 1 (1–2) 4* (3–6) 2.7 (0.8–8.5) 18.0* (14–24)
In nest 9 (8–12) 0.5* (0–2) 86.3 (78–235) 0.5* (0–6.9)
Social activity
Approach 8.5 (3–12) 18* (17–24) 6.6 (2.3–9.9) 19.0* (13–24)
Follow 1.5 (1–3) 1.0 (0–3) 2.0 (0.6–6.9) 1.1 (0–2.9)
Walk away 1.5 (0–4) 10* (8–13) 1.2 (0–3.4) 15.6* (11–17)
Social sniff 22.5 (16–30) 42.5* (35–48) 86.7 (55–114) 162* (145–186)
Genital sniff 10 (5–12) 10 (7–14) 29.8 (19–69) 35.7 (31–68)
Mount 0 (0–2) 1 (0–4) 0.0 (0–5.2) 2.8 (0–10)
Aggression
Tail rattle 0 (0–2) 2* (1–7) 0.0 (0–1.5) 2.8* (0.9–11)
Lateral threat 0 (0–1) 2* (0–8) 0.0 (0–0.9) 2.3 (0–12)
Bite 2 (1–8) 9 (4–14) 1.9 (0.9–7.0) 9.6 (3.2–14)
Clinch/fight 0.5 (0–4) 7* (1–10) 0.4 (0–25) 22.1 (3.3–37)
In tube
In tube 14.5 (13–17) 16.5 (8–25) 64.8 (47–108) 82.9 (46–108)
a
Male wild-type and 5-HT1B receptor knockout mice were singly housed (residents) for several months.
These mice (n = 12 per genotype) were equipped with telemetric devices to record heart rate and body
temperature. Mice were subjected to a 10-min encounter with a group-housed male intruder, and the
behavior of the resident was scored, using an ethologic method. Data are given as median (using
twenty-fifth to seventy-fifth percentiles) frequencies and duration (seconds) per 10 min. Mann-Whit-
ney U test: the asterisk means significantly different from wild-type mice (p .< 05).

of several drugs with proaggressive and antiaggressive ac- been shown to act in the preoptic area and anterior hypo-
tions (13,15,43). thalamus to stimulate both displays of dominance and ag-
Benzodiazepines at low doses enhance aggression (14, gression (45). Vasopressin receptor antagonists injected into
44), whereas at higher doses they clearly cause ataxia, which this area are potent inhibitors of aggression. Fluoxetine, a
interferes with the behavioral performance. Alcohol, as in selective serotonin uptake inhibitor, decreases offensive ag-
mice, enhances aggression in some rats, but not in others gression in male hamsters and prevents vasopressin-induced
(14,18). Interestingly, this increased aggression in a sub- aggression. This finding has led to the hypothesis that there
population of the resident males was observed both after is an interaction between vasopressinergic and serotonergic
experimenter-administered ethanol and after self-adminis- systems in the regulation of offensive aggression. Hamsters
tered ethanol (18). Understanding the underlying neuro- subjected to social subjugation as juveniles displayed ele-
chemical mechanisms responsible for the individual differ- vated levels of aggression toward smaller hamsters as adults
ences in behavioral response to ethanol in these two (46). As adults, these subjugated hamsters had altered levels
subpopulations of rats or mice should prove valuable for of both vasopressin and serotonin in the anterior hypothala-
understanding the factors resulting in pathologic aggression mus, a finding providing a potential mechanism by which
in humans. environmental influences may permanently alter the neural
Neuroleptics, like psychostimulants, alter the display of circuits regulating aggression. Interestingly, elevated levels
agonistic behavior (15), although in different ways (25). of vasopressin in the cerebrospinal fluid has been correlated
Serenics display a highly specific antiaggressive profile. This with indices of aggression in personality-disordered patients
effect is caused by the activation of postsynaptic 5-HT1B (47). This model provides an example in which discovering
receptors because ligands affecting other 5-HT receptors the neural mechanisms underlying aggression could poten-
have quite different antiaggressive profiles. tially lead to new targets of intervention for therapy in
The resident-intruder paradigm has also been used in pathologic aggression.
hamsters to elucidate a novel neurochemical pathway in- The resident-intruder paradigm has a very good predic-
volved in aggression. Hamsters, which are territorial, tive validity toward human aggression. Both proaggressive
quickly attack intruders. The neuropeptide vasopressin has (alcohol and benzodiazepines) and antiaggressive effects of
 Chapter 118: Animal Models of Aggression 1703

psychoactive drugs are highly similar in rodents and hu- 2 g/kg, had no effects on any parameter, a finding suggesting
mans. Because of the species generality of this type of aggres- that the proaggressive actions of alcohol and also the benzo-
sion, the model also has considerable face validity. Con- diazepines seen in the territorial and isolated male paradigms
struct validity is as yet less clear, but the brain mechanisms are probably related to variables (anxiety?) other than aggres-
involved, the hormonal sequelae, and the behavior-evoking sion per se.
stimuli support reasonable construct validity. As such, this Haloperidol enhanced aggression thresholds simultane-
paradigm seems an excellent choice in screening for poten- ously with locomotion, again indicative of nonspecific ef-
tial antiaggressive compounds (serenics), but it also indicates fects on aggression. Because thresholds for teeth chatter,
other drug effects such as sedation and sensory and motor which accompanies normal aggression, were not affected,
impairment (15). it was concluded that aggression was not at all influenced by
haloperidol, in line with earlier findings that antiaggressive
Offensive Behavior after Electrical Brain actions of neuroleptics result from their side effects (cata-
Stimulation lepsy). D-Amphetamine had no effect on aggression and
teeth chattering, but it decreased the locomotor threshold,
Behavior largely similar to that of offensive territorial males a finding illustrating its stimulatory action without having
can be elicited by electrical stimulation in the medial-lateral specific effects on aggression. Scopolamine, a (muscarinic)
hypothalamus of male and female rats (48–50). Hypotha- anticholinergic drug, had effects similar to those of D-am-
lamic aggression in male rats is sensitive to manipulations phetamine, again illustrating that activation of substrates
of androgen levels (51), and it can be induced in an area for locomotor activity is independent from activation or
(52) roughly coinciding with the areas where levels of circu- inhibition of aggression substrates in the brain. Naloxone,
lating sex hormones are regulated. Moreover, stimulation an opiate antagonist, did not influence any aspect of the
of this area is accompanied by elevated levels of stress hor- brain stimulation–induced behaviors, in line with its ab-
mones (adrenocorticotropic hormone, corticosterone, and sence on spontaneous aggression (11,15). Manipulation of
prolactin) resulting from activation of the area itself and various serotonergic mechanisms showed that activation of
not caused by the stress of fighting (53). In female rats, the 5-HT1B receptor, by eltoprazine, fluprazine, meta-chlo-
aggression can be elicited in this same area (54,55). This rophenylpiperazine, DL-propranolol and other phenylpiper-
behavior is readily reproduced under controlled circum- azines (25,26), induces a highly specific effect on aggression.
stances, thereby meeting an important requirement for a
Aggression and teeth-chattering thresholds were enhanced,
model to study aggression. The aggressive behavior induced
although aggression still could be evoked, but locomotor
by the stimulation can be explosive. Depending on the stim-
activity was not affected or was even somewhat decreased.
ulus intensity, extreme forms of offensive attack and severe
The profiles of drugs that modulate other serotonergic re-
damage to the opponent can be observed (50). The attack
ceptors, including 5-HT1A, 5-HT3, and the serotonin trans-
behavior is not purely driven by internal stimulation of the
porter, demonstrate the specificity of the 5-HT1B receptor
hypothalamic substrate. The animal’s response is still depen-
in aggression, a finding suggesting that the nonspecific ef-
dent on external cues such as the age and sex of the oppo-
nent. In addition to aggressive behavior, stimulation in this fects of serotonergic drugs are mediated through other 5-
area of the hypothalamus also stimulates other behaviors, HT-receptor mechanisms.
including locomotion and teeth chattering (54,56), thereby This hypothalamic-induced aggression model is highly
allowing for the determination of the specificity of the drug. relevant for modeling certain kinds of human aggression.
In this paradigm, the effects of drugs are measured by the By directly stimulating neural substrates in the brain in-
changes in the current thresholds required to evoke the re- volved in offensive aggression, this model has great potential
spective behavior (56). Increases in the current thresholds to predict violent, pathologic aggression in humans. In con-
for aggression indicate antiaggressive effects, considered spe- trast to the more natural models (isolation-induced, resi-
cific if simultaneously the drug does not affect thresholds dent-intruder, maternal aggression), this model is not sensi-
for locomotion. Several drugs have been analyzed in this tive to certain intervening variables present in the other
model, including benzodiazepines, neuroleptics, psycho- paradigms (anxiety, fear, sedation, and motor and sensory
stimulants, alcohol, 5-HT1A-receptor agonists, serenics (5- disturbances) and directly reflects antiaggressive properties
HT1A/1B -receptor agonists) and selective serotonin reuptake of drugs. In addition, this model is not completely artificial
inhibitors (56–59). or pathologic in the sense that attacking animals do not
Chlordiazepoxide, in contrast to its effects in the isola- respond to nonsalient stimuli in preparation of or during
tion-induced and resident-intruder paradigms, had no effect the attack. For example, such animals do not attack rats
on aggression and teeth-chattering thresholds at lower doses that previously have defeated them or females in estrus. The
and enhanced the thresholds for both aggression and loco- predictive validity of this model seems to be somewhat less
motion only at high doses, presumably reflecting the muscle than the other models; nonetheless, the model is useful in
relaxant properties at these doses. Alcohol, up to a dose of determining how drugs bring about the antiaggressive effect.
1704 Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress

Maternal Aggression toire, characterized by initiative, attack, and similar proac-

tive behavior. This sharply contrasts with the defensive rep-
Although aggression is often considered a male-related phe-
ertoire, which is characterized by submission, flight, and
nomenon, females can be quite aggressive under certain con-
similar reactive behaviors. Fighting, when it occurs in a de-
ditions, such as in hypothalamically induced aggression in
fensive animal, is merely a reaction to attack. Other defen-
rats (54,55), aggression in nonestrus hamsters (58), and ma-
sive behaviors, such as flight or submission, are apparently
ternal aggression in several rodent species (59,60). The use
intended to escape from or prevent further agonistic interac-
of a female aggression paradigm to model human (female?)
tions (65). Some of the drugs known to suppress offensive
aggression has been quite uncommon, particularly for psy-
behaviors have highly undesirable effects on defensive be-
chopharmacologic purposes. The maternal aggression
havior; for example, neuroleptics inhibit all activities includ-
model seems to constitute such a model because it shows
ing defensive and flight reactions.
very wide species generality, including humans (61), and
it has clear neural and hormonal determinants. Maternal
aggression is highly purposeful, providing protection to the Pain- or Shock-Induced Defensive
offspring. The maternal aggression paradigm is based on Behavior
the finding that a lactating female rat or mouse with pups
Delivering electric shock to the hind paws of a pair of rats or
will exhibit offensive behaviors toward a wide variety of
mice evokes so-called foot shock– or pain-induced aggression
intruders. This behavior is most pronounced during the first
(66). Similar behavioral responses can be found when cer-
part of the lactating period (62,63). Because the critical
tain drugs (apomorphine, mescaline) are given to pairs of
stimulus is clearly the proximity of some threatening object
animals. Whereas either or both animals may attack, the
to the female’s young, some authors (2) consider this behav-
behavior is conceived as defensive (5), in part because the
ior mainly defensive. However, the behavior of the lactating
animals mutually exhibit typical upright defensive postures
female toward an intruder is clearly self-initiated, proactive,
and squealing and the behavior is clearly reactive; without
and not necessarily reactive to any threat initiated by the
switching on the current, no agonistic interactions will
intruder. Although the paradigm is labor intensive and
occur. Although this paradigm was extensively used in the
needs extensive planning, several psychoactive drugs have
past to assess antiaggressive activity of drugs, a confounding
been tested in it and have led to a model with a comparable
factor in the model is that the behavior-releasing factor
predictive validity as the male offensive paradigms in rats
(pain) can be masked by analgesic properties of drugs. This
(resident-intruder) and mice (isolation-induced). The psy-
fact, together with the limited behavioral repertoire exhib-
chopharmacology of maternal aggression has been mainly
ited in this paradigm, limits its utility considerably.
studied in rats, although some work in mice has been per-
A useful application of foot shock–induced defense be-
formed (64).
havior is to determine the ED50 to lower the amount of
Although the topography of the aggressive behavior of
fighting episodes by 50% and concurrently to determine
the attacking female is clearly different from male aggression
an ED50 for paralysis, the ability of mice, hanging by their
(63), the effects of several classes of drugs were remarkably
forelimbs from a thin bar, to bring their hind limbs on to
similar to those found in the male paradigms. Benzodiaze-
the bar within a certain time. Specificity of the antidefense
pines and alcohol showed, at low doses, proaggressive ef-
effects is calculated as the ratio between these two ED50
fects, which faded at higher doses because of nonspecific
values. A high ratio indicates good antidefense specificity;
effects (sedation, ataxia, and muscle relaxation). D-Amphet-
low values suggest strong interfering effects.
amine reduced aggression at higher doses, but this was
Neuroleptics show very low ratios (less than 1), tricyclic
clearly attributable to interfering effects of motor stimula-
antidepressants have ratios of approximately 1, whereas ben-
tion, whereas haloperidol inhibited aggression by its highly
zodiazepines also have ratios less than 1 because of their
nonspecific side effects. Serenics (eltoprazine and related
muscle-relaxing effects (26,67). Serenics (eltoprazine, flu-
phenylpiperazines) have a highly selective effect in this para-
prazine, and others) appear highly selective; ratios of more
digm, reducing aggression without affecting other behav-
than 20 (fluprazine) or, in the case of eltoprazine, not deter-
iors, including pup care. The critical role of the 5-HT1B
minable have been found. Eltoprazine did, up to a very high
receptor in this effect was again demonstrated by additional
dose, not inhibit this foot shock–induced behavior, thereby
pharmacology showing that modulating other serotonergic
illustrating its highly selective antioffense character.
receptors did not have such effects.

Defensive Behavior in Rats (Intruder

Model)
MODELS OF DEFENSIVE BEHAVIORS
A more natural model of defensive behavior is the behavior
Those forms of agonistic behavior in which elements of shown by an intruder in the resident-intruder or maternal
initiative and approach prevail belong to the offensive reper- aggression situation. Defending animals in these paradigms
 Chapter 118: Animal Models of Aggression 1705

use special tactics to protect the more vulnerable parts of (71). There has been a great deal of dispute about the nature
their bodies. In unconstrained conditions, animals on the of muricide in rats, resulting in various descriptions of the
defense usually flee from the territory of the residential male behavior including, interspecies aggression (72), predatory
or lactating female, but when this is impossible, as in labora- aggression (73), or simply predatory behavior (74). This
tory conditions, they defend themselves by flight, crouch- model is clearly different from those described earlier, and
ing, upright defensive postures, emission of ultrasounds, its human equivalent is questionable, although predatory
and submissive postures. Generally, these behaviors aim at aggression has been described in relation to pathologic ag-
protecting the back, the area where most wounds are in- gression in humans. Predatory attack clearly differs from
flicted by attacking rats (68). intraspecies attack with regard to neuroanatomic, physio-
Although this model involves at least two animals, the logic, and hormonal mechanisms (75), but the pharmacol-
offender and the defender, it provides an opportunity for ogy is less developed. The model is rarely used anymore
various drug manipulations and to study direct and indirect because of several ethical constraints, and therefore most
drug effects (69). Drugging the offender and changing its data are from before the 1990s (26). Benzodiazepines and
offensive behavior have clear effects on the behavior of the alcohol, unless given at extremely high doses, do not inhibit
intruder (26,70). The quality of the intruder (i.e., age and muricide. Neuroleptics and psychostimulants do inhibit
size) also determines the behavioral outcome, and interac- muricide but clearly not in a very specific way (cataleptic,
tions between drug effects and the intruder quality have motor stimulation). Antidepressants (tricyclics and selective
been observed for D-amphetamine and chlordiazepoxide serotonin reuptake inhibitors) inhibit muricide in a quite
(44,70). This finding illustrates the construct and face valid- specific way, and in the 1950s up until the 1970s, the muri-
ity of this model because it has high resemblances to the cide test was in use in the pharmaceutical drug discovery
human (psychiatric) situation. process as an antidepressant screen. 5-HT1A-receptor ago-
This model has been of limited use in psychopharmacol- nists do not inhibit muricide, whereas 5-HT1B-receptor ag-
ogy mainly because of the complexity in interpreting the onists (serenics) inhibit it, but only at much higher doses
interaction between drug effect and intruder quality. How- than the antioffense effects. Therefore, this model is not
ever, using standardized circumstances in which the in- believed to have potential qualities to predict certain human
truder is basically not threatening the role of the resident, pathologic aggression situations.
that is, by using young or inexperienced inexperienced in-
truders, the direct effects of drugs on the behavior of the
intruder can be studied. It appears that influencing the sen-
sory or motor capabilities of the intruder (by neuroleptics, DISCUSSION
alcohol, benzodiazepines, or psychostimulants) leads to
changes in the defense or flight responses of the animals The present contribution has suggested a limited number
indicating enhanced flight (D-amphetamine) or impaired of animal models for different forms of aggression, namely,
defense or flight (haloperidol). This may lead to enhanced offensive aggression, defensive aggression, and predatory ag-
attacks on the intruder in the case of D-amphetamine or gression. This is absolutely not an exhaustive coverage of
diminished interest in the intruder by the resident in the the field and shows a logical way to frame the existing animal
case of neuroleptics (26). Serenics do not affect the defense tests and paradigms into meaningful categories especially
or flight capabilities of the intruders (26), an effect in line for predicting the effects of psychoactive drugs for human
with their specific antioffense qualities. pathologic conditions. This approach led to the develop-
The resident-intruder model is a unique animal model ment in the 1970s and 1980s of a group of serotonergic
for different aspects of social interactions and provides an agonists, serenics, as potential antiaggressive agents to treat
opportunity to determine not only what drugs are doing certain types of human pathologic aggression (26,76).
directly to an organism, but also the indirect effects on the Moreover, the animal models outlined appeared to have
partner. Human pathologic aggression is often associated predictable validity and enable us to predict putative out-
with complex interpersonal interactions, and the resident- comes when applied in humans. Good examples are the
intruder interaction model may be particularly relevant to benzodiazepines, with which, at low doses, aggression-en-
predict what drugs may do in humans in particular circum- hancing effects were often found that corresponded to the
stances. so-called ‘‘paradoxic’’ aggression seen after human use (22,
23). The antiaggressive effects of neuroleptics, often clini-
cally used as first treatment in emergencies, are not specific
MISCELLANEOUS MODELS at all but result from interference with vital functions (cog-
nition, motor, sensory). Antiaggressive effects can be the
Predatory aggression, such as mouse killing (muricide) in rats result of many (side) effects of drugs, and the proposed
or locust killing (insecticide) in mice, occurs spontaneously animal models are capable of detecting and describing these
in a proportion of individuals, depending on the strain used effects. Consequently, they have a high predictable validity
1706 Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress

toward their effects in humans, although it is very difficult 6. Olivier B, Van Dalen D, Hartog J. A new class of psychoactive
to predict for which human disorder or symptom (77). drugs: serenics. Drugs Future 1990;11:473–499.
7. Valzelli L. Aggressive behaviour induced by isolation. In: Garat-
One of the biggest obstacles in the study of the psycho- tini S, Siggs SB, eds. Aggressive behaviour. Amsterdam: Excerpta
pharmacology of aggression and the predictability for the Medica, 1969:70–76.
human situation is the lack of consensus on definitions. The 8. Valzelli L. The ‘‘isolation syndrome’’ in mice. Psychopharmacolo-
only primary aggression disorder in DSM-IV is intermittent gia 1973;31:305–320.
explosive disorder, but all other aggression and impulsivity 9. Malick JB. The pharmacology of isolation-induced aggressive be-
haviour in mice. Curr Dev Psychopharmacol 1979;5:1–27.
occurring in various disorders are considered as symptoms 10. Miczek KA, Krsiak M. Drug effects on agonistic behavior. In:
of different underlying disorders; this situation makes it ex- Thompson T, Dews PB, eds. Advances in behavioral pharmacol-
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directly. From the animal research, the evidence is very 11. Olivier B, Van Dalen D. Social behaviour in rats and mice: an
strong that there are specific neural substrates in the brain ethologically based model for differentiating psychoactive drugs.
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the system, such as the postsynaptic 5-HT1B receptor (80), logical analyses of intermale and territorial aggression in the male
rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1981;14[Suppl 1]:61–77.
is an important neurotransmitter in at least part of this brain 14. Miczek KA, DeBold JF, Van Erp AM, et al. Alcohol, GABAA-
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Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress. Edited by Kenneth L. Davis, Dennis Charney, Joseph T. Coyle, and
Charles Nemeroff. American College of Neuropsychopharmacology 䉷 2002.