Veterinary

Radiology
Represented by Prof.Dr. Atef Abdalgalil
X-Rays Production and X-Ray
Machine
• X-rays or roentgen rays are electromagnetic
waves of extremely short wavelength, much shorter
than the waves of visible light and possess the
ability to penetrate solid matter to a far greater
extent than light.

• It was discovered by Konrad Roentgen in 1895.

 Principle of diagnostic radiography:

• X-rays are produced when fast electrons bombard a target in

vacuum tubes forming a beam of X-ray which passes through
the patient.
• In the patient body, the X-ray beam will be absorbed to a
varying degree by different tissues and thus on emergence
become capable to show a shadowgraph of the penetrated
area (Like sun and tree shadow on ground theory).
• This shadow can be visualized by means of fluorescent
screen or recorded on a photographic film.
• The X-ray Machine consists of four main
parts:
1.The X-ray tube.
2.The transformers.
3.The tube stand.
4.The control panel.
1. The X-ray Tube
• Glass or metal and glass tube, has been evacuated to
produce high vacuum and into which are sealed 2
electrodes (cathode (-) and anode (+)).
• It has a filament in the cathode and a target in the anode.
• The filament in the cathode is a fine coil of wire made of
a high melting point and a high atomic number metal
(Tungsten, 3370°F melting point and 74 atomic
numbers).
• The filament is heated to produce an available source of
electrons. More current to the filament means more heat and
more electrons.
• The cathode of the X-ray tube is constructed with a focusing
cup surrounding the filament to focus electrons produced by the
heated filaments towards the focal spot of the target at the
anode.
• The tube target is made up of a small block of Tungsten in a
copper base of the anode. The target in the anode is positioned
to opposite the filament of the cathode. The target is also placed
at an angle (20°) so that the major portion of X-rays produced
is directed downward through the window of the X-ray tube.
2- The Transformers:
• Transformers are essential for X-ray machine to supply a
suitable current to the X-ray apparatus. Normally they include
the following:

a) Autotransformer: Correct the fluctuations in the main input

voltage.
b) Filament transformer: supply a suitably reduced current to the
cathode filament.
c) High tension transformer: produce current of sufficient high
voltage to produce X-ray.
3- The Tube Stand:
• It is the apparatus which support the X-ray tube
during the performance of radiography. It can
include many different forms of suspension and
vary from small table-top stands, larger mobile
floor stands to overhead ceiling mounting. It is
important that the type of stand employed should
be suitable for the type of examination to be
carried out.
4- The Control Panel:
• The control panel contains the meters, switches, and
controls necessary for operating the X-ray machine. The
components of panel vary with different apparatuses. It will
comprise some or all of the following:

a. On / off switch.
b. Voltmeter: The actual voltage being supplied to the machine
is indicated by the voltmeter, and any deviation from the
normal can be corrected by adjusting the autotransformer.
c. The kilovoltage (kV) selector.
• - Higher kilovoltage results in more rapidly
electrons travel, greater amount of energy released
on the target, shorter wavelength of X-rays and
greater penetration power of X-ray beam.
• - Kilovoltage affects the quality (contrast) of the
produced X-rays.
• - Suitable kV produces good contrast (soot or
whitewash film); on the other hand, the overdose kV
causes low contrast.
d-Milliamperage (mA) selector.
• - Higher Milliamperage results in high number of electrons travels
from the cathode to anode and subsequent high amount of x ray
production. Therefore, the quantity of X-rays is directly affected by
Milliamperage and time (milliampere-seconds or MA-S).

• - Low mA causes too low number of X-rays to reach the film, so the
film seems pale, examination of the film will reveal that the X-rays
penetrated the hard tissues but with few amount so that insufficient
image is created leading to low contrast, on the other hand, high mA
creates high number of X-rays that make both the hard and the soft
tissues so dark, and in turn it causes low contrast too.
e-Timer and exposure button.
f-Meter: The focal film distance alters the film
contrast when it is not adjusted.
Types of x-Ray apparatuses
 Portable Mobile Fixed

Mounted on wheels that

form the base of the
Can easily be taken to pieces Fixed on place in
Movement apparatus so it can be
and transported by car hanging position
moved over level
surface
Built into the room
Of small size and low weight and provided with
Transformers Larger to permit higher
and are located near to the X- special electrical
output
ray tube.. connection to the
mains.

a) Low price.
b) Easily transported for use Capable of an output
The majority produce
Advantages on farms. of at least 125 KV
125 KV and 300 MA
c) Light and easily and 300 MA.
maneuvered.
 Portable Mobile Fixed
Low electrical output which
limits the radiographic
Disadvantag
examination. The maximum
e
output of such apparatus is 70
to 90 KV and from 15 to 30
MA.
In large animals is restricted - Large animals Suitable for the
to radiography of the feet of (limbs, neck & trunk & spines of
Use horses but not above the head) cattle and horses.
carpus or tarsus. - Very suitable for Suitable for small
In small animals, portable small animals animal
apparatus is satisfactory. examinations.
• X-Ray Beam and Scattered Radiations
• The purpose of X-ray apparatus and tube is to provide a
beam of X-rays which can be used to demonstrate the
internal structure of a patient. The X-ray waves produced at
the anode are emitted in all directions but are confined by
lead shielding surrounding the tube and emerge in the form
of a beam through an aperture known as the window. The
X-ray beam consists of X-rays of a range of wave lengths.
Raising the kilovoltage to the tube increases the proportion
of short wavelength X-rays and improves the penetrating
power of the beam.
• Collimation of the beam:
o The beam which emerges from the aperture of X-ray tube
is a diverging one.
o Most of X-ray machines incorporate some means of
collimating or restricting the divergence to the minimum
necessary to cover the area under examination.
o The purposes of this collimation are as follows:
✓ To prevent unnecessary irradiation of the patient,
radiographer, and any persons involved for restraining the
animal.
✓ To reduce scattered radiations.
o Methods of collimation of the beam:

✓ Presence of adjustable lead shutters which are attached

to tube aperture.
✓ Presence of a source of light to visualize the extent of
the primary beam. This addition is known as a light
beam diaphragm and is most effective when used in a
semi darkened room.
• Penetration and Absorption of the Beam:

• X-rays have the property of penetrating matter which is

opaque to visible light. This does not mean that all
substances are equally radio translucent. An average beam
can penetrate a millimeter thick sheet of aluminum but
will be absorbed by the same thickness of lead. The
radiopacity of any substance depends upon:

1) The hardness or penetrating ability of the X-ray beam.

2) The atomic number, density, and thickness of the
material to be irradiated.
• Atomic Number: This refers to the number of
positive charges in the nucleus of the atom and
equals the sum of electrons. Each element has a
specific atomic number. The following table
illustrates the atomic number of some
substances:
 Structure Element Atomic number
Hydrogen 1
Soft tissue Carbon 6
Nitrogen 7
Oxygen 8
Bone Calcium 20
Photographic emulsion Bromine 35
Sliver 47
Contrast media Iodine 53
Barium 56
Tube target Tungsten 74
shielding lead 82
• Atoms will only absorb photons of radiation of certain energy.
If the energy of the photon is greater than this, it cannot be
captured by the atom. Photons of radiation which would pass
without attenuation through the atomic framework of carbon (6)
would be absorbed by a more complex atomic structure of silver
(47). Also, bone (14) will absorb photons which pass through the
atoms of soft tissue (6).
• Density: Absorption also depends upon the density of
molecules of matter.
• Thickness: If a comparatively radio translucent material is
thick enough, it will cause a high percentage of an X-ray beam to
be absorbed.
• Manifestation of X-Ray Beam:
• Occurs by two ways:
• I- The photographic Effect:
o X-ray affects photographic emulsion (consists of silver halide grains
suspended in gelatin) in the same way as do photons of visible light.
o The X-ray hits the grains of silver halide >> a complex interchange of
electrons takes place >> which liberate the halide atoms and leaves
metallic silver.
o The effect is still invisible (referred to as the latent image).
o The film must be placed in a developer to complete the chemical
reduction of silver halide before the image is visible.
o Only a small percentage of X-ray passing through a film is absorbed, so it
is usually to employ 'Intensifying screens" which utilize the fluorescent
effect of X-ray to speed up exposure of the film.
• II- The Fluorescent Effect:
o Certain crystals, such as zinc sulphide, calcium tungstate, and barium
lead sulphide, fluoresce when exposed to an X-ray beam.
o This fluorescent effect is used in diagnostic radiography in 2 main
ways:
1) Intensifying screens:
• An intensifying screen consists of a uniform homogeneous coating of
minute calcium tungstate crystals mounted on a plastic base.
• Two screens are used inside a film cassette to sandwich the special X-
ray film in close and uniform contact.
• When the screens (Calcium tungstate crystals) fluoresce blue (a color
to which photographic emulsion is sensitive) under the influence of
the X-ray beam, this affects the radiographic film photographically.
• Film emulsion is more sensitive to blue light than to X-rays,
and thus,
a. These screens intensify the effect of the X-ray beam and
reduce the amount of radiation necessary to produce a
radiograph to 1/10 to 1/15 of the amount required.
b. This, in turn, permits the use of brief exposure time.
2-Direct fluoroscopy or screening:
• The screens employed for fluoroscopy use zinc sulphide
which fluoresces green, the color to which the eye is most
sensitive. It is used in a darkened room to visualize the
structures of the patient and to observe their movements.
 Scattered Radiation:
• The production of scattered radiations is a complex
physical process, it comprises the production of new X-
ray photons within the tissue irradiated which are of
longer wave ength than those of primary beam and
emerge in all directions.
• The scattered radiation produced by exposure made at
lower KV is low significance because it is of long
wavelength, has little penetrating power, and is largely
absorbed by adjacent tissues.
 Limitation of Scattered Radiation:
• - The scattered radiation is produced when kilovoltage
factors in the higher ranges are employed in order to
permit penetration of the thicker and denser areas of
tissue. In these cases, the production of scattered
radiation cannot be avoided, but its effect can be
minimized by:
a) Reducing the amount of tissue penetrated by the primary
beam.
b) Preventing back scatter.
c) Using a grid.
a) Reduction of the amount of tissue penetrated by the
primary beam:
 The X-ray beam should always be coned down in order to
restrict the actual area of the patient which radiography the
abdomen, the thickness can also be reduced by using a
compression band. It consists of a hand of cloth, 20 to
30cm wide, which is placed across the patient and hooked
into place on one side of the table. The other end of the
band fits into a roller on the opposite side of the table. The
band is tightened across the animal by turning the roller.
b)Prevention of back scatter:
Scattered radiation is produced, not only when
the primary beam passes through the patient,
but, also when the beam transvers the film and
reached the underlying table. Such scattered
radiation could be a significant cause of
blurring of the film. For this reason film
cassettes are normally backed with lead.
c)The use of a grid:
 Grid is a flat plate, 2 to 4 mm in thickness, and is made
in various film sizes. It consists of a fine strip of lead
which alternate with strips of plastic or aluminum
(radio translucent material). The grid is placed on the
top of the film cassette or incorporated into a special
cassette to protect from damage. The gird acts as a filter
and only allows radiation to travel in parallel lines to
the primary beam. Secondary radiation hitting the grid
from directions win be absorbed by the lead slats.
Cross-Sectional view of a focused grid (A) and parallel grid (B)
Dark Room and Radiographic
Processing
• Radiographic Dark Room:
• X-ray processing dark room must have the following requirements:
o Floor must be
 Not less than 2.5x2 m floor area.
 Easily washed and impervious to processing solutions (acid-proof cement,
earthenware tiles or terrazzo).
o Light proofing
 The room must be sealed in complete darkness.
 Doors must fit closely into the frame.
 Windows can be completely sealed (occasionally opened to let in fresh air
and sunshine).
 Inside lock of the door to prevent sudden opening during film processing.
o The walls & ceiling should be painted with white or cream enamel and the
part of the wall near the chemical should be protected by china tiles or
stainless steel.
o Clean room at all times (should not be used as storage).
• Dark Room Equipment:
• There are 2 main parts which must be kept far away from each other the
wet bench and the dry bench.

1. Dry Bench:
o The dry bench: on which the cassettes are unloaded and recharged with
fresh films.
o The top surface of the dry bench must be
 Large enough to accommodate the largest cassette when opened out.
 Of wood or linoleum
o Beneath the dry bench, there are store film boxes.
o The processing frames should hang above the bench each size alone
either in channel frame or clip frame.
❑ Film Cassettes:
• A cassette is a light-tight metal container which holds
the X-ray film and intensifying screens in close contact.
The front face, which is made of aluminum or plastic,
faces the tube. It is fixed to the back face, which is
more strongly made and incorporates the pressure pad
and a sheet of lead to absorb back scatter.
• Special cassettes will also hold a grid as well.
• Screens and cassettes are, of course, made in various
sizes to correspond with the standard film sizes.
❑ Intensifying Screens:
• A radiographic exposure can be made directly on the
photographic film, but this needs a relatively long exposure
time. It is usual to use calcium tungstate fluorescent screens
which have the property of transforming the invisible X-ray
image to a visible blue image.
• Film emulsion is more sensitive to blue light than to X-rays,
and thus, these screens intensify the effect of the X-ray beam
and reduce the amount of radiation necessary to produce a
radiograph to 1/10 to 1/15 of the amount required. This, in
turn, permits the use of brief exposure time.
❑ X-ray Films:
• X-ray film consists of a flexible base of either cellulose
acetate or polyester plastic coated on both sides with thin
layers of apple-green photographic emulsion.
• Emulsion consists of a special gelatin containing finely
dispersed tiny grains of silver halide.
• Type of X-ray films:
• 1) Screen films:
 Standard.
 Fast (suitable for veterinary radiology)
 Ultra-fast.
• 2) Nonscreen films:
This type of film has been developed for used
without intensifying screens and which
utilizes only the photographic effect of the X-
ray beam. Long exposure time is necessary.
Diagrammatic illustration of x ray cassete construction (A) and cross section (B)
2-Wet Bench:
o The wet bench is where the processing of the X-ray film is
carried out.
o The processing equipment should include set of four stainless
steel or porcelain tanks stand in a deep water jacket which
keeps the solutions at the correct working temperature of
20°C by thermostatic control:
 First for developer (9 liter tanks).
 Second for water
 Third for fixer (9 liter tanks).
 Fourth for films washing (at least 4 times larger than the
developer tank).
❑Safe lighting:
✓ X-ray film before processing is sensitive to white
light.
✓ A safe light is a box containing a low watt lamp
behind a specified filter.
✓ No safe lighting is safe if a film is exposed to it
for long a time.
• Radiographic processing:
• 1) Storage of unexposed X-ray film:
• Unexposed films should be stored in an upright position in a cool dry
place protected from any possible radiation.
• 2) Loading cassettes with X-ray films:
o The film is removed from the box with its proper holder.
o One side of the paper is folded back and grasped by the fingers which
are holding the edge of the film.
o The cassette-is-placed upon the bench and opened with one hand.
o The film then should be placed in it with the other hand and allowed to
drop softly into place as the holder paper is lifted away.
o Correct positioning of X-ray film within the cassette should be done by
touching only the corners, and then the cassette should be closed and
locked.
• 3) Storing of loaded X-ray cassettes:
o Loaded cassettes should be stored in
✓ Upright position
✓ Cool & dry place
✓ Dark room or radiographic room provided that they are
protected by lead shield from secondary X-rays.
• 4) Removing X-ray film from the cassette:
✓ Great care must be taken during removal of X-ray film from
the cassette to avoid damage to the intensifying screens.
✓ The room should be darkened.
✓ The top is opened slightly, the film is grasped and the cassette
is closed.
• 5) Placing the X-ray film on the film hanger
(frame):
✓ X-ray film is first clipped into the bottom clips of
the film hanger. After the bottom clips are
fastened, the film hanger should be turned over,
and the upper comers of the film are grasped and
attached to the top clips.
• 6) Developing of X-ray film:
• 7) Water rinse:
• 8) Fixation of X-ray film:
• 9) Washing of X-ray film:
• 10) Drying X-ray film:
• 11) Identification of X-ray film:
• 12) Care and storage of X-ray film: