Unit – II

Wireless Transmission Technology and Systems –

Radio Technology Primer – Available Wireless
Technologies – Hardware – Telosb, Mica Motes – Time
Synchronization – Synchronization problems – Basics
of time synchronization – Time Synchronization
Protocols – Localization – Ranging Techniques – Range
based localization – Range free localization – Event
driven localization
 Introduction
• To maximize the opportunity for widespread and cost-effective
deployment of WSN, one needs to make use of existing and/or
emerging commercial off the-shelf (COTS) wireless
communications and infrastructures rather than having to
develop an entirely new, specially designed apparatus.
• WSNs can use a number of wireless COTS technologies, such as
– Bluetooth/Personal Area Networks (PANs)
– ZigBee
– wireless LANs (WLAN)/hotspots
– broadband wireless access (BWA)/WiMax
– 3G
• Topics
– Basic primer on Radio Technology
– off-the-shelf technologies (IEEE family) that can be used by WSNs.
 Radio Technology Primer
• The electromagnetic spectrum provides an unguided
medium (channel) for point-to-point and/or broadcast
radio transmission.
• Radio transmission is usually (frequency)-band limited
by design.
• A transmission channel in general, and a radio-based
channel in particular, is never perfect because it is
subjected to external (and even internal) noise sources.
• A lot of radio-transmission engineering has to do with
how to deal with the noise problem;
• the goal is nearly always to optimize the signal-to-noise
ratio, subject to specified constraints (e.g., bandwidth
requirements, cost, reliability, power consumption,
equipment and antenna size).
 Propagation and Propagation
Impairments
• The most basic model of radio-wave propagation typically found in
WSN environments involves the direct or free-space wave .
• In this model, radio waves emanate from a point source of radio
energy, traveling in all directions in a straight line, filling the entire
spherical volume of space with radio energy that varies in strength.
 Propagation and Propagation
Impairments
• Three basic physical mechanisms affect radio
propagation:
• 1. Reflection. A propagating wave impinges on an
object that is large compared to the wavelength. (e.g.,
the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls).
• 2. Diffraction. A radio path between the transmitter
and receiver is obstructed by a surface with sharp
irregular edges; waves bend around the obstacle, even
when line of sight (LOS) does not exist.
• 3. Scattering. Objects smaller than the wavelength of
the propagating wave are encountered along the way
(e.g., foliage, street signs, lampposts).
• These phenomena cause radio signal distortions and
signal fading.
 Propagation and Propagation
Impairments
• Signal strength fluctuations caused by the fact that the composite
signal received comprises a number of components from the
various sources of reflections from different directions as well as
scattered and/or diffracted signal components affect both mobile
and stationary receivers, whether the receivers are indoors or
outdoors. In this phenomenon, called multipath, signal
fluctuations can occur.
• The intrinsic electromagnetic (radio) signal strength attenuation
caused by these phenomena is called a large-scale effect;
• signal-strength fluctuations related with the motion of the
broadcasting or receiving antenna are called small-scale effects.
• Reflection, diffraction, and scattering all give rise to additional
radio propagation paths beyond the direct line-of-sight path
between the radio transmitter and receiver;
 Propagation and Propagation
Impairments
• Multipath arises when more than one path is
available for radio signal propagation cause
reflections.
• When multiple signal propagation paths exist,
the actual signal level received is the vector sum
of all the signals incident from any direction or
angle of arrival.
• Some signals will aid (constructively reinforce)
the direct path;
• others will subtract (destructively interfere with
or vector-cancel out) from the direct signal path
 Propagation and Propagation
Impairments
• The impact of mobility on transmission
characteristics is fairly difficult to model exactly.
• Channel performance varies with user location and
time, and the radio propagation pattern is complex.
• One needs to deal with multipath scattering from
nearby objects, shadowing from dominant objects,
and attenuation effects from various physical
phenomena.
• All of these factors result in rapid fluctuations of
received power; even when the device mobile is
stationary, the signals received may fade, due to
movement of surrounding objects
 Propagation and Propagation
Impairments
• For indoor propagation applications, the signal decays much
faster: walls, floors, and furniture attenuate or scatter radio
signals; also, the coverage is restricted to the local environment
by walls and the like.
• The indoor signal strength received depends on the office plan,
construction materials, density of personnel, furniture, and so
on.
• The signal attenuation values for signals typically used in
networking and telecom applications depends on the used
frequency band.
• A drawback of higher-frequency bands (e.g., 5 GHz for IEEE
802.11a applications) compared to lower-frequency bands (e.g.,
2.4 GHz for IEEE 802.11b/g applications) is the shorter
wavelength of the signal at the higher band.
• Short-wavelength signals have more difficulty propagating
through physical obstructions encountered in an office (walls,
floors, and furniture) than do those at longer wavelengths.
Propagation and Propagation
Impairments
 Propagation and Propagation
Impairments
• In an industrial environment, care is needed when
placing sensors in order to minimize interference.
• One needs to keep WNs away from other sources of
radio-frequency interference (RFI), such as brush-
type electrical motors, other radio transmitters or
transceivers, or unshielded computer equipment
and/or cables.
• Sensors that must be located near such devices
should connect to the transceiver via a short piece of
shielded cable so that they can stay as far away as
possible from the source of the RFI.
 Propagation and Propagation
Impairments
• Interference can also be caused by other legitimate or illegitimate
users of a given frequency band.
• Interference can occur when a user starts to broadcast signal in a
band while in proximity to other transmitters and/or receivers.
• In the United States, most frequency bands are assigned by the
Federal Communications Commission(FCC) to a specific
(private) user or organization; (a few) other frequency bands can
be utilized by anyone.
• Use of the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band (at 2.4
GHz— more exactly, 2.412 to 2.484 GHz), and of the
Unlicensed Network Information
• Infrastructure (U-NII) band (at 5 GHz) does not require a
license.
• However, there still are technical guidelines that must be
followed in terms of the radiated power, radiation pattern, and so
on.
 Modulation
• Modulation is the overlay of an intelligent signal over an
underlying carrying signal, which is then transmitted over the
medium(be it a cable, wireless, or fiber-optic medium).
• Baseband applications are those applications where the coded
signal is carried directly over a medium without having to overlay
it onto a carrier signal.
• Non-baseband systems use modulation; baseband systems do
not.
• In traditional environments modulation allows transmission over
long distances (e.g., tens to hundreds of miles); baseband systems
usually are limited to the carriage of information over a fraction
of a mile.
• Traditional wired LAN systems are baseband systems: The
signal is encoded by some appropriate mechanism (e.g.,
Manchester encoding) and then transmitted over unshielded
twisted-pair cable.
 Modulation
• Three types of modulation typically used in radio
applications are amplitude modulation (AM),
frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation
(PM).
• In AM, the amplitude of the carrying signal is
modulated (summed over or superimposed) by (the
amplitude of) the incoming intelligence-bearing
signal.
• In FM, the frequency of the carrying signal is
modulated (summed over or superimposed) by (the
frequency of) the incoming intelligence-bearing
signal.
• In PM, the phase of the carrying signal is modulated
(summed over or superimposed) by (the phase of) the
incoming intelligence-bearing signal.
 Modulation
• In an AM environment, when the incoming intelligence-
bearing signal is digital (a sequence of 0 and 1 values),
the modulation process is called amplitude shift keying
(ASK).
• In an FM environment, when the incoming intelligence-
bearing signal is digital, the modulation process is called
frequency shift keying (FSK).
• In a PM environment, when the incoming intelligence-
bearing signal is digital, the modulation process is called
phase shift keying (PSK).
• When the incoming signal is interpreted as a sequence of
n bits at a time (e.g., 00, 01, 10, 11; or 000, 001,010, 011)
and a combination of PSK and ASK techniques are
used, the modulation process is called quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM).
 Modulation
• Spread-Spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an
electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated with a particular
bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a
signal with a wider bandwidth.
• These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the
establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural
interference, noise and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power
flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).
• Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs
and WANs). In wireless applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as
the medium for communication. Stations must be able to share this
medium without interception by an eavesdropper and without being
subject to jamming from a malicious intruder.
• To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy, they
spread the original spectrum needed for each station. If the required
bandwidth for each station is B, spread spectrum expands it to Bss such
that Bss >> B. The expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap its
message in a protective envelope for a more secure transmission.
 Modulation
• Spread spectrum achieves its goals through two principles:
• 1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger
than what is needed. This allows redundancy.
• 2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth Bss
must be done by a process that is independent of the original signal. In
other words, the spreading process occurs after the signal is created by
the source.
 Modulation
• There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth:
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

• The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) technique

uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by the
source signal.
• At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier frequency; at
the next moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency.
• Although the modulation is done using one carrier frequency at a
time, M frequencies are used in the long run.
• The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BpHSS
>> B.
Modulation
 Modulation
2.Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

• The direct sequence spread spectrum (nSSS)

technique also expands the bandwidth of the
original signal, but the process is different.
• In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits
using a spreading code.
• In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n
bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n times
that of the data bit.
Modulation
 Available Wireless Technologies
• IEEE PAN/LAN/MAN technologies are broadly implemented
technologies and are probably the ones utilized in the majority of
WSNs.
• Protocols determine the physical encoding of signal transmitted
as well as the data link layer framing of the information;
channel-sharing and data- and event-handling procedures are
also specified by the protocol. There are several wireless
protocols;
• The most widely used protocols are
• (1) the IEEE 802.15.1 (also known as Bluetooth);
• (2) the IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n series of wireless LANs;
• (3) the IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee);
• (4) the MAN-scope IEEE 802.16 (also known as WiMax); and
• (5) 3G.
Available Wireless Technologies
Available Wireless Technologies
 Available Wireless Technologies

• Campus Applications
– Bluetooth
– Wireless LANs
– Zigbee
• MAN/WAN Applications
– Cognitive Radios and IEEE 802.22
– 3G Cellular Networks
– 3GPP and 3GPP2
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth wireless technology is a short-range radio
technology, which is developed for Personal Area
Network (PAN).
• It is an ad hoc type network operable over a small area
such as a room.
• Bluetooth wireless technology makes it possible to
transmit signals over short distances between telephones,
computers and other devices and thereby simplify
communication and synchronization between devices.
• It is a global standard that:
– Eliminates wires and cables between both stationary and
mobile devices
– Facilitates both data and voice communication
– Offers the possibility of ad hoc networks and delivers the
ultimate synchronicity between all your personal devices
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is a dynamic standard where devices can automatically
find each other, establish connections, and discover what they
can do for each other on an ad hoc basis.
• Bluetooth is intended to be a standard that works at two levels:
– It provides agreement at the physical level -- Bluetooth is a radio-
frequency standard.
– It also provides agreement at the next level up, where products have
to agree on when bits are sent, how many will be sent at a time and
how the parties in a conversation can be sure that the message
received is the same as the message sent.
• Bluetooth is a standard for a small, cheap radio chip to be
plugged into computers, printers, mobile phones, etc.
• A Bluetooth chip is designed to replace cables by taking the
information normally carried by the cable, and transmitting it at
a special frequency to a receiver Bluetooth chip, which will then
give the information received to the computer, phone whatever.
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth version 1.2 allowed a maximum data rate
of 1 Mbps; this results in an effective throughput of
about 723 kbps.
• In late 2004, a new version of Bluetooth known as
Bluetooth version 2 was ratified; among other
features it included enhanced data rate (EDR).
• With EDR the maximum data rate is able to reach 3
Mbps (throughput of 2.1 Mbps) within a range of 10
m (up to 100 m with a power boost).
• Older and newer Bluetooth devices can work
together with no special effort.
 Bluetooth Topology
• There are two types of topology for Bluetooth – Piconet,
Scatternet. The Piconet is a small ad hoc network of
devices (normally 8 stations) .
• It has the following features:
o One is called Master and the others are called Slaves
o All slave stations synchronizes their clocks with the
master
o Possible communication - One-to-one or one-to-many
o There may be one station in parked state
o Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern/ID
o Each master can connect to 7 simultaneous or 200+
inactive (parked) slaves per piconet
Bluetooth Topology
Bluetooth Topology
 Bluetooth Topology
• By making one slave as master of another Piconet,
Scatternet is formed by combining several Piconets.
• Key features of the scatternet topology are
mentioned below:
– A Scatternet is the linking of multiple co-located
piconets through the sharing of common master or slave
devices.
– A device can be both a master and a slave.
– Radios are symmetric (same radio can be master or
slave).
– High capacity system, each piconet has maximum
capacity (720 Kbps)
Bluetooth Architecture
 Bluetooth Architecture
• Radio: The Radio layer defines the requirements for a Bluetooth
transceiver operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
• Baseband: The Baseband layer describes the specification of the
Bluetooth Link Controller (LC), which carries out the baseband
protocols and other low-level link routines. It specifies Piconet/Channel
definition, “Low-level” packet definition, Channel sharing
• LMP: The Link Manager Protocol (LMP) is used by the Link
Managers (on either side) for link set-up and control.
• HCI: The Host Controller Interface (HCI) provides a command
interface to the Baseband Link Controller and Link Manager, and
access to hardware status and control registers.
• L2CAP: Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP)
supports higher level protocol multiplexing, packet segmentation and
reassembly, and the conveying of quality of service information.
• SDP: The Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) provides a means for
applications to discover, which services are provided by or available
through a Bluetooth device. It also allows applications to determine the
characteristics of those available services.
 Wireless LANs
• IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE802 set of local area
network(LAN) technical standards, and specifies the set of
media access control(MAC) and physical layer(PHY) protocols
for implementing wireless local area network(WLAN) computer
communication.
• IEEE 802.11 is used in most home and office networks to allow
laptops, printers, smartphones and other devices to communicate
with each other and access the Internet without connecting
wires.
• The standards are created and maintained by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE)
LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). The base version
of the standard was released in 1997.
• As it shares the upper layers with other LAN standards, it is
relatively easy to bridge the IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs to other
IEEE 802.11 wired LANs to form an extended interconnected
wired and wireless LAN network.
 Topology
• Each computer, mobile, portable or fixed, is referred to as
a station in 802.11.
• Fundamental to the IEEE 802.11 architecture is the
concept of Basic Service Set (BSS) or wireless LAN cell.
• A BSS is defined as a group of stations that coordinate
their access to the medium under a given instance of
medium access control.
• The geographic area covered by a BSS is known as the
Basic Service Area (BSA), which is very similar to a cell
in a cellular communication network. All stations with in
a BSA with tens of meters in diameter may communicate
with each other directly.
• The 802.11 standard support the formation of two
distinct types of BSSs: ad hoc network and Infrastructure
BSS.
Topology
 Topology
• The first type of BSS is known as ad hoc network,
which consists of a group of stations within the
range of each other.
• Ad hoc networks are temporary in nature, which are
typically created and maintained as needed without
prior administrative arrangement.
• Ad hoc networks can be formed anywhere
spontaneously and can be disbanded after a limited
period of time.
• The second type of BSS is known as infrastructure
BSS (IBSS), which is commonly used in practice.
Topology
 Topology
• several BSSs are interconnected by a distribution system to form an
extended service set (ESS).
• The BSSs are like cells in a cellular communications network. Each
BSS is provided with an Access point (AP) that has station functionality
and provides access to the distribution system.
• APs operate on a fixed channel and remain stationary like base stations
in a cellular communication system.
• APs are located such that the BSSs they serve overlap slightly to
provide continuous service to all the stations.
• An ESS can also provide gateway access for wireless users into a wired
network. Each end station associates itself with one access point.
• Figure shows three BSSs interconnected through three APs to a
distribution system.
• If station A associated with AP-1 wants to send a frame to another
station associated with AP-2, the first sends a frame to its access point
(AP-1), which forwards the frame across the distribution system to the
access point AP-2. AP-2 finally delivers it to the destination station.
 Topology
• The 802.11 standard specifies how stations select their access
points. The technique used for this purpose is known as
scanning, which involves the following steps:
– A station sends a probe frame.
– All APs within reach reply with a probe response frame.
– The station selects one of the access points, and sends the AP an
Association Request frame.
– The AP replies with an Association Response frame.
• The above protocol is used when a station joins a network or
when it wants to discontinue association with the existing AP
because of weakened signal strength or some other reason.
• The above mechanism is known as active scanning, as the node
is actively searching for an access point.
• An access point also periodically sends Beacon frame that
advertises the capabilities of the access point. In response, a
station can associate to the AP simply by sending it an
Association request frame. This is known as passive scanning.
 IEEE 802.11 Extensions
• As the first standard was wrapping up, the creation
of a new standards activity begun in the 802.11
standards body. The new activity gave rise to two
more standards; IEEE 802.11 b and IEEE 802.11a.
• 802.11b: This standard was developed by IEEE with
the support from the consortium Wireless Ethernet
Compatibility Alliance (WECA). This standard is
backward compatible with the original standard that
added two new data rates 5.5 mbps and 11 Mbps
Because of backward compatibility with the 802.11,
this standard has gained wide popularity with
millions of installed base, which is growing rapidly.
 IEEE 802.11 Extensions
• 802.11a: The successor to 802.11b is 802.11a with greater
speed and at a different frequency. It operates at radio
frequencies between 5 GHz incorporating a coded multi-
carrier scheme known as Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multi-carrier (OFDM). The 5 GHz band is currently
unlicensed and less congested than the 2.4 GHz ISM
band. The 802.11a specifies data speed as high as 54
mbps, also supports 6, 12, 24, and 34 mbps. There is
trade off between bandwidth and range - lower
bandwidth cases offering increases range. For 54 mbps,
the typical range is 20-30 meters. The 802.11a and
802.11b devices can coexist without interference or
reduced performance.
• 802.11g: The success of 802.11b has led to another
extension that provides 22 Mbps transmission. It retains
backward compatibility with the popular 802.11b
standard.
 ZigBee
• In this present communication world, there are numerous high
data rate communication standards that are available, but none
of these meet the sensors’ and control devices’ communication
standards.
• These high-data-rate communication standards require low-
latency and low-energy consumption even at lower bandwidths.
• The available proprietary wireless systems’ Zigbee technology is
low-cost and low-power consumption and its excellent and
superb characteristics make this communication best suited for
several embedded applications, industrial control, and home
automation, and so on.
• The Zigbee technology range for transmission distances mainly
ranges from 10 – 100 meters based on the output of power as
well as environmental characteristics.
 ZigBee
• Zigbee communication is specially built for control and sensor
networks on IEEE 802.15.4 standard for wireless personal area
networks (WPANs), and it is the product from Zigbee alliance.
• This communication standard defines physical and Media Access
Control (MAC) layers to handle many devices at low-data rates. These
Zigbee’s WPANs operate at 868 MHz, 902-928MHz, and 2.4 GHz
frequencies.
• The data rate of 250 kbps is best suited for periodic as well as
intermediate two-way transmission of data between sensors and
controllers.
• Zigbee is a low-cost and low-powered mesh network widely deployed
for controlling and monitoring applications where it covers 10-100
meters within the range. This communication system is less expensive
and simpler than the other proprietary short-range wireless sensor
networks as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
• Zigbee supports different network configurations for the master to
master or master to slave communications. And also, it can be operated
in different modes as a result the battery power is conserved. Zigbee
networks are extendable with the use of routers and allow many nodes
to interconnect with each other for building a wider area network.
 ZigBee Architecture
• The MAC layer of the IEEE 802.15.4
introduced two types of physical device, the
full-function-device, FFD and the reduced-
function-device, RFD. The main differences
are summarised in the following table:
 ZigBee Architecture

• The RFD requires only limited RAM and ROM

resources and is thus less expensive.
• ZigBee RFDs can search for available networks,
transfer data from its application, request data from
the network co-ordinator, and sleep for extended
periods of time to increase battery life.
• RFDs can talk only to a FFD.
• The FFD can serve as a network co-ordinator, a
router or as an end device.
• Any FFD can discover and talk to other FFD and
RFDs.
 ZigBee Architecture
• Three logical device in Zigbee:
• ZigBee network co-ordinator;
• ZigBee router;
• ZigBee end device.
 ZigBee Architecture
• Co-ordinator:
• The co-ordinator is a FFD device, responsible for creating the
network, assigning network channel, assigning network
addresses and adding other nodes to the network.
• There can be only one co-ordinator node for a given ZigBee
network.
• The co-ordinator is normally powered via the electricity mains,
and so is usually located in a fixed position. As a result, it is often
convenient to use this node to access the network.
• New child nodes can usually join the network at any time if the
co-ordinator is switched on,
• If the co-ordinator is switched off, new nodes are unable to join
but nodes that already have an address on the network, such as
sleeping end devices and roaming devices, will still run correctly.
 ZigBee Architecture
• Router:
• The router is a FFD device, responsible for
buffering packets, and routing signals between nodes.
• It can be used to extend the range of the network.
• It is also normally mains powered so that it can
maintain routing, and also buffer any data sent to a
sleeping node.
• Since router nodes are also usually located in a
fixed position, due to the power requirements, they
too can be used to access the network - useful if the
co-ordinator has been disabled to stop any new
nodes joining the network.
 ZigBee Architecture
• End Device:
• This is used to communicate between the network and
the real world, and is either a FFD or a RFD device. For
example end devices can be placed into sensors, switches,
displays, actuators etc.
• End devices are low in power consumption, and are
highly suited to battery operation.
• They can be placed in sleep mode to further reduce
power consumption.
• End device nodes cannot communicate directly with
other end device nodes. Instead, they communicate
through routers or the network co-ordinator.
ZigBee Architecture
 ZigBee Network Topologies
• The Network layer of the ZigBee stack
recognises three topologies:
• Star topology
• Cluster tree topology
• Mesh topology
ZigBee Network Topologies
 ZigBee Network Topologies
• A star network consists of one network co-
ordinator and one or more end devices.
• All end devices communicate only with the co-
ordinator, so that when an end device needs to
transfer data to another end device, it sends its
data via the co-ordinator.
• The star network is termed a single-hop
network, as the co-ordinator is only a single
hop (link) away. The reliability of this type of
network is reduced because of the single point
of failure, the co-ordinator.
ZigBee Network Topologies
 ZigBee Network Topologies
• In the cluster tree topology, the co-ordinator, the parent, is linked
to a number of routers and end devices, its children.
• In turn, a router may then be linked to more routers and end
devices, its children. Routers serve two functions:
• They increase the number of nodes that can join the network.
• They extend the physical range of the network, so that an end
device does not have to be within radio range of the co-ordinator.
• In a cluster tree topology, a child can directly communicate only
with its parent (and with no other node). A parent can directly
communicate with only its children and with its own parent. As
in the star topology, end devices cannot communicate directly
with each other. Messages are routed through a router or through
the co-ordinator. There may be a number of possible paths
between source and destination. The router chooses an
appropriate route from these. This type of topology is called
multi-hop.
ZigBee Network Topologies
 ZigBee Network Topologies
• The mesh network is a modification of the cluster tree topology:
• The co-ordinator is linked to a set of routers and end devices,
its children.
• A router may be linked to more routers and end devices as its
children.
• However, communication is more flexible. RFD end devices are
still unable to communicate with each other directly. FFD end
devices, however, can communicate directly, without having to
follow the tree structure. Messages to RFDs must still go through
the RFD’s parent node.
• The advantages of this topology are:
• message latency (delay) can be reduced by route optimisation;
• reliability is increased, as there are alternative routes available,
should a link go down.

• This is also a multi-hop network.

 Cognitive Radios
• Studies have shown that most of this spectrum scarcity is
concentrated in the unlicensed bands; this is where the major
advancements in spectrum use have taken place (e.g.,Wi-Fi,
cordless phones).
• Licensed bands, however, typically experience considerable
underutilization.
• CR-based approaches represent a new paradigm in wireless
communications that aims at utilizing the large amount of
underused spectrum in an intelligent way while not interfering
with other incumbent devices in frequency bands already
licensed for specific uses.
• The IEEE 802.22 wireless regional area network (WRAN)
standard is the first worldwide project to employ CR concepts for
dynamically sharing spectrum with television broadcast signals.
• IEEE 802.22 seeks to develop a standard for a cognitive radio-
based PHY–MAC–air interface for use by license-exempt devices
on a noninterfering basis in spectrum allocated to the television
broadcast service.
 Cognitive Radios
• Cognitive radio—where a device can sense its environment and
location and then alter its power, frequency, modulation, and
other parameters so as to dynamically reuse available spectrum—
is now just emerging.
• CR can, in theory, allow multidimensional reuse of spectrum in
space, frequency, and time, obliterating the spectrum and
bandwidth limitations that have slowed broadband wireless
development in the United States and elsewhere.
• This new technology is in a way similar to software-defined radio
(SDR). With SDR the software embedded in a radio cell phone,
for example, can define the parameters under which the phone
should operate in real time as its user moves from place to place;
traditional cell phone parameters, by contrast, are relatively fixed
in terms of frequency band and protocol.
• A SDR is a flexible wireless communications device that
implements its signal processing entirely in software: Software
radios can easily change such features as modulation, bandwidth,
and coding, which are fixed in more traditional radios.
 3G Cellular Networks
• Mobile communications technology has
evolved from first-generation (1G) analog
voice-only communications to second-
generation (2G) digital, voice, and data
communications.
• The demand for more cost-effective and
feature-enhanced mobile applications has
led to the development of new-generation
wireless systems (or simply 3G).
 3G Cellular Networks
• Wireless telecommunications started as a subdiscipline of
wireline telephony, and the absence of global standards resulted
in regional standardization.
• Two major mobile telecommunications standards have emerged:
– time-division multiple access/code-division multiple access
(TDMA/CDMA) developed by the Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA) in North America, and
– Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) developed by
the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in
Europe.
• As one moves toward third-generation (3G) wireless services,
there is a need to develop standards that are more global in
scope.
• 3GPP – Third Generation Partnership Project
– development of standards for a 3G mobile system with a core
network based on evolutions of the GSM
• 3GPP2
– A 3G partnership initiative established by American National
Standards Institute(ANSI)
 3G Cellular Networks
• A strategic group called International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 (IMT- 2000) within the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) was established which focused
its work on defining interfaces between 3G networks evolved
from GSM on the one hand and ANSI on the other, with the
goal of enabling seamless roaming between 3GPP and 3GPP2
networks.
• Because of the worldwide (‘‘universal’’) roaming characteristic,
3GPP started referring to 3G mobile systems as the Universal
Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS). Since then, there
has been advocacy for and progress toward an all-IP UMTS
network architecture.
• The all-IP UMTS specifications replaced the earlier circuit-
switched transport technologies by utilizing packet-switched
transport technologies, and introduce multimedia support in the
UMTS core network