Thermal properties of materials 1

1. Kinetic model In order to 'change state' energy is either

1. Gases, liquids and solids are all made up 'taken in' or 'given out'.
of atoms, molecules, and/or ions, but the 4. The temperature is constant during a
behaviour of these particles differ in the three change of state, e.g. during melting or boiling,
phases. even though energy is absorbed. This
2. Particles in a energy is called the latent (or hidden) heat
 gases are well separated with no because it does not produce a change of
regular arrangement. temperature.
 liquid are close together with no 5. The average kinetic energy of the
regular arrangement. molecules stays constant, but the latent heat
 solid are tightly packed, usually in a supplied increases the potential energy of the
regular pattern. molecules, as they break free from the
Particles in a: attraction of their neighbouring particles.
 gases vibrate and move freely at high 6. The latent heat of vaporisation is higher
speeds. than the latent heat of fusion for the same
substance. There is a large change in volume
 liquid vibrate, move about, and slide
when a liquid changes to a vapour, so the
past each other.
molecular separation in the gaseous phase is
 solid vibrate but generally do not move
several times that in the liquid phase. The
from place to place.
energy used to increase the potential energy
of the molecules is greater during
2. Changes of state vaporisation. The latent heat also supplies
1. Particles in a body have a mixture of energy for the vapour to do external work in
kinetic energy and potential energy. The pushing back the atmosphere when the liquid
molecules have kinetic energy because they changes to a vapour.
are constantly in motion and potential energy
because they are held by attractive Evaporation and boiling
intermolecular forces and energy is needed to 1. Evaporation takes place over a wide range
separate them. of temperatures, whereas boiling takes place
2. Kinetic energy determines the temperature takes place at a single temperature. Unlike
of the body and potential energy determines boiling, evaporation is affected by surface
the state of the body. area and wind. Both are affected by
3. Matter can be in four states like solid, pressure.
liquid, gas and plasma.
2.

Evaporation occurs because some of the

molecules in the liquid have more energy
than other molecules. These fast moving
molecules are able to escape from the
attraction of their neighbouring molecules and
leave the surface to form a vapour outside.
The average kinetic of the molecules left
 Thermal properties of materials 2
behind decreases, so the temperature of the 1. The principle is to supply a known amount
liquid falls. Hence evaporation has a cooling of energy to a known mass of material and
effect. measure the rise in temperature.
3. The boiling point of a liquid is defined as
the temperature at which its saturated vapour
pressure (SVP) becomes equal to the
external atmospheric pressure. The space
above a liquid is saturated with its vapour and
the pressure it exerts is called the saturated
vapour pressure. When a liquid is heated the
SVP increases, and when it becomes equal
to the external atmospheric pressure boiling
occurs and bubbles of vapour form in the
liquid.

3. Specific Heat Capacity and

specific latent heat

1. Specific Heat Capacity

1. The temperature rise (∆ T ) of an object
when it is heated depends on:
 the amount of energy supplied (ΔQ)
 its mass (m)
 what the substance is made of, e.g.
water or copper 2. The metal block of mass 1 kg is heated
∆Q using an electrical heater, while keeping the
∆T ∝
m current and p.d. constant. Measurements of
∆ Q=m c ∆ θ the temperature are taken with time, as
where c is the constant of proportionality, shown.
called the specific heat capacity of the If the power of the heater is 50 W and the rise
material. in temperature is 16.4 °C in 400 s.
2. The specific heat capacity (c) of a ΔQ=m c Δθ
substance is the heat energy required to ΔQ Δθ
=m c
increase the temperature of 1 kg of the t ∆t
substance by 1 °C or 1 K. The unit of specific 16.4
50=1.0 x c x
heat capacity (c) is J kg-1 K-1 or J kg-1 C-1 400
3. The heat capacity (C) of an object is the c = 1220 J kg-1 K-1
heat energy required to increase the object’s 3. Heat losses to the surroundings have
temperature by 1 °C or 1 K. The unit of heat been neglected, so the value obtained is too
capacity (C) is J K-1 or J °C-1. high. The block is insulated to reduce heat
heat capacity C loss. Another way is to cool the block below
specific heat capacity , c=
mass m room temperature before heating it. Then turn
C the heater off when the block is at an
c=
m equivalent temperature above room
temperature. The block will gain energy from
the surroundings when it is below room
temperature and lose an equal amount when
it is above room temperature. The block
should be heated at a low rate so the heat
spreads throughout the block.

Measuring specific heat capacity

 Thermal properties of materials 3
2. Specific Latent Heat
1. The specific latent heat of fusion of a
material (lf) is the energy required to change Answer
the state of 1 kg of the material from solid to electrical energy supplied = power x time
liquid without a change of temperature. The = 60 W x (4 x 60) s
unit is J kg-1 = 14 400 J
The specific latent heat of vaporization (lv) is energy transferred when ice melts = m l
the energy required to change the state of = 48 x 10-3 x l
1 kg of the material from liquid to vapour ∆ Q=ml
without a change of temperature. ∆Q 14400
l= =
The unit is J kg-1 m 48 x 10−3
∆Q ∆Q = 3 x 105 J kg-1
lf = and lv =
m m The result is too low because the ice gains
heat from the surroundings. The specific
Measuring the specific latent heat of latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.3 x 105 J kg-1
vaporisation of water.
Approximate method To allow for the heat gained, the experiment
An immersion heater of power 60 W is used should be done twice, for the same length of
to boil some water in a beaker. While the time, once with the heater off and once with it
water is boiling, the balance reading falls from on. The first experiment is the control. The
280 g to 273g in 5 minutes. What is the ice actually melted by the heater is the
specific latent heat of vaporization of water? difference between the masses in the two
Why is the result too high? experiments.

Answer The continuous-flow calorimeter

electrical energy supplied = energy 1. This was first developed by Callender and
transferred when water is vaporized Barnes in 1902 for the measurement of the
∆ Q=ml specific heat capacity of a liquid, and is
power x time = 60 W x (5 x 60) s shown in Figure 2.
= 18 000 J 2. Its main advantage is that the thermal
mass evaporated = (280-273)g capacity of the apparatus itself need not be
= 7 x 10-3 kg known.
∆ Q=ml
∆ Q 18000
l= =
m 7 x 10−3
= 2.6 x 106 J kg-1 (2 s.f.)
The result is too high because heat loss to
the surroundings has been neglected.
The specific latent heat of vaporisation of
water is 2.3 x 106 J kg-1.
schoolphysics.co.uk

Measuring the specific latent heat of 3. Liquid flows in from a constant-head

fusion of ice apparatus at a constant rate past a
Approximate method thermometer (θ1). It then flows around the
An immersion heater of power 60 W is used heater coil and out past a second
to melt some ice in a funnel, 48 g of water thermometer where the outlet temperature
was produced in 4 minutes. Calculate the (θ2) may be measured.
specific latent heat of fusion of ice. Why is 4. When steady-state conditions have been
the result too low? reached (a temperature difference between
inlet and outlet points of 5oC is reasonable)
the temperatures and the flow rate of the
liquid are measured. A vacuum jacket round
the heater coil reduces heat losses.
 Thermal properties of materials 4
5. The electrical energy supplied to the potential energies associated with the
heater coil (E = V I t) may be found with an molecules of a system.
ammeter and voltmeter, or with a joulemeter. 4. The internal energy of a gas can be
6. Two sets of measurements are carried increased by either
out. For a first experiment we have: (i) heating the body. The molecules gain
Electrical energy supplied kinetic energy when they collide with the hot
E1 = V1I1t1 = m1 c (θ2 – θ1) + H container walls and bounce off faster (or if a
fuel is burnt within it), or
where c is the specific heat capacity of the (ii) doing work on the body. Gas molecules
liquid and the heat loss to the surroundings are struck by a piston moving downwards and
and to the apparatus. bounce off faster, gaining kinetic energy in
7. The flow rate and rate of energy input are the same way as a ball gains kinetic energy
now altered to give a second set of results. when struck by a moving bat. This explains
However, if the inlet and outlet temperatures why a gas becomes hotter when
are the same as in the first experiment the compressed.
heat loss will also be the same. Therefore:
Electrical energy supplied (i) heating (ii) doing work
E2 = V2I2t2 = m2 c (θ2 – θ1) + H

8. Eliminating the heat loss (H) gives:

Specific heat capacity of the liquid

c = (E2 – E1) / (m2 – m1) (θ2 – θ1)

4. First Law of Thermodynamics

1. Thermodynamics is the study of heat and
its transformation to mechanical energy in a
5. The First Law of thermodynamics in
system.
equation form applied to a gas is:
2. A system is a well defined group of
objects, e.g. atoms or molecules whose
Increase in internal energy (ΔU)
energy is being measured. An example of a
= Heat energy supplied (ΔQ)
system is the petrol air mixture in the cylinder
+ Work done on the gas (ΔW)
of a car engine.
ΔU = ΔQ+ ΔW
6. The first law of thermodynamics is the law
of conservation of energy, i.e. energy cannot
be created or destroyed but it can be
transferred from one form to another.
7. The first law of thermodynamics states:
The internal energy of a system depends
(i) only on its state; and
(ii) the increase in internal energy of a system
(ΔU) equals the sum of the energy supplied
schoolphysics.co.uk to the system by heating (ΔQ) and the work
done on the system (ΔW).
Adding heat to the mixture or igniting it ΔU = ΔQ+ ΔW
increases its internal energy, and the mixture 8. The work done by an expanding gas is
may do work on a piston and cause it to given by
move. Δ W = p ΔV .
3. The internal energy of a system depends If the volume of the gas is decreased by ΔV,
on the state of the system and is the sum of then p ΔV is the work done on the gas.
the random distribution of kinetic and ΔU = ΔQ+ p ΔV
 Thermal properties of materials 5
+ positive - negative When first switched on,
ΔU internal energy or internal energy or the work done on the electrons ΔW, is equal
temperature temperature to the electrical energy supplied,
increases decreases ΔW = 48 J, ΔQ = 0, ΔU = 48 J
ΔQ heat or thermal heat or thermal the temperature of the bulb increases.
energy going into energy going out of
the system system
ΔW surroundings system doing work
doing work on the on the Example 4
system, surroundings, Find the increase in potential energy of a
gas is contracting gas is expanding molecule of water when changing from liquid
at 100 °C to vapour at 100 °C.
Example 1
If 100 J of energy is added to a system that ( lv = 2.26 x 10 6 J kg-1, steam at 100 °C and
does no external work, by how much does normal atmospheric pressure has a density of
the internal energy of the system increase. 0.59 kg m-3. Normal atmospheric pressure
= 1.01 x 10 5 Pa. Density of water
Answer = 1000 kg m-3.)
ΔU = ΔQ+ ΔW , ΔW = 0
ΔU = ΔQ + 0 = 100 J Answer
∆U= 100 J volume of 1 kg of water at 100 °C
= mass/ density = 1 kg/ 1000 = 0.001 m3

volume of 1 kg of steam at 100 °C

Example 2. = 1 kg/ 0.59 = 1.695 m3
If 100 J of energy is added to a system that change in volume = 1.695 – 0.001 = 1.694 m 3
does 40 J of external work, what is the
increase in internal energy of the system? work done against atmosphere
= p ΔV = 1.01 x 105 Pa x 1.694 m3
Answer = 0.171 x 10 6 J
ΔU = ΔQ+ ΔW
ΔQ = 100 J ΔW = - 40 J total energy supplied = lv = 2.26 x 106 J kg-1
ΔU = 100 – 40 = 60 J increase in potential energy of the molecules
= 2.26 x 106 - 0.171 x 10 6
= 2.1 x 106 J

Example 3. Note: work done against atmosphere <

A 24 W filament bulb has been switched on increase in potential energy of the molecules.
for some time. Apply the first law of
thermodynamics during a period of 2 s of the For 1 mole,
lamps operation, and when first switched on. the number of molecules is 6.x 10 23
gain in potential energy of a molecule
Answer = (18 x 10-3 kg x 2.1 x 106 J) / 6.x 10 23
energy = power x time = 24 W x 2 s = 48 J, = 6.3 x 10-20 J molecule-1
ΔU = ΔQ+ ΔW
During operation,
ΔW = 48 J, this is the work done on the bulb
by the power source,
ΔQ = - 48 J, this is the energy transferred
from the bulb to the surroundings.
ΔU = 0

Example 5
 Thermal properties of materials 6
(a) Suppose the gas in a cylinder expands p V =constant .
from P to Q, in such a way that the
temperature remains constant. The gas is Using, ΔU = ΔQ+ ΔW ,
then compressed from Q to R at constant There is no change in temperature, ΔU = 0.
pressure and then heated at constant volume Work is done by the gas as it expands, ΔW is
back to P. What is the net work done by the negative. The gas takes in heat from the
gas? surroundings to keep the temperature
(b) In the graph below, what is constant, so ΔQ is positive, (equal to the work
(i) an isothermal change, done.)
(ii) an isobaric change and
(iii) an isovolumetric change? (ii) Isobaric change.
State what changes take place to ΔU, ΔQ This is a change from Q to R when the gas is
and ΔW during these changes? cooled at constant pressure, (or from R to Q.)
The pressure remains constant. Charles’ law
P / Pa applies,
V
=constant (at constant pressure).
P T

From ΔU = ΔQ+ ΔW ,
The temperature is decreasing, ΔU is
negative. The gas is contracting, work is
done on it, and so ΔW is positive. Heat is
removed from the gas to keep the pressure
R Q constant, so ΔQ is positive.

(iii) Iso-volumetric change.

This is a change from R to P. The gas is
warmed at constant volume so its pressure
S T V/m3 increases. The pressure law applies
p
=constant (at constant volume).
Answer T
(a) Pressure-volume graphs, called indicator
diagrams, can be used to show the cycle of From ΔU = ΔQ+ ΔW ,
changes taking place in the cylinder of an There is no change in volume, so no work is
engine. The work done on or by a gas can done, ΔW is zero.
be found from the area under the graph, Heat goes into the system to raise the
pressure, so ΔQ is positive.(= +),
Since, ΔW = p ΔV = area under the graph. The internal energy increases, ΔU is positive,
From P to Q, (and equal to the heat going in.)
the work done by the gas = area PQST
From Q to R, Adiabatic change
the work done on the gas = area RQST This is an expansion or contraction in which
Along RP, no heat enters or leaves the gas.
no work is done since there is no change in From ΔU = ΔQ+ ΔW ,
volume. ΔQ is zero as no heat enters the system,
Net work done by the gas = shaded area Work is done by the gas as it expands, so
enclosed PQR ΔW is negative.
ΔU is negative, the internal energy is
(b) (i) Isothermal change decreasing. Work is done by the gas at the
This is a change from P to Q. The gas is expense of the internal energy, so the gas
expanding at constant temperature (or cools.
contracting at constant temperature from Q to
P.) Isothermals are constant temperature
curves. Boyle’s law applies,