See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/326474695

From Drone-Based Remote Sensing to Digital Outcrop Modeling: Integrated

Workflow for Quantitative Outcrop Interpretation

Article · January 2018

DOI: 10.4172/2469-4134.1000237

CITATIONS READS

2 839

3 authors, including:

Mohammed I. Fallatah
Saudi Aramco
10 PUBLICATIONS   9 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Mohammed I. Fallatah on 27 September 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 mote Sen
Re Mezghani et al., J Remote Sensing & GIS 2018,

si
f
Journal o

ng
7:2

& GIS
DOI: 10.4172/2469-4134.1000237

ISSN: 2469-4134 Journal of Remote Sensing & GIS

Research Article Open Access

From Drone-Based Remote Sensing to Digital Outcrop Modeling:

Integrated Workflow for Quantitative Outcrop Interpretation
Mokhles M Mezghani*, Mohammed I Fallatah and AbdulJaleel A AbuBshait
Department Advanced Research Center, Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
*Corresponding author: Mokhles M Mezghani, Department Advanced Research Center, Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, Tel: +966 13 873-7969; E-mail:

[email protected]
Rec date: April 03, 2018; Acc date: April 17, 2018; Pub date: April 20, 2018
Copyright: © 2018 Mezghani MM, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Abstract

Oil and gas exploration applies numerical modeling techniques to understand the development of hydrocarbon-
bearing basins and to provide quantitative subsurface models. The accuracy of any prediction depends on several
factors, such as the modeling approach, data acquisition, and data interpretation. Unfortunately, in the oil and gas
industry the quantity of reliable data available to build models is very limited compared to the size of sedimentary
basins.

Outcrops are valuable sources of information that should be used to characterize the subsurface. Unfortunately,
we are far from achieving the objective of fully benefiting from outcrops. Despite the fact that an outcrop is directly
accessible, its quantitative modeling and integration remain an issue. Usually, we organize field trips where several
experienced geologists are involved to collect descriptive data from outcrops, which include rock samples, measured
sections, and photos. The outcomes from these field trips are mainly conceptual and qualitative models of the
surface geology without any quantitative impact on the subsurface modeling and characterization workflows.
Moreover, accessibility to cliffs or canyons in any outcrop is a major safety obstacle when conducting field trips.

The main goal of this work is to investigate and develop new technologies for high resolution 3D outcrop
modeling (cm to mm scale). High resolution outcrop models will constitute a virtual dataset that a geologist can visit
at any time from his desktop. The proposed solution for this challenge is to develop an integrated workflow for
remote geological assessment based on drones and remote sensing technologies. The general workflow starts with
the selection of an area of interest using any geographic information system (GIS) to plan the flight route of the
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). This is then followed by selection of the model type, for instance digital elevation,
texture, and/or mineral composition as well as the required resolution. After acquiring the data using drones
equipped with the appropriate sensors, we proceed to data processing, where the acquired data is converted to
geological models that geologists can use to study the outcrop. Finally, general-purpose software is used for outcrop
model visualization. This workflow was successfully applied to the Wadi Dirab outcrop in Central Saudi Arabia.

Keywords: Geology; Drone; Remote sensing; Geographic that an outcrop is directly accessible, its quantitative modeling and
information system integration remain an issue. We usually organize field trips where
several experienced geologists are involved, to collect descriptive data
Introduction from outcrops, which include rock samples, measured sections, and
photos. The outcomes from these field trips are mainly conceptual and
Oil and gas exploration applies numerical modeling techniques to qualitative models of the surface geology without any quantitative
understand the development of hydrocarbon-bearing basins and to impact on the subsurface modeling and characterization workflows.
provide quantitative subsurface models. The accuracy of any prediction Moreover, accessibility to cliffs or canyons in any outcrop is a major
depends on several factors such as the modeling approach, data safety obstacle when conducting field trips.
acquisition, and data interpretation. Unfortunately, in the oil and gas
industry, the quantity of reliable data available to build models is The main goal of this work is to investigate alternative technologies
limited compared to the size of sedimentary basins. Indeed, only cores for high resolution 3D outcrop modeling (cm to mm scale). High
collected from relatively few exploration and development wells resolution outcrop models will constitute a virtual dataset that a
provide direct and quantitative subsurface information. In contrast, geologist can visit at any time from his desktop, and extract in real-
sedimentary rocks outcrops, by their areal coverage and direct time any piece of information/data needed. These could then be easily
accessibility to geologists, provide excellent analogues to the subsurface integrated in the subsurface modeling workflow to enhance
that should be quantitatively integrated to the reservoir characterization and reduce uncertainties. The proposed solution for
characterization and modeling workflow. this challenge is to develop an integrated workflow for remote
geological assessment based on drones and remote sensing
Outcrops are valuable sources of information that should be used to technologies.
characterize the subsurface. Unfortunately, we are far from achieving
the objective of fully benefiting from outcrops. Indeed, despite the fact The general workflow starts with the selection of an area of interest
using any geographic information system (GIS) to plan the flight route

J Remote Sensing & GIS, an open access journal Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000237
ISSN: 2469-4134
Citation: Mezghani MM, Fallatah MI, Abubshait AA (2018) From Drone-Based Remote Sensing to Digital Outcrop Modeling: Integrated Workflow
for Quantitative Outcrop Interpretation. J Remote Sensing & GIS 7: 237. doi:10.4172/2469-4134.1000237

Page 2 of 7

of the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). This is then followed by

selection of the model type, for instance digital elevation, texture,
and/or mineral composition as well as the required resolution. This
information is needed to select suitable sensors and drones for the data
acquisition. After acquiring the data using drones equipped with the
appropriate sensors, we proceed to data processing, where the acquired
data is converted to geological models that geologists can use to study
the outcrop. The need for millimeter-scale resolution requires intensive
computational resources to be able to process large data volumes in
reasonable amounts of time.
Finally, general-purpose software is used for outcrop model
visualization. In addition, specific tools can be developed for
geoscientists to facilitate the interaction between the geologists and the
virtual outcrop, e.g., for horizon picking, or core extraction. This
workflow was successfully applied to the Wadi Dirab outcrop in central
Saudi Arabia. Multiple models were generated with resolutions ranging
from 2 cm (as a baseline resolution) to 1 mm (for targeted locations/
measured sections). Such high-resolution outcrop models are a key Figure 1: Google Earth image showing the study area (modified
step in providing analogues for subsurface reservoirs that will after Fallatah and Kerans, 2018).
consolidate our understanding of their vertical and lateral
heterogeneities as well as facies architecture within them. Although
this new workflow still has to be validated and can be fundamentally In contrast, the presence of echinoderm species Pygurus smelthei
improved, it already demonstrated its usefulness for geological outcrop and Polycyphus parvituberculatus found in the upper Ulayyah
documentation and modelling in remote areas. Member of the Hanifa, the top of the formation is assigned to Late
Oxfordian-Early Kimmeridgian age [4]. The lateral extension of Wadi
Materials and Methods Dirab outcrop (5,000,000 m2), the thickness of the Hanifa formation
(113 m), the number of needed measured sections (7 measured
Wadi dirab: The hanifa formation sections), and the risk associated with difficult access to most of the
outcrop made this location an excellent candidate to test and validate
The economic conventional hydrocarbon accumulations found this new workflow combining drone-based remote sensing and digital
within the Hanifa Formation, as well as its potential for photogrammetry (Figures 3 and 4).
unconventional plays, make it one of the important Jurassic units in
Saudi Arabia. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the Hanifa
Formation surface geology could provide real 3-D analogues for the
reservoir in the subsurface. Such analogues would provide information
about the depositional facies and their vertical and lateral
relationships, which in turn will help address facies architecture and
flow units when constructing reservoir models for simulation.
Recent work by Fallatah and Kerans [1] examined the Hanifa
Formation at a regional scale at its exposure in the Tuwaiq Mountains
in Central Arabia (Figure 1). The study detailed the sedimentology and
stratigraphy of the formation and recognized areas that have exposures
of reservoir facies. One of these areas is Wadi Dirab, where the
complete section of the Hanifa Formation with its contacts with
underlying and overlying formations is exposed.
The Hanifa is preceded by the Tuwaiq Mountain Limestone and
succeeded by the Jubaila Formation (Figure 2). Hughes et al. [2]
recognized the basal contact with the Tuwaiq Mountain Limestone as a
paraconformity surface whereas a disconformity was recognized for
the upper contact with the Jubaila Formation. Based on the ammonite
Euaspidoceras perarmatum identified in the lower member of the Figure 2: Stratigraphy of the Late Jurassic of central Saudi Arabia.
formation, Hawtah, the Hanifa Formation is assigned to Oxfordian age The time scale of Gradstein et al. [5] is used for stratigraphic ages
[3,4]. (modified after Hughes [6]).

J Remote Sensing & GIS, an open access journal Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000237
ISSN: 2469-4134
Citation: Mezghani MM, Fallatah MI, Abubshait AA (2018) From Drone-Based Remote Sensing to Digital Outcrop Modeling: Integrated Workflow
for Quantitative Outcrop Interpretation. J Remote Sensing & GIS 7: 237. doi:10.4172/2469-4134.1000237

Page 3 of 7

unmanned air vehicles (drones), as well as supercomputers to process

the acquired digital images in parallel mode.
Digital photogrammetry (close-range and aerial) is applied to digital
images that can be scanned from existing paper photographs or
directly captured by digital cameras. The output products are models
in digital form, such as digital maps, digital elevation models (DEM),
digital ortho-images, and textural models (Figure 6).
The mathematical background behind digital photogrammetry has
been well-established through different techniques, for instance, image
registration, image processing, and triangulation. The development of
new algorithms based on emerging computing hardware (parallel
computing, GPUs, etc.) is highly needed. Several programs exist to
automate the complex tasks associated with “non-digital”
photogrammetry, and to easily handle the huge amount of data
acquired with high-resolution cameras mounted on drones.

Figure 3: Wadi Dirab outcrop overview-Tuwaiq, Hanifa, Jubaila

Formations.

Figure 5: A plane table with part of the surface of the table cut away
to show the mounting on the tripod.

Figure 4: Wadi Dirab outcrop overview–Unsafe working

environment.

Digital photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is the “art, science and technology of obtaining
reliable information about physical objects and the environment
through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting
photographic images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant imagery
and other phenomena” (American Society of Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing [7]).
Photogrammetry was first introduced in 1851 by Colonel Aimé
Laussedat [8], but it was not until almost 60 years later that the
technique was successfully employed during World War I. Over time,
the development of photogrammetry has passed through the phases of
Figure 6: Outcrop digital model using digital photogrammetry.
plane table photogrammetry (Figure 5), analog photogrammetry,
analytical photogrammetry, digital photogrammetry, and has now
entered the phase of high-resolution digital photogrammetry with the
advent of high-resolution cameras, remote sensing technology,

J Remote Sensing & GIS, an open access journal Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000237
ISSN: 2469-4134
Citation: Mezghani MM, Fallatah MI, Abubshait AA (2018) From Drone-Based Remote Sensing to Digital Outcrop Modeling: Integrated Workflow
for Quantitative Outcrop Interpretation. J Remote Sensing & GIS 7: 237. doi:10.4172/2469-4134.1000237

Page 4 of 7

Drone-based digital photogrammetry not producing direct vertical liftoff force, and per consequence, fly in a
straight direction. Most of these drones require a huge open space to
The development of drones was primarily driven by military needs takeoff and work in a fully autonomous mode following a pre-planned
such as for inspection, surveillance, and mapping. In recent years, flight plan. The characteristics of this design make the drones suitable
drones have been widely used in many civil disciplines, such for aerial photogrammetry, due to their high autonomy and possibility
as geology, geography, ecology, archaeology, and many others. The of covering wider areas than multi-copters.
quick development of civilian solutions was made possible by the
decreased cost of such technology, as well as the spread and
improvement of digital cameras and GPS systems, which are necessary
for navigation and geo-referencing tasks.
In geology, drones are a safe and low cost alternative to traditional
field work where several geologists are involved to collect descriptive
data from outcrops, for example, rock samples, measured sections, and
photos. Safety requirements and regulations for oil and gas companies
have made drone-based photogrammetry a very attractive alternative
to conventional field work, e.g., outcrop accessibility to cliffs or
canyons is a major obstacle when conducting field trips.
Figure 8: Fixed-wing drone.
Drones can be classified in many different ways based on shape,
size, range, weight, purpose, etc. The most important classes of drones
are the multi-copters (rotary-wings (Figure 7)) and fixed-wings (Figure Drone-based photogrammetry is an aerial survey method that
8). Although both classes are widely used in photogrammetric surveys, combines drones with aerial photogrammetry. It involves mounting a
both have their unique advantages and drawbacks. There is also a wide digital camera on a drone platform (multi-copters and fixed-wings can
price range depending on their capability to perform autonomous be combined). The benefits of using drones for photogrammetric
flights, flight time, payload, automation capabilities, and so forth. Low- surveying are the work efficiency (execution speed), providing access
cost solutions do not allow a completely autonomous flight, and in to inaccessible zones by geologists, such as cliffs and canyons,
most cases, they require human assistance for take-off and landing. In improved safety (virtual outcrop), and cost effectiveness. Due to all
contrast, high-cost solutions allow safe landing options, mitigating these advantages, multiple potential outcrops can be scanned, rather
risks of the drone getting damaged during landing. The characteristics than focusing all the geologist efforts on a single accessible location.
of these two types are drones are listed below: Furthermore, more measured sections can be achieved with high-
resolution quality by adopting multi-copters with close-range
Multi-copters: Consist of rotorcraft with more than two propellers
photogrammetry, which simply cannot be achieved by traditional
fixed to a structure. The position and motion of the drone are
means alone, or by terrestrial surveying.
controlled by managing the differential engine rotation speed of any
single propeller. This type of system is very flexible in relation to the
various different tasks and payloads. Multi-copters are preferred very Wadi dirab drone-based photogrammetry challenge
often because of their high maneuverability, small dimensions, short Area of interest: The goal of this challenge was to acquire high
deployment time and high stability. Batteries do not have a very long resolution scans (cm-scale resolution) of Wadi Dirab outcrop
life (30 minutes maximum; depending on the load, flight conditions, (approximately 5,000,000 m2) in a much more comprehensive and
etc.), which means batteries must be changed for missions requiring time-saving manner by using drone-based photogrammetry compared
long sessions of flight. to traditional geological surveying.

Figure 9: Wadi Dirab outcrop overview: Area of interest covering 5

Figure 7: Multi-copters drone. km2 and seven measured sections location.

Fixed-wings: are designed like traditional aircraft and look similar

to an airplane. They are equipped with one or more propellers that are

J Remote Sensing & GIS, an open access journal Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000237
ISSN: 2469-4134
Citation: Mezghani MM, Fallatah MI, Abubshait AA (2018) From Drone-Based Remote Sensing to Digital Outcrop Modeling: Integrated Workflow
for Quantitative Outcrop Interpretation. J Remote Sensing & GIS 7: 237. doi:10.4172/2469-4134.1000237

Page 5 of 7

Seven measured sections were defined to be scanned at much higher escarpment edge of the outcrop (approximately 600,000 m2). Finally, a
resolution (mm-scale resolution). The area of interest, shown in Figure targeted scan was conducted for seven measured sections (7,000 m2)
9, is limited by the white boundary. The area in yellow is scanned by with 1.0 mm ground resolution using hexa-copters drone.
the fixed-wing drone (areas not requiring oblique capture). The area in
blue represents the upper saddles of the outcrop vertical sections (areas
requiring detailed oblique captures by the hexa-copters). The thin red
lines within the blue areas represent the seven measured sections
scanned at a close range using the hexa-copters. A more detailed
description of the data acquisition phase is provided in the subsequent
section). A global view of the outcrop is shown in Figures 10-12.

Figure 12: Wadi Dirab outcrop overview: Global view 3 illustrating

the safety and technical challenges to conducting a conventional
field work.

For Wadi Dirab, we employed a combination of drones (fixed-wings

and multi-copters) to conduct a series of autonomous flights covering
Figure 10: Wadi Dirab outcrop overview: Global view 1 showing the the entire area. The drones can fly only below 125 m (AGL: height
hexa-copters drone in action taking the high resolution images. Above Ground Level) to remain below civil airspace. The autonomous
flights are planned in advance so that total coverage is achieved for the
desired area. The entire area was scanned using the fixed-wing drones
(NADIR capture). The fixed-wing drones captured the entire area at
2.0 cm GSD (Ground Sampling Density) providing a full 3D base map
with only two flights.

Figure 11: Wadi Dirab outcrop overview: Global view 2 illustrating

the safety and technical challenges to conducting conventional field
work.

Figure 13: Image acquired by the fixed-wing drone — General top-

Data acquisition: The drones were each equipped with a 100 mm
down scan.
focal length lens and configured for vertical measurement mode.
Multi-scale scanning was adopted to cover this large outcrop. First,
general top-down scans using fixed-wings drones with 2.0 cm ground This base map was used as a reference for spatially locating the high
resolution were carried out for the entire outcrop (approximately resolution section scans within the 5,000,000 m2 scanned. The GCP
5,000,000 m2). Second, oblique flights with 2.0 cm ground resolution (Ground Control Points) markers were automatically detected and
using hexa-copters drones captured the vertical faces along the integrated into the base map. For the vertical outcrop faces, hexa-

J Remote Sensing & GIS, an open access journal Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000237
ISSN: 2469-4134
Citation: Mezghani MM, Fallatah MI, Abubshait AA (2018) From Drone-Based Remote Sensing to Digital Outcrop Modeling: Integrated Workflow
for Quantitative Outcrop Interpretation. J Remote Sensing & GIS 7: 237. doi:10.4172/2469-4134.1000237

Page 6 of 7

copters were used due to their versatility in capturing oblique angles dense 3D point cloud, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), 3D mesh, and
with high precision 50 MP (Mega Pixels) imaging sensors. The ortho-rectified images. The dense 3D point cloud of the outcrop
achieved GSD was 2.0 cm for the supporting capture topography. sections and the lower resolution base map survey were merged
together, using SfM tools and the co-located ground control points to
For the measured sections, to achieve the desired pixel GSD of 1.0
generate the final multiple resolution DEM integrating the high
mm per pixel for each outcrop section, the flight transects were
resolution measured section.
designed to be no further than 7.5 meters away from the measured
sections (vertical high resolution band). Up to two flights were From this modeling phase, we achieved:
required for each section based on their width and height (width ca. 10
• 2-centimeter resolution orthophoto and DSM covering 6,000,000
m, height range from 20 m to 115 m). Overlap was set to 0.5 meters
m2.
per image with an average image capture frequency of 800-1000
images per flight. During this data acquisition phase, more than 500 • 10-centimeter DTM covering the same 6,000,000 m2.
GB of raw data and about 20,000 images were acquired and went • 620,000 m2 of cliff-face escarpment at 2.0 cm resolution captured
through processing to obtain the various models. Examples of acquired head-on to the outcrop (6 million triangles).
images are shown in Figures 13-15. • Seven measured sections captured at 1.0 mm resolution totaling
7,000 m2 face-on to the outcrop (22 million triangles).

Figure 14: Image acquired by the hexa-copters drone (outcrop

vertical face) with 2 cm ground resolution. Figure 16: Digital outcrop model visualization from PC desktop
using a customized version of open source gaming software.

Figure 15: Image acquired by the hexa-copters drone (vertical

measured section) with a ground resolution below the mm scale. Figure 17: 3D Digital outcrop model offering visual tool for remote
outcrop visualization.

Modeling results: All images captured by the drones were

transferred to the photogrammetry workstation cluster and processed With this workflow, we are able to produce photo-realistic 3D
using SfM tools (Structure for Motion) to automatically generate a models, which can then be exported as 3D models to other

J Remote Sensing & GIS, an open access journal Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000237
ISSN: 2469-4134
Citation: Mezghani MM, Fallatah MI, Abubshait AA (2018) From Drone-Based Remote Sensing to Digital Outcrop Modeling: Integrated Workflow
for Quantitative Outcrop Interpretation. J Remote Sensing & GIS 7: 237. doi:10.4172/2469-4134.1000237

Page 7 of 7

professional software, for example CAD or GIS. These models can also previously inaccessible by geologists can now be examined in
be exported to freeware 3D imaging formats. 3D models (Figures reasonable detail without jeopardizing safety. Hence, lateral bed
16-18) created on the basis of photogrammetric data provide a better continuity of different facies could be traced that otherwise would be
understanding of spatial relationships of geological objects to difficult to do in the field due to accessibility issues. A more complete
geologists and allow to link different information to the model such as 3D digital outcrop model also provides ongoing instantaneous access
geological maps, geological cross-sections, and a 3D model of the to the area without having to revisit the field.
territory.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Saudi Aramco for granting permission to publish this
work. We would like to thank Salem H. Shammari and Saeed S.
Shahrani from Saudi Aramco for their contribution in conduction the
field work. We would like to thank FalconViz staff for their support in
conducting this study and operating their drones. We also would like
to thank and appreciate the management of Dirab Motor Park in
Riyadh for their support and permission to access their property.

References
1. Fallatah MI, Kerans C (2018) Stratigraphic evolution of the Late Jurassic
Hanifa Formation along the Tuwaiq Escarpment, Saudi Arabia: Evidence
for a carbonate ramp system. Sedimentary Geology 363: 152-180.
2. Hughes GW, Varol O, Al-Khalid M (2008) Late Oxfordian
micropalaeontology, nannopalaeontology and palaeoenvironments of
Saudi Arabia. GeoArabia 13: 15-46.
3. Vaslet D, Manivit J, Le Nindre YM, Brosse JM, Fourniguet J, et al. (1983)
Figure 18: Geological toolbox offering quantitative outcrop analysis Explanatory Notes to the Geologic Map of the Wadi Ar Rayan
such as stratigraphic correlation and synthetic outcrop coring. Quadrangle, Sheet 23H, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabian Deputy
Ministry for Mineral Resources, GM-63A, Geosciences Map, Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia.
4. Manivit J, Pellaton C, Vaslet D, Le Nindre YM, Brosse JM, et al. (1985)
Conclusion Explanatory Notes to the Geologic Map of the Darma' Quadrangle, Sheet
24 H, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabian Deputy Ministry for
Photogrammetry in combination with drone-based remote sensing Mineral Resources, GM-101C, Geosciences Map, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
and application of these technologies in geology for studying and 5. Gradstein FM, Ogg JG, Schmitz MD, Ogg GM (2012) The Geologic Time
modeling large-scale geological outcrops appear to be an advanced Scale 2012. Elsevier, New York, USA.
solution in terms of cost, safety, accuracy, and efficiency. In this paper, 6. Hughes GW (2004) Middle to Upper Jurassic Saudi Arabian carbonate
we presented an integrated workflow using low-cost drone-based petroleum reservoirs: biostratigraphy, micropaleontology, and
photogrammetry for the creation of a 3D geological model for the paleoenvironments. GeoArabia 9: 79-114.
Wadi Dirab outcrop. The results of photogrammetric data processing 7. https://www.asprs.org/
using dedicated software, include a photo plan of the rocky outcrop, a 8. Asit KB, Margaret RB (2008) Complete Dictionary of Scientific
textured point cloud, and a digital terrain model. Biography.
The results clearly show the advantages of using low-cost UAVs and
cameras when collecting geological data. Cliff areas that were

J Remote Sensing & GIS, an open access journal Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000237
ISSN: 2469-4134

View publication stats