CHAPTER 8 FORCE 力量 AND MOTION 运转

1.1 Force
1 A force is a pull 拉力 or a push 推力 acting upon 对起作用 an object 东西物体
2 When we push or pull an object, we exert 施加 a force on the object.

Types of Forces
Types of Forces

Weight 重量 Normal force 正向力 Gravitational force

Effect 效果 of gravitational A force that acts perpendicular 直 地心引力
force 地心引力 upon an 角 to the surface 表面 of an A force that pulls an
object. object. object to the centre of the
Earth.

Elastic force 弹力 Frictional force 摩檫力 Buoyant force 浮力

A force that exists when an A force that exists 存在 between A force chat resists 对抗
elastic 有弹性 object such two objects that rub 摩擦 against the weight of an object
as spring 弹簧 is stretched each other and acts in the floating 漂浮 in the air or
or opposite 相反 direction 方向 of liquid.
compressed. movement.动作

Characteristics 特点 of Force
1 A force is a quantity that has a magnitude 大小, direction 方向
and point 点 of application.运用
2 Direction is the path 路径 that a force moves toward.走向
3 Magnitude is the quantity or strength 强度 of the force.
4 Point of application 运用点 is the location 地点 at which a
force is applied 用于 to the object.

In Figure 8.2, point of application of the force is the palm 掌 of the hand that exerts 施加 the pushing force
推力 on the box.

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 Measurement 测量 of Force

1 The S.I. unit 国际单位 used to measure force is newton (N).牛顿

2 A force can be measured using a Newton compact 压缩 balance 天
平 or a spring balance (1 kg = 10 N).
• The indicator 指针 on the spring balance gives the reading of the
magnitude 大小 of a force
• The weight of the load 负载 exerts a force onto the spring.
• The heavier the load, the greater the force, the more the spring
extends 延长，伸展.

(A) To measure the weight of an object

Hypothesis
The heavier the object, the larger the force.

Procedure
1 A wooden block 木块 is suspended 悬挂 on the hook 勾 of the
spring balance.
2 The number of wooden blocks are increased 增加 and the
readings of the spring balance is recorded 记录.
3
Discussion
The more the number of wooden blocks added, the heavier the
objects and the higher die reading recorded by the spring
balance.

Conclusion
The heavier die object, the larger the force. The hypothesis is
accepted.

(B) To measure the magnitude of frictional forces 摩擦力

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Hypothesis
The magnitude 大小 of frictional force changes 变化 according to 根据 the types of surface.表面
Variables
Manipulated : Types of surface
Responding : Magnitude of frictional force
Constant : Mass of wooden block, force exerted on the wooden block

Procedure
1. A wooden block is pulled 拉 across different surfaces:
Wooden table 木桌, glass table 玻璃桌, paper and
sandpaper 砂纸 until the block 块 starts moving.
2. The magnitude of frictional force for each surface is
measured by recording the reading of the spring balance.

Discussion
The magnitude of the frictional force exerted by each surface decreases 减少 according to the order 次序
below.
Sandpaper > wooden table > paper > glass table
Conclusion
The rougher 越粗 the surface, the larger 越大 the frictional force. The hypothesis is accepted.

Action-Reaction Pair 动作反应对

1 Newton’s Third Law 定律 states 陈述 that for every action force, there is a reaction force of the same
magnitude but in the opposite 相对 direction.
2 The force that acts on an object includes 包括 frictional force, gravitational force (weight), normal force,
buoyant force, drag 拖拉 force or lift.举起
(a) A stationary 静止的 object

(b) Object 物体 that floats 漂浮 on water

The buoyant force that acts on an object causes 导致 the object to become lighter 比较轻.

c)

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spring is compressed 压缩 both trolleys 台车 move in the opposite direction 相反方向 at
the same distance 一样距离
Effects of Force

(a) When a stationary object is pushed, the (b) When a force is exerted in the opposite
object moves. direction, the moving 走动的 object will stop.

(c) When a force is exerted from an angle 角度 (d) When an object is pressed 压缩 from two
to a moving object, the direction of motion opposite directions, the shape 形状 and size of
changes. the object change.

(e) When a ping pong ball is blown 吹 in the

same direction at its direction of movement,
the ping pong ball moves faster. A force can
change 改变 the speed 速度 of a moving
object.

Buoyant Force
1 An object's buoyancy in water depends on the magnitude of weight (W) and buoyant force (B).
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Buoyant force is greater 比较大 Buoyant force is the same as Buoyant force is smaller 比较小
than weight B>W weight B = W than weight B < W

The object is less dense 密度 than The object has the same density as The object is denser than water
water water
The object floats on water The object remains 保持 The object sinks 下沉 in water
suspended 悬浮 at a certain 某个
depth 深度 in water

2 The buoyant force of an object can be determined using the formula below.
Buoyant force = Actual weight 实际重量 - Apparent weight 表现重量
actual weight = weight of an object in the air
apparent weight = weight of an object immersed 浸在 in water

EXPERIMENT 8.2
To determine the buoyant force using a spring balance
Procedure
1.The weight of a stone 石头 is measured using a spring
balance as in Figure 8.6(a). The weight of the stone in
air is the actual weight.
2 The stone is completely 完全 immersed 浸在 in a
beaker containing water as in Figure 8.6(b).
The weight of the stone immersed in water is the
apparent weight.
3 The buoyant force is calculated.计算

Results
Actual weight 10 N
Apparent weight 2N
Buoyant force - accual weight - apparent weight 8N

Discussion
1 Action force = the weight of the stone
2 Buoyant force = the reaction force
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3 The stone sinks because the buoyant force is smaller than the actual weight of the object (8 N < 10 N)

Conclusion
Magnitude of the buoyant force “ actual weight - apparent weight.”

EXPERIMENT 8.3
To determine that an object denser than water will sink 下沉
Hypothesis
An object which is denser than water sinks. An object which is less dense than water will float.
Variables
Manipulated: Types of cube 立方体
Responding : Buoyancy of cube in water
Constant : Volume 容量 of cube
Procedure
1. The beaker is filled with water until half full 半满.
2. A metal 金属 cube is placed in the water carefully. Observe whether the cube floats or sinks in the water.
3. Step 2 is repeated with a glass cube, aluminium 铝 cube, copper 铜 cube, wooden 木 cube, polystyrene 塑
料 cube and cork 木塞，软木. The observation is recorded.

Results
Cubes that sink Cubes that float
Metal, glass, copper, aluminium Wooden, polystyrene, cork

Discussion
1 Cubes chat sink are denser than water.
2 Cubes that float are less dense than water.

Conclusion
An object which is denser than water sinks. An object which is less than water floats.

Application 运用 of buoyant force in daily life 日常生活： Plimsoll lines

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 Figure 8.7
1 The density of sea water depends on 有赖于 its temperature 温度 and salt 盐 content.分量
2 If the seawater is denser, the ship will float higher.
3 If the seawater is less dense, the ship will float lower.
4 If the ship cargoes 船舶货物 are too heavy, the ship will sink. So, on the body of the ship, there is Plimsoll
lines. The lines are used as a guide 指导 to determine 决定 how many loads 负载 can be accommodated 容
纳 by a ship in water bodies with different densities.
5 Plimsoll lines help the crew 船员 to determine a suitable depth for sailing.航行

Lever 杠杆
1 A lever is a simple 简单的 machine 机械 to make work easier.轻松
2 By using a lever, a small force can overcome 克服 a larger load.
3 A lever consists of three parts: Effort (£), load 负载物(L), fulcrum 支点 (F).

4 In a lever system,
(a) the distance of load is the perpendicular distance 垂直距离 of the load from the fulcrum.
(b) the distance of force is the perpendicular distance of the effort from the fulcrum.
5 Lever can be classified into 分类为 the first class, second class and third class levers based on the relative
相对 position 位置 of fulcrum, effort and load.

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First class 一流的 of lever
(a) Fulcrum (f) is between effort (£) and load (L).
(b) The load and effort act in the same direction.
(c)A little effort (force) can overcome 克服 a heavy
load.
(d) A small effort 努力 is used when the distance of
the effort from the fulcrum is further 比较远 than the
distance of the load from the fulcrum.

Second class lever

(a) Load (L) is between fulcrum (F) and load (E).
(b) The load and effort act in opposite directions.
(c) A small effort (force) can overcome a heavy load.
d) A small force is used when the distance of effort
from fulcrum is further than the distance of the load
from the fulcrum.

Third class lever

(a) The effort (£) is between fulcrum (F) and load (L).
(b) The load and effort act in opposite directions.
(c) A small movement of the effort produces a large
movement of the load.
(d)A large effort is needed to overcome a small load.
The effort must be nearer to the load than the fulcrum.

6 Figure 8.1 shows examples of the three types of lever systems.

First class Second class Third class

Other examples: Other examples: Other examples:

Sea-saw 跷跷板, beam balance 光 Wheelbarrow 独轮车, luggage 行 Elbow, broom 扫帚, golf stick 棒
速天平 李

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The Moment of Force 力矩
1 When a force is exerted on a lever, the lever will rotate 旋转 about the fulcrum.
2 The turning effect 转弯效果 of a force is known as the moment of force.
3 The moment of force can be increased by
(a) increasing the amount 量 of force
(b) moving the force further away from the turning effect
4 The formula for calculating the moment of force is shown below.

Moment of force = force (N) x perpendicular distance from the pivot 枢 to the force (m)

5 The turning effect is used to loosen 松开 or tighten 紧缩 a nut 螺帽 with a wrench 扳手.
6 A nut can be loosened easily by holding at the end of the wrench holder because the turning effect is
stronger.
7 A greater moment of force is produced when the force is exerted at a further distance from the turning
point.
8.The moment of force acts either clockwise 顺时 or anticlockwise 逆时 based on the direction of the
turning effect.

9 Moment of force is also present in levers. The formula of calculation is shown as follows.

Example 1 Example 2
The diagram shows children, X and Y, sitting on a The diagram below shows a wheelbarrow used to
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see-saw. What is the distance of X from the fulcrum transport Calculate the effort, E required to transport
when the sea-saw is in a balanced condition? (1 kg = 30 kg of soil. (1 kg= 10 N)
10 N)

Solution:
Load (N) x distance of load from fulcrum (m) =
Solution: Effort (N) x distance of effort from fulcrum (m)
Load (N) x distance of load from F x 1 m = 30 X 10 N x 0.7 m
fulcrum (m) = Effort (N) x distance of effort from E = 210 N
fulcrum (m)
20 x 10 N x d = 10 X 10 N X 2 m
D = 200 Nm / 200 N = 1 m
Pressure 压力
1 Pressure is a normal force 正向力，垂直抗力 that acts perpendicularly to the surface of an object per unit
area.
2 The formula for pressure:

3. The S.I. unit 国际单位 for pressure is newton 牛顿 per square metre 米的次方(symbol: N m) or pascal 帕
斯卡(symbol: Pa).
1 N m 2 = 1 Pa

Example 1 Solution :
Calculate the pressure that is exerted by the end of a
nail onto a wood when it is pressed with a force of
15 N and the cross-sectional area of the nail’s end is
0.01 cm2.

4. The pressure exerted by a force on an object depends on the surface area.

5. The smaller the surface area, the bigger the magnitude of pressure produced.

To investigate the effects of changing the surface area on the pressure produced by the same force

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Problem statement
What is the effect of changing the surface area on the
pressure produced by the same force?
Hypothesis
The smaller the surface area, the greater the
magnitude of pressure produced if the force is
constant.
Variables
Manipulated : Surface area
Responding : Depth of dent 凹部
Constant : Magnitude of force
Blunt 钝
Procedure
1 The set-up of apparatus is prepared as shown in Figure 8.9.
2 Measure the depth of dent formed on the plasticine 橡皮泥 by the nail’s end.
Conclusion
The smaller the surface area, the greater the magnitude of pressure produced if the force is constant.

Application of Pressure in Daily Life

Increase pressure by reducing surface area
A thumbtack 图钉 has a very sharp 尖 end. A large pressure is produced
when a force is exerted and allows the nail to penetrate 穿透 objects easily.

A thin blade 片 makes a knife sharp and increases the pressure on an

object to make cutting easier.

A football boot has scuds which increase the pressure to grip 握 on the
surface of the ground.

Decrease pressure by increasing surface area

A broad 阔 shoulder pad 垫 decreases the pressure on the shoulder.

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 A tractor 拖拉机 has wide 阔 tyres 轮胎 to decrease the pressure and to
avoid 避免 from sinking 下沉 into the ground 土地.

Snowboards 滑雪板 have a large surface area to decrease the pressure on

the surface of the snow in order to 以便 avoid the launcher 发射者 from
sinking into the soft 软 snow 雪.

Gas Pressure 气压

1 Air is a mixture 混合 of gases.

2 Air has mass 质量 and occupies 占领 space.空间
3 According to 根据 the kinetic theory 动力学理论
of gases,
(a) air is made up of tiny 细小 and discrete 离散的
gas particles 微粒 known as molecules 分子.
(b) particles move in random 随机 motion 运动 at a
very high speed.高速
4 In a closed 关起来 container 容器, the air particles
collide 碰撞 with each other and also hit 撞击 the
walls 壁 of the container. The force exerted 施加 on
the walls of the container is known as air pressure 气
压.
5 When air is compressed 压缩, the particles collide
more frequently 更加频密. When the number of
collisions increases, the air pressure also increases.
6 The atmosphere 大气 around us is made up of air
that exerts pressure on living things and non- living
things on the Earth 地球. This pressure is known as
atmospheric pressure.大气压
7 Air pressure is low at high altitudes 高纬度
because the amount 数量 of air particles is less.少

To investigate the factors affecting pressure

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(A) Volume 容量

Procedure
1 A piston 活塞 syringe 注射器 is pushed 推. The change in the reading of the Bourdon gauge 测量 is
observed.观察
2 The step is repeated by pulling 拉 the piston.
Discussion
1 When the piston is pushed, the reading of the Bourdon gauge increases
When the volume of air decreases, the pressure increases.
2 When the piston is pulled, the reading of the Bourdon gauge decreases.
When the volume of air increases, the pressure decreases.
(B) Temperature Procedure
1 Ice cubes are placed in a beaker containing water.
The reading of the Bourdon gauge is recorded.
2 Water in the beaker is heated until 90 °C and the
reading of the Bourdon gauge is recorded.

Discussion
When the temperature of water increases, the reading
of the Bourdon gauge increases.
The higher the temperature, the higher the pressure.

Conclusion
Air pressure is affected by the volume and the
temperature of gas.

Application 运用 of the concept 概念 of air pressure in daily life

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Plunger 柱塞
1. A plunger is used to clear 清理 clogged 阻塞 drainage
holes 排水孔 in kitchen sinks 水槽 and drains 沟渠.
2. When the plunger is pressed 压 against the drainage hole,
the air is forced out 逼出 from the plunger and the air
pressure inside the plunger is reduced.
3. When the plunger is pulled up, the volume of the air
increases and the air pressure in the plunger is reduced
further.
4. The higher external pressure in the clogged section will
cause the blockage to move and flows out with water.

Magdeburg hemispheres 半球体

1. When air in the hemisphere is pumped out, the
pressure in the hemisphere is low.
2.Atmospheric pressure 大气压力 which is higher presses
the external surfaces of the hemispheres together and both
hemispheres cannot be separated even with a large force.

Drinking straw 吸管
1. When air is sucked out 吸出 from the drinking straw,
the air pressure in it decreases.
2. Atmospheric pressure which is higher pushes 推 the
Liquid 液体 into the drinking straw.
3. The presence of hole 孔 at any parts of the drinking
straw, above the water level causes the pressure in the
drinking straw to be the same as the atmospheric pressure.
So, water cannot be sucked up of the drinking straw.
Syphon 虹吸管
1.A type of tool that is made up of a tube which is
used to transfer liquid from a higher level to a lower
level. This method is commonly used 常用 to clean
an aquarium.鱼缸
2.First, the tube is filled with water.
3 Then, both ends of the tubes are closed with the
thumbs 大拇指.
4 One end of the tube is immersed into the water of
the higher container and the other end of the tube is
placed into the water of the lower container.
5 When both ends are left opened, the higher air
pressure will force water to flow downwards from
the higher container to the lower container.
Syringe 注射器

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1. When a piston 活塞 is pulled up, the volume of gas inside
the syringe increases but air pressure decreases.
2. The higher atmospheric pressure pushes the liquid into the
syringe.

Vacuum cleaner
1. When the switch is on, the fan in the vacuum cleaner will
suck the air out of the vacuum cleaner. Air pressure in
the vacuum cleaner is low.
2. The higher atmospheric pressure pushes the air dusts and dirt
into the vacuum chamber.

Principle of air pressure in solving everyday problems

1. It is difficult to pour out 倒出 condensed milk 炼奶 from its
can if only one hole is punched 打洞 on the top of the can.
2 This is because higher atmospheric pressure outside the can
prevents 阻止 the milk from flowing out 流出 through the hole.
3 If the second hole is made at the opposite side of the first
hole, milk will flow out easily.
4.This is because air pressure in the can 罐 is equal to the
external 外在 atmospheric pressure. The air that enters the first
hole will push the milk out through the second hole.

Rubber sucker hook 勾

1 A rubber sucker hook is used to hang 挂 objects such as keys
on the surface of smooth 滑 wall tiles 瓦.
2 When the rubber sucker hook is pressed 压 on the surface of
wall tiles, the air is pushed out.
3 This forms 形成 a low pressure inside the space 空间
between the rubber sucker and the wall.
4 The higher external atmospheric pressure presses on it and
the hook will be able to stick 粘 firmly 紧紧 on the wall tiles so
that an object can be hung on it.

Effects of altitude on atmospheric pressure

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1 Altitude 高度 is the height above the sea level.海平线
2 Atmospheric pressure decreases 减少 with altitude.

At higher altitudes, the air is thinner 稀薄 (less

number of gas particles) and the temperature is
lower. Therefore 所以, the frequency 频密度 of
collision 冲撞 of the particles is lower. Hence,
atmospheric pressure is lower.

At low altitudes, the air is thicker 厚(greater number

of gas particles) and the temperature is higher.
Therefore, the frequency of collision of the particles
is higher. Hence, atmospheric pressure is higher.

Liquid Pressure 液体压力

1 Liquid pressure is caused by the weight of the liquid.
2 Liquid pressure increases as depth 深度 increases.
3 The deeper the depth of the liquid, the heavier the liquid above it,
the higher the liquid pressure.
4 Therefore, water that flows out from the hole which is the closest
接近 to the base 底部 of the bottle squirts 喷出 the farthest.更远

Application of liquid pressure in daily life

Air bubbles 气泡
• The size of air bubbles increases when air bubbles
move up to the surface of water
• This is because the liquid pressure at the top is
lower than the liquid pressure at the bottom of the
liquid

Water dam 水坝
• The deeper the water inside the dam, the greater
the liquid pressure
• The base 底部 of the dam has a thicker wall 墙壁
to withstand 承受 the high pressure

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Diving suit 潜水装
Diving suit is strong and rigid 刚硬 to withstand 承
受 high liquid pressure

Submarines 潜水艇
The body of a submarine is made of steel 钢铁 and
titanium 钛 to withstand high liquid pressure

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