AL His Inter CB Answers PDF

Part 3: Cambridge International AS Level
History: International History, 1870–1945
Chapter 1: Empire and the emergence of

world powers, 1870–1919
Suggested answers to activities in coursebook

Before you start
1 a All on the coast.
b Easy to access by sea, suggesting trade was the motive; African interior not easily accessible.
2 a Most of Africa now under European influence/control; more European countries involved.
b African interior became more accessible due to exploration, better transport etc.; Africa contained things
that European nations wanted.
c Ethiopia and Liberia.
3 Europeans were better equipped than Africans – e.g. military equipment, improved transport.
4 Trade; to gain resources that were available in Africa; national pride.
5 European countries were clearly competing for territory in Africa, which led to the risk of war between them.
Activity 1.1
a In economic terms, both Ferry and Fabri argue that overseas expansion is vital in order to find new markets
for their countries’ industrial output given increasing competition between the major powers. Fabri also
mentions the need for new sources of raw materials. Ferry explains how French trade required more safe
harbours for merchant ships. Fabri goes beyond the economic arguments, outlining the importance of
imperialism for German national pride and success against other nations.
b The need for more raw materials and markets due to the Industrial Revolution. Places for entrepreneurs to
invest their money. Impact of ‘Long Depression’.
c Growth of nationalism and increased competition between European nations. Politicians saw imperialism as a
way of uniting their people, drawing popular opinion away from social, economic and political inequalities.
© Cambridge University Press 2019

Activity 1.2
a It shortened the trade route from Europe to India and Far East.
b Self-interest – to encourage trade and find markets for British products.
c Opposition to slavery; duty to spread civilisation to ‘barbarians’; theory of racial superiority.
d This question requires students to both make and justify a series of judgements. There is no ‘right’ answer –
the order selected by a student is less important than the quality of the arguments used to explain and justify
it. Factors that need to be considered include: the desire for raw materials and markets for finished products;
the impact of nationalism and the desire to enhance national wealth, power and prestige in competition with
other nations; strategic factors such as the need to secure trade routes to India and the Far East; the impact
of developments in medicine, weaponry and transport; the altruistic desire to civilise the African people and
end slavery.
Activity 1.3
a He is standing across East Africa. The cable reflects Rhodes’s desire to run a telegraph wire from Cairo to the
Cape. Britain was prepared to use force to gain influence in Africa. African territory boosted British
nationalism. He is drawn so large to reflect Britain’s power and influence in Africa. The Colossus of Rhodes
was a great achievement of the Ancient world, to which Britain’s achievements in Africa are being compared
– a play on the word ‘Rhodes’.
b Implies Britain is involved in a selfish, mad and uncoordinated rush for African possessions. Britain is drawn
with wild eyes and an insatiable appetite. Implies that Americans viewed imperialism as rather distasteful.
Activity 1.4
a Germany was newly unified and in a vulnerable geographical location. Bismarck wanted to concentrate on
national security and avoid conflict with other countries.
b New trading and investment opportunities; to civilise African people; to prevent Britain and France from
gaining more territory and power in Africa.
c Teacher should monitor discussions to ensure that students are developing well-reasoned, supported
arguments, and not drifting into unfocused narrative.
d Issues discussed should include exploration; medical advancements; impact of European industrialisation;
growing competition between industrialised nations; growth of nationalism; theory of racial superiority;
improved transport and communication systems.
Activity 1.5
a He claims Belgium is carrying out its responsibility to ‘civilise’ and ‘improve’ the native people: better farming
and land use; improved diet; better transport, communication and trade; making local people wealthier.
b Cartoon implies that Belgium is exploiting Africans for its own self-interest. The African worker is being
suffocated by a snake, whose head is depicted as that of King Leopold. The distress that Belgian imperialism
caused to the local people is characterised by the woman walking away holding a child.
While Leopold’s letter suggests that Belgium was helping the local people, the cartoon suggests that Belgian
imperialism was characterised by their exploitation. Leopold was seeking to justify Belgian activity in the Congo.

He uses similar arguments to those used by other European diplomats, based on theories of racial superiority and
the duty of Europeans to civilise the ‘barbaric’ peoples of Africa. Other evidence suggests that his letter is
unreliable.
Activity 1.6
a Moral responsibility to bring civilisation to less fortunate people, based on the theory of racial superiority. The
need to unite their peoples behind a common aim. The need to gain resources in order to fund social and
economic reform domestically.
b Some argued that it was morally wrong, while others argued it was not cost-effective. Working-class leaders
felt governments should spend their resources on domestic social and economic reform rather than on
imperialism. Many feared that imperialism created competition between the major powers, which would
inevitably lead to war.
Activity 1.7
a To protect Germany’s commerce and growing overseas interests; to enhance German pride and international
prestige; to ensure that, as a young country, Germany was respected as a major power.
b With few overseas possessions to protect, the German navy would be based in the North Sea, whereas
Britain’s navy was dispersed all over the world to protect its empire. This posed a threat to Britain’s security.
Britain was proud of its naval supremacy; this was threatened by German developments.
c Countries were determined to avoid war and were prepared, in the event of serious issues, to compromise.
d Fear of Germany following its adoption of a more aggressive foreign policy. The desire to settle long-term
imperial disputes with Britain in order to avoid the possibility of war between them.
Activity 1.8
The imperial nations sharing out China by negotiation between them and without consultation with the Chinese
government. Countries represented are (from left to right) Britain, Germany, Russia, France and Japan. China is
represented by the figure in the background, depicted as alarmed and frustrated. Britain, Russia and Germany are
depicted as holding knives, though only the latter is actually plunging it into the map. Britain and Germany have
distorted features, while France and Russia look calm. The French figure is not actually sitting at the table, as
though witnessing rather than participating – note that this is a French cartoon, which seeks to paint France in the
most favourable light, while portraying Germany as the main villain. Japan is depicted as calculating, thinking
about how best to exploit the situation. The message is that European nations, especially Germany, Britain and
Russia are exploiting the weakness of China, while Japan is planning to do likewise. Students might like to
consider why the USA is not depicted in the cartoon.
Activity 1.9
a Resistance to change and failure to adapt to circumstances. Unable to compete with other nations’ military
power, as in Opium Wars and Sino-Japanese War. Internal problems, such as Taiping Rebellion. Chinese
government lacked authority over the whole of China and, increasingly, lacked popular support. Growth of
Chinese nationalism led to increasing opposition of a government which was opposed to reform.
b Japan and USA.

c Foreign countries established their own spheres of influence to avoid confrontation between them.
Agreement over the ‘open door policy’. Negotiations with the USA took place between the imperial nations
and not with the Chinese government. Imperial nations worked together to put down the Boxer Rebellion.
d The ‘open door policy’ was designed to ensure that no single foreign power gained control over China. To
ensure that imperial powers could share in the exploitation of China without confrontation/war between
them.
Activity 1.10
a British troops were initially limited in number. Boers had a better knowledge of the land and were able to
practise guerrilla warfare. Boers had greater incentive – they were fighting for their own land and livelihoods.
b Scorched earth policy and concentration camps were condemned. At a time of intense nationalism and
imperial competition between the major powers, this gave other countries the opportunity to criticise Britain,
while implying that their own methods were morally superior.
c Bad hygiene and poor/inadequate food; overcrowding in harsh climatic conditions; conditions were
deliberately harsh in an attempt to force the Boers to surrender.
d Boer Wars exposed the problems involved in defending a large empire, leading some politicians to question
whether Britain should continue with its imperial policy. Britain would need to enhance its military capability.
To avoid Britain’s growing international isolation and help protect its empire, Britain would need to seek
allies.
Activity 1.11
List A List B
The main aims of the Treaty of Berlin (1885) regulate imperialism in Africa and prevent
were to conflict between rival European nations.
Russia wanted to gain control over Port Arthur it needed a warm-water port from which to
because expand its own trading interests in the Far East.
Countries that signed the Treaty of Berlin settle any disputes between them by
(1885) agreed to negotiation rather than war.
Russia claimed that the Treaty of Shimonoseki cause instability in China and adversely affect
(1895) would the interests of European nations in the Far
East.
Fearing isolation, and committed to its 1894 France joined the ‘Triple Intervention’, which
alliance with Russia, forced Japan to give up its rights to Port Arthur.
Germany joined the ‘Triple Intervention’ it wanted Russian support for its own imperial
because ambitions.
Japan had no choice but to give up its rights to it could not compete with the combined
Port Arthur because military power of Russia, France and Germany.
The Treaty of Berlin (1885) attempted to justify abolishing slavery throughout the African
European imperialism in Africa by continent.
The Fashoda Incident did not lead to war Britain and France were prepared to negotiate
because and compromise over their rival claims in
Africa.
That the imperial nations were prepared to they united to defeat Chinese nationalists
work together to protect their joint interests in during the Boxer Rebellion.
China is confirmed by the fact that

Activity 1.12
a i Friendly and seeking cooperation, but with a threat in the last sentence.
ii Increased trade between Japan and USA; Japan to treat shipwrecked US sailors well; safe harbours for US
ships and availability of provisions.
iii A clear threat if Japan did not agree to the USA’s requests.
b Factors behind Japanese modernisation include: government change – Meiji restoration and adoption of
western-style constitution that united the whole of Japan under one government; increased exports to pay
for modernisation and industrialisation; encouragement of private enterprise; exploitation of nationalism;
development of military capability. To help students prioritise, it would be useful to ask them to construct a
table demonstrating how each relevant factor facilitated the modernisation of Japan and how the various
factors inter-connected. This would ensure that their prioritisation is based on a thorough understanding of
each factor, enabling them to reach a reasoned conclusion.
c Economic necessity, the need for raw materials.
d Surprise – The impact of Japan’s modernisation had been underestimated by the European powers, who
expected China to defeat Japan in the war.
Concern – Japan’s victory posed a threat to the interests of other imperial nations in China, especially Russia.
Activity 1.13
a Britain was feeling isolated and vulnerable following international condemnation of its actions in the Boer
War. The Boer Wars had exposed the problems Britain faced in defending its large empire, which was
threatened by Germany’s more aggressive foreign policy and Russian expansion in the Far East. The alliance
with Japan ended Britain’s isolation and guaranteed Japanese support against Russia in the Far East.
b The alliance provided Japan with an ally against Russian expansionism and the threat this posed to Japanese
interests. Japan was, for the first time, recognised as an equal by a major power.
c The cartoon is evidence of British public support for the alliance between Britain and Japan. Both countries
are depicted as well armed and powerful. The handshake represents genuine friendship and commitment to
make the alliance successful. Being a British cartoon, the British soldier (and flag) is drawn larger than the
Japanese equivalent, implying that Britain was the senior partner (national pride). The British mariner is
depicted as informal, relaxed and confident, while the Japanese is smartly uniformed, standing to attention
and reflecting the British perception of Japan as a military nation.
Activity 1.14
a Publication date – the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War 1904.
b Russia – large, complacent (arms behind back), arrogant. Japan – small, determined and ready to fight.
c Map – Russia and Japan were fighting over Korea.
d They were concerned about their own interests in China.
e Russia – drawn so much bigger than the Japanese. The cartoon is of European origin – based on prevailing
theories of racial superiority, a European country would inevitably be seen as more powerful than an Asian
upstart.
f Artist did not consider Japan a major world power – Japan is depicted as small and insignificant compared to
European nations.

Activity 1.15
Points for consideration include:
• Russian weakness
o large but inefficient, poorly equipped and badly led army
o soldiers had to be transported over long distances
o long and vulnerable communication and supply lines
o outdated navy, with slow vessels
o widely dispersed fleet – main fleet in the Baltic region – long way to travel
o Russian arrogance and complacency.
• Japanese strength
o Japan’s modernisation in late 19th century – increased military capability
o navy comprised fast, modern ships – better than Russian ships
o army and navy more localised than Russian equivalents – could secure their positions before the Russians
arrived
o alliance with Britain – helped to delay arrival of Russia’s Baltic fleet.
It is important to monitor discussions in order to ensure that students gain a thorough understanding of both
sides of the debate.
Activity 1.16
a Japan benefited by increased trade, supplying Far East with goods that European nations could no longer
supply. Increased shipbuilding – merchant fleet and supplying ships to Allies. Gaining control of China’s
Shantung Province. Exploitation of China – 21 Demands and increase influence through loans.
b Of concern as it would threaten their own interests in China and the Far East.
c The Japanese ultimatum contained a very clear threat.
Activity 1.17
a Purchase (e.g. Louisiana); annexation (e.g. Texas); treaties (e.g. Treaty of Oregon); war (e.g. against Spain).
b Manifest Destiny – divine right and duty to spread American values and culture.
c Concern that European nations would seek to gain influence and territory in the Americas.
Activity 1.18
a Dangers of travelling across unchartered land and living in remote areas. Threat posed by Native Americans.
Farming previously uncultivated land posed the risk of starvation. Risk of disease and lack of medical
provision. Competition with other settlers for the best land.
b Sense of adventure; freedom; chance to establish a new life; availability of cheap land.
c There were no ‘new’ areas left to be settled.

d Turner argued that the character of the USA and its people had been shaped by the need to tame the savage
wilderness – e.g. strength, ambition, initiative, self-reliance and individualism. He argued that the USA needed
to expand as a result of these characteristics.
e The USA needed a new frontier – this meant looking overseas. Belief in racial and cultural superiority – the
USA had a duty to bring civilisation and culture to other people.
Activity 1.19
Reasons might include – willingness to use new methods. Availability of cheap labour and large domestic market.
Unhindered by government regulation. Development of large companies (corporations and trusts). Good railway
and communications systems. Loans from banks. Protection from foreign imports.
Activity 1.20
a i False – it is critical of the government’s weak response to Spain.
ii True – ‘duty and policy’ dictated that the government should have acted.
iii True – although it recognises the possibility of the explosion being an accident, it clearly implies that
Spain was responsible. It stresses how the explosion was of benefit to Spain.
iv It certainly encourages the government to take strong action against Spain and, indeed, believes it should
have done so earlier. It doesn’t actually say it wants a declaration of war against Spain, but this is the
clear implication.
b Both headlines are heavily anti-Spain and clearly imply that Spain was responsible for the explosion on the
Maine. Both are encouraging public animosity towards Spain and both want strong action taken in revenge.
Activity 1.21
a President Theodore Roosevelt.
b To reflect the USA’s power.
c Symbolises European imperialism.
d His country is being threatened by both European and American imperialism.
e The Monroe Doctrine was intended to prevent European nations gaining influence and control in the
Americas.
f The USA was willing and able to defend the Americas against European imperialism. In the process, the USA
was itself adopting imperialistic policies.
Activity 1.22
a Reasons include: USA saw it as a European war, which did not affect US interests; isolationism; Wilson
adopted a neutral policy, seeking to act as mediator between the warring factions.
b Wilson was re-elected in 1916 based on his promise to keep the USA out of the war.
c Reasons include: German U-boat attacks; US trading interests threatened; Zimmerman telegram suggesting
that Germany was encouraging Mexico to go to war with USA; Britain’s exploitation of the telegram in an
attempt to encourage USA to join the war.

d The need to protect US interests and to create future peace and stability for the benefit of all nations. The
need to confront and defeat selfish, aggressive nations.
e The USA benefited by increased trade (e.g. taking over markets formerly supplied by European nations); no
fighting or damage on US soil; economic benefits of loans to Allies, enabling the USA to become the world’s
major financial nation.
f Statement ii most accurately reflects Wilson’s aims.
Activity 1.23
This question is essentially the same as that in Activity 1.15 – it is slightly reworded, but requires the same
analysis based on the same factual evidence. It is important to ensure that presentations are based on a balanced
analysis of relevant factual material and that they develop a well-reasoned argument focused on the
requirements of the question. In particular, note and comment on passages where students drift into unfocused
narrative.

Chapter 2: The League of Nations and
international relations in the 1920s

Before you start
1 US President Woodrow Wilson.
2 Paris Peace Conference – the attempt to make a lasting peace despite the rival claims of the victorious
nations and the pleas of the defeated nations.
3 Wilson portrayed himself as the mediator between the squabbling European nations.
4 From the US perspective, each European nation was seeking to maximise the benefit it could receive from the
peace treaty – acting like squabbling babies!
5 No – The same problem that Americans believed started the war in the first place – rivalry between European
nations – still existed. It would be difficult to satisfy the contrasting claims, desires and demands of the
various European nations.
Activity 2.1
a Germany gained new land and more resources, which could be used as part of its war effort. Germany no
longer had to fight on two fronts – it could concentrate all its troops and resources on the Western Front.
b French public opinion was already bitter towards Germany following France’s humiliating defeat in the
Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). It was incensed by the German invasion in 1914 and the extensive
damage/loss of life caused by German soldiers during the war. The fact that German troops caused such
chaos as they retreated embittered French public opinion against Germany still further. The French people
demanded the harshest possible terms against Germany.
c Given the inevitably high resentment against Germany in France, Paris was scarcely a neutral location for the
peace conference. Moreover, the venue for the conference was the same one in which the German Empire
was declared in 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War – highly symbolic in terms of the French desire for
revenge.
d The treaties that emerged from the Conference would have to be imposed upon the defeated nations, which
were not allowed to take part in the negotiations. This would lead to resentment and potential problems in
the future.
Activity 2.2
a The sample answer is typical of many examination responses – it is based on sound factual knowledge but
misses the main requirement of the question. It demonstrates knowledge without real understanding.
Explanation of why Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George held their respective views is required:

b Wilson – Wanted ‘peace without victory’, a treaty to make future wars less likely. Having suffered less than
either France or Britain, the USA had less reason to resent Germany – it held all of the major European
powers responsible for the war because of their selfish and greedy attitudes.
c Clemenceau – Wanted revenge for both the humiliating defeat in 1870–71 and the damage caused by
Germany during the First World War. Wanted to ensure that Germany was never in a position to threaten
France again.
d Lloyd George – Had to respond to British public opinion, which demanded a harsh settlement on Germany. At
the same time, it was in Britain’s interests that the German economy revived quickly as Germany was a
potentially lucrative trading partner.
Activity 2.3
The defeated nations would have resented terms that, because of their exclusion from the peace conference, had
been imposed upon them. Germany had expected the treaty to be based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points, instead the
terms of the Treaty of Versailles were harsh – loss of territory, country split by Polish Corridor, limits to armed
forces, War Guilt Clause and reparations. The Habsburg Empire disintegrated. Austria lost territory and was
forbidden to unite with Germany despite the wishes of the majority of Austrians (as demonstrated by plebiscites).
Bulgaria lost territory, had to reduce its armed forces and had to pay reparations. The Turkish Empire had
collapsed and Turkey lost territory and influence over key shipping routes. Hungary lost territory. As with Austria,
there were concerns that Hungary would not be economically viable.
Implications – The likelihood of border disputes. Resentment of the defeated nations might lead them to
challenge the treaties, as happened in Turkey (leading to revision of the Treaty of Sèvres in 1923).
Activity 2.4
a It provided legal justification for the imposition of reparations.
b Wilson was entirely opposed to reparations – he argued that they would cause resentment, and therefore
harm international relations in the future. Lloyd George accepted the principle of reparations but argued that
they should be low enough to enable the German economy to recover (so that Germany could become a
trading partner with Britain). Clemenceau insisted on high reparations, both for revenge and to ensure that
Germany remained economically and militarily weak (and thus, could never again threaten France).
c Keynes was concerned that reparations would have a devastating effect on the economies of those countries
forced to pay them, and that this, in turn, would adversely affect the economies of all countries. In this, he
shared Wilson’s view. He argued that, if reparations were to be demanded, they should be set at a reasonable
level, far lower than that imposed by the Paris Peace Conference – in this, he agreed with Lloyd George.
Keynes was heavily critical of Clemenceau’s demands for reparations to be set at a very high level.
Activity 2.5
Justified – Germany was forced to disarm to a level that would make it difficult to ensure national security.
Extensive loss of territory. Millions of German-speaking people now living under foreign governments. Germany
split by Polish Corridor. War Guilt Clause unfair. Reparations set at a very high level. Treaty was not based on
Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
Unjustified – Terms of the Treaty of Versailles were not as harsh as Clemenceau had hoped. Germany’s territorial
losses in Europe were restricted to areas it had gained as a result of earlier wars. Germany had caused extensive

damage to other European countries during the war. Germany had ignored Wilson’s Fourteen Points when
imposing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on Russia.
There is no ‘right’ answer to this question. Responses should be fully focused on the actual question, make a
balanced assessment of the evidence and make a judgement supported by appropriate factual content.
Activity 2.6
a Populations were of various ethnic, cultural and linguistic backgrounds; border disputes; political and
economic instability (except Czechoslovakia, which was relatively prosperous and maintained a democratic
system of government).
b The collapse of the great empires (Turkish, Habsburg and Russian); nationalism; Paris Peace Conference’s
desire to follow Wilson’s concept of self-determination.
c The Peace Conference largely had little choice but to accept the situation that already existed following the
collapse of the great empires. However, Wilson’s idea of self-determination was too simplistic, being based
entirely on language.
Activity 2.7
a i Left to right – Lloyd George, Orlando, Clemenceau, Wilson.
ii Drawing up the terms of the various treaties that comprised the Paris peace settlement.
iii Clemenceau – depicted at the front of the four men.
iv Lloyd George – depicted as relatively insignificant, at the back of the four.
v The terms of the treaties (papers on the floor by the pillar).
vi By 1940 the child will have become an adult in his early twenties.
vii The child feels that the treaties agreed at the Paris Peace Conference are poor and will lead to another
war by 1940, by which time he will be of the right age to become a soldier.
viii The cartoonist believes that the peace settlement agreed at Paris will lead to another war.
ix The ‘Tiger’ was Clemenceau. Clemenceau’s main aim at the Paris Peace Conference was to ensure that
Germany was never able to attack France again. Having largely achieved this, he felt that the Paris peace
settlement would ensure future peace – therefore he could not understand the child’s concerns.
b i False – The cartoonist clearly feels that the Paris peace settlement is flawed and will lead to future war.
ii True – Clemenceau is depicted as the leader of the four leading figures at the Conference.
iii True – Lloyd George is depicted as the least significant of the four figures. The cartoonist believes that
Lloyd George should have worked harder to tone down Clemenceau’s demands. It is important to
remember that the cartoon was published in Britain and is therefore making a political point here.
iv True – Hence the child weeping. The cartoonist’s prediction that war would occur by 1940 proved
remarkably accurate.
v False – The cartoonist clearly felt that Wilson’s Fourteen Points would have led to a better peace
settlement. The cartoonist believes that the settlement reached at Paris was too harsh on Germany,
which would lead to resentment and the desire for revenge.

Activity 2.8
a Accepting the peace settlement would force the USA to become involved in the affairs of Europe and enable
Europe to ‘meddle’ in the affairs of the USA. This would undermine the political integrity and independence
of the USA, enabling foreign countries to dictate what actions the USA should take. The USA should be free to
make its own decisions.
b No – he argues that the Paris peace settlement will lead to another war.
c Isolationist – he believed that the USA should avoid involvement in international affairs.
Activity 2.9
a The USA’s refusal to ratify the Paris peace settlement or to join the League of Nations. No longer guaranteed
American and British support, France feared for its national security – in particular it feared a German revival.
Western fear of communism following the establishment of a Bolshevik government in Russia and its
establishment of the Comintern. Hyperinflation in Germany and its effects on reparations payments – French
and Belgian invasion of the Ruhr. Differences between France and Britain over their relations with Germany.
Mussolini gaining power in Italy – Fiume and Corfu incidents. Border disputes that challenged the treaties
agreed at the Paris Peace Conference. Growth of Japanese power and influence in the Far East.
For questions (b) and (c) students need to assess the relative significance of each point and be able to explain
and justify their judgements.
d Much of the tension resulted from factors beyond the control of those who agreed the Paris peace
settlement: revolution in Russia; the USA’s determination to return to a policy of isolationism; Japan’s rise to
power in the Far East; post-war economic problems. However, the settlement was responsible for
establishing high reparations, which would, as Keynes suggested, enhance post-war economic problems. The
settlement also formally ratified borders that were subsequently disputed.
Activity 2.10
a There is little agreement between the three sources, besides the fact that all of them argue that the
Washington Treaties were flawed in some way. The Army and Navy Journal argues that the treaties put the
USA in danger – they provide no guarantee of future peace and the USA has had to make concessions that
weaken its armed forces. The Army and Naval Journal would inevitably be concerned by any potential
weakening of the USA’s armed forces and its impact on naval employment – consideration of the probable
readership might suggest that it is likely to have over-estimated the possible impact of the treaties on the US
navy. Gardiner clearly disagrees – he argues that the treaties will increase rather than decrease the efficiency
of the US navy, but stresses that the same is equally true for Japan and Britain. Gardiner feels that the treaties
are of no great value since they would merely lead to the removal of obsolete vessels. Gardiner was President
of the US Navy League, an organisation that was, as its name suggests, dedicated to ensuring that the US
maintained a strong navy – one would expect that he would have a good understanding of the likely impact of
the treaties. The Japanese businessman disagrees with both American sources – he argues that the treaties
are unfair on Japan and that the USA had been selfish during the negotiations. He stresses that Japan was the
country that made the most demanding concessions. However, he is looking at the treaties entirely from a
Japanese perspective and, as a businessman relying on overseas trade, he depended on Japan having a strong
navy.
b The treaties unquestionably reduced tensions in the Far East, not least because Japan had been prepared to
compromise and agree to limitations to its naval capacity. However, the treaties did not cover all types of

shipping, and all the countries concerned continued to build up their naval resources by building the type of
ships that were not covered in the treaties. Moreover, the treaties lacked any means of enforcement.
Activity 2.11
Aims of the Conference – To discuss ways of dealing with Europe’s post-war economic problems. The fact that 30
countries attended the conference, and that both Germany and Russia were invited, shows the importance that
nations attached to this issue.
Factors that would make it difficult to achieve these aims – The key issue for discussion was that of German
reparations. France was unwilling to compromise on this issue and, indeed, had tried to prevent the Conference
from taking place.
Differing attitudes of Britain, France, Germany and Russia – Facing economic problems, Germany could not meet
its reparations payments. Britain felt that it was in the interests of European economies to reduce German
reparations. France refused to compromise. Germany withdrew from the Conference. Sensing an opportunity to
end its own isolation, Russia withdrew with Germany.
The Spectator is heavily critical of the French attitude and refusal to compromise over German reparations, even
to the extent of trying to prevent the Genoa Conference taking place. A French magazine would be more critical
of Britain’s refusal to support France’s determination to insist on the terms of the Treaty of Versailles being
maintained. It would also criticise Britain’s failure to understand the concerns that France had regarding its
national security and the threat posed by a resurgence of German power.
Activity 2.12
a The Rapallo Pact ended the political isolation of both Germany and Russia. They both benefited economically
through increased trade. It enabled Germany to develop militarily in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles, while
Russia could benefit from Germany’s military expertise.
b To the rest of Europe, the Rapallo Pact seemed an unlikely agreement between two very different countries
that had been former enemies. The Pact threatened to destabilise international relations within Europe.
France feared both a revival of German power and the spread of communism from Russia. Poland felt
threatened by both Germany and Russia.
Activity 2.13
a France insisted on Germany paying its reparation payments in full (as seen at the Genoa Conference) – this
was to ensure that Germany remained economically weak and also to enable France to repay its debts to the
USA. When Germany failed to pay reparations, France invaded the Ruhr to take coal etc. in lieu of
reparations. It was also to demonstrate French power over the weakened Germany.
b The French occupation of the Ruhr failed to gain the intended resources (due to German policy of passive
resistance, such as strikes). Moreover, as effectively an act of war, it upset Britain – this caused France to feel
even more isolated and less secure. Hence, it was a diplomatic mistake.
Activity 2.14
The French attempt to force Germany to pay reparations or to seize compensation by invading the Ruhr had
failed. Moreover, it had damaged French relations with Britain. France now felt isolated and even more
vulnerable. As a result, France moved away from its hard-line policy towards Germany.

Technically, Dawes was not acting on behalf of the US government. However, US interests were at stake –
receiving repayments on its war loans to its allies depended on their receipt of reparations from Germany. The
USA certainly did not want another war to break out in Europe and therefore it wanted to find a solution to the
problem that was causing such tension.
Activity 2.15
a The papers represent the treaties/agreements reached at Locarno.
b While shaking hands with Stresemann, Briand has a boxing glove on his hidden left hand.
c Britain was trying to improve relations between France and Germany – it was acting as a mediator.
d The cartoon agrees with Sally Marks’s view. It suggests that France was not really sincere in its apparently
friendlier attitude towards Germany. France still feared a German revival and wanted to keep Germany as
weak as possible. France only agreed to the treaties because it was diplomatically sensible to do so.
Activity 2.16
The first three statements are true. The fourth is false: the USA remained firmly committed to isolationism –
avoiding involvement in international affairs unless its own interests were directly at stake.
Activity 2.17
Support – Germany had formally accepted the terms of the Treaty of Versailles (by signing the Locarno Treaties).
Franco-German relations appeared friendlier, as symbolised by the working relationship between Briand and
Stresemann. The Bolshevik government of the USSR had been formally recognised by the other major European
nations. The problems caused by the reparations issue had been overcome. The USA, though still following an
isolationist policy and not a member of the League of Nations, had played a significant role in easing tensions in
Europe. Germany had become a member of the League.
Challenge – Relations between the USSR on one hand and Britain and France on the other remained unstable.
France remained determined to keep Germany as weak as possible, having only adopted a friendlier approach
because it was diplomatically sensible to do so. Both Germany and the USSR retained resentment about their
respective treatment at the Paris Peace Conference. Successor states continued to have problems both politically
and economically. The authority of the League of Nations had already been challenged – the Locarno Treaties
were arranged outside the League.
Activity 2.18
a The USA, Germany and the USSR were not founding members.
b The USA refused to join; a Republican majority in the Senate voted against ratifying the Paris peace
settlement and adopted an isolationist policy. Germany and the USSR were not permitted to attend the Paris
Peace Conference or join the League. As a defeated nation in the First World War, Germany was not
permitted to join the League. The USSR was not allowed to join because of its communist government and
because it was not seen as a victor in the First World War (having left the war against Germany following the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk).
c The League could not claim to be a truly international body since not all countries were involved. Germany
perceived the League as an institution designed to continue the power of the First World War’s victorious

nations over those which had been defeated. The USSR greatly resented the fact that it was not invited to the
Paris Peace Conference and was excluded from the League – Russians perceived the League as an
organisation designed to maintain and enhance the power of Britain and France. Without the USA’s presence,
the League lacked both the power and the authority that the world’s strongest economy would have
provided. Moreover, the USA was no longer seen as a mediator between the rival ambitions of European
nations.
Activity 2.19
a Encouraging international disarmament. Ending secret diplomacy by insisting that all treaties were registered
with the League of Nations. Ensuring that all international disputes were settled by League of Nations
arbitration. Adopting collective security to ensure that the League’s decisions were enforced.
b Germany was forced to disarm under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles – would other countries be
prepared to disarm and, if they did, how would the League have the military strength to impose its decisions
through collective security? How could the League ensure that all treaties were fully registered – how could it
be certain that there weren’t secret clauses? Would all nations be prepared to submit their disputes to the
League’s arbitration or to accept the League’s decisions? Would all member states be prepared to support
collective security, even if imposing economic sanctions might adversely affect their own economies or if it
meant going to war in support of the League’s decisions? Non-member states, such as the USA and Germany,
were not bound by the rules of the League – hence, for example, the USA could continue to trade with a
country against which the League had imposed sanctions.
Activity 2.20
There are many delegates because all member states were allowed to send up to three representatives to the
League Assembly. The layout of the room would make meaningful discussion/debate very difficult. Given the
number of people present, and with each member state allowed to cast one vote, reaching unanimous decisions
would be extremely difficult except over issues that were not in the least contentious.
Activity 2.21
a The permanent members of the Council were the major powers that had been victors in the First World War.
b There were permanent and non-permanent members of the Council to ensure that the smaller, less powerful
nations were represented and that decisions were not taken exclusively by the major powers.
c The Council was smaller in order for decision making to be more feasible – the Assembly was too large to
facilitate quick and effective decision making. The Council also ensured that the major powers had the
greatest say in the League’s decision making.
d The Council was the more powerful body – it dealt with the more contentious issues.
Activity 2.22
a Sweden lacked the power to resist the combined pressure of the League – it would not be able to withstand
any economic sanctions or military pressure imposed upon it. As a relatively weak nation, Sweden relied on
the League for its own national security.

b This is a rather sarcastic comment that implies that the League had not always acted in the role of ‘champion
and defender of right’. It suggests that the Swedish government had little faith in the League or the decisions
it made.
Activity 2.23
a Collective security measures, economic sanctions and, if they failed to force Poland to withdraw, the threat of
combined military action.
b Britain and France were the strongest members of the League, both militarily and economically. Without their
support, collective security could not work effectively.
c Smaller, less powerful nations would begin to doubt the League’s ability to provide them with national
security. The authority of the League was undermined because it had been successfully challenged by Poland.
Activity 2.24
1 Lodge argued that membership of the League would undermine the independence of the USA and force it to
‘meddle’ and ‘interfere’ in the affairs of other states. In particular, he feared that membership of the League
would involve the USA in European affairs, leading to US involvement in another unpopular war. Lodge
favoured isolationism over internationalism.
2 The USA is represented by Uncle Sam. The USA is basking in its own strength and power, showing only mild
interest in the affairs of the rest of the world. The wording suggests that Wilson, the President of the USA,
had designed the League of Nations bridge (i.e. argued in favour of establishing the League), yet the USA was
now refusing to become a member. The names on the bridge are those of the main allied nations in the First
World War – with the USA excluded. The keystone should have been the USA – the keystone is the most
important part of the bridge, the part which holds the whole thing together.
The cartoonist clearly believed that US involvement was vital if the League was to have any chance of success.
Activity 2.25
Preventing future wars – Disarmament, ending secret treaties, arbitrating international disputes, collective
security (economic sanctions or combined military action).
Administering the post-war settlements – Arranging plebiscites (e.g. Saar Valley), organising mandates, arbitrating
border disputes.
Promoting international cooperation – Seeking to improve working conditions and wage levels across the world,
repatriating prisoners of war, resettling refugees, providing loans to countries such as Austria and Hungary,
encouraging the development of education, promoting improvements in public health (prevention and control of
diseases), improving the conditions of women and children, dealing with drug trafficking and slavery.
Activity 2.26
Cox, the cartoonist, clearly believed that the US Senate’s failure to ratify the treaties agreed at the Paris Peace
Conference and to join the League of Nations made a future war more likely, posing a real threat to humanity (a
word used by both Cox and the cartoonist).
The Treaties agreed at the Paris Peace Conference would fail to achieve the desired result of future peace. The
League of Nations would be unable to function effectively

Chapter 3: The League of Nations and
international relations in the 1930s

Before you start
Other factors might include: the weaknesses that had already appeared in the League of Nations and successful
challenges to its authority; the Western powers’ fears regarding the rise of Japan and the threat this posed to
their own interests in the Far East; China’s weakness and vulnerability; successor states continued to face
economic and political problems; border disputes within Europe; Germany’s reliance on US loans in order to meet
its reparations requirements; the dependence of France and Britain on German reparations in order to repay
their debts to the USA.
In assessing the relative importance of each issue, students need to analyse its potential impact on international
relations and the ways in which the various factors interconnect. For example, what is the connection between
China’s weakness and Western fears regarding Japan and which countries would be most concerned by the
situation? Teachers need to monitor this activity carefully (and assist by asking questions designed to help
students take their ideas further) to ensure that students are demonstrating good understanding and developing
logical arguments.
Activity 3.1
US loans ended – Germany could not afford to pay reparations, which in turn, created economic problems for
Britain, France and Italy. International trade declined and all industrialised countries suffered the same economic
malaise – spiralling deflation leading to high unemployment. This led to social problems and threats to law and
order. Extremist political views developed as people held their governments responsible for failing to solve the
problems (or even responsible for causing them).
Activity 3.2
a They appealed to German nationalism and the desire to avenge the hated Treaty of Versailles, which had
been imposed upon Germany. In effect, Hitler was promising to restore Germany’s national pride and regain
its position as a major power.
b A resurgence of German power would pose a major threat to France, which had consistently aimed to keep
Germany weak since the ending of the First World War. Italy feared that Hitler would seek Anschluss, which
would pose a threat to Italian security. Hitler’s statements regarding Lebensraum implied that he intended to
take territory to the east of Germany, posing a threat to both Poland and the USSR.
c Hitler would need to formally end Germany’s commitment to the Treaty of Versailles. This would involve:
recovering all territory taken from Germany in the Treaty; forming a union with Austria; uniting all German-
speaking people under the German government; and developing Germany’s armed forces and armaments
industry.

Activity 3.3
a The military dictatorship would clearly not respect the agreements that Japan had made at the Washington
Naval Conference. The Western powers’ interests in China and the Far East would be threatened if Japan
adopted an expansionist foreign policy. Concerns increased when Japan formed a pact with Germany and
Italy, two other dictatorships.
b Germany and Japan were two of the world’s major powers – their withdrawal from the League further
undermined its authority given that it had always lacked the USA and the USSR as members. The League’s
power and authority became dependent upon Britain and France. Moreover, Japan had openly defied the
League over the Manchuria incident and no action had been taken against it.
c He needed a propaganda boost to restore his domestic support. He had been impressed by Hitler’s open
defiance of the Treaty of Versailles, which had exposed the weaknesses of Britain and France. Mussolini
became convinced that forming a close relationship with Germany would enable him to make Italy ‘great,
feared and respected’.
Activity 3.4
Left wing – communists, socialists.
Right wing – monarchists, supported by the army and the church.
Liberals, anarchists and separatists are less easy to classify – students might like to discuss why this is.
Activity 3.5
a Monarchists, the army, the Church, wealthy industrialists and landowners. They wanted to maintain their
own prestigious positions within Spain and to secure their wealth and power. They wanted the restoration of
law and order.
b Socialists, communists and anarchists. They wanted a complete change in Spain’s political systems and, in
particular, an end to the privileged positions of the king, the Church and the army.
Activity 3.6
a True – it was an internal Spanish matter and, therefore, beyond the League’s jurisdiction.
b True – once foreign intervention occurred it was no longer simply an internal Spanish matter.
c False – the journalist states that evidence already existed.
d True – Spain was being subjected to ‘a military attack’ by one of the League’s members.
e True – the tone of the source is heavily anti-fascist.
f No definitive answer can be given here – there is insufficient evidence to determine the political beliefs of the
writer, beyond the fact that she clearly opposed fascism.
Activity 3.7
The Republican side issued the poster. This is a highly emotive poster, depicting Spain as weak, defenceless and
being abused by foreign bombs (Nazi and Italian Fascist symbols on the bombs) at the behest of Franco’s

Nationalist forces. Its purpose was to raise anger against the Nationalist side in the Civil War and encourage
greater Republican support, both within Spain and abroad.
Activity 3.8
a To reaffirm the Locarno Treaties, maintain the independence of Austria and resist any future attempts to
change the Treaty of Versailles. The terms of the agreement were vague and did not specify what action
would be taken in support of its aims. The Front quickly collapsed – Britain signed the Anglo-German Naval
Agreement, condoning German rearmament in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles. Mussolini’s invasion of
Abyssinia caused a split between Italy and the other two members of the Front.
b Hitler seemed able to convince the British that his motives were honourable and justifiable – simply righting
the wrongs imposed on Germany by the unfair Treaty of Versailles. Similarly, when the Saar was returned to
Germany following a plebiscite, Hitler told France that he had no more grievances against it. Britain was more
concerned about its own national interests than in defending the Stresa Front, hence the Anglo-German
Naval Agreement, which guaranteed British naval supremacy over Germany. Contesting Hitler’s actions might
have led Britain and France into war – something neither wanted or felt prepared for.
Activity 3.9
a Hitler was willing to gamble; he trusted his own instincts; he was prepared to act against the advice of his
leading generals.
b The remilitarisation of the Rhineland was in direct contravention of the Treaty of Versailles. Goering was
concerned that the German troops would meet resistance, certainly from France and possibly from Britain.
German troops would have to withdraw, which would be an embarrassing retreat that would harm the Nazi
Party both internationally and domestically.
c France – the action posed an immediate threat to French security.
d To remove German troops from the Rhineland would have necessitated military action and the possibility of
war. Britain was not directly threatened and France would have been reluctant to act without the guarantee
of British support. The Rhineland was a part of Germany; it could be argued that Germany was simply
occupying its own territory to protect itself against France.
Activity 3.10
a Britain and France had taken no direct action in response to Hitler’s earlier transgressions of the Treaty of
Versailles – e.g. remilitarisation of the Rhineland, Anschluss. Hitler had justified his claims to the Sudetenland
by arguing that they conformed to the notion of self-determination which had been largely adopted at the
Paris Peace Conference. Hitler was convinced that Britain under Chamberlain would do anything to avoid war
and that France was unwilling to act without the guarantee of British support. Chamberlain had pressured the
Czech government into making concessions to Hitler. In effect, devious strategies had enabled Hitler to isolate
Czechoslovakia.
b In his 12 September speech, Hitler claimed that his demands were limited to the Sudetenland and justified by
the majority presence there of German-speaking people who wanted to join Germany and who considered
themselves to be an ill-treated minority within Czechoslovakia as a whole. It is clear from what he told his
generals that he intended to take the whole of Czechoslovakia rather than just the Sudetenland, an action for
which there could be no reasonable justification. Hitler clearly did not want to make this intention known
until after the Sudetenland had become part of Germany, by which time it would have been too late for
Britain and France to protect the rest of Czechoslovakia.

Activity 3.11
a Hitler intended to honour Germany’s commitments – Disagree. Hitler had always argued that the Treaty of
Versailles was unfair on Germany and that he intended to destroy it.
Hitler intended to increase Germany’s armaments – Agree. Hitler was well aware that other countries,
particularly France, would not agree to a reduction of their own armaments. Therefore, Germany would need
to rearm in order to protect itself.
Hitler was determined to continue negotiations – Disagree. Hitler withdrew Germany from the World
Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations when France refused to compromise.
Hitler’s views were very different from those expressed by Stresemann – Agree. Stresemann had been
prepared to make concessions and formally accept the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler clearly was not prepared to
do either.
Hitler’s main aim – Disagree. Hitler’s main aim was to restore Germany’s position as a major world power and
to regain lost territory.
Hitler simply wanted to ensure that Germany was safe from attack – Disagree. Hitler’s intention was to
destroy the Treaty of Versailles, which would mean regaining lost territory.
Hitler’s demands would have caused alarm – Agree. A resurgent Germany would pose a threat to other
European nations, especially France, Poland and the USSR.
b Lists of reasons can include: Apart from Germany, none of the major powers had disarmed, despite their
commitments under the terms of the Paris Peace Conference and as members of the League of Nations; the
threat of revolutions due to the Great Depression; Japanese invasion of Manchuria and the threat this posed
to the interests of the Western powers; concerns in other countries raised by Hitler’s acquisition of power in
Germany; French refusal to compromise.
Activity 3.12
a By 1931, the USA had realised its earlier mistake – Untrue. The USA remained committed to an isolationist
policy, becoming involved in international affairs only when its own interests were at stake.
The USA had its own trading interests – True.
It was in the USA’s best interests to work with the League of Nations – True. They shared common concerns.
By 1931, the USA was determined to end its policy of isolationism – Untrue.
The League of Nations believed that it stood a better chance of securing a peaceful solution – True.
b This would have required collective security measures – imposing economic sanctions and, if necessary,
taking combined military action to force a Japanese withdrawal. Such measures could not have been
effectively deployed by the League without the support of Britain and France (its strongest members, which
could, in any case, veto such action as members of the Council). Facing the economic problems of the Great
Depression, neither Britain nor France wanted to impose sanctions, nor were they prepared to go to war.
Activity 3.13
a Britain and France, the League’s leading and most powerful nations, were putting their own interests above
their commitments to the League. Once exposed, their secret negotiations undermined the League and the
confidence of other members in its ability to guarantee their security.

b The League had already failed in other ways – e.g. failure to secure disarmament or to take effective action to
end the Japanese occupation of Manchuria. Such failures had already undermined the faith of ‘smaller’
nations in the League prior to the Abyssinian issue.
c Neither Britain nor France wanted a war – they felt ill-prepared militarily and economically. Moreover, public
opinion was heavily anti-war. However, there were other factors, such as the need to keep Italy as an ally, the
concern that imposing sanctions would adversely affect their own economies, the lack of trust between the
two countries and the lack of desire to defend a far-away African country of no great interest to either of
them.
Activity 3.14
a ‘The youth of Spain’, ‘Women and children’– implies the war is harming the most vulnerable sections of
Spain’s population and that which is most important for the country’s future; ‘butchered’ – implies unjustly
and brutally killed; ‘in hundreds’ – stresses the scale of deaths; ‘rebel generals’ – implies the generals are
acting against the elected government of Spain and the wishes of the Spanish people; ‘foreign states’ and
‘international war’ – highlights that this is no longer a civil war but one in which other countries have become
involved and are literally invading Spain; ‘monstrosity’ – the actions of the rebels and the foreign states are
totally unjust and inhumane; ‘silence and inaction’ – implies that the League of Nations has a duty to take
action.
b To gain support for the Republican cause. To stress the unjust and illegal nature of the Nationalist cause. To
create a sense of guilt among members of the League if it continued to take no action in support of Spain’s
elected government.
Activity 3.15
a Most members of the League were ‘small’ states that lacked the power to guarantee their own security. The
League had been established to guarantee international peace and security, to prevent the strong taking
aggressive action against the weak. Japan’s invasion of Manchuria was perceived as aggression against China,
a member state of the League. If the League did nothing in response, it would undermine the faith of other
weak member states in the League.
b Collective security measures – economic sanctions and, if necessary, the threat of military action to force a
Japanese withdrawal.
c The League was effectively powerless to take action without the involvement of its most powerful members,
Britain and France. Neither was prepared to impose sanctions that might adversely affect their own
economies and nor were they willing to risk war against Japan.
d Britain and France needed to be seen to support the League in responding to Italian aggression against
Abyssinia. At the same time, they did not want to upset Italy, a vital ally. The compromise was the imposition
of relatively weak sanctions.
e The aggressor states would become so powerful that the League would not be able to resist them even if it
wanted to.
Activity 3.16
Economic reasons – Impact of the Great Depression – lack of money to invest in preparation for war. Britain’s
priority in terms of military expenditure was defending the Empire, while the French priority was to build
defences to prevent a German invasion – this left few resources for preparing for a full-scale European war. The
need for international trade and, hence, an unwillingness to impose sanctions.

Political reasons – Public opinion opposed involvement in another war. The desire to keep Italy as an ally. The
realisation that Hitler could only be stopped by military action, which would be both expensive and politically
unpopular. Due to the Anti-Comintern Pact, any war against Germany would also involve fighting against Japan
and Italy.
Activity 3.17
a It became expedient for the USSR to join the League. Germany and Japan had left the League – they both
posed threats to the national interests and security of the USSR. The USSR’s concerns about Germany were
shared by France, and relations between France and the USSR improved (e.g. 1935 Treaty of Mutual
Assurance). The USSR joined the League assured of representation as a permanent member of the Council
and with the aim of developing closer relations with both Britain and France as a defence against aggression
from Germany and/or Japan.
b Stalin’s aim was to protect the USSR from attack. With the formation of the Anti-Comintern Pact the USSR
was threatened by Germany and Japan (and also Italy). It was in the USSR’s interests to achieve a defensive
alliance with Britain and France. Stalin’s efforts failed because Britain and France remained sceptical of Soviet
intentions (in particular, the fear that the USSR was seeking to spread communist revolution). Britain in
particular considered the USSR a dangerous and unreliable ally.
Activity 3.18
Chamberlain answers this himself in the last sentence of his speech. The only way in which Britain and France
could have prevented Anschluss was by taking (or threatening) military action against Germany. This posed the
risk of getting involved in a war in Central Europe, something neither Britain nor France was prepared to do,
especially because, due to the Anti-Comintern Pact, such a war might also involve Japan. It was safer to argue that
there was no justification for going to war in support of Austrian independence against the wishes of the Austrian
people.
Activity 3.19
Agreement – Both want international peace and the avoidance of Britain’s involvement in war.
Disagreement – Chamberlain argues that the problem of Czechoslovakia is now over. Churchill argues that Hitler
will not stop at gaining the Sudetenland but will claim the whole of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain believes Hitler’s
promises, while Churchill does not. Chamberlain claims the Munich Conference was a success because it avoided
war. Churchill argues the Conference was a disaster because it gave in to Hitler’s aggression and left
Czechoslovakia exposed to further German aggression. Churchill believed that Hitler’s aggression should have
been confronted rather than appeased.
Methods – Chamberlain claims that the Munich Conference achieved what everyone wanted and would lead to
lasting peace. Churchill uses sarcasm, e.g. ‘instead of snatching his victuals [food] from the table, has been
content to have them served to him course by course’ – his argument that Czechoslovakia could have got better
terms without the assistance of Britain and France.
Aims – to convince the British House of Commons to vote either for accepting (Chamberlain) or rejecting
(Churchill) the agreements reached at the Munich Conference.
Most British MPs agreed with Chamberlain, a reflection of their fear of Britain’s involvement in another war. The
evidence is limited – it reflects only the views of MPs rather than public opinion in general.

Activity 3.20
The resolution of all differences by discussion, goodwill and mutual understanding, rather than by going to war.
Chamberlain argued that appeasement was the only way to avoid war; it was popular and supported by virtually
everyone – he was carrying out the wishes of the people and was applauded for it.
German troops entered the rest of Czechoslovakia, thereby breaking the promises that Hitler had made at
Munich. It was now clear that Hitler had deliberately lied to Chamberlain at Munich. The praise that Chamberlain
had received, and exploited, when returning to Britain from Munich now seemed totally unjustified.
Activity 3.21
Agree – Effective preparations did not begin until 1936; the British army lacked vital equipment (e.g. tanks) when
war broke out in 1939; the British armed forces were far less well-equipped than their German counterparts;
Britain was relying on appeasement (solving issues by negotiation) as a way of averting war.
Disagree – Priority had been given to the Navy and RAF to defend Britain in case of war in Europe; the Royal Navy
was provided with new battleships and aircraft carriers to defend Britain and its empire.
Activity 3.22
a Russia could not be trusted; could not mount an effective offensive; saw the spread of communism as its
main objective; was hated and distrusted by the smaller states (e.g. Poland).
b Churchill saw an alliance with Russia as a way of preventing war – an alliance between Britain, France and
Russia might deter Germany from further aggression (in fear of facing war on two fronts). If war broke out,
Britain and Russia would be allies anyway since they would both be fighting against Germany – Churchill
argued that it was more sensible to form such an alliance before war broke out.
c Stalin’s foreign policy could be seen as inconsistent – initially opposed to the League of Nations, the USSR
subsequently became a member of it. Initially an ally of Germany, the USSR sought alliances against Germany
following Hitler’s rise to power only to then sign the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Germany. Conversely, his foreign
policy could be seen as consistently based on the desire to ensure the national security of the USSR. The
original alliance with Germany (following the Rapallo Pact) was to end the USSR’s isolation and vulnerability.
The rise of Hitler posed a threat to the USSR – Hitler had claims on Poland that rivalled those of the USSR, and
Hitler’s idea of Lebensraum threatened the USSR itself. Moreover, Japanese aggression posed a threat to the
USSR’s interests in China and the Far East. The USSR only joined the League once Germany and Japan had
withdrawn. Stalin wanted an alliance with Britain and France to protect the USSR from the threat of Nazi
aggression. When this failed to materialise he signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact in order to buy time to prepare for
any subsequent Nazi attack on the USSR.
Activity 3.23
a Figure 3.5 suggests it was a treaty of convenience, rather than one of true friendship, between two leaders
who clearly did not trust each other.
Figure 3.6 suggests it was a treaty designed to facilitate a combined German/Soviet assault on Poland.
The British cartoon (3.5) shows Hitler and Stalin walking together on the Eastern Front (i.e. Poland) in
apparent friendship (arms around each other’s shoulders and looking at each other seemingly with mutual
respect). Their legs are bound together to demonstrate their common goal. However, that their friendship is

not genuine is revealed by the fact that they both carry guns behind their backs, suggesting a lack of trust
between them. They are working together only because it is convenient for both of them to do so. The US
cartoon (3.6) depicts Poland as Little Goldilocks Riding Hood – sweet, innocent and vulnerable. Nazi Germany
is represented as a wolf (with Hitler’s hairstyle!) – sly, cunning and licking its lips in anticipation of eating
Little Goldilocks Riding Hood (taking Poland). Soviet Russia is shown as a bear (Stalin) – big and dangerous, if
just a little sleepy and stupid, waiting for its share of the feast. Little Goldilocks Riding Hood (Poland) is
depicted as shocked – hence the startled pose and the word ‘wow’. She is also afraid at being confronted by
two such predatory beasts.
b Both cartoons suggest that a treaty between Hitler and Stalin came as a surprise – Stalin had long believed
that Hitler’s long-term intention was to invade the USSR, while Hitler’s hatred of communism was common
knowledge. Both cartoons also reflect on the danger that the Nazi-Soviet Pact implied for Poland. The
provenances of the two cartoons, and hence their purpose, are different however. The US cartoon (3.6) was
published for an American audience. At this time, the USA was still following an isolationist policy. Although
aware of what was happening in the rest of the world, the USA remained determined to avoid direct
involvement. Therefore, this cartoon has been drawn from the perspective of an observer rather than that of
someone who is directly involved in the events portrayed. The British cartoon (3.5) was published for a British
audience, much more immediately affected by the events depicted. Given Hitler’s invasion of Czechoslovakia,
in defiance of the promises he had made at Munich, his interest in Poland was of great concern to the British
people because it threatened to rekindle the threat of war. The signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact greatly
enhanced that threat.
Activity 3.24
a It had become obvious, even to diehard appeasers such as Chamberlain, that Hitler could not be trusted and
that negotiating with him was pointless. Hitler had ignored the promises he had made at the Munich
Conference and taken the whole of Czechoslovakia, for which there could be no possible justification. Britain
had given a guarantee to Poland in the hope that this would deter Hitler from attacking it and force him to
negotiate. Hitler had ignored Britain’s warnings. Chamberlain was now convinced that Hitler could only be
stopped by force.
b Chamberlain argues that his aim throughout had been to maintain peace and avoid the horrors of war. He
claims that his actions had been logical and that negotiations were the best way of securing peace. It was not
Chamberlain’s methods that were wrong, but Hitler’s obsession with gaining his will by the use of force.
c Hitler’s aggressive acts, lack of trustworthiness and continued use of force to expand German territory.
Chamberlain argues that Hitler could only be stopped by force which meant going to war.

Chapter 4: China and Japan, 1912–1945

Before you start
1 a Chinese governments were unable to prevent the effects of imperialism – e.g. growing influence of
foreign intervention, defeat in the Opium Wars, and defeat in war against Japan. Failure to avoid internal
revolts or defeat them without foreign assistance.
b The growing involvement of both Japan and the USA.
c The development of Chinese nationalism is most clearly evidenced by the Boxer Rebellion.
d Appropriate evidence would include the negotiations regarding the ‘open door policy’ and the fact that all
of the imperial powers worked together to oppose the Boxer Rebellion.
e Chinese government initially opposed the rebellion. It subsequently supported the rebellion but was
defeated by the combined power of the imperial nations. Having lost the respect of Chinese nationalists,
it now faced the utter humiliation of having to pay compensation to the imperial nations.
2 Student discussion.
3 A number of answers are possible here, although the most likely nations are Britain and Japan. The most
important aspect of answers to this question is the way in which students explain and justify their answers.
Appropriate factual evidence needs to be provided in support of the judgement made, explaining why a
particular country should be seen as posing a bigger threat than any other.
Activity 4.1
a Sun Yat-sen was a revolutionary who wanted China to adopt a Western style of democracy by turning China
into a Republic. Conversely, Yuan Shih-kai had been a supporter/defender of the Manchu Dynasty and
wanted to preserve an autocratic form of government in China. While Sun wanted political, social and
economic reform, Yuan wanted to preserve Chinese traditions and customs. The only thing they had in
common was a belief in Chinese nationalism.
b This question requires students to evaluate evidence and make a judgement. There is no ‘right’ answer – the
most important aspect is the quality of the argument used to support the judgement made. It could be
argued, for example, that Sun’s political views were too idealistic since China had no tradition or experience
of democratic institutions. Conversely, it could be argued that Yuan’s beliefs would continue to prevent China
from modernising, and therefore the country would continue to disintegrate under the combined pressure of
foreign interference and warlord power.
c Yuan’s power in China had always been limited due to a number of factors – e.g. China’s vast size made it
difficult to govern; the influence of foreign powers; regional control exerted by the warlords. Moreover,
Yuan’s close association with the Manchu Dynasty made him unpopular with many Chinese people. This
unpopularity grew when he was forced to accept Japan’s Twenty-One Demands during the First World War.
Yuan seemed no more capable than the Manchu Dynasty had been of defending China from foreign influence
and interference. Yuan’s attempt to make himself emperor in December 1921 angered the majority of
Chinese people and lost him the vital support of the army. In a hopeless situation, he was forced to resign.

d Both the Manchu Dynasty and Yuan had failed to maintain a centralised government with full and
uncontested control over China, a vast country with a huge population, much of which occupied isolated and
difficult to access regions. Moreover, much of the country was under the control of foreign powers. In the
absence of a powerful centralised government, warlords were able to gain extensive control over certain
parts of China. Joining warlord armies was an attractive option for many Chinese youths who otherwise
would face unemployment, poverty and starvation. Instilling fear in the local populations, warlord armies
were able to gain wealth and power.
Activity 4.2
While the specific incident that sparked the May Fourth protests was the Paris Peace Conference’s decision
regarding control of Shantung Province, what became known as the May Fourth Movement was, in reality, a
continuation of arguments already put forward by intellectuals and writers in the New Culture Movement. The
overall aims of the two groups were the same – the development of a modernised, democratic China, free of
foreign interference and warlord power, and willing to introduce social and economic reform. The May Fourth
Movement raised awareness of, and increased support for, the cause of Chinese nationalism. The Movement
supported Chinese nationalism in the sense that it campaigned for a unified China, with a centralised democratic
form of government, independent of foreign influence and control. A China governed by and for the Chinese
people.
Activity 4.3
Following the Bolshevik revolution in 1917, the USSR established the Comintern with the aim of spreading
communism worldwide. A united China would be a useful ally for the USSR, helping to end its isolation. The USSR
therefore supported the CCP. With the CCP small and weak, the Comintern saw significant advantages in
encouraging collaboration between the CCP and the KMT, believing that this was the only way in which the CCP
might gain power in China. The KMT favoured collaboration with the CCP because it brought valuable assistance
from the USSR – financial, organisational and military. Russian agents provided training for KMT soldiers and
facilitated the establishment of the military academy at Whampoa. Collaboration also brought greater public
support for the KMT. In its early stages of development, the CCP was a relatively small party of intellectuals,
lacking in both influence and power. Collaboration with the KMT, a much larger political organisation which was
also advocating political reform, enabled the CCP to gain more influence.
Activity 4.4
a The KMT’s influence and authority were restricted to a relatively small part of China. It did not yet possess the
military capability to extend its power across the whole of China. Moreover, as Sun himself made clear, the
full achievement of the Three Principles would take time and require a long process of educating the people
in preparation for democracy.
b Collaborating with the CCP broadened the appeal of the KMT, enabling it to gain popularity with peasants and
factory workers. Collaboration with the USSR enabled the KMT to gain access to Russian resources and
military assistance. However, the CCP was advocating land and factory reform, which implied a redistribution
of wealth from the rich to the poor – this posed a potential risk to many of those who supported the KMT
(e.g. merchants and factory owners). Sun’s decision to collaborate with the CCP therefore caused dissension
within the KMT.

Activity 4.5
Agree – As a result of the KMT’s liaison with the CCP, it received support that proved vital to its early
development and the success of the Northern Expedition. Based on Stalin’s belief that a united China would
benefit the USSR (by ending its isolation), Soviet advisers played a key role in establishing the KMT’s
organisational structure, enabling it to develop support across southern China. Most significantly, the
development of the KMT army (NRA) was heavily influenced by the USSR – Chiang and many other military
leaders received military training in Moscow, and Soviet agents helped to establish the KMT’s military academy at
Whampoa. Preparations for the Northern Expedition were assisted by Soviet advisers and the NRA was equipped
with modern military equipment and weapons supplied by the USSR.
Disagree – It could be argued that other factors were more important in ensuring the success of the Northern
Expedition. Warlord armies tended to lack organisation and to be poorly equipped – they were designed to
maintain control over local peasants and fend off rival warlord armies rather than to fight against a well-
organised and well-equipped enemy. Due to ongoing rivalry between them, warlords did not present a united
front against the NRA. As it progressed northwards, the NRA gained the support of local people, who were tired
of the violence and chaos caused by the warlords and saw the KMT as providing an opportunity to restore order.
As a result, the NRA more than doubled in size during the Northern Expedition. The KMT’s liaison with the CCP
was also vital to the success of the Northern Expedition – attracted by the CCP’s promise of the land
redistribution and other social reforms, peasants supported the Expedition.
This activity requires students to make a judgement and justify it. The most effective answers to the question will
provide a balanced assessment of the evidence, leading to a well-argued and fully supported conclusion.
Activity 4.6
Chiang perceived the CCP as an embarrassing and dangerous ally. He did not agree with the CCP’s demands for
land redistribution, industrial cooperatives and major social reform. Moreover, he saw the growing popularity of
the CCP as a threat to the KMT in general and his own leadership of it in particular. As a result, he instituted the
Purification Movement.
It was a major error of judgement – It threatened to lose the KMT much of the support that had helped it during
the Northern Expedition – e.g. from peasants and factory workers. It lost the KMT the support of the USSR. It
heightened divisions that were already present within the KMT and its leadership. It made an enemy of those
members of the CCP who survived the Purification Movement – it changed the CCP from an ally into a potentially
dangerous political rival. It required time and resources that could have been better used to secure and widen the
parts of China under KMT control.
It was not a major error of judgement – It enabled Chiang to secure his position as leader of the KMT. The
successful progress of the Northern Expedition meant that Chiang no longer needed support from the CCP or the
USSR. It ensured that the KMT, under Chiang’s leadership, formed a centralised government in China. It ended the
KMT’s flirtation with policies of which Chiang disapproved.
Activity 4.7
Defeat – It was a retreat from the KMT, at times chaotic and always traumatic. Most of the CCP marchers were
killed or died during the Long March. By the time it reached its new base, the CCP was small and isolated, able to
pose no immediate threat to the KMT.
Victory – It enabled the CCP to survive against all odds. The CCP was able to find a new and secure base in which
to rebuild its army and gain greater support. The commitments and dedication of the marchers would have
earned the CCP respect from people living in the remote areas through which they passed.

Activity 4.8
a Japan had the right to take control of Manchuria – False. The statement claims that in insisting on special
rights within China, Japan was ignoring treaties.
The League of Nations had done nothing – True. The statement says ‘despite the League’s failure’, which
suggests that the League had taken no effective action.
The statement uses emotive language – True. The statement makes extensive use of emotive language – e.g.
‘Japanese forces have killed large numbers of unarmed and peaceable men, women and children’, ‘slaughter
of its people’, ‘the sky has been red with the glare of burning cities and villages’, ‘the tramp of Japan’s armies
and the thunder of its guns’.
China is prepared to take military action – True. The statement says that ‘China has no alternative but to
adopt measures for self-defence’ and China ‘cannot possibly submit to Japan’s invasion of China’s territory
and slaughter of its people’.
b The writer believed that the League of Nations was weak and ineffective and would not be able to prevent
Japan’s takeover of Manchuria. This is evident from the sarcastic statement ‘I fear that the Japanese are too
strong to bow down to a couple of disapproving officials and impractical sanctions’.
The writer believed that Japan would continue to seek territory in the rest of China.
Activity 4.9
a Chiang’s priority was to secure and extend the KMT’s control over China by defeating warlords and the CCP.
Chiang did not believe that China could win a war against Japan.
b Many members of the KMT felt that the party would lose public support if it did not confront Japanese
aggression. They argued that the KMT was a party that supported Chinese nationalism and should therefore
be defending China from foreign attack. They felt confronting Japan was more important than fighting the
CCP.
c The CCP was still relatively weak and isolated. Renewed collaboration with the KMT in order to defend China
from Japanese aggression would enhance both its power and its popularity with the Chinese people. Perhaps
most importantly, the CCP was acting under instructions from its USSR advisers – the USSR saw a union
between the KMT and the CCP as the best way of defending its own interests in China.
Activity 4.10
a The aims, as publicly defined by the KMT itself, were: to develop a democratic constitution in China, in line
with the three stages proposed by Sun Yat-sen; to modernise China’s economy in order to increase output; to
develop a programme of social reform, including education, improved working conditions and enhanced
status for women.
b China would have reduced the influence of foreigners and taken control of its own economy. Economic
growth would have made China wealthier, which in turn would have benefited the Chinese people.
Education, public health and living/working conditions would have been improved. China would have become
more unified and stable, and therefore better able to protect itself from external attack and the internal
chaos caused by warlords.
c Campaigns against the warlords and the CCP took up time and resources that might otherwise have been
used to facilitate reforms. The KMT leadership was heavily divided, many being opposed to social and

economic reform. The Japanese takeover of Manchuria denied the KMT government vital resources, and the
Great Depression hindered attempts to improve China’s economy.
It is important to ensure that students display a detailed understanding of these relevant factors, and that
their prioritisation is based on sound arguments – careful monitoring is essential, and it is a good idea to ask
questions designed to encourage students justify their views.
d The aims fully reflected the Three Principles: nationalism (making China a united and independent country),
the establishment of democracy and social/economic reform. The achievements did not: a number of factors
conspired to ensure that the intended reforms did not take place; even nationalism was not fully achieved,
warlord power remaining strong in certain areas.
Activity 4.11
a Propaganda – Exaggerating the hardships would show that the CCP and its members were totally committed
to the cause of Chinese nationalism, a cause for which they were prepared to suffer and even die. The aim
was to gain greater public support for the CCP and its policies.
b Manifesto: it showed the Chinese people that the CCP was stronger than the KMT, which was weak and unfit
to govern China. Propaganda: it demonstrated that the CCP was the true party of Chinese nationalism and the
only hope for China’s future. A seeding machine: it publicised what the CCP stood for and began the process
of enhancing public support.
c Liberation from the problems that were afflicting China – Foreign interference, the chaos caused by warlords
and the ongoing threat of Japanese aggression. The KMT had failed to confront the Japanese, failed to deliver
on its promised reforms and failed to defeat the CCP’s Long March. The KMT did not, therefore, provide China
with an effective government – only the CCP could provide this.
Activity 4.12
The KMT and the CCP were both committed to the development of a unified, independent China. However, there
were fundamental disagreements both between and within the two parties regarding how this should be
achieved and what form of government China should have. China was a vast country, much of it isolated and
difficult to access and control; it had a huge population, largely uneducated and primarily peasants; a relatively
small group of wealthy landowners, determined to maintain their wealth and status; a small group of merchants,
factory owners and businessmen, equally determined to protect their own livelihoods; a country still heavily
influenced by foreign intervention, not least Japanese aggression; a country steeped in tradition, with no
experience of democratic institutions. Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that there were many
different views about how China should be governed. The KMT was divided between those who wanted to
maintain Chinese culture/traditions, those who genuinely supported a move towards democracy and those who
sympathised with the CCP’s desire for extensive reform. The CCP was split between those who wanted a Russian-
style revolution and those who felt that China’s revolution should be more appropriate to the specific needs of
the Chinese people.
Activity 4.13
a The peasants were better off under the CCP than under the KMT. Taxation was suspended for a year. Land
redistribution enabled the peasants to grow their own food and prevent starvation.
b Snow recorded what he saw and heard. In this sense, his account is accurate and reliable. However, he only
saw and heard what the CCP leadership wanted him to see and hear. Snow was obviously unaware of the

techniques that the CCP had used in order to develop its policies of land redistribution etc., not least because
he was unable to speak Chinese.
c Publicity and propaganda. The CCP was keen to stress its success in Yenan, both to the people of China and
internationally. The CCP was seeking to stake its claim as a viable government of China.
Mao claimed that the Rectification Movement had two aims: to educate new members of the CCP into the
aims and methods of the party; to encourage CCP members to make comments, both positive and negative,
about CCP policies. In reality it rapidly became a method whereby Mao could identify members of the CCP
who disagreed with his views, so that they could be suppressed. It became a method for Mao to retain
control over the CCP. Other examples of Mao’s determination to gain and maintain control include the Futian
Incident and subsequent purges of those who opposed him.
Activity 4.14
a The KMT engaged in direct confrontation with the Japanese. No match for the well-trained and well-equipped
Japanese troops, the KMT was quickly forced to retreat. Secure in isolated regions of no interest to the
Japanese, the CCP engaged in guerrilla tactics, attacking Japan’s supply lines etc.
b China is a huge country, its population widely dispersed. While Japan would have found it relatively easy to
take control of the large cities, the vast open rural areas would have presented far more problems. As
Japanese troops moved further into China, their supply lines became longer and more vulnerable. Large
numbers of troops would have been needed to retain control of areas already taken and, simultaneously
move further forward.
c While all Chinese people would have resented and opposed Japanese aggression, China was certainly not
‘united’. Although nominally in collaboration, the KMT and CCP did not fight together against the Japanese,
each party adopting its own strategies. Even within the KMT government, there were divisions – some KMT
leaders favoured negotiation and even close liaison with Japan, while others were fully committed to fighting
against it.
d The CCP relied heavily on propaganda in order to support its suitability to form a credible government of
China, both to the Chinese people and to the international community. Mao made extensive use of
propaganda – e.g. about the Long March, the Yenan Soviet and the struggle against Japanese aggression.
Students need to compare the significance of this propaganda with that of other factors which could be used
to explain the growing influence of the CCP.
Activity 4.15
The key things that students should look for when assessing their colleagues’ answers are:
• Is the answer balanced? Does it demonstrate how and why the KMT’s failure to protect China from Japanese
aggression damaged its popularity? Does it also show understanding of other factors (such as the KMT’s
apparent failure to deal with Japanese aggression) which led to the KMT’s increasing unpopularity?
• Does the answer make a judgement? Does it, on balance, explicitly agree or disagree with the statement in
the question? Is this judgement well supported with appropriate and accurate factual evidence?
Activity 4.16
a Japan wanted international recognition as having equal status with the other great powers. As the only non-
Western great power, Japan was concerned that the West’s continuing belief in its racial superiority would
undermine Japanese influence within the League of Nations.

b The main opposition to the ‘race equality clause’ came from the USA and Australia, both of which feared that
it would undermine their white-only immigration policies. Some European imperialist countries, particularly
Britain, were concerned that the clause would cause problems with the ways in which they governed their
overseas territories. The eventual rejection of the proposal resulted from Wilson’s insistence that it could
only be accepted following a unanimous vote of delegates, something that was clearly not possible.
Activity 4.17
a Reasons for Japanese disappointment include: the failure to gain acceptance of the ‘race equality clause’ – to
many Japanese this was a humiliation, and seen as evidence that the Western powers were not willing to
accept Japan as an equal; the fact that the Paris Peace Conference reversed its original decision to grant
Japan control over the former German territories in Shantung Province.
b Japan had played an important part in the victory of the Allies in the First World War and expected to be
rewarded in the subsequent peace agreements. Japan could also claim to have achieved world power status
and expected to be treated as an equal by the other leading powers – hence Japan’s claims to Shantung
Province and its desire for the ‘race equality clause’. China expected to be recognised as an independent
country, free of foreign occupation and influence, in line with Wilson’s concept of self-determination. This
was at odds with Japan’s claim to Shantung. Moreover, the Western powers were deeply concerned by
Japan’s rise to power and the threat that this posed to their own interests in the Far East.
Activity 4.18
a Japanese nationalism grew as a result of factors such as the failure to get the ‘race equality clause’ inserted
into the League of Nations Covenant and the economic problems associated with the Great Depression. It was
this intense nationalism that led public opinion in Japan to support the invasion of Manchuria.
Although the Emperor theoretically retained considerable power under the new constitution, in reality
Hirohito felt that his position was vulnerable; public opinion was largely supportive of the Manchurian
campaign, perceiving it as a solution to Japan’s economic problems. Although opposed to the invasion of
Manchuria, he felt unable to stop it.
The Japanese considered China to be weak and that Japan had every right to exert and extend control over it.
Lacking the resources needed to sustain its industrial growth, Japan needed to expand in order to gain these
resources and extend its trading opportunities. China’s weakness offered the opportunity to do this.
b Political and economic factors are identified and explained in the coursebook. To this, students could add
appropriate factors from the reasons why the Kwantung took the decision to take control of Manchuria in
defiance of the Japanese government. Economic: Manchuria was rich in resources which were vital for
Japan’s industry. Political: concern that the Japanese government was undermining the power of the military.
Activity 4.19
a Japan claimed that China had been interfering in legitimate Japanese trading activities in Manchuria, in
defiance of treaties.
b Japan was acting against its own treaty obligations by deploying military aggression to achieve its own
interests. Japan was breaking its commitments under the Nine Power Treaty (Washington Naval Conference),
the Kellogg Pact and the League of Nations, and acting in defiance of international opinion.
c In its statement Japan claimed it was acting in defence of its treaty rights. The cartoon claimed Japan was
acting in defiance of its treaty obligations. Both sources are heavily biased.

d Similarities between the statements – Both agree that there were treaties laying down the respective rights
of China and Japan in Manchuria. Both China and Japan claim to be determined to maintain peace and to
support the League of Nations. Both claim to be acting in self-defence.
Differences – China and Japan each blame the other for breaking the treaties. China accuses Japan of
unwarranted aggression and brutal attacks against the Chinese people. Japan accuses China of unwarranted
interference in Japan’s legitimate activities in Manchuria, and of using propaganda in an attempt to turn
international opinion against Japan. China claims that the League had failed to take action against the
Japanese invasion of Manchuria, while Japan claims that the League had been successful in preventing open
warfare between China and Japan.
Activity 4.20
a China’s vast size and difficult terrain. The need for lengthy and vulnerable lines of supply and
communications. Guerrilla warfare conducted by the CCP. The KMT retreated to the western regions, which
were difficult to access, especially following the deliberate flooding of the Yellow River Dam. The CCP’s
relatively secure and isolated location.
b The dilemma was caused by the potential threat posed by the USSR. Some military leaders advocated further
territorial expansion. Others felt that this was too risky, and exposed Japan to the possibility of an attack by
the USSR.
c Germany’s invasion of the USSR removed the risk of a Russian attack on Japan and, therefore, ended the
dilemma facing Japan’s military leaders. It meant that Japan could seek territorial expansion without the
threat of an attack from the USSR.
Activity 4.21
a The statement claims that Japan had done everything possible to preserve peace by negotiating with the USA,
and blames the USA for the fact that these negotiations had failed to reach agreement. This was in response
to the USA’s imposition of sanctions against Japan.
b The statement announces Japan’s intentions to break off negotiations with the USA. It is not a declaration of
war, but clearly implies that Japan intends to continue its policy of territorial expansion in defiance of US
sanctions. The USA would either have to change its negotiation position, showing a new willingness to
compromise, or begin preparations for war.
Activity 4.22
a Britain was already at war with Germany and Italy, and had hoped that the USA would join the war in
support. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor would lead to the USA’s declaration of war against Japan,
which, in turn, would lead Germany and Italy to declare war against the USA. As a result, the USA would be
brought into the Second World War on Britain’s side.
b Anger and resentment, born of the American people’s own nationalistic pride. This would lead to the desire
for revenge.
Activity 4.23
a The key word in the question is ‘analyse’. This requires students to do more than simply list the reasons why
Japan attacked Pearl Harbor – they need to evaluate the relative significance of each factor and make a

reasoned judgement as to which should be considered the most important. Possible motives are listed in the
coursebook.
b Again, the key word is ‘analyse’. In this case there are two possible arguments to explain why Pearl Harbor
was so unprepared for the attack, both of which are outlined in the coursebook. Students need to make a
judgement regarding which of these explanations is more plausible and support their judgement with
appropriate evidence.
c The plan should include some definition of the criteria to be used in evaluating whether the attack on Pearl
Harbor should be seen as a success or a failure. The most obvious criterion to use would be an analysis of
what the Japanese were intending the attack to achieve. Plans should then draft two lists – one to show how
the attack was a success, and the other to show that it was a failure. There should then be a well argued and
supported judgement.
Activity 4.24
a The conclusion should contain a reasoned explanation in support of the judgement made.
b B or C would be acceptable answers. Hull stresses that Japan had made ‘unprovoked war while talking peace’.
In Source B, Roosevelt states ‘The USA was at peace with Japan and was still in conversation with its
government looking toward the maintenance of peace in the Pacific’. Source C describes Japan as ‘a cowardly,
back-stabbing enemy who talked peace even while plotting undeclared war’.
All three sources (Hull, B and C) are of American origin, and reflect the anger of the USA’s people following
the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
Tojo would claim that, far from unprovoked, the attack on Pearl Harbor was an act of self-defence. Japan was
threatened by both the USA and Britain. The USA had steadfastly refused to compromise. Japan had already
announced the ending of negotiations and diplomatic relations with the USA (26 November). Japan had
continued to show a willingness to negotiate, but the USA had refused to make concessions and maintained
its economic sanctions against Japan.

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Part 3: Cambridge International AS Level

History: International History, 1870–1945

Chapter 1: Empire and the emergence of

Suggested answers to activities in coursebook

© Cambridge University Press 2019

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Suggested answers to activities in coursebook

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Suggested answers to activities in coursebook

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Suggested answers to activities in coursebook

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