Introduction To Welding & Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) - R1

Introduction to Welding and Non-
Destructive Testing (NDT)
Course No: T06-005

Credit: 6 PDH
Anuj Bhatia
Continuing Education and Development, Inc.
P: (877) 322-5800
[email protected]
www.cedengineering.com
Introduction to Welding and Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) – T06-005
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 CHAPTER -1: CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS ............................................ 6

1.1 Material Properties ............................................................................................. 7
1.2 Twenty Things a Welder Need to Know ............................................................. 9
1.3 Common Welding Metals ................................................................................. 10
1.4 Alloying Elements in Steel ................................................................................ 12
1.5 Hot Rolled Steel V/s Cold Rolled Steel ............................................................ 18
2 CHAPTER - 2: WELD JOINTS ............................................................................ 20
2.1 Basic Joints ...................................................................................................... 20
2.2 Joint Preparations ............................................................................................ 23
2.3 Faying Surface and Weld Seams ..................................................................... 23
2.4 Principles of Joint preparation .......................................................................... 24
3 CHAPTER -3 WELDING SYMBOLS .................................................................... 32
3.1 Weld symbol vs Welding symbol ...................................................................... 32
3.2 Welding Symbols ............................................................................................. 34
3.3 Interpreting Welding Symbols .......................................................................... 36
3.4 Difference between AWS and ISO Symbols .................................................... 44
3.5 Practice Examples ........................................................................................... 46
4 CHAPTER - 4: TECHNOLOGY OF WELDING PROCESSES............................... 50
4.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) ............................................................... 50
4.2 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) ....................................................................... 51
4.3 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) ..................................................................... 52
4.4 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)...................................................................... 53
4.5 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) ..................................................................... 55
4.6 Types of Welding Operations ........................................................................... 56
5 CHAPTER - 5 WELDING DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES ............................ 57
5.1 Classification of Defects ................................................................................... 58
5.2 Cracks .............................................................................................................. 59
5.3 Porosity ............................................................................................................ 61
5.4 Undercut .......................................................................................................... 62
5.5 Underfill ............................................................................................................ 63
5.6 Incomplete Penetration .................................................................................... 63
1
5.7 Lack of Fusion (Incomplete Fusion) ................................................................. 65

5.8 Spatters ............................................................................................................ 66
5.9 Overlap ............................................................................................................ 67
5.10 Excessive Penetration ...................................................................................... 67
5.11 Inclusion ........................................................................................................... 67
5.12 Wagon Tracks .................................................................................................. 68
5.13 Warpage .......................................................................................................... 69
5.14 Burn Through ................................................................................................... 69
6 CHAPTER - 6 WELD QUALITY CONTROL AND WPS ......................................... 71
6.1 Welding Quality Objectives .............................................................................. 71
6.2 Importance of Weld Design .............................................................................. 71
6.3 Characteristics of a Good Weld........................................................................ 71
6.4 Codes and Standards ...................................................................................... 72
6.5 Weld Quality Control and Inspection ................................................................ 74
6.6 Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) .......................................................... 75
6.7 Some Other Relevant Terminology .................................................................. 79
7 CHAPTER -7 WELD INSPECTION AND TESTING ............................................. 83
7.1 Weld Properties................................................................................................ 83
7.2 Testing and Inspection Methods ...................................................................... 83
7.3 Destructive Testing .......................................................................................... 83
7.4 Macro Etch Testing .......................................................................................... 84
7.5 Fracture Test .................................................................................................... 84
7.6 Toughness Test ............................................................................................... 85
7.7 Transverse Tensile Test ................................................................................... 86
7.8 Bend Test ......................................................................................................... 90
7.9 Hardness Test .................................................................................................. 92
8 CHAPTER - 8 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) ........................................... 93
8.1 Types of Non-destructive Tests (NDT) ............................................................. 93
8.2 Visual Testing (VT)........................................................................................... 94
8.3 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT) .......................................................................... 97
8.4 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) ...................................................................... 101
8.5 Radiographic Testing and Digital Radiography (RT/DR) ................................ 106
2
8.6 Ultrasonic Testing (UT) .................................................................................. 109

8.7 Electromagnetic or Eddy current testing (ET)................................................. 112
8.8 Comparison of different NDT methods ........................................................... 115
8.9 Applications of NDT ....................................................................................... 117
9 CHAPTER – 9 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR WELD DEFECTS ...................... 121
9.1 Acceptance criteria for Visual Inspection ....................................................... 121
9.2 Acceptance criteria for Radiography Test (RT) .............................................. 122
9.3 Acceptance criteria for Ultrasonic Test (UT) .................................................. 123
9.4 Acceptance criteria for Liquid Penetrant Test ................................................ 124
9.5 Acceptance criteria for Magnetic Particle Test (MT) ....................................... 124
10 Annexure -1: Codes and Standards...................................................................... 127
TABLE OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1.Weld Zone Terminology .................................................................................................................. 6

Figure 2. Stresses in welded joints created by Tensile, Compression, Bending, Torsion, Shear Forces .. 20
Figure 3.Types of Joints .............................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 4.Butt Joint ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 5.Tee Joint ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 6.Corner Joints ................................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 7.Lap Joints ...................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 8.Edge Joints ................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 9.Dimensions and Properties of Weld Seams ................................................................................. 24
Figure 10.V-Groove ..................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 11.U-Groove .................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 12.Types of Grooves........................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 13.Corner Joints Edge Preparations ................................................................................................ 28
Figure 14.Edge Joints-Edge Preparations .................................................................................................. 28
Figure 15.Lap Joints Edge Preparation ...................................................................................................... 29
Figure 16.Tee Joint Edge Preparations ...................................................................................................... 29
Figure 17.Groove Weld Positions ............................................................................................................... 30
Figure 18.Fillet Weld Positions.................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 19.Groove Angle .............................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 20.Welding Symbol vs Weld Symbol ............................................................................................... 33
Figure 21.Basic Weld Symbol ..................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 22.Basic Weld Symbols ................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 23.Basic Welding Symbols and Their Location Significance ........................................................... 34
Figure 24.Basic Groove Symbols ............................................................................................................... 34
Figure 25.Basic Welding Groove Symbols ................................................................................................. 35
Figure 26.Supplementary Symbols ............................................................................................................. 35
Figure 27.Weld Orientation ......................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 28.Weld Location ............................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 29.Weld Symbol on Bottom Side ..................................................................................................... 37
Figure 30.Weld Symbol on Top Side .......................................................................................................... 38
3
Figure 31.Weld Symbol on Bottom and Top Side ....................................................................................... 38

Figure 32.Weld Symbol on Bottom and Top Side for two Sides ................................................................. 38
Figure 33.Weld All-round Symbol ............................................................................................................... 39
Figure 34.The Use of Weld All-Around Symbol .......................................................................................... 39
Figure 35.Field-weld Symbol....................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 36.Weld Seam ................................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 37.Length and Width Symbol for Weld Seam .................................................................................. 41
Figure 38.1/4-inch fillet weld with a length of 3 placed on the arrow side .................................................. 41
Figure 39.Intermittent Fillet Welds .............................................................................................................. 41
Figure 40.Intermittent weld with 1/2-inch weld thickness, weld length of 8 inch and a pitch of 12 inch ..... 42
Figure 41.Intermittent weld (both sides) with 1/8-inch weld thickness, weld length of 5 inch and a pitch of
10 inch ......................................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 42.Staggered Welds ........................................................................................................................ 42
Figure 43.Multiple Arrows in Single Symbol ............................................................................................... 43
Figure 44.multiple-reference-line welding symbol ...................................................................................... 43
Figure 45.Tails Symbols .............................................................................................................................. 44
Figure 46.ISO Symbol ................................................................................................................................. 44
Figure 47.AWS Symbol ............................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 48.AWS ............................................................................................................................................ 45
Figure 49.ISO .............................................................................................................................................. 45
Figure 50.Welding on Both Sides (AWS and ISO) ..................................................................................... 46
Figure 51.Consolidated Welding Symbol .................................................................................................... 49
Figure 52.Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Stick) ............................................................................................ 51
Figure 53.Submerged Arc Welding (Sub-Arc) ............................................................................................ 52
Figure 54.Flux-Cored Arc Welding (Flux-Cored) ........................................................................................ 53
Figure 55.Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG) ..................................................................................................... 55
Figure 56.Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) ............................................................................................... 56
Figure 57.Crack ........................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 58.Hot Cracks .................................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 59.Porosity ....................................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 60.Undercut ..................................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 61.Incomplete Penetration ............................................................................................................... 64
Figure 62.Lack of Fusion............................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 63.Spatters ....................................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 64.Overlap ....................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 65.Inclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 66.Warpage ..................................................................................................................................... 69
Figure 67.Hole caused by Burn Through .................................................................................................... 69
Figure 68.Burn Through .............................................................................................................................. 70
Figure 69.Basic information about welding procedure ................................................................................ 75
Figure 70.Details of Joint Design ................................................................................................................ 76
Figure 71.Information about the base and filler metals to be used in the welding procedure .................... 77
Figure 72.Information about pre and post weld heat treatment required, gas used and the positions in
which the procedure will be performed ....................................................................................................... 77
Figure 73.Electrical Characteristics and Technique of the Welding Procedure .......................................... 79
Figure 74.Charpy V-notch ........................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 75.Tensile Testing............................................................................................................................ 87
Figure 76.Gauge Length ............................................................................................................................. 88
Figure 77.Ultimate tensile strength ............................................................................................................. 89
Figure 78.Weld Test Plate........................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 79.Roller Bend Test ......................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 80.Free Bend Test ........................................................................................................................... 91
4
Figure 81.Visual Inspection Optical Aids .................................................................................................... 95

Figure 82.Borescope ................................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 83.Liquid Penetrant Testing ............................................................................................................. 98
Figure 84. Liquid penetrant testing for a fluorescent inspection ................................................................. 99
Figure 85.Penetrant Testing Application ................................................................................................... 100
Figure 86.Illustration of Dye Penetrant Testing......................................................................................... 100
Figure 87.Magnetic Particle Testing of a Pipeline..................................................................................... 102
Figure 88.Indirect Induction....................................................................................................................... 104
Figure 89.Illustration of Magnetic Partical Testing .................................................................................... 104
Figure 90.Electrical Coils .......................................................................................................................... 105
Figure 91.Radiography .............................................................................................................................. 108
Figure 92.Ultrasonic Flaw Detection ......................................................................................................... 110
Figure 93.Ultrasonic Testing of a Pipeline ................................................................................................ 111
Figure 94.Coil with Single Winding ........................................................................................................... 113
Figure 95.Eddy Current Testing Equipment.............................................................................................. 114
Figure 96.Detect Form .............................................................................................................................. 119
Table 1.Carbon Content in Steel ................................................................................................................. 11

Table 2.Summary Table .............................................................................................................................. 19
Table 3.Summary of the most frequently used NDT methods .................................................................. 117
Table 4.Common Applications of the NDT ................................................................................................ 119
Table 5.Volumetric flaws VS Planar flaws ................................................................................................ 120
Table 6.Nominal Thickness and maximum allowable reinforcement of a material ................................... 122
5
1 CHAPTER -1: CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS
Welding is the process of uniting two metal parts by melting the materials at their interface
and usually a filler material is added to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that
solidifies to become a strong joint. The parts being joined are referred to as base metal
and the filler is referred to as weld metal.
A welded joint made by fusion welding exhibits a fusion zone containing the weld metal,
a heat affected zone (HAZ), and a zone where the properties of the base metal remain
unchanged. The HAZ is not melted but the properties are altered by the welding process.
The quality of weld is highly dependent on several factors, such as the nature of the base
metals, the weld metal used to join them, and the heat input of the welding process used.
Figure 1.Weld Zone Terminology
In most cases, problems arise when the heat input is too low or too high. Heat input that
is too high, either through excessive voltage, excessive amperage, or slow travel speed,
can slow your solidification rate, promoting grain growth in the weld metal and HAZ. This
excessive grain growth shows up in changed mechanical properties, mainly a decrease
6
in the material's cold weather toughness. As a rule, when the weld is made correctly, with
the proper filler metal and with controlled welding parameters, it should meet or exceed
the strength of the base material.
1.1 Material Properties
Each metal and metal alloy contains certain physical properties that can be altered or
changed when welding occurs. Understanding what these properties are and how they
may change will help us adjust our process when we encounter problems. While each
material has many different physical properties that can change because of welding, we
will focus on the ones that are most affected.
1.1.1 Strength
A metal’s ability to resist deformation is known as its strength. Strength is quantified in

four ways:
a. Tensile Strength: A metal’s ability to resist forces attempting to pull it apart.

b. Compressive Strength: The capability of a metal to withstand being crushed.
c. Shear Strength: The capacity of a metal to tolerate forces trying to slice or cut it
apart.
d. Torsional strength: The ability of a metal to resist forces attempting to twist it.
Strength can be altered drastically by welding.
If the weld is made with too little heat, little penetration will occur. If the weld is made with
too much heat, we could ruin the chemistry of the base material. Welding can have a
significant impact on a metal that has previously been heat treated. If the weld is done
correctly and with the right filler metal, it should match or exceed the strength of the base
material. The amount of heat the material sees will depend upon the welding process
selected. For example, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding or TIG tends to put more heat into the
material than a Gas Metal Arc Welding or MIG type process for the same size weld.
1.1.2 Ductility
Ductility is the capability of a metal to be permanently bent, twisted, stretched, or

otherwise deformed without breaking or cracking. Ductility is also linked to the material's
strength. In general, for the same cross section, a stronger material will be more rigid than
7
a weaker material. Adding a weld that cools quickly can reduce the ductility of some
materials. On the other hand, many welds on a part that gets it really hot and keeps it hot
for a sufficient amount of time can cause softening in the weld zone, especially something
that had previously heat treated to increase strength or hardness.
Any weld seam that will be bent or formed at a later stage requires special attention. For
the same size weld, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) tends to put more heat into the
material than Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW).
1.1.3 Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of being scratched or indented by another material. Welding

has a significant impact on the metal's hardness. If the metal was heat-treated to increase
hardness prior to welding, the material becomes softer in general and loses the heat
treatment in the weld heat affected zone. Some alloys harden in the weld zone after
welding and require a heat-treating technique to anneal, stress alleviate, or normalize the
base material. Because a hard metal is typically a strong metal, anything that affects its
hardness will also impact its strength.
1.1.4 Brittleness
Brittleness is the likelihood that a material will fail or fracture under a relatively small
shock, force, or impact. Hardness and brittleness have a direct relationship as a metal’s
hardness is increased so does its brittleness. A brittle material cracks in a way that it could
be put back together without any deformation.
1.1.5 Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a metal to absorb energy without breaking, often when
subjected to an impact load. In the event that a crack occurs, or if additional stress risers
such as undercut, overlap, or incomplete penetration are overlooked during inspection,
an excellent fracture toughness is desired.
The welding process can significantly change the toughness of a base metal. A thorough
understanding of the toughness of the base metal, weld metal and heat affected zone
allow inspectors and engineers to determine if a crack on a structure, for example, a
bridge needs to be repaired or if it can be left alone for some time. Because of this, codes
8
such as the AWS D1.5 require CVN (Charpy v-notch) testing of welding procedures. CVN
testing provides values for toughness.
1.1.6 Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion resistance can be affected greatly by welding. Stainless Steels are a great
example for how welding can impact corrosion resistance. If we overheat Stainless Steel
when welding, the alloy elements will separate and form carbide precipitation or what
some people call sugaring. Stainless becomes sensitized between about 800-1600
degrees Fahrenheit when the chromium combines with carbon to precipitate out in the
form of black badness on the back side of our weld, and heat affected area.
1.2 Twenty Things a Welder Need to Know
It’s important to get some basic knowledge of the mechanical properties of metals prior
to welding training. This knowledge can allow a welder and inspector to determine the
range of usefulness of a metal and the service that can be expected from it. It can also
enable a welder to construct a safe, sound structure that meets engineering
specifications.
1. The ability of a material to withstand a load pulling it apart is called its tensile
strength.
2. The ability of a material to be stretched out without breaking is called ductility.
3. An Izod impact machine is used to give indication of the toughness of a material.
4. The ability to withstand indentation is called hardness.
5. Lack of ductility is called brittleness.
6. The property of a metal to return to its original shape is called elasticity.
7. Increase in carbon content causes an increase in strength and hardness.
8. When carbon percentage increases, there is a decrease in ductility.
9. Low carbon steel contains less than 0.2% carbon.
10. Low ductility in a weld metal could result in cracking.
11. Alloying is used to increase mechanical and physical properties of a steel.
12. Sulphur and phosphorus are not alloying elements; they are contamination/
impurities.
9
13. Alloying allows designers to use smaller / thin sections and still have the same
strength.
14. An alloy that contains a high percentage of chromium and nickel would have
resistance to corrosion.
15. Quenching a carbon or low alloy steel will result in an increase in hardness and a
decrease in ductility.
16. The hard constituent that results when steel is quenched is called martensite.
17. The tough laminated structure that is formed on slow cooling of ferrite and iron
carbide (cementite) is called pearlite.
18. The amount of martensite formed depends on the speed of cooling and the
percentage of carbon.
19. After quenching, the structure may be improved by reheating to 200-300°C (550-
650). This is called tempering.
20. Small percentages of chromium will increase the strength and hardness, while a
small percentage of nickel will increase toughness.
1.3 Common Welding Metals
1.3.1 Steel
Steel is versatile and can be used with any welding process. It is an alloy that contains
iron and 2% of other elements. According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI),
steel can be broadly categorized into four groups based on their chemical compositions:
a. Carbon Steels
b. Alloy Steels
c. Stainless Steels
d. Tool Steels
1.3.1.1 Carbon Steels
Steels are generally classified according to carbon and alloy content.
Carbon Steel Type % Carbon
Low Carbon Steel 0.04 – 0.15%
10
Carbon Steel Type % Carbon
Mild Steel 0.15 to 0.30
Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6%
High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4%
Low Alloy Steel Approx. 0.15%
Table 1.Carbon Content in Steel
Higher carbon content means stronger steel.
Plain carbon steels contain only iron and carbon as main alloying elements, but traces of
Mn, Si, Al, S & P may also be present.
Manganese up to ~ 0.8% - Low strength and moderate toughness
High Manganese up to ~ 1.6% improves the toughness.
1.3.2 Cast Iron
Cast iron has higher carbon and silicon content and is not as ductile.
In terms of welding metals, low carbon steel is easier to weld than cast iron.
Cast iron is generally welded with oxyacetylene welding.
1.3.3 Alloy Steels
Low Alloy Steels <7% alloying elements
High Alloy Steels >7% alloying elements
Alloy Steels are considered the type of steels that predominantly contain extra alloying
elements other than iron and carbon.
1.3.4 Stainless steel
Stainless steels generally contain between 10 - 20% chromium as the main alloying
element and are valued for high corrosion resistance. With over 11% chromium, steel is
about 200 times more resistant to corrosion than mild steel. These steels can be divided
into 5 groups based on their crystalline structure:
11
a. Ferritic and martensitic alloys

b. Austenitic stainless steels
c. Duplex stainless steel
d. Precipitation-hardened materials
Stainless is welded using arc welding (TIG, MIG or Stick).
1.3.5 Tool Steel
Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, and vanadium in varying quantities to
increase heat resistance and durability, making them ideal for cutting and drilling
equipment.
Steel products can also be divided by their shapes and related applications:
Long/Tubular Products include bars and rods, rails, wires, angles, pipes, and shapes and
sections. These products are commonly used in the automotive and construction sectors.
Flat Products include plates, sheets, coils, and strips. These materials are mainly used in
automotive parts, appliances, packaging, shipbuilding, and construction.
Other Products include valves, fittings, and flanges and are mainly used as piping
materials.
1.4 Alloying Elements in Steel
Steel is a combination of iron, carbon, and some others alloy and non-alloyed.
Steel is alloyed with various elements to improve physical properties and to produce
special properties such as resistance to corrosion or heat. Different alloy elements have
different effects to steel Mechanical and Physical properties.
Most elements can have many effects on the properties of steels.
And other factors which affect material properties are:
a. The temperature reached before and during welding

b. Heat input
c. The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT
Specific effects of the addition of such elements are as below:
12
1.4.1 Iron (Fe)
Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low strength.
1.4.2 Carbon (C)
Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with major influence on HAZ
hardness. Decreases weldability. Typically, < ~ 0.25%
1.4.3 Manganese (Mn)
Manganese improves strength and toughness. Typically, < 0.8% is residual from steel de-
oxidation and up to ~1.6% (in C-Mn steels) improves toughness.
Its manner has below main effects:
a. It is a mild deoxidant acting as a cleanser taking the Sulphur and oxygen out of the
melt into the slag.
b. It increases the harden potential and tensile strength but decreases ductility.
c. It combines with Sulphur to form globular manganese sulphides, essential in free
cutting steels for good machinability.
1.4.4 Silicon (Si)
a. Residual element from steel de-oxidation. typically to ~0.35%.

b. Silicon is one of the principal de-oxidizers for steel. Silicon helps to discarding
bubbles of oxygen from the molten steel.
c. Silicon dissolves in iron and tends to strengthen it, enhanced cleaning, and de-
oxidation for welding on contaminated surfaces. So, these filler metals are used
for welding on clean surfaces, the resulting weld metal strength will be markedly
increased. Silicon increases strength and hardness but to a lesser extent than
manganese.
d. The resulting decrease in ductility could resent cracking problems.
1.4.5 Phosphorus (P)
Residual element from steel-making minerals. Difficult to reduce below < ~ 0.015%
brittleness.
13
Although it increases the tensile strength of steel and improves machinability it is

generally regarded as an undesirable impurity because of its embrittling effect.
Effect of phosphorus element will have various effects on steel depending on

concentration.
The maximum amount of phosphorus in higher grade steel is between 0.03 to 0.05%. Up
to 0.10% of phosphorus in low-alloy high-strength steels will increase the strength as well
as improve the steel’s resistance against corrosion. The possibility of brittlement
increases when the content in hardened steel is too high. Even though the strength and
hardness are improved, the ductility and toughness decreases.
The machinability is improved in free-cutting steel, but weld brittle and/or weld cracks can
occur during welding if the phosphorus content is more than 0.04%. Phosphorus also
affects the thickness of the zinc layer when galvanizing steel.
1.4.6 Sulphur (S)
Residual element from steel-making minerals.
Typically, < ~ 0.015% in modern steels < ~ 0.003% in very clean steels
Sulfur is normally regarded as an impurity and has an adverse effect on impact properties
when a steel is high in Sulphur and low in manganese.
Sulphur improves machinability but lowers transverse ductility and notched impact
toughness and has little effects on the longitudinal mechanical properties.
Free cutting steels have Sulphur added to improve machinability, usually up to a

maximum of 0.35%.
Even though the effect of Sulphur on steel is negative at certain stages, any Sulphur
content less than 0.05% has a positive effect on steel grades.
1.4.7 Aluminum (Al)
De-oxidant and grain size control. typically, ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05%
14
Aluminum is one of the most important deoxidizers in very small amounts in the material
and helps form a more fine-grained crystalline microstructure and increase the steel
grade’s toughness.
1.4.8 Chromium (Cr)
For creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for elevated temperature service.
Widely used in stainless steels for corrosion resistance, increases hardness and strength
but reduces ductility. Typically, ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels
Cr presents in certain structural steels in small amounts. It is primarily used to increase

hardenability of steel and increase the corrosion resistance as well as the yield strength
of the steel material.
When the percent of chromium in the steel exceeds 1.1% a surface layer is formed that
helps protect the steel against oxidation.
1.4.9 Nickel (Ni)
Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from acids, increases strength and
toughness
In addition to its favorable effect on the corrosion resistance of steel, Ni is added to steels
to increase hardenability. Nickel enhances the low-temperature behavior of the material
by improving the fracture toughness.
The weldability of the steel is not decreased by the manner of this element. The nickel
drastically increases the notch toughness of the steel.
Nickel is often used in combination with other alloying elements, especially chromium and
molybdenum. It is a key component in stainless steels but at the low concentrations found
in carbon steels.
1.4.10 Nickel Alloys
Nickel welding metals come in the form of several alloys. These include:
Nickel Alloy 141: Used for welding case and wrought pure nickel (nickel 200 and 201). It
is also used to join nickel to steel.
15
Nickel Alloy 61: Same as above.
Nickel-Copper Alloy 190: For welding to itself or to steel.
Nickel-Copper Alloy 60: Used for welding to itself.
1.4.11 Magnesium
Magnesium alloys are lightweight (2/3 of aluminum), it absorbs vibration and is easy to
cast. It has a melting temperature like aluminum and is welded in a similar way.
When you grind magnesium note that the shavings are flammable (do not use water to
put out any flames). The metal is welded with a Tig welder.
1.4.12 Molybdenum (Mo)
Affects hardenability. Steels containing molybdenum are less susceptible to temper

brittleness than other alloy steels. Increases the high temperature tensile and creep
strengths of steel. Typically, ~ 0.5 to 1.0%
Molybdenum has effects similar to manganese and vanadium and is often used in
combination with one or the other. This element is a strong carbide former and is usually
present in alloy steels in amounts less than 1%. It increases hardenability and elevated
temperature strength and also improves corrosion resistance as well as increased creep
strength. It is added to stainless steels to increase their resistance to corrosion and is
also used in high speed tool steels.
1.4.13 Niobium (Nb)
Niobium is a key grain refining element, as well a strength-enhancing element in steel

production. Niobium is a strong carbide former and forms very hard, very small, simple
carbides. Improves ductility, hardness, wear, and corrosion resistance. Also, refines grain
structure. Formerly known as Columbium.
1.4.14 Vanadium (V)
A grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
The effects of Vanadium chemical element are similar to those of Mn, Mo, and Cb. When
used with other alloying elements it restricts grain growth, refines grain size, increases
16
hardenability, fracture toughness, and resistance to shock loading. Softening at high

temperatures, fatigue stress and wear resistance are improved. At greater than 0.05%,
there may be a tendency for the steel to become embrittled during thermal stress relief
treatments.
Vanadium is used in nitriding, heat resisting, tool and spring steels together with other
alloying elements.
1.4.15 Titanium (Ti)
Titanium is used to control grain size growth, which improves toughness. Also transforms
sulfide inclusions form elongated to globular, improving strength and corrosion resistance
as well as toughness and ductility.
Ti is a very strong, very lightweight metal that can be used alone or alloyed with steels. It
is added to steel to give them high strength at high temperatures. Modern jet engines
used titanium steels.
It prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steels during long heating
Prevents formation of austenite in high chromium steels
Reduces martensitic hardness and hardenability in medium chromium steels.
1.4.16 Copper (Cu)
Present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%) added to ‘weathering steels’ (~ 0.6%) to give
better corrosion resistance.
It also has a small impact on hardenability. It is typically found in amounts not less than
0.20 percent and is the primary anti-corrosion component in steel grades like A242 and
A441.
Copper is popular due to its electrical conductivity, heat conductivity, corrosion resistance,
appearance, and wear resistance. Copper is also added to produce precipitation
hardening properties and increase corrosion resistance.
17
1.5 Hot Rolled Steel V/s Cold Rolled Steel
1.5.1 Hot Rolled Steel
a. Is relatively soft as compared to cold rolled products.

b. Is widely used for general structural fabrication.
c. Has an oxidized “mill scale” coating which is a dark flat gray color.
d. Has rounded edges.
e. Cost less than cold rolled steel.
1.5.2 Cold Rolled Steel
a. Is somewhat harder than hot rolled steel due to cold compression while forming.
b. Has a shiner surface and square edges.
c. Has better dimensional tolerances.
d. Is used in manufacturing of parts, tools, jigs, fixtures, and tooling.
e. Cost more than hot rolled steel.
Constituent Influencing Characteristics
Carbon (C) Strength
Manganese (Mn) Toughness
Silicon (Si) < 0.3% Deoxidizer
Aluminum Al Grain refiner, <0.008% Deoxidizer + Toughness
Chromium (Cr) Corrosion resistance and resistance to elevate temp. (secondary

only to Mo in creep resistance)
Molybdenum (Mo) 1% is for Creep resistance
Vanadium (V) Strength
Nickel (Ni) Low temperature applications and toughness
Copper (Cu) Used for weathering steels (Corten)
Sulphur (S) Residual element (can cause hot shortness)
18
Phosphorous (P) Residual element (can cause for brittleness) (cold shortness)
Titanium (Ti) Grain refiner. Used as a micro alloying element. Improves

strength and toughness.
Niobium (Nb) Grain refiner. Used as a micro alloying element. Improves

strength and toughness.
Table 2.Summary Table
19
2 CHAPTER - 2: WELD JOINTS
A welding joint is a point or edge where two or more workpieces are joined.
Weld joints are one of the weakest links in any system due to intrinsic constraints. For
high-quality welding, the direction of forces that will be applied to the components after
welding must be addressed. These forces affect the quality of the weld and the strength
of the joint.
Tensile, compression, bending, torsion, and shear forces create stresses in welded joints,
as shown in the figure below.
Figure 2. Stresses in welded joints created by Tensile, Compression, Bending, Torsion, Shear Forces
Joint connections in a structure should be designed to fulfil the intended level of safety,
serviceability and durability, and the ability to withstand at least the stresses provided for
them in the global analysis of the structure. The ability of a welded joint to prevent these
forces from causing structural failure depends upon both the joint design. Some joints can
withstand some types of forces better than others.
The production of sound welds is governed by type of joint, its preparation, root opening,
etc. The choice of electrode, welding position, welding current and voltage, heat input,
arc length, rate of travel, penetration, deposition rate also affects the quality of weld.
2.1 Basic Joints
The American Welding Society (AWS) defines five types of joints based on the
arrangement of the workpieces: Butt, Lap, Corner, Tee, and Edge.
20
Figure 3.Types of Joints
The types of welded joints depend on:
a. Size and shape of members connected at joint

b. Type of loading
c. Area available for welding
d. Relative cost of various types of weld.
2.1.1 Butt Joint
A butt joint is a joint where two pieces of metal lie in one plane and the side of each metal
is joined by welding.
Figure 4.Butt Joint
A butt weld is the most common type of joint used in the manufacture of structures and
piping systems. Butt welds are made in different ways, each serving a different purpose.
Different factors are the shape of the groove, the layering, and the width of the gap.
Note that the butt welds and groove welds refer to the same weld type, where groove
weld is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) term, and butt weld is the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) term.
2.1.2 Tee Joints
Tee welding joints are formed when two workpieces lie at a right angle to each other.
This results in the edges coming together in the center of a plate or component in a ‘T’
shape.
21
Tee joints are a type of fillet weld, and they can also be formed when a tube or pipe is
welded onto a base plate. A double T-joint occurs when one piece is attached from both
sides at right angles to another to be welded.
Figure 5.Tee Joint
With this type of weld, it’s important to always ensure there is effective penetration into
the roof of the weld. Tee joints are not usually prepared with groove, unless the base
metal is thick and welding on both sides cannot withstand the load the joint must support.
2.1.3 Corner Joints
Corner joints have similarities to tee welding joints. However, the difference is the location
of where the metal is positioned. In the tee joint, it’s placed in the middle, whereas in
corner joints the ends of both workpieces abut at a corner. It does not matter whether
they are at a 90-degree angle or any other angle (< 180 degrees) to each other.
Figure 6.Corner Joints
The styles used for creating corner joints include V-groove, J-groove, U-groove, spot,
edge, fillet, corner-flange, bevel-groove, flare-V-groove and square-groove or butt.
2.1.4 Lap Joints
Lap joints are formed when two pieces of metal lie parallel on top of each other and
overlap. In this case one workpiece protrudes over another.
22
Figure 7.Lap Joints
Lap joints are rarely used on thicker materials and are commonly used to joint two pieces
with differing thicknesses together. Welds can be made on one or both sides.
2.1.5 Edge Joints
In an edge joint, the metal surfaces are placed together so that the edges are even. One
or both plates may be formed by bending them at an angle.
Figure 8.Edge Joints
2.2 Joint Preparations
Joint preparation is a technical term used to describe how you prepare metal for welding.
It involves preparation of groove between two members to be welded.
When parts and assemblies demand a certain level of strength, you must cut the edges
of the metal and fill it with weld material and creates a complete bridge between the two
components. The depth of penetration in a weld joint affects the strength, quality, and
efficiency of the welding process.
2.3 Faying Surface and Weld Seams
The area of the metal’s surface that is melted during the welding process is called the
faying surface. The faying surface can be shaped before welding to increase the weld’s
strength; this is called edge preparation.
A seam weld is made to join the faying surfaces of two pieces of similar metals in a way
that there is not gap or crevice left between them. The seam may be a butt joint or an
23
overlap joint and is usually an automated process and forms the weld progressively,
starting at one end.
The figure below shows dimensions and properties that can be named for a weld seam.
Depending on conditions and materials, these properties must be correctly selected to
ensure the strength and stability of the weld. The following sections deal with these
dimensions and shapes.
Figure 9.Dimensions and Properties of Weld Seams
2.4 Principles of Joint preparation
Joint preparation is only possible for certain weld types. For example, root opening
preparation is available for square groove or butt, V groove or butt, bevel groove or butt,
U groove or butt, J groove or butt, flare V groove or butt, and flare bevel groove or butt
welds. Angle cut preparation is available for V groove or butt and bevel groove or butt
welds.
Principles for joint preparation for welding include the following:
2.4.1 Codes and standards
Some codes and standards require specific joint preparations.
The type, depth, angle, and location of the groove are usually determined by a code or
standard that has been qualified for the specific job.
24
Organizations such as the American Welding Society, the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and the American Bureau of Ships (ABS) are among the
agencies that issue such codes and specifications.
The most common code or standards are the AWS D1.1 and the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel (BPV), Section IX.
2.4.2 Metals
Because some metals have specific problems with thermal expansion, crack sensitivity,
or distortion, the joint design selected must help control these problems.
For example, magnesium is very susceptible to post weld stresses, and the U-groove
works best for thick sections.
2.4.3 Joint Dimensions
For groove weld, the root opening or gap is provided for the electrode to access the base
of the joint. The size of root gap and root face depends on the following:
a. Type of welding process

b. Welding position
c. Volume of deposited material
d. Cost of preparing edges
e. Access for arc and electrode
f. Shrinkage and distortion
In some cases, the exact size, shape, and angle can be specified for a groove. If exact
dimensions are not available, you may make the groove any size you feel necessary; but,
remember, the wider the groove, the more welding it will require to complete.
Figure 10.V-Groove
25
Figure 11.U-Groove
As the metal becomes thicker, you must change the joint design to ensure a sound weld.
On thin sections, it is often possible to make full penetration welds using a square butt
joint. Square butt joints take less preparation time and less welding time.
When welding on thick plate or pipe, it is often impossible for the welder to get 100%
penetration without some type of groove being used. The edge may be shaped with either
a bevel, V-groove, J-groove, or U-groove.
Figure 12.Types of Grooves
Groove welds will transmit full load of the members they join, so they should have the
same strength as the members they join.
26
a. The groove is made of double-bevel or double-V for plates of thickness more than
12mm.
b. The groove is made of double-U or double-J for plates of thickness more than
40mm.
c. The groove is made of single-J and single-U for plates of thickness between 12-
40mm.
d. Effective length of groove weld should not be less than 4 times the weld size.
Effective length of intermittent weld should not be less than 4 times the weld size,
with a minimum of 40mm.
2.4.4 Fillet Welds
Fillet welds require less precision in fitting up two sections. They are adopted in field as
well as shop welding. They are assumed to fail in shear and are cheaper than groove
welds. Listed below are the key features:
a. The minimum size of fillet weld should not be less than 3mm and not more than
thickness of thinner part joined. The maximum size of fillet weld is obtained by
subtracting 1.5mm from thickness of thinner member to be jointed. The maximum
size of weld should not be more than 3/4 of the thickness of section at toe when
welds are applied to round toe of steel sections.
b. As per IS code, the actual length of fillet weld should not be less than four times
the size of weld. If this requirement is not met, the size of weld should be one fourth
of the effective length.
c. Effective length of fillet weld is taken equal to overall length minus twice the weld
size. The deduction is made to allow for craters to be formed at the ends of welded
length.
27
2.4.5 Corner Joints Preparations
Figure 13.Corner Joints Edge Preparations
2.4.6 Edge Joint Preparations
Figure 14.Edge Joints-Edge Preparations
28
2.4.7 Lap Joint Preparations
Figure 15.Lap Joints Edge Preparation
2.4.8 Tee Joint Preparations
Figure 16.Tee Joint Edge Preparations
2.4.9 Smooth appearance
The weld’s surface can be ground smooth with the base metal so that the weld
“disappears.” This can be done for appearance or so that the weld does not interfere with
the sliding or moving of parts along the surface.
2.4.10 Increased strength
A weld should be as strong as or stronger than the base metal being joined. By having
100% joint fusion and an appropriate amount of weld reinforcement, the weld can meet
its strength requirement.
29
2.4.11 Welding Position
The most ideal welding position for most joints is the flat position because it allows for
larger molten weld pools to be controlled.
When welds are made in any position other than the flat position, they are referred to as
being done out of position.
The American Welding Society (AWS) has divided plate welding into four basic positions
for grooves (G) and fillet (F) welds as follows:
In plate welding, we have four different positions namely:
a. Flat position (1G or 1F)

b. Horizontal Position (2G or 2F)
c. Vertical Position (3G or 3F)
d. Overhead Position (4G or 4F)
2.4.11.1 Groove Weld Positions
Figure 17.Groove Weld Positions
2.4.11.2 Fillet Weld Positions
Figure 18.Fillet Weld Positions
Notes:
30
a. In flat welding the welders head remains above the test coupon.
b. In horizontal weld position, movement of electrode shall be in horizontal plane. We
have two different welding techniques in horizontal welding, these are:
• Rightward technique
• Leftward Technique
c. In vertical weld position, movement of electrode shall be in vertical plane. We have
two different welding methods in vertical welding, these are:
• Uphill
• Downhill
d. Overhead position is one of the most difficult positions because welder has to work
against the gravity. In overhead welding, the test coupon (or workpiece) remains
above the head of the welder.
2.4.12 Welder Skill
Often the skills or abilities of the welder are a limiting factor in joint design.
Some joints have been designed without adequate room for the welder to see the molten
weld pool or room to get the electrode or torch into the joint.
2.4.13 Costs
Several factors can affect the cost of producing a weld.
Joint design is one major way to control welding cost. Reducing the groove angle can
help.
Joint design must be a consideration for any project to be competitive and cost effective.
Figure 19.Groove Angle
31
3 CHAPTER -3 WELDING SYMBOLS
Welding symbols are a useful tool for managing the welding of a specific connection.
Every weld symbol is a compact set of instructions written in a code that experienced
welders can quickly interpret to determine how they should handle every weld in a custom
fabrication.
Welding symbols are used on drawings, project specs, and welding procedure
specifications.
The information in the welding symbol can include the following details for the weld: weld
type, location, size, length, depth of penetration, height of reinforcement, groove type,
groove dimensions, location, process, filler metal, strength, number of welds, weld shape,
and surface finishing.
Welding symbols are part of the language of welding. Welders must be able to understand
this language to ensure their welds meet the design specs.
Weld symbols are one of the most critical elements for technical documentation and
communication with the welder. Reading and understanding weld symbols the right way
is essential to do a great welding job in [year].
In this chapter, you will find the most basic weld symbols.
3.1 Weld symbol vs Welding symbol
A weld symbol is not the same as a welding symbol.
The weld symbol specifies the type of weld to be applied to a part and is usually a part of
the welding symbol. The welding symbol describes the whole thing and consists of
several parts including the reference line, arrow, and weld symbol when required. The
weld symbol is placed above the reference line of the welding symbol.
32
Figure 20.Welding Symbol vs Weld Symbol
3.1.1 Illustration of Welding Symbol
Welding symbols are a set of information conveyed by the design department to the
welding engineer and the welding operator. It contains all the necessary information viz.
welding position, dimensions and geometry of the weld, details of groove/fillet, welding
process, etc.
A basic weld symbol consists of three parts:
a. An arrow to indicate where the weld is required.

b. The reference line, which is always horizontal. This line typically has a symbol
attached to it to indicate the type of weld to be made. In most weld symbols, the
reference line will contain the majority of the information needed about the weld,
including the type of weld to be made, length of weld, weld size, and required
beveling of the weld area can all be communicated on one small line.
c. The tail, which is an optional component used to relay special instructions.
These are shown in the diagram given below
Figure 21.Basic Weld Symbol
33
In addition to the basic parts of a welding symbol i.e. Arrow line, Reference line, and the
tail certain elementary symbols are provided on the reference line. The elementary
symbols may be complemented by supplementary symbols, dimensions, and
complementary information.
3.2 Welding Symbols
In the following images you can see the basic AWS weld symbols, groove symbols and
supplementary weld symbols.
3.2.1 Basic Weld Symbols
Figure 22.Basic Weld Symbols
Figure 23.Basic Welding Symbols and Their Location Significance
3.2.2 Groove Symbols
Figure 24.Basic Groove Symbols
34
Figure 25.Basic Welding Groove Symbols
3.2.3 Supplementary Symbols
Figure 26.Supplementary Symbols
For further reference you can also check the handout on AWS here.
3.2.4 Why Welding Symbols Matter!
Welding symbols help to convey information clearly. Look at the figure below. You could
use the words on the right to describe the welding needed but there may be no room for
the drawing itself. Alternatively, you could use the welding symbols on the left. What would
you choose?
Explanation Symbol
Weld both sides 5/16 inches leg length

and 12 inches long.
The welding process is FCAW.
Weld the arrow side - 6mm leg length and

100mm long. The center to center of the
weld is to be 500mm long.
35
Weld the other side - 10mm leg length

and 50mm long. The center to center of
the weld is to be 200mm long.
The most important reason why weld symbols matter is that they aid to assure consistent
quality and production tolerances. Welders know exactly where to place their welds, how
large to make them, and what kind of weld to apply for the highest overall quality.
Even in modern factories where automated welding machines are used, weld symbols
help the welding machine operator program the welding machine to ensure that every
weld joint is executed to the exact standards outlined in the design document.
Welding symbols can also give more information than would be possible with words and
so save space and time. Once you become accustomed to the symbols you will see that
they help you to understand exactly what needs to be done. Symbols can define:
a. Joint configuration e.g. beveled, butt weld or double bevel

b. Type of weld e.g. fillet, lap, edge, corner, slot, or plug
c. Type of welding process e.g. gas metal arc welding
d. Application e.g. whether to weld on site or in the workshop.
3.3 Interpreting Welding Symbols
3.3.1 Weld Orientation
There are multiple orientations of the arrow possible, however the reference line must be
oriented horizontally. In the following image you can see examples of how welding
symbols can be arranged, but there are even more combinations possible.
Figure 27.Weld Orientation
36
3.3.2 Weld Location
Weld information for the “arrow side” can be read below the reference line. Weld
information for the “other side” is placed above the reference line.
Figure 28.Weld Location
Now, look at the image below. The position of the weld symbol clearly tells the welder
where the weld seam should be.
The side at which the arrow is pointing at is called “arrow side”. The opposite side is the
“other side”.
Overall, there are three different possible positions for a weld symbol in the welding
symbol:
Case #1
If the weld symbol is on the bottom side, the desired weld seam must be placed on the
arrow side.
Figure 29.Weld Symbol on Bottom Side
Case #2
If the weld symbol is on the top side, weld seam must be placed on the other side.
37
Figure 30.Weld Symbol on Top Side
Case #3
If the weld symbol is on both, on the top and on the bottom side of the reference line, the
weld seam must be placed on both sides.
Figure 31.Weld Symbol on Bottom and Top Side
Case #4
If the weld symbol is on both top and on the bottom side for two sides.
Figure 32.Weld Symbol on Bottom and Top Side for two Sides
3.3.3 Weld All-round
A circle around the intersection between the reference line and arrow line symbolizes to
weld completely around something.
38
Figure 33.Weld All-round Symbol
3.3.3.1 Example
In the following image you can see an example of what it could look like when you use
the weld-all-around symbol.
Figure 34.The Use of Weld All-Around Symbol
But in many cases, you don’t just want to weld around completely but define a specific
length and width of a weld seam.
3.3.4 Field-weld Symbol
Figure 35.Field-weld Symbol
3.3.4.1 Example
Compare two symbols. Note what is different and what each one means.
39
10mm fillet weld other side of arrow 6mm

fillet weld arrow side
Weld on site.
Use the Gas Metal Arc Welding Process
6mm fillet weld on both sides
Weld all round
Weld on site
Use the Gas Metal Arc Welding Process
3.3.5 Dimensions - The Length and Width of a Weld Seam
The width of the weld is shown on the same side of the reference line as the weld symbol
and are shown to the left of the symbol.
Figure 36.Weld Seam
The length of the weld seam is shown on the right side of the weld symbol. If you would
like to specify both the length and the width of a weld seam, you can do it the following
way:
40
Figure 37.Length and Width Symbol for Weld Seam
This symbol requires a 1/4-inch fillet weld with a length of 5 inch.
3.3.5.1 Example
The following example shows a 1/4-inch fillet weld with a length of 3 placed on the arrow
side.
Figure 38.1/4-inch fillet weld with a length of 3 placed on the arrow side
3.3.6 Intermittent Welds
Intermittent welds or also called skip welds are weld seams with unwelded spaces in
between. In intermittent fillet welds, the length and pitch increments are placed to the right
of the weld symbol.
Figure 39.Intermittent Fillet Welds
41
3.3.6.1 Example
In the following image, you see an example of an intermittent weld with 1/2-inch weld
thickness, weld length of 8 inch and a pitch of 12 inch.
Figure 40.Intermittent weld with 1/2-inch weld thickness, weld length of 8 inch and a pitch of 12 inch
In the following image, you see an example of an intermittent weld (both sides) with 1/8-
inch weld thickness, weld length of 5 inch and a pitch of 10 inch.
Figure 41.Intermittent weld (both sides) with 1/8-inch weld thickness, weld length of 5 inch and a pitch of 10 inch
3.3.7 Staggered Welds
If you would like to have a staggered weld, you misalign the weld symbols inside the
welding symbol.
Figure 42.Staggered Welds
3.3.8 Multiple Arrows in a Single Symbol
Welding symbols are frequently constrained by the amount of space available on a

drawing. To minimize the number of welding symbols required, it is permitted to use more
42
than one arrow in a single welding symbol to reduce the number of welding symbols
required. A multiple arrow welding symbol can be highly useful, especially around closed
corners, because a welding symbol only defines welding of the joint to which an arrow is
pointing, and a change of direction or change in geometry constitutes the end of a joint.
Figure 43.Multiple Arrows in Single Symbol
3.3.9 Multiple Reference Line
A multiple-reference-line welding symbol can be used to specify the sequence of

operations. Two or more reference lines may be connected to the same arrow, with the
reference line closest to the arrow indicating the first operation and the operations
specified by the sequence of reference lines reading upward or downward from the arrow
indicating the second and third operations, respectively. It should be noted that a multiple-
reference-line symbol can be used to describe processes other than welding, such as
nondestructive tests.
Figure 44.multiple-reference-line welding symbol
3.3.10 Tail Symbols
The notation placed in the tail of the symbol may indicate the welding process to be used,
the type of filler metal needed, whether peening or root chipping is required, and other
information pertaining to the weld. If notations are not used, the tail of the symbol is
omitted.
43
Figure 45.Tails Symbols
(A) Reference: Means refer to reference note A-2

(B) Process: Means welding process is Submerged Arc Welding
(C) Process & Method: Means welding process is Shielded Metal Arc Welding and
method is manual
(D) No Specification Required: Means follow general good engineering practices.
3.4 Difference between AWS and ISO Symbols
In the ISO system, a weld on the arrow side is indicated by placing the weld symbol above
the solid reference line and a weld on the other side is shown below a dashed line, as
shown in the figure given below.
Figure 46.ISO Symbol
Whereas in the AWS system the weld symbol for a weld is placed below the reference
line and for a weld on the other side is shown above the line as shown in the figure given
below; (Note: Dashed line is not used in AWS system).
44
Figure 47.AWS Symbol
In the ISO system symbols on the solid line always refer to the arrow side of the joint and
symbols on the dashed line indicate a weld on the other side. The dashed line can be
drawn either above or below the solid line but as per standard practice, the dashed line
is placed below the solid reference line.
To bring more clarity about the arrow side and the other side in a fillet joint, please see
the diagram given below.
Figure 48.AWS
Figure 49.ISO
Note: If the weld is made on both sides, as in a double fillet weld (or double groove), the
dashed line can be omitted since the weld symbol is placed on both sides of the reference
line or lines. Please see the diagram given below.
45
Figure 50.Welding on Both Sides (AWS and ISO)
3.5 Practice Examples
Weld profile Actual weld joint Welding symbol
The arrow side or the near side
The opposite side or the other

side of the arrow
The arrow side or the near side
The opposite side or the other

side of the arrow
46
Both sides
For a root gap of 2mm
For a root gap of 2mm
Welds with 16−mm groove

depth, 60°groove angle, 2−mm
root gap, and 19−mm plate
thickness
Welds with steel backing:

12−mm plate thickness,
45°groove angle, 4.8−mm root
gap, machined for surface
finishing
Partial penetration weld:

12−mm plate thickness, 5−mm
groove depth, 60°groove angle,
0−mm root gap
47
Groove depth: 16mm on the

arrow side, and 9mm on the
opposite side; Groove angle:
60°on the arrow side, 90°on the
opposite side; Root gap: 3mm
On both sides: 25−mm groove

depth, 25°groove angle, 6−mm
root radius, 0−mm root gap
T joint with steel backing:

45°groove angle, 6.4−mm root
gap
Groove depth: 16mm on the

arrow side, 9mm on the
opposite side; Groove angle:
45°on the arrow side, 45°on the
opposite side; Root gap: 2mm
Fillet welds with different leg

length on both sides
48
Fillet welds with 6−mm leg

length on both sides
Parallel welds: 50−mm weld

length, 3 welds, 150−mm pitch
Summary
Figure 51.Consolidated Welding Symbol
49
4 CHAPTER - 4: TECHNOLOGY OF WELDING PROCESSES
There are basically five common arc welding processes used.
a. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Stick)

b. Submerged Arc Welding (Sub-Arc)
c. Flux-Cored Arc Welding (Flux-Cored)
d. Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)
e. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
Each process has benefits and drawbacks that can help you choose the best welding
method for your project. An outline of each process is provided below.
4.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding or stick welding is the most common manual welding method.
It's the most adaptable and uses the least amount of gear. The small light electrode and
holder can be used in tight locations or hundreds of feet away from the welding power
source.
The equipment cost is relatively inexpensive (starting around $300), but the overall cost
of using this process can be high. This is due to the low deposition rate (pounds of
deposited weld metal per hour), which is usually between two and five pounds per hour.
The arc is continually interrupted because it is just 14 inches long and the electrode needs
to be constantly replaced. As a result, there is downtime, stub loss and inefficiency which
drives up the labor cost.
Stick welding is of great quality, but it requires skilled welders. Because the heat input is
low, the weld metal has a fine microstructure. This results in excellent mechanical
qualities; nevertheless, slag inclusions can form if the slag that protects the molten weld
metal from the atmosphere is not cleaned thoroughly between passes and at the end and
beginning of each weld. Large welds have a lot of stops and starts, which is where flaws
are frequently identified.
50
Figure 52.Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Stick)
4.2 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is the cheapest welding procedure in general, although
the equipment is expensive. Because sub-arc welding is usually a machine or automatic
welding process that can only function in the flat and horizontal positions, it can be quite
expensive on carriages, turning rolls, manipulators, welding heads, and power supplies.
Submerged arc welding has, with its high amperage (over 1,000 amps), can produce
strong penetration and high deposition rates in carbon steel plates. With as many as five
wires going into the weld puddle at the same time, sub-arc can deposit over 100 pounds
per hour. Significant cost savings can be achieved along with high production rates.
However, it has a few drawbacks. Sub-arc can only be done in the flat and horizontal
positions because of the granular flux and fluid weld puddle. The high heat inputs
associated with high amperage tend to make large grains in the finished weld metal. The
large grains and some micro-inclusions from the slag system tend to create lower
mechanical properties than some of the lower heat input methods, although they can still
be quite good.
51
Figure 53.Submerged Arc Welding (Sub-Arc)
4.3 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is the most versatile arc welding technique. It's divided
into two types: self-shielded and gas shielded.
a. Self-shielded is typically used outdoors and in situations where high quality

mechanical properties aren't necessary.
b. Gas-shielded is generally used in indoor manufacturing shops where higher-
quality mechanical properties are required.
Gas-shielded is the more frequent of the two approaches. It relies on an external supply
of shielding gas. CO2 or a mixture of 75 percent argon and 25 percent CO 2 is commonly
used to shield the arc. Weld metal produced by gas-shielded flux-cored arc welding is
cleaner and has superior mechanical properties than self-shielded welding.
Large-diameter wires (3/32-inch) provide excellent penetration and can deposit up to 21

pounds per hour. They can only be used in horizontal and flat positions. Small-diameter
wires (.035, .045, and 1/16-inch) are excellent for welding out-of-position. They produce
the highest deposition rates and quality of any of the all-position processes. They can
weld vertically and overhead at a rate of 10 pounds per hour.
52
Figure 54.Flux-Cored Arc Welding (Flux-Cored)
4.4 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding) is a fusion welding technology that creates an electric
arc between a consumable electrode and the base metals. This arc provides the heat
required to melt the base plate's faying surfaces and generate the coalescence. The
GMAW electrode is a small diameter wire having very long length that is wound in a wire-
pool. During welding, this wire electrode is continuously fed to the welding zone to supply
required filler metal to fill the root gap. Composition of the electrode metal is chosen based
on the base metal – usually electrode has similar composition with that of base metals
(as GMAW is preferred for homogeneous welding). Because GMAW uses a bare
electrode, shielding gas from a separate source must be supplied to the welding zone to
protect the hot weld bead from oxidation and contamination. In the GMAW process, the
shielding gas might be inert or a blend of active and inert gases. Based on the
composition of shielding gas, GMAW process can be classified into two groups – Metal
Inert Gas (MIG) welding and Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding.
4.4.1 Difference between MIG and MAG
In Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding, inert gas (such as argon, helium, nitrogen, or a
combination of these gases) is used for shielding purposes. Metal Active Gas (MAG)
welding, on the other hand, uses a blend of active and inert gas for shielding. Oxygen
and carbon dioxide are two commonly used active gases for MAG welding. Such gases
can disintegrate during welding due to extreme heat of the arc and can therefore induce
53
chemical elements into the weld bead. Thus, MAG welding gives the provision to alter
chemical and mechanical properties of the weld bead. Few other benefits like deep
penetration, stable arc, low spatter, etc. can also be harnessed in specific cases with the
usage of active gases. It is worth mentioning that both MIG and MAG welding processes
are carried out in same way; the only difference lies in the composition of shielding gas
and the consequent influences.
4.4.2 GMAW Operating Modes
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) has four different operating modes (droplet transfers):
short-circuiting, globular, spray, and pulsed. The operating mode is determined by the
current level, voltage, and oxidizing potential of the shielding gas.
4.4.2.1 Short-circuiting
Short-circuiting transfer is used in CO2 shielding at low current levels. Consequently,

short-circuiting has very low heat input and penetration. This is beneficial for welding over
impurities, filling gaps, and minimizing distortion in thin sections. It can be used in any
position because of the fast-freezing puddle. Short-circuiting should not be used on thick
sections because it may risk in “lack of fusion.”
4.4.2.2 Globular Transfer
Globular transfer is a form of short-circuiting that uses a higher current. Because the arc
in globular transfer does not go out like it does in short-circuiting, there is more heat input
and better penetration. It will run on 100 percent CO2 or a mixture of argon and CO2.
4.4.2.3 Spray Transfer
Spray transfer commonly uses a gas mixture of 98% argon and 2% oxygen. Spray
transfer uses a high current level, which results in rapid penetration and deposition. 1/16-
inch wire can provide adequate penetration and a deposition rate of 14 pounds per hour
in the spray mode. Spray transfer can only be used in a horizontal and flat positions.
4.4.2.4 Pulsed Transfer
Pulsed transfer is a hybrid or mixed method of spray and globular transfer. There is a low
background current and a high pulse current. The high current causes a spray transfer,
54
and the welding machine then reduces the current to a safe level. Because the heat input
is less than spray transfer, it can be used to weld out of position. Penetration is not an
issue because the heat input is greater than that of a short-circuit. The mechanical
properties of the weld metal are generally very good since the arc is totally shielded (as
with minimum oxygen concentration) and there is no slag system.
Figure 55.Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)
4.5 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) is the most expensive and high-quality arc welding
technique. Although it is primarily done by hand, several automated applications are
available. A skilled welder can drop 12 pounds of weld metal each hour at a rate of 1 to
3 inches per minute. The heat input per inch of weld can be quite high due to the slow
travel speed, resulting in good weld metal fusion. However, thin sections may get
deformed.
The heat input per deposited weld metal is low because manual gas tungsten arc welding
operates at low amps and voltages, and cold filler metal is introduced to the puddle. This
gives finer grain size and much better mechanical properties than other processes. There
are no micro-inclusions to degrade mechanical properties because there is no flux. Pure
argon is generally used as the shielding gas on carbon and stainless steels resulting in a
very low oxygen level in the weld metal, resulting in good mechanical qualities.
55
Figure 56.Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
4.6 Types of Welding Operations
4.6.1 Manual Welding
Welding whereby the entire welding operation is performed and controlled by hand. Since
the welder does all the work manually, it requires considerable skill to maintain continuous
control, physically demanding and can lead to injuries.
A light manual welding machine has one of the lowest capacities among all types of
welding machines. Its capacity ranges in between 100 to 200A. This machine is portable
and is best suited for light welding processes.
Examples: SMAW and TIG
4.6.2 Semi-Automatic Welding
In semiautomatic welding, defined as “manual welding with equipment that automatically

controls one or more of the welding conditions,” the welder manipulates the welding gun
to create the weld while the electrode is automatically fed to the arc.
Examples: FCAW, GMAW (MIG, MAG)
4.6.3 Machine Welding
In mechanized welding, the welder’s intervention consists of adjusting the equipment

controls in response to visual observation of operations. The torch, gun, or electrode
holder is held by a mechanical device, which can be a robotic operation.
56
In fully automated welding, the equipment needs only occasional or no observation of the
weld, and no manual adjustment of equipment controls. the welder’s involvement is
limited to activating the machine to initiate the welding cycle and observing the welds for
defects on an intermittent basis. Automatic welding using a robot that can be pre-
programmed to different welding paths and fabrication geometries.
An automatic welding machine has a high amount of capacity. Its capacity ranges in
between 800 to 300A. This type of machine is not portable and is suitably used for heavy
welding processes.
Example: SAW
4.6.4 Which of these processes is “The Best”?
Each arc welding process has its own set of benefits and drawbacks. Each can generate
high-quality welds, but if not used appropriately, they can also produce defective welds.
In general, gas shielding result in purer weld metal with better mechanical properties.
Fluxed methods are easier to use, however they can cause micro-inclusions, higher
oxygen levels, and poor mechanical characteristics.
Successful application of mechanized/automated systems can offer several advantages.

These include increased productivity, consistent weld quality, predictable welding
production rates, reduced variable welding costs and lower part costs. Limitations include
higher capital investment than for manual welding equipment, a need for more accurate
part location and orientation, and more sophisticated arc movement and control devices.
As such, production requirements must be large enough to justify the costs of equipment
and installation, the maintenance of equipment and the training of operators/programmers
for automated/robot equipment.
And so, depending on the application, intended cost, and required quality level, any of the
above methods could be "the best" if used correctly.
5 CHAPTER - 5 WELDING DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES
Any discontinuity (or irregularity) in the weld metal, which exceeds the applicable code
limit, is termed as a weld defect or welding defect. Please keep in mind that a discontinuity
is an interruption in the typical physical structure of a material that sharply changes its
57
properties. A simple variation of properties does not characterize a discontinuity. A

discontinuity can only be deemed a defect if it exceeds the given code limit, therefore
every defect in the weld metal is a discontinuity, but not every discontinuity in the weld
metal is a defect. In short, a weld defect is any flaw or imperfection that compromises the
intended use of a weldment.
Defects may occur due to the following reasons.
a. Incorrect welding parameters

b. Inappropriate welding procedures
c. Poor process condition
d. Inappropriate selection of filler metal and parent metal
e. Unskilled welder or welding operator
f. Incorrect job preparations
5.1 Classification of Defects
Defects can be classified as external defect (also known as visual defect or surface
defect) or internal defect (also known as hidden defect or subsurface defect). External
defects are those that are visible on the surface. Internal defects are those that are
present at a deeper level in the material and are not visible on the surface of the product.
The weld defects are classified according to ISO 6520 and the acceptable limits are
specified in ISO 5817 and ISO 10042.
Broadly, there are 10 common defects.
1. Cracks
2. Incomplete penetration
3. Lack of fusion
4. Undercut
5. Porosity and blowholes
6. Spatter
7. Overlap
8. Inclusions
9. Warpage
58
10. Burn Through
Different types of welding defects along with their causes and remedies are explained
below.
5.2 Cracks
It's the most dangerous of all the flaws. Cracks can be microscopic or macroscopic, and
they can be of any size or shape. Cracks may appear in the zone affected by the weld
(fused zone or heat affected zone) on the surface, beneath the surface, at any depth, or
at the root. The crack occurs when localized stress exceeds the ultimate Tensile Stress
(UTS) of the material. It may propagate within the material.
Figure 57.Crack
Cracks are of two types.
a. Hot Cracks
b. Cold Cracks
5.2.1 Hot Cracks
Hot cracks form as weld begin to solidify and are caused by brittle constituents (presence
of Sulphur, carbon, silicon and hydrogen). Hot cracks mostly occur in the weld metal,
although they can also form in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ).
When a hot crack occurs on the weld metal, then it is termed as Solidification Crack and
if it occurs in the HAZ then called Liquation crack.
59
Figure 58.Hot Cracks
The long centerline crack is Solidification Cracking (hot crack) can occur when the depth-
to-width ratio of the solidifying weld bead is large (deep & narrow). Refer figure above.
5.2.1.1 Causes of Hot Crack
a. High concentration of residual stress

b. Rapid cooling of the molten weld pool
c. High thickness of base material
d. Poor ductility of welded material
e. High welding current
f. Inadequate heat treatment
5.2.1.2 Prevention
a. More uniform heating and slower cooling

b. Using right filler metal
5.2.2 Cold Cracks
Cold cracks appear under room temperature after the weld metal has solidified; they can
appear several days after the welding has been completed. It usually forms in the HAZ,
but it can also happen on the weld metal. It's frequently linked to non-metallic inclusions.
60
5.2.2.1 Causes of Cold Crack
Diffusion of Hydrogen atoms: Cold cracking is caused by the diffusion of hydrogen atoms.
These hydrogen atoms may be induced in the weld metal from the surrounding, electrode,
base metal, or any contamination present on the root face.
Insufficient Preheating: Microstructural alterations may occur as a result of inadequate

preheating. Microstructural crystals have the potential to restructure and create
martensite. Cracks are common in martensite. Preheating also helps in the diffusion of
hydrogen atoms and ensures that the joint is free of moisture prior to welding.
5.2.2.2 Prevention
a. Proper preheating
b. Use of low hydrogen electrodes
5.2.2.3 Star Crack (or Crater)
A hot crack that develops at the crater on the weld metal is known as a star crack. A crater
is a depression on the weld bead that forms when the arc breaks or the electrode is
changed.
It develops when the center of the weld pool solidifies before the rest of the pool, causing
the center to pull the outer weld, resulting in star cracks.
5.3 Porosity
Porosity is the presence of pockets that do not contain any solid material. The pocket
contains gas bubbles in the molten weld pool. These trapped gases are unable to escape
the molten weld pool, resulting in porosity or blowholes. Porosity refers to a small pore or
void, whereas blowholes are larger holes or cavities.
Porosity can be found on the surface of the weld metal or within it. Porosity can occur
alone or more commonly in clusters.
61
Figure 59.Porosity
Porosity may be due to excessively high current or longer arc length or due to poor
welding procedure. Porosity results in stress concentration and reduced ductility of metal.
Porosity differ from slag inclusions in that the pockets contain gas rather than a solid.
Hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen are the most common
gases that become trapped and produce porosity. These gases are formed due to the
fluxes on the welding electrode, moisture, oil, grease, and other foreign impurities on the
joint or on the welding electrode, and filler wire. Porosity is also caused by a lack of
shielding gas flow in GMAW, FCAW, GTAW, and PAW welding processes.
5.3.1 Prevention
a. Use low Hydrogen electrode

b. Baking of electrodes before welding as per the recommended procedure
c. Thorough cleaning of the joint surface and adjacent area before welding
d. Preheat the joint before welding
e. Ensure sufficient flow of shielding gases if using TIG or MIG welding
f. Correct the flow of the protection gas and to use gases of greater purity in its
composition
5.4 Undercut
Undercutting is the burning away of the base metal at the toe (edge) of the weld. This
results in groove in base metal adjacent to toe of weld and left unfilled by weld metal
62
during welding process. Undercutting may result in loss of cross section and will act as
stress riser during fatigue loading. This defect may be due to excessive current or longer
arc length. It can be easily detected visually and can be corrected by depositing additional
weld material.
Figure 60.Undercut
5.4.1 Causes of Undercut
a. High welding current

b. Arc gap that is too long
c. Large electrode diameter
d. Incorrect electrode angle
5.4.2 Prevention
Reduce the current or reduce the welding speed.
5.5 Underfill
When the weld metal surface remains below the adjacent surface of the base metal then
it is called an underfill. Basically, Underfill is undersized welding.
5.6 Incomplete Penetration
Incomplete Penetration or lack of penetration occurs when the weld metal does not
entirely reach the root of the joint and as a result the filler and the base metal are not
fused at the root of the joint. The frequent cause of incomplete penetration is a joint design
which is not suitable for the welding process or the conditions of construction.
63
This defect is commonly found in groove welds due to unsuitable groove design for
selected welding process and is the most detrimental fault because it acts as a stress
raiser, which means a crack may originate or spread from here. It has the severe effect
on the load-bearing capacity of a weld.
Figure 61.Incomplete Penetration
5.6.1 Causes of Lack of Penetration
a. Root opening is too small

b. The included angle of a V-groove is too small
c. The electrode is too large.
d. Fast travel speed
e. Low heat input
f. The welding current is too low.
5.6.2 Prevention
a. Proper joint preparation (may require changing the joint geometry)

b. Proper heat input (may require increasing the current)
c. Correct travel speed (may require decreasing the welding speed)
d. Using electrode of suitable size
e. Lack of penetration can be repaired by proper back gouging.
64
5.7 Lack of Fusion (Incomplete Fusion)
It's due to a lack of proper melting (or fusion) between the weld metal and the base metal,
or between one layer of the weld and the other. Cold lapping or cold shuts are terms used
to describe the lack of fusion.
Incomplete fusion may result if surfaces to be jointed have not been cleaned properly and
are coated with oxides and other foreign materials. Insufficient current supplied by
welding equipment and high rate of welding will result in incomplete fusion.
Lack of fusion is an internal defect, but it can also occur on the external surface if the
parent metal's sidewall does not correctly fuse with the base metal.
Figure 62.Lack of Fusion
5.7.1 Causes of Lack of Fusion
a. Low welding current

b. Travel speed to high or too low
c. Unfavorable heat input
d. Linear misalignment
e. Incorrect tilt angle
f. Differing root face widths
g. Dirty plate surfaces.
65
5.7.2 Prevention
To correct this discontinuity, you can increase the current, decrease the welding speed,
change the joint geometry, or use some artifice to avoid magnetic blowing.
5.8 Spatters
Spatters are small globular metal droplets (of weld metal) splashed out on the base metal
during welding. Spatters stick on the base metal therefore can be removed by wire brush
or buffing.
Figure 63.Spatters
5.8.1 Causes of Spatters
a. Excessive arc current

b. Excessive long arc
c. Improper shielding gases
d. Electrode with improper flux
e. Damp electrodes
5.8.2 Prevention
To correct this discontinuity, one can reduce the current and control the instability in the
metal transfer.
66
5.9 Overlap
Overlap occurs when the weld face extends far over the weld toe. During welding, molten
metal overflows on the base metal without fusing with the base metal.
Figure 64.Overlap
5.9.1 Causes of Overlap
a. Current too low

b. Using large electrodes
c. Large deposition in a single run
d. Longer arc
e. Slow arc travel speed
5.10 Excessive Penetration
Excessive penetration occurs when the penetration of weld metal through the joints is too
high. It acts as a notch where stress concentration takes place. Furthermore, it results in
wastage too.
5.10.1 Causes of Excessive Penetration
a. Too wide a root gap

b. High welding current
c. Slow travel Speed
5.11 Inclusion
Inclusion is any entrapped solid materials (either metallic or non-metallic) in the weld
metal. Foreign elements such as tungsten, oxides, slag, and flux are commonly entrapped
in the molten weld pool and produce inclusions.
Inclusion can happen in any fusion welding technique, but it's most common in flux
shielded arc welding processes like Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), Flux core arc
welding (FCAW), and Submerged arc welding (SAW).
67
Tungsten inclusion occurs in those welding processes which use “Tungsten” as

electrodes such as TIG welding and Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Inclusions are of four types, these are:
a. Tungsten Inclusion
b. Oxide Inclusion
c. Slag Inclusion
d. Flux Inclusion
Slag Inclusion occurs when slag gets entrapped and is unable to escape from the molten
weld pool.
Figure 65.Inclusion
Tungsten Inclusion (in TIG welding or Plasma Arc Welding - PAW) occurs when tungsten
droplets become entrapped within the weld metal.
Oxide Inclusion occurs when surface oxides get entrapped.
Flux and slag are commonly used interchangeably; however, they are not the same thing.
Flux is an electrode coating (a solid material that covers the electrode), whereas Slag is
a byproduct of the reaction between flux and the molten weld pool metal.
Inclusion acts as a stress raiser hence should be avoided.
5.11.1 Causes of Inclusion
Inadequate cleaning of weld surface between passes. It can also occur in single pass
welds when slag gets trapped in the root and toes of the weld.
5.12 Wagon Tracks
Wagon tracks are slag inclusions that run parallel to the weld axis. During root pass, a
groove is formed at the toe, due to wrong welding techniques, and that groove is filled by
slag (especially Hydrogen which has been trapped by the solidified slag) and thus wagon
tracks are formed. It is also known as worm tracks.
68
5.13 Warpage
Warpage is an unwanted distortion in the shape and position of the metal parts. It happens
when the heat usage is wrong and is caused by the contraction/expansion of the welded
parts.
Figure 66.Warpage
5.14 Burn Through
Burn through is a collapse of the weld pool resulting in a hole in the weld.
This is a common discontinuity when welding thin parts. It happens when the root opening
is too large or current is too high.
Figure 67.Hole caused by Burn Through
69
Figure 68.Burn Through
5.14.1 Causes
a. Travel speed is too slow

b. Current is too high
c. Excessive grinding of root face
d. Excessive root gap
With the purpose of approving a weld, several techniques are carried out to find out and
prove the absence of defects that put the welded structure at risk. Unlike destructive tests
(DT), non-destructive tests (NDT) aim at the possibility of observing discontinuities
without compromising the welded part, being carried out in the stages of manufacture,
construction, assembly, and maintenance.
70
6 CHAPTER - 6 WELD QUALITY CONTROL AND WPS
Welding design depends highly on a thorough understanding of the expected stress

conditions and required service life. Welding distortion and residual stress are frequently
critical design issues since excessive amounts of either might affect whether the
weldment is satisfactory.
6.1 Welding Quality Objectives
The following are typical quality requirements for weld products.
a. The product is finished to the exact dimensions specified in the design.

b. The product has the necessary functionality, durability, and strength.
c. The product exhibits a smooth, uniform, and consistent appearance.
6.2 Importance of Weld Design
a. Proper weld design and testing ensures that welds do not fail under their intended
load and environmental conditions
b. The proper base materials must be chosen (and filler metals when applicable)
c. Appropriate weld strength requirements must be met
d. Weld toughness and ductility targets must be established
e. Fatigue resistance against cyclic loading must be considered
6.3 Characteristics of a Good Weld
a. The bead has no cracks or holes.

b. The bead has uniform waves, width, and height.
c. The finished product meets the design specifications and is practically distortion-
free.
d. The welding meets the required strength.
e. Penetration - the amount of fusion into the parent material - is important since it
impacts the weld's cross-sectional strength and thus its load-bearing capacity in
service.
71
6.4 Codes and Standards
Almost all design, welding, fabrication, material, repair, testing, and inspection
requirements are covered under three main governing organizations in USA. These main
organizations are:
a. The American Welding Society (AWS)

b. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
c. The American Petroleum Institute (API)
All these organizations have multiple specific codes for various types of construction,
processes, and/or materials. Design specifications and approved materials are included
in these codes.
6.4.1 American Welding Society (AWS)
The AWS publishes numerous codes, specifications, recommended practices,

classifications, methods, and guides related to welding.
These documents include such general subjects as welding definitions and symbols,
classification of filler metals, qualification and testing, welding processes, welding
applications, and safety.
Refer to Annexure-1 for more details.
6.4.2 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
This society is responsible for the development of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
which contains eleven sections and covers the design, construction, and inspection of
boilers and pressure vessels. ASME also produces the Code for Pressure Piping, which
consists of seven sections. Each section prescribes the minimum requirements for the
design, materials, fabrication, erection, testing and inspection of a particular type of piping
system. Both documents are American National Standards.
6.4.2.1 National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI)
Often referred to as the National Board, represents the enforcement agencies

empowered to assure adherence to ASME B&PVC
72
Involved in boiler and pressure vessel registration and investigation of possible Code
violations
Publishes National Board Inspection Code (NBIC) that describes maintenance,

inspection, and repair requirements
Boiler and pressure vessel repair, governed by the “R” stamp is also under their
jurisdiction
6.4.3 American Petroleum Institute (API)
The most well-known is possibly API Std 1104 – Standard for Welding Pipelines and
Related Facilities.
6.4.4 What do Codes & Standards Provide?
Welding codes and standards are often used by the welding fabricator to assist with the
development of their process control system. The specific content and requirements of a
welding code or standard can vary in detail, however, there are three key elements which
are common.
a. The first requirement for process quality control is documented procedures

defining the manner of production. For welding, this is the welding procedure
specification (WPS). The document provides the essential variables such as the
welding process, type and thickness of base metal, filler metal type, electrical
parameters, joint design, welding position, and others.
b. A second requirement is criteria for workmanship. For welding, this may be the
code or standard acceptance criteria. It may contain information and requirements
on such items as base materials, welding consumable classification requirements,
shielding gas quality, heat treatment requirements, preparation and care of base
material, and other welding fabrication requirements.
c. A third requirement is qualification of personnel. This may be addressed by the
welder performance qualification.
73
Regardless of the manufacturer’s overall quality system, there may be opportunities

available through the selection and use of an appropriate welding code or standard for
welding quality and reliability improvements.
6.5 Weld Quality Control and Inspection
Weld quality control and inspection begins long before the first welding arc is struck. The
inspector must go over the job package to familiarize himself with the following:
a. Welding processes to be used

b. Materials and any special properties
c. Joint configurations and preparation
d. Welding procedure specifications (WPS) to be used and any limitations
e. Qualifications of welders to be used and any limitations
f. Heat treatment (pre-heat or post weld) if any
g. Nondestructive examination (NDE) if any
h. Specific ASME code requirements (for example, Section VIII, Div.1, lethal service).
Before a welded joint can be made on a project, it must be proven that the weld can be
made using the desired materials and attain the required strength and ductility. Once the
joint has been proven, a welding procedure specification (WPS) that details how the weld
is to be made is published and the procedure is considered to be prequalified. If the
engineer specifies a joint or weld that has not been prequalified, it is necessary for the
welders to go through the qualification process to develop a new qualified welding
procedure.
6.5.1 Welder Certification
A good quality control program will have procedures in place to ensure that welds are of
appropriate quality.
The welding inspector should have a basic understanding of:
a. Welding processes
b. Nondestructive testing methods
c. Codes and standards
74
Welder qualification tests are designed to test the welder's skill. The certification process
requires the welder to create the weld on a sample using the materials, procedure, and
position that will be used for making the final connection. The sample is tested to ensure
that it meets specifications. Once a welder demonstrates that he/she can consistently
create a weld that meets performance specifications then they are certified to make that
particular weld.
The certified Welding Inspector should have the skills required to review the Procedure
Qualification Record (PQR) and a Welding Procedure Specification (WPS). The WQTR
(Welder Qualification Test Record) is a record that shows the welder has the
understanding and ability of a specific welding condition.
6.6 Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)
The WPS (Welding Procedure Specification) is a written document that contains all the
information needed to make production welds that meet code criteria. The WPS (Welding
Procedure Specification) is developed for each welding type, supported by a PQR
(Procedure Qualification Record) to ensure producing a good weld.
The following are the brief details on the information contained in WPS.
6.6.1 Basic Information
All the basic information about the welding procedure:
a. Name of the company and person who developed it

b. Specification number and date
c. Most WPS will be backed on a PQR (Procedure Qualification Record), you should
refer to it to make it easy to trace the document back.
d. Number and date of the last revision
e. Welding processes and type
Figure 69.Basic information about welding procedure
75
6.6.2 Joints
Details of the joint design, including root spacing and backing (if the joint needs it and the
backing material). This information should feature a graphic representation of the joint to
make it easier for the welder.
Figure 70.Details of Joint Design
6.6.3 Base and Filler Metals
Information about the base and filler metals that are going to be used in the welding
procedure. You should specify the weld type (fillet or groove) and the thickness range of
the base metal.
76
Figure 71.Information about the base and filler metals to be used in the welding procedure
6.6.4 Additional details
Pre and post weld heat treatment required, gas used and the positions in which the
procedure will be performed. The welding progression should be specified if it is required.
Figure 72.Information about pre and post weld heat treatment required, gas used and the positions in which the procedure will
be performed
77
6.6.5 Electrical Characteristics
Information about each weld pass, including:
a. Process
b. Filler metal classification and diameter
c. Current type and polarity
d. Amps range
e. Wire feed speed range
f. Energy of power range
g. Volts range
h. Travel speed range
i. Other electrical specifications
6.6.5.1 Technique
a. String or weave bead

b. Orifice, nozzle or gas cup size
c. Initial and interpass cleaning
d. Method of back gouging
e. Oscillation
f. Contact tube to work distance
g. Multiple or single pass (per side)
h. Multiple or single electrodes
i. Electrode spacing
j. Peening
k. Other
78
Figure 73.Electrical Characteristics and Technique of the Welding Procedure
6.7 Some Other Relevant Terminology
There is some special technical vocabulary that is used in welding operation and testing.
79
6.7.1 Procedure Qualify Record (PQR)
A PQR is a record of the welding data used to weld a test coupon. It also contains the
test results of the tested specimens.
6.7.2 Test Coupon
A weld assembly for procedure or performance qualification testing. The coupon may be
any product from plate, pipe, tube, etc., and may be a fillet weld, overlay, deposited weld
metal, etc.
6.7.3 Test Specimen
A sample of a test coupon for specific test. The specimen may be a bend test, impact
test, chemical analysis, macro test, etc. A specimen may be a complete test coupon, for
example, in radiographic testing or small diameter pipe tension testing.
6.7.4 Preheating
Pre-heating of joints help to reduce heat affected zone cracks but increases the cost of
welding. It is done to remove surface moisture in highly humid conditions, to disperse
hydrogen away from weld pool and heat affected zone, to bring steel to ambient
temperature in cold climates.
Preheat is needed in general for carbon content higher than 0.30% or for Hardness equal
to or higher than 30 HRC. Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) may be needed too in
those cases.
6.7.5 Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is used to change the properties of the weld metal,
controlling the formation of crystalline structures.
6.7.6 Filler Material
When welding two pieces of metal together, we often have to leave a space between the
joint. The material that is added to fill this space during the welding process is known as
the filler material (or filler metal). When choosing filler metals, finding those with the right
mechanical and chemical properties for the application is critical. Correct properties not
80
only ensure the proper weld strength but may also help prevent costly complications. Here
are some rules:
a. When welding together two steels of different strength it is recommended to select

a filler matching the strength of the weaker of the two. The lower strength filler
metal would provide such benefits as better ductility, improved weld ability, and
lower cost.
b. For high strength steels one should specify low hydrogen filler metals to reduce
susceptibility to cracking.
c. In applications that are subjected to rapid or cyclic loads, severe service
temperatures, or other stresses that compromise the weld's integrity—such as
seismic activity—using a filler metal exhibiting minimum Charpy V-notch (CVN)
test value at given temperatures is extremely important.
d. If stress relieving is required, it may reduce the weld strength. To maintain the
strength required from the structure, one may need to use low alloy steel filler
metals instead of low carbon steel.
The American Welding Society (AWS) A5 filler metal criteria are used by most filler metal
manufacturers to create, classify, and produce filler metals. These standards detail the
minimum impact toughness requirements for each filler metal classification, as well as the
testing procedure for these electrodes.
Filler metal categories can be chosen depending on the code or specification

requirements for your application. The AWS D1.8 Structural Welding Code—Seismic
Supplement, for example, was created to aid in the safety of demand-critical applications
such as structures built in seismic zones. Be careful that code or specification
requirements may exceed the toughness requirements given in a filler metal specification.
6.7.7 Welding Rod
The term welding rod refers to a form of filler metal that does not conduct an electric
current during the welding process
81
6.7.8 Electrode
In electric-arc welding, the term electrode refers to the component that conducts the
current from the electrode holder to the metal being welded. Electrodes are classified into
two groups: consumable and non-consumable.
a. Consumable electrodes not only provide a path for the current, but they also supply
filler metal to the joint. An example is the electrode used in shielded metal-arc
welding.
b. Non-consumable electrodes are only used as a conductor for the electrical current,
such as in gas tungsten arc welding. The filler metal for gas tungsten arc welding
is a hand fed consumable welding rod.
6.7.9 Flux
Before performing any welding process, the base metal must be cleaned form impurities
such as oxides (rust). Unless these oxides are removed by using a proper flux, a faulty
weld may result. The term flux refers to a material used to dissolve oxides and release
trapped gases and slag (impurities) from the base metal such that the filler metal and the
base metal can be fused together. Fluxes come in the form of a paste, powder, or liquid.
Different types of fluxes are available, and the selection of appropriate flux is usually
based on the type of welding and the type of the base metal.
82
7 CHAPTER -7 WELD INSPECTION AND TESTING
Welding inspection is the use of examination methods to ensure that welded joints fulfil
quality standards and are fit for purpose. A range of welding inspection techniques may
be applied, depending on factors such as joint configuration, specific defects of interest,
material type/thickness and whether in shop or on site.
7.1 Weld Properties
From a weld design standpoint, it is important to understand the mechanical properties of

welds. Some of the important properties of a weld include:
a. Strength – the ability to withstand an applied load

b. Ductility – the ability to deform/stretch without failing
c. Hardness – the ability to resist indentation
d. Toughness – the ability to absorb energy
e. Soundness – freedom from imperfections
f. Fatigue strength – resistance to failure under repeated loads
7.2 Testing and Inspection Methods
A weld inspection is carried out using a destructive testing (DT) or nondestructive testing
(NDT).
a. Destructive Testing (DT): Destructive weld testing is a weld testing technique that
involves the destruction of the completed weld physically to evaluate its properties.
b. Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Nondestructive testing is the process of inspecting,
testing, or evaluating materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or
differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part or
system.
7.3 Destructive Testing
Destructive weld testing, as the name suggests, involves the physical destruction of a
completed weld to evaluate its strength and characteristics. These tests are mainly
carried out to the specimen’s failure, to evaluate a specimen’s performance or material’s
behavior under different loads. These tests are much easier to carry out, give more
information, and are easier to interpret than non-destructive tests.
83
ANSI/AWS B4.0 is an American national standard for the mechanical testing of welds,
which covers a wide variety of tests including tension tests, shear tests, bend tests,
fracture toughness tests, hardness tests, and others. This standard extensively
references ASTM test methods such as ASTM E8 and specifies how to use these test
methods when assessing weldments. Some of the most common methods for executing
a destructive weld testing are:
a. Macro etch testing

b. Fillet weld break test
c. Transverse tension test
d. Guided bend test
7.4 Macro Etch Testing
This method requires the removal of small samples from the welded joint. These samples
are then polished at their cross section and etched using a mild acid mixture, depending
on the base material used. The acid etch provides a clear visual of the weld's internal
structure.
Inspection of the etched sample reveals depth of penetration, as well as evidence (if any)
of lack of fusion, inadequate root penetration, internal porosity, and cracking shown at the
fusion line (which is the transition between the weld and the base material).
This type of inspection is a snapshot of the overall weld-length quality when used for
sampling inspection of production welds. Macro etch testing is also used successfully in
failure analyses to pinpoint welding problems such as crack initiation.
7.5 Fracture Test
Weld fracture test is performed to reveal embedded imperfections such as lack of fusion,
incomplete penetration, cracking due to inadequate width to height ratio, slag inclusions
and porosity.
Two commonly known fracture tests are nick break test and fillet break test.
84
7.5.1 Nick Break Test
Nick break test is used to detect any internal defects like slag inclusions, poor fusion, gas
pockets, oxidized metal, and burnt metal in the welded butt joint.
The test involves taking a sample from the welded joint by either machining or cutting by
oxy-acetylene torch. Every edge of the joint is given a slot by a saw cut through the center.
The prepared piece of the specimen is bridged across the two steel blocks. The sample
is than stuck with a heavy hammer until the section of the weld between slots gets
fractured.
The metal which is exposed need to be completely fused and free from slag inclusions.
Gas pockets if any should never be more than 1.6mm across the higher dimension, The
number of gas pockets should not exceed 6.
7.5.2 Fillet Weld Break Test
To judge the soundness of the fillet welds another break test method is employed which
is called as Fillet Weld Break Test.
This test involves the breaking of a sample fillet weld that is single side welded. Therefore,
the load is usually applied to the apex of the V-shaped specimen until the fillet weld breaks
away. The failed sample is then examined for the soundness of the welding.
Fillet weld break tests provide a good indication of discontinuities within the entire length
of the tested weld specimen, which was not possible in the macro etch test, which showed
results only for a small cross-section. Though the fillet weld break test is often used on its
own, it can also be used in conjunction with the macro etch test, as the two methods
complement each other by providing information on similar characteristics but with
different detail.
The fillet weld break test can detect discontinuities such as lack of fusion, internal porosity,
and slag inclusions.
7.6 Toughness Test
The ability of materials to absorb energy before fracture is called toughness.
85
Toughness test provides a measure of resistance to crack initiation or propagation or

both. The common methods of measuring the fracture toughness of welded joints are the
Charpy V-notch impact test, the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) test, drop weight
test, and compact tension test. Of these testing methods, the Charpy V-notch (CVN) test
is most used to determine fracture toughness (also known as "low-temperature notch
toughness") of welds.
7.6.1 Charpy V-notch (CVN) Test
The equipment needed to conduct the test consists of a hammer located at the end of a
pendulum. After the hammer is released from a set height, its force applies a consistent
amount of energy to the weld specimen (held inside a special jig) and typically breaks this
precision-machined notched specimen as it continues its fixed path. A computer
calculates the CVN impact value by measuring the highest point the pendulum reaches
after it contacts the weld.
Figure 74.Charpy V-notch
7.7 Transverse Tensile Test
Tensile strength refers to the ability of a metal to withstand the forces pulling it apart.
86
Transverse tensile test is performed to measure transverse tensile strength, yield

strength, proof stress, elongation, and reduction of area of a butt joint under a static load.
Because a large portion of design is based on tensile properties in the welded joint, it is
important that the tensile properties of the base metal, the weld metal, the bond between
the base and the weld, and the heat-affected zone conform to design requirements.
Ultimate tensile strength, UTS (or just tensile strength for short) is an important property
of materials to determine their mechanical performance.
Tensile strength is the maximum stress that a material can sustain in tension. In other
words, we can say the amount of applied load per cross sectional area that a material
can withstand before failure. Mathematically it is calculated as the ratio of maximum
tensile load to the least cross section area (CSA) of the specimen.
Maximum Load Applied

UTS =
Least CSA
Figure 75.Tensile Testing
The amount that the metal stretches is referred to as elongation.
The elongation and reduction of area measurements are used to determine the ductility
of the metal. Ductility is the ability of metal to stretch and be permanently deformed
without breaking or cracking.
A metal is said to be brittle if it has a poor elongation factor. Welding problems such as
cracking and breaking are more common with brittle metals than with ductile metals.
87
Figure 76.Gauge Length
A transverse tensile test piece from a weld joint will give the Stress/Strain characteristics
of the joint.
Yield strength is the strength in tension that a material can withstand before it permanently
deforms or stretches, and stays stretched. Yield strength is used while designing
components or structures made of ductile materials.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is defined as the maximum stress that a solid material can
withstand before its failure. For ductile materials, ultimate strength is roughly 1.5 times
higher than yield strength. Note that the UTS does not depend on the size of the sample.
The same material with varying cross-sectional area will have the same value of tensile
strength.
88
Figure 77.Ultimate tensile strength
This test is essential because a large proportion of design is based on the welded joint’s
tensile properties. The tensile properties of the base metal, the weld metal, the bond
between the base and the weld, and the heat-affected zone must conform to the design
requirements.
a. If the weld metal strength is higher than the base metal, most of the plastic strain
is transferred to the base metal, resulting in necking (a local reduction in cross-
section area produced by stretching) and failure outside of the area. In this case,
the test does not give an indication of the weld ductility.
b. When the weld strength is significantly lower than the base metal, most of the
plastic strain occurs in the weld.
Transverse weld specimens can be used to measure joint efficiency in terms of strength,
but not for determining the ductility of the weld. Generally, a transverse tensile test is
performed where the weld metal is oriented transverse in the center of the specimen.
89
Figure 78.Weld Test Plate
Fillet welds' shear characteristics can be assessed using tension-shear testing.
Such tests are usually intended to represent completed joints in weldments and so are
prepared using similar procedures.
The tension-shear test is the most popular method for determining the strength of
resistance spot welds.
7.8 Bend Test
The bend test is used to determine the ductility and soundness of welded joints. The
relative strengths of the weld metal, the HAZ, and the base metal are all important in the
transverse bend test.
This method involves bending a weld specimen to a specified bend radius. The concept
of a bend test is simple: two plates are welded together, and a flat strap of metal is cut
from the welded plates. Next, the flat strap of a prescribed size is bent into a U-shape,
stretching the material on the outer surface of the "U," while compressing the material on
the inside surface. The purpose is to make certain the weld and the base metal are
properly fused, and that the weld metal and the heat affected zone (HAZ) have
appropriate mechanical properties.
There are three standard techniques for bend testing:
90
a. Guided bend test: A bending test in which the specimen is bent to a definite shape
by using a set of male and female dies.
b. Roller bend test: A bending test in which the specimen is placed across the
supports of rollers and is bent by the force of plunger.
Figure 79.Roller Bend Test
c. Free bend test: A bending test in which the lengthwise ends of a specimen are
bent to an initial angle and then the specimen is bent freely by applying forces on
both of the ends without using a set of male and female dies or a set of rollers.
Figure 80.Free Bend Test
The guided bend test is most used in welding procedure and welder performance
qualification tests. This type of testing is particularly good at finding liner fusion defects,
which will often open in the plate surface during testing.
Face bend tests are made with the weld face in tension, while s are made with the weld
root in tension. Side bend specimen is for testing the weld cross section. Bend specimens
can be longitudinal or transverse to the weld axis, and they can be bent in three or four
points (free bend) or around a mandrel with a specific diameter (guided bend).
91
7.9 Hardness Test
The ability of materials to resists penetration, abrasion, scratching or cutting is known as

hardness. It is the property by which material resists permanent deformation.
Weld hardness testing is done on a cross-section of the joint region that has been ground,
polished, or polished and etched. Indentations are made on the weld center line, the
deposit's face, or root regions, the HAZ, and the base metal, among other places of
interest.
Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, and Knoop hardness tests can be used on welds to determine
hardness, which is one of the simplest and easily evaluated mechanical property. The
type of hardness test is determined by the material's hardness or strength, the size of the
welded connection, and the type of information required.
a. The Brinell test creates a big depression, typically 2 to 5.6 mm in diameter, which
makes it ideal for large welds.
b. The Rockwell test results in a much smaller indentation, which is more suited to
hardness traverses.
c. Vickers and Knoop tests leave relatively small indentations, making them ideal for
hardness measurements in various HAZ areas and fine-scale traverses.
Carbon steels have a direct relationship between hardness and strength. As a result, if
the hardness is known, the tensile strength can be estimated.
92
8 CHAPTER - 8 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)
NDT plays an important role in the quality control of a product. It is used during all the
stages of manufacturing of a product and is used to monitor the quality of the:
a. Raw materials which are used in the construction of the product.

b. Fabrication processes which are used to manufacture the product.
c. Finished product before it is put into service.
Use of NDT during all stages of manufacturing results in the following benefits:
a. It increases the safety and reliability of the product during operation.

b. It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving materials,
labor and energy.
c. It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as producer of quality goods.
d. It enables design of new products.
NDT is regulated by codes and standards according to the type of industry, country, and
other criteria.
For the purposes of this course, we'll go through some NDT methods in greater depth,
including the fundamental principles, typical applications, benefits, and drawbacks of
various methodologies.
8.1 Types of Non-destructive Tests (NDT)
The six most common types of NDT are listed below; they differ in terms of the tools used
and the methods employed to evaluate them, e.g. imaging techniques.
a. Visual Testing (VT)

b. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
c. Penetrant Testing (PT)
d. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
e. Radiographic Testing and Digital Radioscopy (RT/DR)
f. Electromagnetic or Eddy current Testing (ET)
Other techniques include acoustic emission testing (AE), guided wave testing (GW), laser
testing methods (LM), acoustic resonance testing (ART), leak testing (LT), magnetic flux
93
leakage (MFL), thermographic testing (TT), vibration analysis (VA) and infrared testing
(IR).
All these methods apply physical concepts to the detection of faults or discontinuities in
materials without impairing their functionality.
8.2 Visual Testing (VT)
Visual Testing (VT) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method where a weld is examined
with the eye to determine surface discontinuities. It ensures that procedures are followed
and that mistakes are identified early on.
Visual inspection is carried out throughout the production cycle of a weldment. Broadly,
visual inspection may be divided into three categories:
a. Visual inspections before welding: drawings, material specifications, edge

preparation, measurements, welding joint cleanliness, and so on.
b. Visual examination during welding: welding process, electrode selection, operating
conditions, preheat requirements, welder performance etc. are all examined
visually during the welding process.
c. Weld size (using weld gauges), defects (surface cracks, crater cracks, surface
porosity, incomplete root penetration, undercut, underfill), warpage, base metal
defects, and other visual inspections of the finished weldment.
Visual testing requires adequate illumination of the test surface and proper eyesight of
the tester. To be most effective visual testing requires knowledge of product and process,
anticipated service conditions, acceptance criteria, record keeping, among other training.
The applications of visual testing include:
a. Checking of the surface condition of the component.

b. Checking the weld distribution i.e. the weld material is evenly spread between the
two linked metal parts.
c. Checking of alignment of mating surfaces.
d. Checking of shape of the component.
e. Checking for evidence of leaking or seepage.
f. Checking the weld is free of slag.
94
g. Checking for internal side defects and porosity.
8.2.1 Equipment used for Visual Inspection
You can check with the naked eye as well as with tools like magnifying glasses or mirrors.
Some common type of equipment used for visual inspection includes:
a. Rulers
b. Tape measures
c. Magnifiers
d. Inspection glass
e. Calipers
f. Borescopes
g. Remote crawlers with cameras etc. etc.…
Figure 81.Visual Inspection Optical Aids
Weld handheld fillet gauge measures:
a. The flatness of the weld
95
b. Convexity (how the weld is welded outward)

c. Concavity (how the weld is rounded inward)
8.2.2 Borescope Testing
One of the best examples of VT is Boroscopy. Borescope inspection has an eyepiece

and an objective lens that are connected by an optical system that relays what the
objective lens is seeing to the eyepiece. A light source is used to illuminate the area to be
inspected.
Borescope testing is applied whenever there is a restriction or access limitations to

examine the area of interest with naked eyes. It is commonly used to determine the
occurrence of internal defects including corrosion, pitting or presence of foreign objects
such as dust agglomerates, welding/grinding chips, cracks in the piping interior surface
and the weld joints of the welded pipes, in-service pipes, pressure vessel, engine parts,
or similar closed assemblies. The use of Boroscopy enhances the examination process,
provides better understanding of the subject area and photographs of internal surface for
condition monitoring or traceable record keeping.
Figure 82.Borescope
8.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of VT
Advantages of nondestructive weld quality testing:
96
a. Inexpensive (usually only labor expense)

b. Low cost equipment
c. No power requirement
d. Quick identification of defects and downstream repair costs due to issues that
weren’t caught early
8.2.4 Disadvantages
a. Inspector training necessary

b. Good eyesight required or eyesight corrected to 20/40
c. Can miss internal defects
d. Report must be recorded by inspector
e. Open to human error
If performed correctly, a visual inspection is the easiest and least-expensive technique.

However, a good-looking weld doesn't always ensure internal quality, and discontinuities
aren't always visible to the naked eye. So, it's important to conduct some form of
nondestructive testing (NDT), also commonly referred to as nondestructive examination
(NDE) for the critical components after these visual inspections are performed.
8.3 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
Liquid penetrant testing is designed to locate minute leaks, cracks, pores, and
discontinuity in the materials or weld surface. It is a choice of test for non-magnetic
materials like magnesium, aluminum, and austenitic steel to locate any leak in every type
of weld.
In this procedure, a liquid penetrant dye is sprayed onto the product surface for a
predefined amount of time. The penetrant then ‘creeps' into the tiniest cracks or pores by
means of capillary action. There is no requirement of pressure. After the surface is dried,
a developer is applied, which absorbs any remaining penetrant in the defect and displays
all flaws, including their location, size, and the type.
97
Figure 83.Liquid Penetrant Testing
When compared to unassisted visual inspection, this type of inspection is more likely to
detect smaller and finer surface-breaking discontinuities, such as hairline cracks and
micro surface porosity. It has an advantage over the magnetic particle method that it can
be used for any material - both ferrous and nonferrous materials.
It however can't detect discontinuities that are sealed within the body of the weld, such
as internal porosity or fusion defects. It's not usually suitable for testing rough or porous
materials because interpretation of the test results can be hindered by false indications.
Liquid penetrant testing is done with either "visible dye" or fluorescent dye.
a. For visible penetrant inspection, a bright red color dye and white developer are
usually applied to the surface. The final inspection is made under regular light and
used easily in the field.
b. For a fluorescent inspection an ultra-violet fluorescent dye is used, which emits
visible light under UV light or darkened conditions. A fluorescent penetrant is
applied to one side of the joint, and a portable UV light is used to inspect the weld
for leaks on the opposite side. It provides a greater contrast than the visible dye
penetrants.
98
Figure 84. Liquid penetrant testing for a fluorescent inspection
8.3.1 Test Procedure
To perform a liquid penetrant test, follow these steps:
a. Step 1. Pre-Cleaning: Clean the surface of the weld with the use of a solvent. Allow
time for the area to dry completely.
b. Step 2. Apply penetrant: After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell time). The penetrant
enters any defects that may be present by capillary action.
c. Step 3. Clean off penetrant: After sufficient penetration time (dwell time), the dye
should be removed by using a lint free cloth soaked in a solvent remover. Care
must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any defects present. After the
penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of developer is applied. The
developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and allows for reverse capillary
action to take place.
d. Step 4. Inspection / development time: Inspection should take place immediately
after the developer has been applied. any defects present will show as a bleed out
during development time. After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning
is generally required.
99
Figure 85.Penetrant Testing Application
The process is purely a mechanical/chemical one and the various substances used may
be applied in a large variety of ways, from aerosol spray cans at the simplest end to
dipping in large tanks on an automatic basis at the other end. The latter system requires
sophisticated tanks, spraying and drying equipment but the principle remains the same.
Figure 86.Illustration of Dye Penetrant Testing
8.3.2 Application
Liquid-penetrant examination is used to detect surface defects or leaks in all types of

welds including pressure and storage vessels, as well as piping for the petroleum
industry. This test can be used on aluminum, magnesium, and stainless-steel weldments
where the magnetic particle examination method cannot be used.
100
This method is widely used for testing of both magnetic and non-magnetic materials.
8.3.3 Advantages
The advantages of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:
a. Economical with a low cost

b. Easy process and its interpretation
c. Highly sensitive to fine, tight discontinuities.
d. Not much training required
e. Used for ferrous and nonferrous metals. Best method for surface breaking cracks
in non-ferrous metals.
8.3.4 Limitations
The limitations of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:
a. Detects surface discontinuities only. May skip the problem under the surface.
b. Does not work on a porous and very rough or brittle surfaces.
c. Removal of all penetrant materials, following the test, is often required.
d. Uses a considerable quantity of consumables.
e. There is no easy method to produce permanent record.
8.4 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Magnetic particle testing (MT) is a rapid non-destructive physical weld test to locate the
defect at or near the surface of the steel metal and magnetic alloys by employing means
of correct magnetization with ferromagnetic particles application.
The method is based upon two principles:
a. A magnetic field is produced when an electric current has flowed through a metal.
b. The minute poles are formed on the surface where the magnetic fields are broken
or distorted.
When this ferromagnetic stuff is brought in the vicinity of the magnetized part, they by
nature attract strongly towards these poles and hold there firmly and form a visible
indication. It's important to note that magnets will attract materials only where the lines of
force enter and leave the magnet at the poles. If a magnet is bent and the two poles are
101
joined to form a closed loop, no external poles will exist, and consequently, it will have no
attraction to magnetic material. This is the basic principle of magnetic particle testing. If
the part has no cracks or other discontinuities, magnetic particles will not be attracted,
and you'll know your weld is without surface cracks.
8.4.1 Testing Method
This testing method consists of establishing a magnetic field in the part to be tested either
using a permanent or electromagnet, or by sending electric current through the test
specimen. When minute magnetic particles (e.g. iron fillings) in the size range 20 to 30
microns are applied on the surface with a liquid or powder, they are attracted by the
magnetic ends or poles. Inconsistencies are then revealed by change in the magnetic
field, which causes the particles to be aligned differently from the ‘good’ part of the object.
In this way cracks or inclusions of non-magnetic materials can be quickly detected.
Especially remarkable is the detection of small cracks with a width of 0.001 mm and a
depth of 0.01 mm. For comparison: a human hair has a thickness of 0.04 mm or more.
Figure 87.Magnetic Particle Testing of a Pipeline
The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization.
a. Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed through the test
specimen and a magnetic field produced by this flow of current is used for the
detection of defects.
102
b. Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed through the test
object, but a magnetic field is induced into the specimen either using a permanent
magnet or by flowing current through a coil or a conductor.
The electricity used to generate the magnetic flux in any of these methods can be
alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC).
a. Alternating Current (AC). Electric current flows through a conductor in a back and
forth direction at specific intervals. Note: AC generated magnetic flux follows the
contours of the surface and does not penetrate deeply into the material. It provides
the best sensitivity for the detection of surface discontinuities only.
b. Direct Current (DC). Electric current flows through a conductor in only one
direction. Note: DC from a battery source has been phased out in favor of rectified
forms of AC for surface and subsurface flaw detection:
• Full-Wave Rectified (FWDC). Electric current flows through a conductor in one
direction only with an increased rate of pulsating surges and drops at specific
intervals. Note: FWDC is recommended for effective surface and subsurface
flaw detection when using the wet method of inspection.
• Half-Wave Rectified (HWDC). Electric current flows through a conductor in one
direction only with pulsating surges and drops at specific intervals-hence the
name half wave. Note: HWDC penetrates more deeply but is less likely to follow
rapid sectional changes. HWDC is effective for detecting flaws that are slightly
below the surface.
The pulsating effect of AC and HWDC gives the indicating particles more mobility. DC
penetrates far deeper, yet it lacks this capability. Furthermore, demagnetizing the material
after DC magnetizing is significantly more difficult than demagnetizing the material after
AC magnetizing.
8.4.2 Equipment Details
8.4.2.1 Yokes
Most field inspections are performed using a Yoke, as shown below. When the legs are
placed on a ferromagnetic part and the yoke is energized, a magnetic field is introduced
103
into the part. Because the flux lines do run from one leg to the other, discontinuities
oriented perpendicular to a line drawn between the legs can be found. To ensure no
indications are missed, the yoke is used once in the position shown then used again with
the yoke turned 90° so no indications are missed. Because all the electric current is
contained in the yoke and only the magnetic field penetrates the part, this type of
application is known as indirect induction.
Figure 88.Indirect Induction
8.4.3 Prods
A second technique involves using clamps or prods, which are attached or placed in
contact with the component. Electrical current flows through the component from contact
to contact. The current sets up a circular magnetic field around the path of the current.
Figure 89.Illustration of Magnetic Partical Testing
104
Prods induce a circular magnetic field by sending a high amperage (1000A typically)
current through the test piece. The use of prods is sometimes restricted because there is
a potential for arcing that could damage parts.
8.4.3.1 Coils
Electric coils are used to generate a longitudinal magnetic field. When energized, the
current creates a magnetic field around the wires making up the coil so that the resulting
flux lines are oriented through the coil as shown at the right. Because of the longitudinal
field, indications in parts placed in a coil are oriented transverse to the longitudinal field.
Figure 90.Electrical Coils
8.4.4 Advantages
Advantages of magnetic particle testing include the following:
a. Simplicity of operation and application.

b. It does not need very stringent pre-cleaning operation.
c. Best method for the detection of fine, shallow surface cracks in ferromagnetic
material.
d. Will work through thin coating.
e. Inspection of complex geometries.
f. Portable NDT method.
g. Can be automated, apart from viewing. (Though modern developments in
automatic defect recognition can be used in parts of simple geometry e.g. billets
and bars. In this case a special camera captures the defect indication image and
processes it for further display and action).
105
8.4.5 Limitations
The limitations of magnetic particle testing include the following:
a. This test can be used only in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt,
and some other alloys. Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum,
magnesium, or most stainless steels
b. Restricted to surface or near surface flaws.
c. Orientation and strength of magnetic field is critical. There is a need to magnetize
twice: longitudinally and circumferentially.
d. Not fail safe in that lack of indication could mean no defects or process not carried
out properly.
e. Large currents sometimes required and ―burning of test parts is a possibility.
f. Ferromagnetic parts that have been magnetized during testing may retain a certain
amount of residual magnetism. The testing object must be demagnetized after
testing, which may be cumbersome.
8.5 Radiographic Testing and Digital Radiography (RT/DR)
Radiographic testing (RT) refers to an imaging test method that allows a view into the
inside of a component.
Digital Radiography (DR) using X-ray image intensifiers or radioscopy systems is

becoming increasingly popular because images can be stored and evaluated digitally.
Radiography uses X-rays - these rays penetrate through the weld and makes a shadow
picture on a film which is placed behind the material. These rays have a very short
wavelength of the order of 0.001 Angstrom. And often gamma rays produced by a
radioactive material (Co-60 & Ir-192 radioisotopes) are also used for the inspection of
welds in field settings.
8.5.1 The Principles of Radiography
The basic principle of radiographic inspection of material objects is the same as the
medical radiography. The test object is placed between the radiation source and a
radiographic film. Some radiation is absorbed by the test object before reaching the
exposed film.
106
The ability of rays to penetrate through the metal mainly depends on the density of metal
and they can penetrate more easily where less density of metal is present, and it leads to
the formation of shadow picture on the film. And any defects in the casting can easily be
identified from the shadow picture.
a. Thinner areas or the materials of a less density or the areas exposed to more
energy show as darker areas on the radiograph. These darkened areas are the
cavities, defects, or voids because more radiation has managed to reach the film.
b. Thicker areas, or the materials of a greater density or the areas exposed to lower
energy show as lighter areas on a radiograph.
The voltage delivered to the X-Ray tube determines the penetrating power in X-
radiography; in steel, approximately 1000 volts per inch thickness is required. In X-
radiography the intensity, and the exposure time, is governed by the amperage of the
cathode in the tube.
8.5.2 Gamma Radiography
In Gamma radiography the isotope governs the penetrating power and is unalterable in
each isotope. Thus, for 1 /2" to 1" steel, Iridium 192 is used, and for 3 /4" to 21 /2" steel,
Caesium 134 is normally used. With Gamma rays the intensity of the radiation is set at
the time of supply of the isotope.
This radiographic physical weld testing and inspection method is similar to an X-ray
method except that these gamma rays emerge from a capsule of radium sulfate instead
of a tube in the X-ray.
The feature of the short wavelength of gamma rays finds it perfect for penetrations of
larger thickness sections. The time required for exposure is longer than the X-ray because
of a slower rate of gamma ray’s production.
X-ray testing is most often used in radiographic inspections, but portability is the unique
feature of the gamma rays.
107
Figure 91.Radiography
Various radiographic and photographic accessories are necessary, including such items
as radiation monitors, film makers, image quality indicators, darkroom equipment, etc.
Also required are such consumable items as radiographic film and processing chemicals.
8.5.3 Applications
The radiographic testing method is suitable for the detection of internal flaws in many
different materials and configurations including ferrous and nonferrous metals. This
method is used on wide variety of products such as forgings, castings, and weldments.
8.5.4 Advantages
The advantages of radiographic testing include:
a. It is used for examination of weldments in all types of materials.

b. Detects both surface and subsurface defects
c. It provides permanent record.
d. Devices for checking the quality of radiograph are available.
108
e. Technique is not limited by material type or density
8.5.5 Limitations
Some of the limitations of this method are:
a. Harmful radiation - can have serious health and safety implications.

b. Bulky equipment.
c. Not suitable for surface defects.
f. Access to both sides of the object is required.
g. Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical
h. Defect require significant depth in relation to the radiation beam (not good for
planar defects)
d. No indication of depth of a defect below the surface
e. The thickness range that can be inspected is limited.
f. Sensitivity of inspection decreases with thickness of the test object.
g. Considerable skill is required for interpretation of the radiographs.
h. The depth of defect is not indicated readily.
i. Slow results.
8.6 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Ultrasonic testing (UT) allows a view into the inside of a component.
Ultrasonic inspection is used to detect defects like cracks and porosity within the interior
of the casting or material. This method uses reflection and transmission of high frequency
sound waves, which are much higher than the audible range and then these waves are
made pass through the weld piece for inspection. The presence and location of
discontinuities is determined by detecting and analyzing the reflected beam.
The system uses a transducer, which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
The transducer is excited by a high-frequency voltage that causes a crystal to vibrate
mechanically. The crystal probe is moved over the surface of a component and the
ultrasonic waves emitted by it or their reflections are tracked on a screen of a cathode ray
oscilloscope. When the pulse of ultrasonic waves strikes a discontinuity in the test piece,
109
it is reflected to its point of origin. The transducer serves as a receiver for the reflected
energy.
A phased-array imaging test can also be performed, which allows easier interpretation.
Both flat and voluminous imperfections can be inspected. In the case of surface
imperfections, it is often superior to radiographic testing (RT). It is used, for example, for
wall thickness measurement with vertical probes and for simple geometries with angle
probes.
Figure 92.Ultrasonic Flaw Detection
One of the most useful characteristics of ultrasonic testing is its ability to determine the
exact position of a discontinuity in a weld. This testing method requires a high level of
operator training and competence and is dependent on the establishment and application
of suitable testing procedures. An experienced inspector will notice any abnormalities in
wave frequency – by hearing reflected sound. When no echo is heard -- it may be grounds
for rejecting the weld.
8.6.1 Equipment
Pulse rate generator (piezoelectric crystal), transducer, amplifier, timer, and cathode ray
oscilloscope (all are portable). Modern ultrasonic flaw detectors are fully solid state and
can be battery powered and are robustly built to withstand site conditions.
110
8.6.2 Applications
This testing method can be used to find internal flaws on ferrous and nonferrous materials.
This technique can also be applied to determine the material thickness and the
mechanical properties and grain structure of materials.
Figure 93.Ultrasonic Testing of a Pipeline
8.6.3 Advantages
Some of the advantages of ultrasonic testing are:
a. It has high sensitivity even to minute defects and allows for the precise
determination of the location and size of the flaws.
b. It has more penetrating capability than radiography and can find faults in the test
object at a deeper level (up to about 7 meters of steel).
c. It has a high accuracy of measurement of flaw position and size.
d. It has fast response which permits rapid and automatic inspection.
e. It needs access to only one surface of the specimen.
8.6.4 Limitations
Some of the limitations of this method are:
a. Requires high operator skill

b. Good surface finish is necessary
c. Defect identification
111
d. Couplant may contaminate

e. No permanent record
f. Calibration required
g. Ferritic Material (Mostly)
h. Unfavorable geometry of the test object causes problems during inspection.
i. Inspection of materials having coarse grain microstructure is difficult.
8.7 Electromagnetic or Eddy current testing (ET)
Magnetic particle testing for surface defects of ferrous metals. This method can be used
effectively with both ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials.
Eddy Current Testing (ET) uses the principle of “electromagnetism” as the basis for
conducting examinations. By bringing the object close to an alternating current carrying
coil, eddy currents are induced in the object. The magnetic field of the coil is modified by
the magnetic fields in the object. These changes the impedance, which is displayed in a
meter reading or a cathode ray oscilloscope. When a crack appears in the product
surface, eddy currents must travel further around the break, causing a change in
impedance.
The magnitude of the eddy currents generated in the product is dependent on

conductivity, hardness, permeability, and the set-up geometry. The simplest coil
comprises a ferrite rod with several turns of wire wound at one end and which is positioned
close to the surface of the product to be tested (refer figure below).
112
Figure 94.Coil with Single Winding
Where surfaces are to be scanned automatically, the single coil windings are suitable
only if the lift off distance is precisely maintained. With higher speed scanning systems,
differential coil configurations are generally used to cancel out lift off effects, vibration
effects, and other undesirable effects.
There are three types of probes used in eddy current testing.
a. Internal probes are commonly used for the in-service testing of heat exchanger
tubes.
b. Encircling probes are commonly used for the testing of rods and tubes during
manufacturing.
c. Surface probes are used for locating cracks in plates, sifting materials, measuring
wall and coating thickness, and case depth measurement.
As the probe is scanned across the surface of the component, the cracks can be detected.
The depth to which the eddy currents penetrate a material can be changed by adjusting
the test frequency – the higher the frequency, the lower the penetration; however, the
lower the frequency, the lower sensitivity to small defects.
Larger coils are less sensitive to surface roughness and vice versa. The latest electronic
units can operate a wide range of coil configurations in absolute or differential modes and
at a wide range of frequencies.
113
Most eddy current electronics have a phase display, and this gives an operator the ability
to identify defect conditions. In many cases signals from cracks, lift off and other
parameters can be clearly identified. Units are also available which can inspect a product
simultaneously at two or more different test frequencies.
Figure 95.Eddy Current Testing Equipment
8.7.1 Applications
The eddy current test is purely electrical. The coil units do not need to contact the product
surface and thus the technique can be easily automated. Most automated systems are
for components of simple geometry where mechanical handling is simplified.
ET method may be used for:
a. For the detection of defects in tubing’s.

b. For sorting materials.
c. For measurement of thin wall thicknesses from one surface only.
d. For measuring thin coatings.
e. For measuring case depth.
Only electrically conductive materials are suitable for this procedure.
114
8.7.2 Advantages
The advantages of eddy current testing include:
a. Gives instantaneous response.

b. Is extremely compact and sensitive to surface cracks.
c. Does not use consumables (except probes – which can sometimes be repaired).
d. Allows use of high scanning speeds (as high as 10 m/s).
e. Flexible in selection of probes and test frequencies to suit different applications.
f. Accurate for sizing defects and coating thickness measurement.
g. These tests can not only detect discontinuity in test metal pieces but can measure
the dimensions and resistivity.
8.7.3 Limitations
Eddy current inspection is generally restricted to the depth less than 6mm, that’s why it is
not as sensitive to small open defects of high depth as liquid penetrant testing or magnetic
particle inspection. But it can replace penetrant testing method for detection of surface
connected discontinuities.
The limitations of eddy current testing include the following:
a. Extremely sensitive to surface variations and therefore requires a good surface.

b. It is applicable to electrically conducting materials only.
c. Not reliable on carbon steel for the detection of subsurface flaws.
d. Its depth of penetration is limited to 6 mm.
8.8 Comparison of different NDT methods
We learned that the six most frequently used NDT methods are: visual testing (VT),
radiographic testing (RT), ultrasonic testing (UT), magnetic particle testing (MT), liquid
penetrant testing (PT) and electromagnetic testing (ET).
Table below provides a summary of the most frequently used NDT methods. The costs
are represented in scale of 1 to 5 with 1 being the lowest and 5 being the highest.
115
Technique Access Costs Remarks

requirements
Equipment Inspection
Visual methods Can be used to 1 1 Very versatile; Little

view the interior skill required; Repays
of complex consideration at
equipment. One design stage.
point of access
may be enough.
Radiography Must be able to 5 4 Despite high cost,

reach both large area can be
sides. inspected at one time.
Considerable skill
required in
interpretation.
Ultrasonics One or both 4 3 Requires point-by-

sides (or ends) point search hence
must be extensive work
accessible. needed on large
structures; Skilled
personnel required.
Magnetic Requires a clean 3 2 Only useful on

particle and reasonably magnetic materials
smooth surface. such as steel; Little
skill required; Only
detects surface
breaking or near
surface cracks.
Penetrant flaw Requires flaw to 1 2 For all materials

detection be accessible to Some skill required;
116
Technique Access Costs Remarks

requirements
Equipment Inspection
the penetrant Only detects surface

(i.e. clean and at breaking defects;
the surface). Rather messy.
Electromagnetic Surface must 4 2 For electrically

(usually) be conductive materials
reasonably only; For surface
smooth and breaking flaws;
clean Variations in
thickness of coatings,
or comparison of
materials; For other
than simple
comparison
considerable skill is
usually required.
Table 3.Summary of the most frequently used NDT methods
8.9 Applications of NDT
Now that we understand the advantages and limitations of various NDT methods, the
most efficient and effective method is dependent on the application, the type of flaw,
material properties, costs, desired accuracy levels, setup of equipment etc.
The Table below provides some common applications of the NDT. The following
abbreviations are used:
a. RT: X or Gamma Radiography

b. MT: Magnetic Particle Inspection
c. PT: Dye Penetrant
d. UT: Ultrasonic
e. ET: Eddy Current
117
Material FLAWS
Surfac Sub- Internal Lack of Slag, Materia Thickness

e Surfac Flaws Fusion Porosity l
Cracks e Quality
Cracks
Ferrous MT MT, UT RT, UT RT, UT UT

Forgings &
Stampings
Ferrous Raw MT MT, UT UT MT, UT UT

Materials &
Rolled
Products
Ferrous MT MT, ET UT UT MT, UT UT

Tube & Pipe
Ferrous MT, UT UT RT, UT RT, UT RT, UT UT

Welds
Steel MT MT, UT RT, UT RT, UT UT

Castings
Iron MT UT, ET UT RT, UT UT UT

Castings
Non-Ferrous PT, ET RT, UT UT PT, UT UT

Components
& Materials
Ferrous MT UT, ET RT, UT UT MT, UT UT

Components
Finished
118
Material FLAWS
Surfac Sub- Internal Lack of Slag, Materia Thickness

e Surfac Flaws Fusion Porosity l
Cracks e Quality
Cracks
Non-Ferrous PT, ET UT, ET RT, UT UT, ET UT

Components
Finished
Aircraft RT, MT, UT RT, UT UT MT, UT UT

Ferrous MT, ET
Components
Aircraft Non- RT, PT, RT, UT RT, UT UT PT, UT UT

Ferrous ET
Components
Table 4.Common Applications of the NDT
8.9.1 Comparison based on Test Application
Defect form is usually divided into two categories: volumetric, in which the height-to-width
ratio is close to unity, and Planar, in which the width is relatively narrow in comparison to
the height.
Figure 96.Detect Form
Volumetric flaws Planar flaws
Surface breaking Visual, liquid penetrant Visual
119
Near surface Magnetic particle and eddy Magnetic particle and eddy
current current
Internal Ultrasonic testing and Ultrasonic testing

radiography
Table 5.Volumetric flaws VS Planar flaws
120
9 CHAPTER – 9 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR WELD DEFECTS
This chapter covers the weld defect acceptance criteria as per ASME Section VIII Div. 1,
which is one of the most widely used standards for acceptance criteria for weld defects.
a. Acceptance criteria for Visual Inspection

b. Acceptance criteria for Radiography Test (RT)
c. Acceptance criteria for Ultrasonic Test (UT)
d. Acceptance criteria for Liquid Penetrant Test (LPT/LPI/DPT)
e. Acceptance criteria for Magnetic Particle Test (MPI/MPT/MT)
9.1 Acceptance criteria for Visual Inspection
(Refer: UIG-97, Page – 345 of ASME BPVC Section VIII Div. 1, 2017 Edition.)
a. The surface shall be free of any visible laminations, spalling, or cracks. Cracks in
tubes shall not be repaired and shall be considered cause for rejection.
b. For tubes, the depth of scratch shall not exceed 1/32 in. (0.8 mm). For all other
material, the scratch depth shall not exceed 1/8 in. (3 mm).
For an acceptable limit of thickness reduction, Refer to UW-35 (sub-para b, page – 144)
which states that:
The reduction in thickness shall not exceed 1mm (1/32 in.) or 10% of material nominal
thickness whichever is less, provided that the material of the adjoining surfaces below the
design thickness at any point.
For the allowable limit of Weld Reinforcement (excess weld metal), Refer to UW-35 (sub-
para d, Page – 144)
121
Table 6.Nominal Thickness and maximum allowable reinforcement of a material
9.2 Acceptance criteria for Radiography Test (RT)
(Refer: UW-51: Sub Para b (Page 148 and 149) and Mandatory Appendix 4 (Page 400
and Page 403) of ASME BPVC Section VIII Div. 1, 2017 Edition.)
Following terminologies have been used to explain the acceptance/rejection criteria for
Radiography Test (RT).
a. Linear Indication: Any indication with a length greater than three times the width.
Linear indications are mainly cracks, lack of penetration, lack of fusion, and
elongated slag inclusions.
b. Rounded Indication: Any indication with a length equal to or less than three times
the width. A rounded indication may be circular, elliptical, conical, or irregular in
shape and may have tails too. While determining the size of an indication, the tail
shall also be included. Rounded indications may appear on radiographs from any
imperfection in the weld, such as porosity, slag, or tungsten.
9.2.1 Acceptance criteria for Linear Indication (UW – 51)
a. Any crack, lack of penetration, and lack of fusion shall not be accepted.
122
b. Any other elongated indication shall be considered unacceptable, which has a

length greater than:
• 6 mm (1/4 in.) for T up to 19 mm (3/4 in.)

• T/3 for T greater than or equal to 19 mm (3/4 in.) and less than or equal to 57
mm (2-1/4 in.) i.e. 19 mm ≤ T ≤ 57 mm.
• 19 mm (3/4 in.) for T greater than 57 mm (2-1/4 in.)
(Where, ‘T’ – Thickness of the weld metal excluding any allowable reinforcement).
c. Any group of indications (inline) with an aggregate length of more than T (within a
length of 12T) shall be considered unacceptable except when the distance
between the successive discontinuities exceeds 6L. (where ‘L’ is the length of the
longest imperfection in the group).
9.2.2 Acceptance criteria for Rounded Indication (Mandatory Appendix 4)
According to this appendix, those rounded indications which exceed the following
dimensions shall be considered relevant.
a. T/10 for T less than 3 mm (1/8 in.)

b. 0.5 mm (1/64 in.) for T from 3 mm to 6 mm (1/8 in. to 1/4 in.), inclusive
c. mm (1/32 in.) for t greater than 6 mm to 50 mm (1/4 in. to 2 in.), inclusive
d. 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) for T greater than 50 mm (2 in.)
Apart from the above conditions, Mandatory Appendix 4 also contains some tables,
charts, and figures as a reference for acceptance/rejection criteria.
9.3 Acceptance criteria for Ultrasonic Test (UT)
(Refer: Mandatory Appendix 12 (Page 435) of ASME BPVC Section VIII Div. 1, 2017
Edition.)
a. Indications characterized as cracks, lack of fusion, or incomplete penetration are

unacceptable regardless of length.
b. Other imperfections are unacceptable if the indications exceed the reference level
amplitude and have lengths that exceed:
123
• 6 mm (1/4 in.) for T up to 19 mm (3/4 in.)

• T/3 for T from 19 mm to 57 mm (3/4 in. to 21/4 in.)
• 19 mm (3/4 in.) for T over 57 mm (21/4 in.)
where T is the thickness of the weld excluding any allowable reinforcement. For a butt
weld joining two members having different thicknesses at the weld, T is the thinner of
these two thicknesses. If a full penetration weld includes a fillet weld, the thickness of the
throat of the fillet shall be included in T.
9.4 Acceptance criteria for Liquid Penetrant Test
(Refer: Mandatory Appendix 8 (Page 417) of ASME BPVC Section VIII Div. 1, 2017
Edition.)
The following terminologies have been used to explain the acceptance/rejection criteria
for Liquid Penetrant Examination (PT).
a. Relevant Indications: Indications with major dimensions greater than 1.5 mm (1/16
in.) shall be considered relevant.
b. Linear Indication: Any indication with a length greater than three times the width.
c. Rounded Indication: Any indication with a length equal to or less than three times
the width. A rounded indication may be of circular or elliptical shape.
9.4.1 Acceptance Criteria for Liquid Penetrant Examination (Mandatory Appendix 8)
All surfaces to be examined shall be free of:
a. Relevant linear indications shall be rejected.

b. Relevant rounded indications greater than 5 mm (3/16 in.) shall be rejected.
c. Four or more relevant rounded indications in a line separated by 1.5 mm (1/16 in.)
or less (edge to edge).
9.5 Acceptance criteria for Magnetic Particle Test (MT)
(Refer Mandatory Appendix 6 (Page 412) of ASME BPVC Section VIII Div. 1, 2017
Edition. Acceptance criteria are the same as that of Liquid Penetrant Examination)
124
The following terminologies have been used to explain the acceptance/rejection criteria
for Magnetic Particle Test (PT).
a. Relevant Indications: Indications with major dimensions greater than 1.5 mm (1/16
in.) shall be considered relevant.
b. Linear Indication: Any indication with a length greater than three times the width.
c. Rounded Indication: Any indication with a length equal to or less than three times
the width. A rounded indication may be of circular or elliptical shape.
9.5.1 Acceptance Criteria for Magnetic Particle Examination (Mandatory Appendix

6)
All surfaces to be examined shall be free of:
a. Relevant linear indications shall be rejected.

b. Relevant rounded indications greater than 5 mm (3/16 in.) shall be rejected.
c. Four or more relevant rounded indications in a line separated by 1.5 mm (1/16 in.)
or less (edge to edge).
Summary
NDT is increasingly being used in process control to meet the need for a good quality
assurance concept of making the products right the first time. Visual and penetrant testing
are the NDT methods detect surface discontinuities. Radiographic and ultrasonic weld
inspection are used to detect discontinuities within the internal structure of welds. The
obvious advantage of both these methods is their ability to help establish the weld’s
internal integrity without destroying the welded component.
NDT equipment has become more dependable and sensitive as a result of a movement
toward making it as error-free as feasible.
NDT equipment has become more reliable and sensitive with a trend to make it as
independent of operator errors as possible. There has been a greater usage of computers
and automation. The majority of modern NDT uses microprocessors and computers with
increased image processing, data collecting, and analysis capabilities.
There is a growing trend towards using multiple transducers and multi-channel systems
both for ultrasonic and eddy current testing. Similarly, the concept of simultaneously using
125
multiple methods of inspection is increasing, for example for the inspection of reactor
pressure vessels. On-line and continuous monitoring of plant and equipment inspection
is now commonly applied. To cope with the increased use of composite materials high
sensitivity test methods such as micro-focus radiography and high frequency ultrasonic
testing are now well established.
But, increasing the degree of automation also increases the consequences of error.
Therefore, a high degree of automation requires a high degree of monitoring and control.
Process integrated NDT must fulfil the requirements of today’s industrial production
concerning integrate-ability, automation, speed, reliability, and profitability.
References
TÜV Nord – Non-destructive testing of materials and structures (NDT)
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
Wikipedia – Different Testing Procedures
Nondestructive testing & the types of welds: https://sentin.ai/en
126
10 Annexure -1: Codes and Standards
The Tables below lists the major codes from AWS, ASME and API. It is not a
comprehensive list of every single code that these organizations have published, but it
does provide a quick overview of the codes related to welding. If you require a complete
and up-to-date list of any or all their codes, please visit their website.
American Welding Society (AWS)
AWS D1.1 This code contains the requirements for fabricating and erecting
welded steel structures. This code applies to steels with a thickness
of 1/8 inch (3.2mm) or more. When this code is specified in a contract,
most of the provisions are mandatory. Optional provisions and
examples are shown in an annex included within this code.
AWS D1.2 This is the Structural Welding Code-Aluminum. The welding

requirements are applicable to any type of welded aluminum alloy
structure. This code is appropriate for use in fabrication of supporting
structures and appurtenances. It is not intended to supplant codes
developed for use in specialized fabrication such as the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code, aerospace codes, or military codes.
AWS D1.3 This is the Structural Welding Code-Sheet Steel. This code covers the
arc welding of structural steel sheet/strip steels including cold formed
members which are equal to or less than 3/16 inch (.188 in./4.8mm)
in nominal thickness. Three weld types unique to sheet steel, arc spot,
arc seam, and arc plug welds are included in this code.
AWS D1.4 This is the Structural Welding Code-Reinforcing Steel. This code shall
apply to the welding of reinforcing steel to reinforcing steel and of
reinforcing steel to carbon or low-alloy structural steel. This code shall
be used in conjunction with the prescribed general building code
specifications and is applicable to all welding of reinforcing steel using
the processes listed in Section 1.4 and performed as a part of
reinforced concrete construction. When reinforcing steel is welded to
127
structural steel, the provisions of AWS D1.1 shall apply to the

structural steel component.
AWS D1.5 This is the Bridge Welding Code. This code covers welding fabrication
requirements applicable to welded highway bridges. It is to be used in
conjunction with the AASHTO Standard Specification for Highway
Bridges or the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. This
code is not intended to be used for the following: steels with a
minimum specified yield strength greater than 690 MPa (100ksi),
pressure vessels or pressure piping, base metals other than carbon
or low alloy steels, or structures composed of structural tubing.
AWS D1.6 Structural Welding Code-Stainless Steel. This code covers welding
requirements applicable to stainless steel weldments subject to design
stress. It shall be used in conjunction with any complementary code
or specification for the design or construction of stainless-steel
weldments.
AWS D3.5- Guide for Steel Hull Welding. This guide is referenced in many
93R contract specifications for building vessels from barges to tugboats.
AWS D3.6M Specification for Under-Water Welding.
AWS D3.7 Guide for Aluminum Hull Welding. Similar to the Steel Hull Welding
Guide, but with a special emphasis on the unique properties of
aluminum.
AWS D8.8-97 Specification for Automotive and Light Truck Weld Quality: Arc
Welding.
AWS D14.1 Specification for Welding Earth Moving and Construction Equipment.
Applies to all structural welds used in the manufacture of earthmoving
and construction equipment. This specification reflects the welding
practices employed by manufacturers within the industry and
128
incorporates various methods which have been proven successful by

individual manufacturers.
AWS D14.5 Specification for Welding Presses and Press Components. The
purpose of this specification is to establish minimum acceptable
requirements for weld joint design and the fabrication by welding of
presses and press components and is not intended to apply to
material feed mechanisms and tooling. It shall also apply to the
modification or repair by welding of new or existing presses or press
components.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASME Section I Requirements for Power boilers. Part PW lists the Requirements
for Boilers Fabricated By Welding. The rules in Part PW are
applicable to boilers and component parts thereof, including piping
constructed under the provisions of this Section that are fabricated
by welding and shall be used in conjunction with the general
requirements of Part PG as well as with the specific requirements
in the applicable Parts of this Section that pertain to the type of
boiler under consideration.
ASME Section II Material Specifications-4 Subparts (A, B, C, D). Subpart A-Ferrous

Material Specifications. Subpart B-Non-Ferrous Material
Specifications-Materials. Subpart C Specifications for Welding
Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals. Subpart D- Properties-divided
into three subparts- 1 Stress Tables. 2 Physical Properties Tables.
3 Charts and Tables for Determining Shell Thickness of
Components Under External Pressure.
ASME Section III Nuclear-There are Three Subdivisions- Division 1-Rules For
Construction of Nuclear Facility Components. Subsection NB lists
Class 1 Components. Subsection NC lists Class 2 Components.
129
Subsection ND lists Class 3 Components. Subsection NE lists

Class MC Components. Subsection NF covers Supports.
Subsection NG deals with Core Support Structures. Subsection
NH covers Class 1 Components in Elevated Temperature Service.
Division 2-Code For Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containment.
Division 3-Containment Systems for Storage and Transport
Packaging of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive
Material and Waste.
ASME Section IV Rules For Construction of Heating Boilers. The rules to Part HG
apply to steam heating boilers, hot water heating boilers, hot water
supply boilers, and appurtenances thereto. They shall be used in
conjunction with the specific requirements of Parts HF and HC
whichever is applicable. The forward provides the basis for these
rules. Part HG is not intended to apply to potable water heaters
except as provided for in Part HLW.
ASME Section V Non-Destructive Examination. Unless otherwise specified by the

referencing Code Section, or other referencing documents, this
Section of the Code contains requirements and methods for
nondestructive examination which are Code requirements to the
extent they are specifically referenced and required by other Code
Sections. These nondestructive examination methods are
intended to detect surface and internal discontinuities in materials,
welds, and fabricated parts and components. They include
radiographic examination, ultrasonic examination, liquid penetrant
examination, magnetic particle examination, eddy current
examination, visual examination, leak testing, and acoustic
emission examination.
ASME Section VI Recommended Rules For the Care and Operation of Heating
Boilers. This is divided into nine subsections. 1-General, covers
scope and terminology. 2-Types of Boilers. 3-Accessories and
130
Installation. 4-Fuels. 5-Fuel Burning Equipment and Fuel Burning

Controls. 6-Boiler Room Facilities. 7-Operation, Maintenance, and
Repair-Steam Boilers. 8-Operation, Maintenance, and Repair-Hot
Water Boilers and Hot Water Heating Boilers. 9-Water Treatment
ASME Section Recommended Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers

VII
ASME Section Pressure Vessel and Tank Code. This is divided into three sub-
VIII divisions. Division 1-Subsection A is general pressure vessel
information. Subsection B covers the Requirements Pertaining to
Methods of Fabrication of Pressure Vessels. Subsection C lists the
Requirements Pertaining to Classes of Materials. Division 2 covers
Alternative Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels. Division 3
lists Alternative Rules for Construction of High-Pressure Boilers.
ASME Section IX Welding and Brazing Qualifications. This section covers the
requirements for Weld Procedure Specifications (WPS),
Procedure Qualification Records (PQR), and certification
requirements for tackers, welders, welding operators, and brazing
personnel.
ASME Section X Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels.
ASME Section XI Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant

Components.
ASME B31.1 Power Piping This Code prescribes requirements for the design,
materials, fabrication, erection, test, and inspection of power and
auxiliary service piping systems for electrical generation stations,
industrial and institutional plants, central and district heating plants,
and district heating systems, except as limited by para. 100.1.3.
These systems are not limited by plant or property lines unless
they are specifically limited by para. 100.1. Piping as used in this
Code includes pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief
131
devices, fittings, and the pressure containing portions of other

piping components. It also includes hangers and supports and
other equipment items necessary to prevent overstressing the
pressure containing components. The users of this Code are
advised that in some area’s legislation may establish governmental
jurisdiction over the subject matter covered in this Code. However,
any such legal requirement shall not relieve the owner of his
inspection responsibilities specified in para. 136.1.
ASME B31.2 Fuel Gas Piping-Material, This Code covers the design,
fabrication, installation, and testing of piping systems for fuel gases
such as natural gas, manufactured gas, liquefied petroleum gas-
air mixtures above the upper combustible limit, liquefied petroleum
gas in the gaseous phase, or a mixture of these gases. Included
within the scope of this Code are fuel gas piping systems both in
buildings and between buildings, form the outlet of the consumer's
meter set assembly (or point of delivery) to and including the first
pressure containing valve upstream of the gas utilization device.
Piping systems within the scope of this Code include all
components such as pipe, valves, fittings, flanges (except inlet and
outlet flanges that are a part of equipment or apparatus described
in para. 200.1.4), bolting and gaskets. Also included are the
pressure containing parts of other components such as expansion
joints, strainer and metering devices, and piping supporting fixtures
and structural attachments.
ASME B31.3 Process Piping- Rules for the Process Piping Code have been
developed considering piping typically found in chemical,
petroleum refineries, pharmaceutical, textile, paper,
semiconductor, and cryogenic plants, and related processing
plants and terminals. This Code prescribes requirements for
materials and components, design, fabrication, erection,
132
assembly, examination, inspection, and testing of piping. this Code

applies to all fluids, including raw, intermediate, and finished
chemicals; petroleum products; gas, steam, air, and water;
fluidized solids; refrigerants; and cryogenic fluids.
ASME B31.4 Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid

Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohol. This Code
prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction,
assembly, inspection, and testing of piping transporting liquids
such as crude oil, condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas
liquids, liquefied petroleum gas, carbon dioxide, liquid alcohol,
liquid anhydrous ammonia, and liquid petroleum products between
producers' lease facilities, tank farms, natural gas processing
plants, refineries, stations, ammonia plants, terminals (marine, rail,
truck), and other delivery and receiving points. Piping consists of
pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief devices, fittings, and
the pressure containing parts of other piping components. It also
includes hangers and supports, and other equipment items
necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing parts.
ASME B31.5 Piping Refrigeration-This Code prescribes requirements for the

materials, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, test, and
inspection of refrigerant and secondary coolant piping for
temperatures as low as -320°F except as specifically excluded.
ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution-This code covers the design,
fabrication, installation, inspection, testing and safety aspects of
operation and maintenance of gas transmission and distribution
systems, including gas pipelines, gas compressor stations, gas
metering and regulation stations, gas mains, and service lines up
to the outlet of the customer's meter set assembly. Included within
this Code are gas transmission and gathering pipelines, including
appurtenances, that are installed offshore for the purpose of
133
transporting gas from production facilities to onshore locations.

Much more is also covered in this code.
ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping-This Code Section has rules for the piping
in industrial, institutional, commercial, and public buildings, and
multi-unit residences which does not require the range of sizes,
pressures, and temperatures covered in B31.1.
ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems-This code prescribes

minimum requirements for the design, materials, construction,
assembly, inspection, testing, operation, and maintenance of
piping transporting aqueous slurries of non-hazardous materials,
such as coal, mineral ore, concentrates, and other solid material,
between a slurry processing plant or terminal, and a receiving plant
or terminal.
American Petroleum Institute
API 570 Piping Inspection Code- This code covers the inspection, repair,
alteration, and rerating of in-service piping systems. API 570 was
developed for the petroleum refining and chemical process
industries but may be used, where practical, for any piping system.
It is intended for use by organizations that maintain or have access
to an authorized inspection agency, a repair organization, and
technically qualified piping engineers, inspectors, and examiners,
all as defined in Section 3.
API 620 This code lists the requirements for Design and Construction of
Large, Welded, Low Pressure Tanks. This code applies to carbon
steel above ground, including flat bottom tanks, that have a single
vertical axis of revolution. The tanks described in this standard are
designed for metal temperatures not greater than 250°F and with
pressures in their gas or vapor spaces not more than 15 psi.
134
API 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage. This standard covers material,
design, fabrication, erection, and testing requirements for vertical,
cylindrical, aboveground, closed and open-top, welded steel
storage tanks in various sizes and capacities for internal pressures
approximating atmospheric pressure (internal pressure not
exceeding the weight of the roof plates), but a higher internal
pressure is permitted when additional requirements are met. This
standard applies only to tanks whose entire bottom is uniformly
supported and to tanks in nonrefrigerated service that have a
maximum operating temperature of 90°C (200°F).
API 653 Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction. This

standard covers carbon and low alloy steel tanks built to API
Standard 650 and its predecessor API Specification 12C. API 653
provides minimum requirements for maintaining the integrity of
welded or riveted, atmospheric pressure, aboveground storage
tanks after they have been placed in service. It covers the
maintenance inspection, repair, alteration, relocation, and
reconstruction of such tanks. The scope of this publication is
limited to the tank foundation, bottom, shell, structure, roof,
attached appurtenances, and nozzles to the face of the first flange,
first threaded joint, or first welding-end connection. This standard
employs the principles of API 650; however, storage tank
owner/operators may apply this standard to any steel tank
constructed in accordance with a tank specification.
API 1104 Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities. This standard covers
the gas and arc welding of butt, fillet, and socket welds in carbon
and low-alloy steel piping used in the compression, pumping, and
transmission of crude petroleum, petroleum products, fuel gases,
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen, and where applicable, covers
welding on distribution systems. It applies to both new construction
135
and in-service welding. The welding may be done by a shielded

metal-arc welding, submerged arc welding, gas tungsten-arc
welding, gas metal-arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, plasma arc
welding, oxyacetylene welding, or flash butt welding process or by
a combination of these processes using a manual, semi-automatic,
or automatic welding technique or a combination of these
techniques, The welds may be produced by position or roll welding
or by a combination of position and roll welding. This standard also
covers the procedures for radiographic, magnetic particle, liquid
penetrant, and ultrasonic testing as well as the acceptance
standards to be applied to production welds tested to destruction
or inspected by radiographic, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant,
ultrasonic, and visual testing methods.
136

Introduction To Welding & Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) - R1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To Welding & Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) - R1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To Welding & Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) - R1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to Welding and Non-

Destructive Testing (NDT)

Course No: T06-005

Continuing Education and Development, Inc.

1 CHAPTER -1: CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS ............................................ 6

5.7 Lack of Fusion (Incomplete Fusion) ................................................................. 65

8.6 Ultrasonic Testing (UT) .................................................................................. 109

TABLE OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1.Weld Zone Terminology .................................................................................................................. 6

Figure 31.Weld Symbol on Bottom and Top Side ....................................................................................... 38

Figure 81.Visual Inspection Optical Aids .................................................................................................... 95

Table 1.Carbon Content in Steel ................................................................................................................. 11

1 CHAPTER -1: CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS

Figure 1.Weld Zone Terminology

1.1 Material Properties

A metal’s ability to resist deformation is known as its strength. Strength is quantified in

a. Tensile Strength: A metal’s ability to resist forces attempting to pull it apart.

Strength can be altered drastically by welding.

Ductility is the capability of a metal to be permanently bent, twisted, stretched, or

Hardness is the resistance of being scratched or indented by another material. Welding

1.1.6 Corrosion Resistance

1.2 Twenty Things a Welder Need to Know

1.3 Common Welding Metals

1.3.1.1 Carbon Steels

Steels are generally classified according to carbon and alloy content.

Carbon Steel Type % Carbon

Low Carbon Steel 0.04 – 0.15%

Carbon Steel Type % Carbon

Mild Steel 0.15 to 0.30

Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6%

High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4%

Low Alloy Steel Approx. 0.15%

Table 1.Carbon Content in Steel

Higher carbon content means stronger steel.

Manganese up to ~ 0.8% - Low strength and moderate toughness

High Manganese up to ~ 1.6% improves the toughness.

1.3.2 Cast Iron

Cast iron is generally welded with oxyacetylene welding.

1.3.3 Alloy Steels

Low Alloy Steels <7% alloying elements

High Alloy Steels >7% alloying elements

1.3.4 Stainless steel

a. Ferritic and martensitic alloys

Stainless is welded using arc welding (TIG, MIG or Stick).

1.3.5 Tool Steel

1.4 Alloying Elements in Steel

Most elements can have many effects on the properties of steels.

And other factors which affect material properties are:

a. The temperature reached before and during welding

Specific effects of the addition of such elements are as below:

1.4.1 Iron (Fe)

1.4.2 Carbon (C)

1.4.3 Manganese (Mn)

Its manner has below main effects:

1.4.4 Silicon (Si)

a. Residual element from steel de-oxidation. typically to ~0.35%.

1.4.5 Phosphorus (P)

Although it increases the tensile strength of steel and improves machinability it is