Nutritional adaptation

• Such behaviors and biological traits can be considered nutritional adaptations when
their benefits in terms of function, survival, or reproduction are greater than their costs.
• Ang nutritional adaptation is the behaviors and biological trait na kung saan nakakakuha
ng benefits in terms of function, survival, or reproduction.

Symbiosis of plants and soil microbes

• Ito yung relationship ng mga plants and soil microbes tulad ng bacteria.
• Symbiosis is a term describing any relationship or interaction between two dissimilar
organisms. The specific kind of symbiosis depends on whether either or both organisms
benefit from the relationship.
• Microbes is tiny living organisms such as bacteria or fungi, also called microorganisms.
Some microbes cause plant diseases, but others are helpful.
• The most important source of nitrogen-fixing bacteria is the symbiotic interaction
between soil bacteria and legume plants (Example nito ay soybeans, peanuts, and
peas).The NH3 resulting from fixation can be transported into plant tissue and
incorporated into amino acids, which are then made into plant proteins.

• A legume refers to any plant from the Fabaceae family that would include its leaves,
stems, and pods. A pulse is the edible seed from a legume plant. Pulses include beans,
lentils, and peas. For example, a pea pod is a legume, but the pea inside the pod is the
pulse) NH3 (amonia) na nagreresulta mula sa pag-aayos ay maaaring madala sa halaman
tissue at isinama sa mga amino acid, na pagkatapos ay ginawa sa halaman mga protina.

• Legumes can establish a symbiotic relationship with bacteria of the genus Rhizobia
(Rhizobia are a "group of soil bacteria that infect the roots of legumes to form root
nodules). The legumes produce a new organ on their root surface for the bacteria to live
in, called a nodules swelling on the root of a leguminous plant that contains bacteria
able to collect nitrogen from the air to give it to the plants. Inside nodules, Rhizobia
reproduce and are protected from environmental stresses. The bacteria also get some
plant sugars, which they use to grow and to convert nitrogen from the air into ammonia,
through chemical processes. Ammonia is a source of nitrogen that the plants can use.
 Nitrogen is important for living organisms because it is an essential component of many
biological molecules, such as DNA and proteins. Thus, plants benefit from the nitrogen
provided by the bacteria in their root nodules. If Rhizobia species are present in the soil
and nodulation occurs, farmers do not need to add as much additional nitrogen to the
soil in the form of fertilizer as usual.

Symbiosis of plants and fungi

• Ito naman ay relationship ng plants and fungi. (The most common types of fungi
include yeasts, molds, mushroom, puff balls and smuts.)
• It is common in some vascular plants. The presence of fungi serves as an extension of
the root system. The fungi are responsible for the enhancement of phosphorus and
transfer some nutrients such as, zinc and copper
• Ito ay karaniwan sa ilang vascular na halaman. Ang pagkakaroon ng fungi ay nagsisilbing
extension ng root system. Ang fungi ay responsable para sa pagpapahusay ng posporus
at paglilipat ng ilang mga sustansya tulad ng, zinc at tanso

• Another symbiosis commonly found in ecosystems is established between plant roots

and fungi. The structures formed from this type of symbiosis are called mycorrhizaen
association of a fungus and a plant in which the fungus lives within or on the outside of
the plant’s roots forming a symbiotic relationship. Mycorrhizae are symbiotic
relationships that form between fungi and plants. The fungi colonize the root system of
a host plant, providing increased water and nutrient absorption capabilities while the
plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates formed from photosynthesis.

(from the Greek words mýkēs: fungi and rhiza: roots). More than 80% of land plants participate
in this type of symbiosis [6]. Mycorrhizae are fascinating in their diversity and complexity, and
new things are regularly being discovered about them. Basically, nutrients from the soil are
transported to plant roots through the fungal hyphae. The hyphae can explore a greater volume
of soil and can reach more distant soil areas than the plant’s roots can, which increases the
amount of nutrients available to the plants. Without mycorrhizae, plants would not be able to
collect as many nutrients from the soil and would not grow as well. In return, plants share their
sugars with the symbiotic fungi. Some mycorrhizal fungi can also weather rocks, as described
earlier, to provide nutrients like phosphorus to their host plants. In crop fields, mycorrhization
is critical for increasing the quantity of food that can be produced without the use of synthetic
fertilizer.
Parasitism
• A parasitic plant depends on its host for survival. Some parasitic plants have no leaves.
• Parasitic plants attach to the body surface of other plants to derive nutrition from
them. The host plants from which the parasites absorb nutrients are harmed in the
process.
• Example: Dodder. Dodders penetrate host tissue, and absorb nutrients via
specialized structures called haustoria. Once established on a host, the bottom of a
dodder plant dies (thereby severing its connection with the soil), and the dodder plant
becomes dependent on the host plant for water and nutrients.

• Yung parasitic plant, is a plant that obtains all or part of its nutrition from another plant
(the host) without contributing to the benefit of the host and, in some cases, causing
extreme damage to the host. The defining structural feature of a parasitic plant is
the haustorium, a specialized organ that penetrates the host and forms a vascular union
between the plants.

• Dodder, (genus Cuscuta), genus of about 145 species of leafless, twining, parasitic
plants in the morning glory family (Convolvulaceae). They are widely distributed
throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the world, and many species have
been introduced with their host plants into new areas and are considered invasive
species.

Predation
• An insectivorous plant has specialized leaves to attract and digest insects.
• Insectivorous plants means insect-eating, these plants derive most of their nutrition
from the insects, that they trap and consume. These plants grow in humid areas, where
 plenty of sunlight and moisture is found. They are found in the nitrogen deficient soil.
That is why they trap and digest insects to absorb nutrients.
• Example: Venus flytrap. Venus flytrap, pitcher plant and cobra lily are some of the
insectivorous plants’ names. They are often called Carnivorous plants.
• These plants have a wide mouth lined with hair. These hairs are sensitive structures. As
soon as an organism touches this hair, the mouth snap shots trapping the insect inside.
Once the organism is digested, the leaves of this plant open up again to trap another
prey.
• The “trap” is made of two hinged lobes at the end of each leaf. On the inner surfaces of
the lobes are hair-like projections called trichomes that cause the lobes to snap shut
when prey comes in contact with them. This type of movement is called thigmonasty—
a nondirectional plant response to being touched. Once the trap closes, the digestive
glands that line the interior edge of the leaf secrete fluids that dissolve the soft parts of
the prey, kill bacteria and fungi, and break down the insect with enzymes to extract the
essential nutrients.
Rafflesia Flower

• the monster flower genus (Rafflesia) consists of about 28 species native to Southeast
Asia, all of which are parasitic upon the roots of Tetrastigma vines (family Vitaceae). The
genus includes the giant R. arnoldii, sometimes known as the corpse flower, which
produces the largest known individual…

Parasitic plants differ from plants such as climbing vines, lianas, epiphytes, and aerophytes;
though the latter are supported by other plants, they are not parasitic, because they use other
plants simply as a structure on which to grow rather than as a direct source of water or
nutrients. Another group of plants that is sometimes confused with parasites is the
mycoheterotrophs. Similar to parasitic plants, mycoheterotrophs may lack chlorophyll and
photosynthetic capacity, but they live in symbiotic association with fungi that gain nutrition
from autotrophic (self-feeding) plants or decaying vegetation. Such plants are not classified as
parasitic, because they do not appear to harm the fungi and they lack haustoria.
We can define predation as the ecological process in which an animal (or an organism) kills and
feeds on another animal (or an organism). The animal that kills another animal to feed on is
called a “predator“. The one that is killed to be eaten is known as prey

• Venus flytrap, pitcher plant and cobra lily are some of the insectivorous plants' names.
They are often called Carnivorous plants.

Venus Flytrap
• Venus flytrap, pitcher plant and cobra lily are some of the insectivorous plants’
names. They are often called Carnivorous plants.
• These plants have a wide mouth lined with hair. These hairs are sensitive structures. As
soon as an organism touches this hair, the mouth snap shots trapping the insect inside.
Once the organism is digested, the leaves of this plant open up again to trap another
prey.

Nepenthes
• Nepenthes is also known as pitcher plant. This is found generally in Asia, Sri
Lanka, and Australia. This plant consists of the pitcher which produces a liquid
on its own. The insects are attracted by the odour of the plant. Once the insect is
trapped and produces movement in the plant, the plant starts secreting the
digestive liquid. The organism is digested and the nutrients are absorbed.
Pinguicula
These are also known as butterworts. They produce bright, colourful flowers to attract prey.
They have dewy sticky leaves to trap the insects. These plants are dormant during the winter
season.