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A PRIMER OF ADLERIAN PSYCHOLOGY
A PRIMER
OF ADLERIAN
PSYCHOLOGY
The Analytic-Behavioral-
Cogn itive Psychology
of Alfred Adler
Harold H. Mosak
Michael P. Maniacci
Published by
Brunner-Routledge
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New York, NY 10001
Published in Great Britain

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A PRIMER OF ADLERIAN PSYCHOLOGY: The Analytic-Behavioral-Cognitive

Psychology of Alfred Adler
Copyright © 1999 Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of
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this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored
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4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Cover design by Marja Walker.

Cover photo courtesy of Sanford J. Greenburger Associates
Edited by Hilary Ward and Mark Eggerts
A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
The paper in this publication meets the requirements of the ANSI Standard
Z39.48-1984 (Permanence of Paper).
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mosak, Harold H.
A primer of Adlerian pyschology: the analytic-behavioral-cognitive pyschology of
Alfred Adler/Harold H. Mosak, Michael P. Maniacci.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58391-003-4 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. Adlerian psychology. 2. Adler, Alfred, 1870-1937.
1. Maniacci, Michael. II. Title.
BFI75.5.A33M68 1999
150.19'53--dc21 99-25738
CIP
ISBN 1-58391-003-4 (paper)

Dedication
Harold H. Mosak: To Ada, a class act ...

Michael P. Maniacci: To the two women of my life, Laurie and Emily ...
CONTENTS
Preface IX
Alfred Adler and Adlerian Psychology: An Overview 1
Basic Assumptions and Philosophy of Individual Psychology 12
The Development of the Life Style 30
The Style of Life 46
Typology 63
Inferiorities, Inferiority Feelings, and Inferiority Complexes 78
The Tasks of Life 96
Psychopathology 112
Understanding a Person 131
Encouraging Growth 146
A Critique of the Theory of Individual Psychology 162
References 176
Index 191
VII
PREFACE
All men by nature desire to know.

Aristotle (circa 350 BC)
BELIEVING is what we humans do best.

Michael S. Gazzaniga (1985)
Who am I? Where do I come from? What is all of this about? Ques-

tions like these have been on the minds and in the hearts of humanity
for what seems to be an eternity. Aristotle (350 BcIl941), in The Meta-
physics, posed just such questions and attempted to lay the foundation
for those answers in philosophy and logic well over 2000 years ago. He
was the founder of a school that trained some of the greatest minds of
ancient Greece, he himself having graduated from Plato's Academy sev-
eral years earlier. In The Metaphysics, Aristotle attempts to explore how
to understand "being," that is, the nature of all that exists. In the very
first paragraph of this monumental work, he turns his attention to
human beings and their ability to sense and perceive, and how that per-
ception leads them to search for answers to such eternal questions. "All
men by nature desire to know" is the first line of the book (p. 689).
Some 2000 years later, a cognitive neuroscientist, Gazzaniga, begins
his book, The Social Brain (1985), with "BELIEVING is what humans do
best" (p. 3). In it, he attempts to understand how the neural networks of
the brain have both reflected and created the social networks of our
community, culture, and environment. Much like Aristotle before him,
Gazzaniga finds himself intertwined with the issue of our senses and
human perception.
Human beings, as a species, have been, and continue to be, preoccu-
pied with these issues. Though our answers to these questions have var-
IX
X Preface
ied across time and culture, with technology allowing us more precision
in our responses (but no less rigorous answers than philosophers), the
mere fact that we continue to ask these questions may be one of the
fundamental distinguishing characteristics of human nature. The nature
of what is "known" is difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish from the
nature of those who are seeking to know; or, put more simply, what is
"seen" is often influenced by who is "looking." This book is written by
two psychologists, and our "answers" are couched in the science and
philosophy of psychology. Though both of us have been trained in fields
of inquiry other than psychology, and other disciplines and theories
within psychology, our primary affiliation is with the system of psychol-
ogy and psychotherapy of the psychiatrist Alfred Adler. It is through this
perspective that we practice and teach.
Alfred Adler, and those who have joined him in a similar world view,
have built a system of psychology called Individual Psychology. It provides
not only a strategy of psychotherapy but a philosophical framework
with which to interpret and comprehend information relevant to an
understanding of human nature. In fact. Adler's most popular book,
written in 1927, was entitled Understanding Human Nature (1927/1957).
Adler's system is a growing, evolving, vibrant system, whose basic te-
nets have been gradually incorporated into diverse fields, not only
within the disciplines of psychology and psychiatry, but in anthropol-
ogy, sociology, social psychology, and education. His insights have
gained widespread acceptance, even though his name has often been
forgotten. As Adler himself wrote in a book foreword in 1933,
Individual Psychology, which is essentially a child of this age, will have a

permanent influence on the thought, poetry, and dreams of humanity. It
will attract many enlightened disciples, and many more who will hardly
know the names of its pioneers. It will be understood by some, but the
numbers of those who misunderstand it will be greater. It will have many
adherents, and still more enemies. Because of its simplicity many will
think it too easy, whereas those who know it will recognize how difficult
it is. (Dreikurs, 193311950a, p. vii)
Adler's words have been prophetic. Many of the insights he

articulated have become "mainstreamed" into contemporary thought,
particularly in psychology. As is evident throughout this work, psycho-
analysis (particularly self-psychology and object relations theory),
cognitive therapy, systems theory and family therapy, existential psy-
chotherapy and philosophy, and social psychology, to mention only a
few therapy systems, have incorporated much of what Adler espoused
as early as the turn of the century. This book is an attempt to clearly ar-
ticulate the system Adler began building at that time.
Preface XI
There have been other attempts to systematize Adler's work in the

form of introductory textbooks. Dreikurs (193311950a), Manaster and
Corsini (1982), Wexberg (1929), and Wolfe (1932) have written such
texts, but alL except Manaster and Corsini, have (at the time of this
writing) gone out of print. Many of Adler's original works are out of
print as well, but the work of Ansbacher and Ansbacher has served to
collect, edit, and systematize Adler's writings (Adler, 1956, 1964g,
1978). This book is an attempt to provide those in the field of Adlerian
psychology with an introductory text and those who are as yet unfamil-
iar with the work of Adler a single source from which to evaluate his
system as it stands today. It is not a book about Adlerian counseling and
psychotherapy per se; rather it is a theoretical book that will touch upon
counseling and psychotherapy as some of its topics. It is a text about the
theory of Individual Psychology.
This book is an exploration and elaboration of the theory and system
of Individual Psychology. Chapter 1 reviews the historical background
of Adlerian psychology.
Chapter 2 begins with an analysis of the basic assumptions and phi-
losophy of Individual Psychology. It is intended to familiarize readers
with the underlying assumptions of the system, in much the same way
Chapter I attempts to acquaint readers with Adler himself.
Chapter 3 examines human personality development as conceptual-
ized by Adlerians. The development of the life style entails taking into
account the biologicaL psychologicaL and social influences upon per-
sonality development in light of the aforementioned assumptions of
Adlerian theory.
Chapter 4 provides an overview of the style of life, Adler's phrase for
what is now known as personality. What it is and how it is used is detailed.
Chapter 5 is, for all practical purposes, a continuation of Chapter 4
and is called "Typology." Certain life styles have themes, or clusters of
issues, that can form recognizable patterns theorists call "types." Adler's
original four types, with some current additions, are detailed.
Chapter 6 is titled "Inferiorities, Inferiority Feelings, and Inferiority
Complexes." This chapter discusses how individuals respond to chal-
lenges posed by life and the social situations they both find themselves
in and help to create and maintain. The general challenges people face
can be clustered into six key areas . and these are discussed in Chapter 7,
"The Tasks of Life,"
In "Psychopathology," Chapter 8, various pathological methods of
functioning are analyzed. Topics such as diagnosis, symptoms, and psy-
chodynamics are viewed from the interpersonaL goal-oriented perspec-
tive of Adlerian psychology. A detailed case history is presented that
highlights the topics addressed in the chapter.
XII Preface
Chapter 9 is an overview of what Adlerians assess when they begin

understanding a person. How the individual's style of life is assessed, the
person's current movement in regards to his or her social field, and the
meaning and purpose of behavior are the focus of this section.
Intervention strategies is the topic of Chapter 10. Issues of prevention,
parenting, parent and family education, counseling, psychotherapy, and
psychoanalysis, including the reconceptualization of Adlerian psycho-
therapy as an "analytic-behavioral-cognitive" system, are explored.
Finally, in Chapter 11, a critique of Individual Psychology is pre-
sented, along with an annotated bibliography of Adlerian works that
readers may wish to examine for themselves, and a glossary of key
terms. If Adlerian theory is to flourish, its strengths need to be high-
lighted and its limitations noted and corrected. Although Individual
Psychology is a comprehensive, broad-based system, there are many
areas future Adlerians must address if the system is to remain viable.
Also, we examine Adler's influence as it continues today, particularly as
it relates to one of the newest trends in clinical psychology and psycho-
therapy, cognitive constructionism. The chapter concludes with some
comments upon the future of Individual Psychology.
This is intended to be an introductory text; therefore at the end of
each chapter, we have some questions that may be useful for instructors
and students in classroom settings. In addition, summary points high-
lighting the key issues of each chapter are found immediately before the
review questions.
Because, as we have stated previously, the answers people find are in-
timately related to the "natures" of those who do the "looking," an ap-
propriate place to begin a textbook of Adlerian psychology is with the
individual himself, the man who "did the looking," Alfred Adler.
Harold H. Mosak
Michael P. Maniacci
Alfred Adler and Adlerian
Psychology: An Overview
It is
one of the peculiar ironies of history that there are no limits to the mis-
understanding and distortion of theories . ...
Erich Fromm (1961)
D Alfred Adler: A Biographical Sketch

Adler was the second of six children born to a Jewish family on February
7, 1870. He was a sickly child who had rickets and suffered from spasms
of the glottis. At the age of 3 years, his younger brother died in bed next
to him (Mosak & Kopp, 1973). A year later, he contracted pneumonia
and became seriously ill. Later, as an adult, he remembered the physi-
cian saying at that time to his father, "Your boy is lost" (Orgler, 19391
1963, p. 16). As if these experiences were not enough to impress him, he
was twice run over in the streets. Though he reported no memory for
how these incidents happened, he did remember recovering conscious-
ness on the family sofa. Adler became very aware of death and vowed to
become a physician in order to overcome it (Adler, 1947).
Adler was raised on the outskirts of the intellectual capital of his day,
Vienna. The area in which he lived was not predominantly Jewish, and
he and his family were minority-group members.
1
2 A Primer of Adlerian Psychology
These issues of belonging, inferiority, and weakness had a large influ-

ence upon the young Adler. He was a poor student with bad eyesight
who was physically clumsy and felt uncoordinated, primarily because of
his numerous physical ailments. His mathematics teacher recommended
to his father that Adler leave school and apprentice himself as a shoe-
maker. Adler's father objected, and Adler embarked upon bettering his
academic skills. Within a relatively short time, he became the best math
student in the class. Adler became embroiled in a conflict with a class-
mate, and a fight broke out. Adler struck the boy, and hurt him. He
vowed not to fight again.
Adler studied medicine at the University of Vienna and in 1895 gradu-
ated with his medical degree and a specialization in ophthalmology.l He
became interested in politics and began attending meetings of the ris-
ing socialist movement. Through these meetings, he met Raissa Timo-
feyewna Epstein, and they were married in 1897. She was a socialist and
a feminist (R. Adler, 1899) who continued her active interest in political
affairs throughout their marriage (Hoffman, 1994).
He started his private practice. His practice soon switched to internal
medicine, and he observed that many of the patients who sought his ser-
vices suffered from diseases that traced their origin to the social situations
in which they lived and worked. As Ansbacher (1992a, b) notes, Adler's
practice was located in an area that exposed him to lower socioeconomic
classes, and his first publication was on the health of tailors (Adler, 1898).
In it, Adler noted how the social conditions in which people worked and
lived greatly influenced the diseases and disease processes that affected
them. This seems to have been historically the first essay into community
outreach (Papanek, 1965a). Along a similar line, Adler often treated the
performers from the local circus, what used to be referred to as the
"sideshow freaks," and Adler was greatly impressed by how their physical
abnormalities influenced their choice of vocation and how their bodies
appeared to "compensate" for such abnormalities.
D Adler and Freud: Adler as a Psychoanalyst

Freud's life and work has been documented and detailed in numerous
biographies, for example by Jones (1953, 1955, 1957) and Stone (1971).
It is also referred to by Ellenberger (1970).
Freud was an eldest son of an upperclass Jewish family. He was bril-
liant, and as Mosak and Kopp (1973) note, provocative in personality.
An early recollection of his suggests long self-training in this direction.
At age 7 or 8 years, "Freud recalls having urinated [deliberately] in his
parents' bedroom and being reprimanded by his father, who said, 'That
boy will never amount to anything'" (Jones, 1953, p. 16; Mosak &
Kopp, 1973).
He was unafraid of being negatively perceived. Freud wanted to be a
scientist, and his intellectual "forefathers" were men who were bound to
the scientific tradition.
Freud (1900/1965) published his seminal work, The Interpretation of
Dreams, in 1899 (though the work carried the year 1900, it was pub-
lished in the Winter of 1899 but postdated). As the editor of the English
translation, Strachey notes in the introduction, it sold poorly (only 351
copies in the first 6 years) and was roundly criticized. Freud fell into a
depression shortly after its publication and general rejection. It was into
this atmosphere Adler stepped.
Legend has it that amidst all the criticism and negativity surrounding
The Interpretation of Dreams, Adler published a vigorous defense of it in a
local paper; this "paper" has never been found. Freud, reportedly, was
grateful to have found someone who was willing to openly defend his
position and, in 1902, invited Adler to meet with him on a Wednesday
evening, to discuss these and similar issues. The Wednesday Night Meet-
ings, as they became known, led to the development of the Psychoana-
lytic Society. Adler became its first president, though he was 14 years
younger than Freud. Adler (1931/ 1964b), even years after their split,
had this to say about those early "meetings" and Freud's initial attempts
to understand human nature:
Despite the many scientific contrasts between Freud and myself, I have al-
ways been willing to recognize that he has clarified much through his en-
deavors; especially, he has severely shaken the position of positivistically
[materialistischj oriented neurology and opened a wide door to psychology
as an auxiliary science to medicine. This is his chief merit, next to his de-
tective art of guessing. (pp. 217-218)
In two footnotes to that paper, Adler continues to note that:

I remember very well when as a young student and medical man I was
very worried about and discontented with the state of psychiatry and tried
to discover other ways, and found Freud was courageous enough, actually
to go another way to explore the importance of psychological reasons for
physical disturbances and for neuroses. (p. 218)
and that
A psychological system has an inseparable connection with the life philos-
ophy of its formulator. As soon as he offers his system to the world, it ap-
peals to individuals, both laymen and scientists, with a similar trend of
mind and provides them with a scientific foundation for an attitude to-
wards life which they had achieved previously. (p. 218)
Adler was not a "disciple" of Freud; he was a collaborator (Ansbacher,
1962; Hoffman, 1994; Maslow, 1962). The comments by Ansbacher and
Ansbacher, found in Adler (1956), clarify this position. Adler had his
own philosophy and was beginning to develop it before his association
with Freud. As Adler astutely noted, the clash between him and Freud
had to do with their respective personalities as much as with their re-
spective theories, for their theories were outgrowths of their personali-
ties (Stepansky, 1983). Adler became a "Freudian" and attempted to
continue his train of thought within orthodox Freudian guidelines. He
found, however, that his fundamental assumptions were different than
Freud's, and tensions began to increase between the two men. As Ans-
bacher and Ansbacher (Adler, 1956, pp. 21-75) detail, even within the
Freudian system, Adler originated these concepts within psychoanalysis,
and Freud readily adopted them (sometimes, years after having split
with Adler):
The confluence of drives (Adler, 1908)
The transformation of a drive into its opposite (Adler, 1908)
The direction of a drive to one's own person (Adler, 1908)
The aggression drive and the relationship of aggression to anxiety
(Adler, 1908)
Safeguarding tendencies (defense mechanisms) (Adler, 1912/1983b)
The concept of the "ego-ideal" (Adler, 1912/l983b)
The emphasis upon" ego" psychology (Colby, 1951)
Colby (1951) and Furtmiiller (1964) discuss the notes of the meetings
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, and the eventual split of the group,
with Adler and nine other members resigning their membership and
Adler resigning not only his presidency but his position as coeditor of the
psychoanalytic journal, in February of 1911.
Adler was a subjectivistic, socially oriented theorist who had a feel
for the "common people" (Ansbacher, 1959b), and he placed a great
deal of emphasis upon philosophy. He cited, as his principle influences,
the works of Kant, Nietzsche, Vaihinger, Goethe, Shakespeare, and
the Bible. His early work was concerned with public health, medical
and psychological prevention, and social welfare (Ansbacher, 1992b).
As he continued his work, he wrote papers on and lectured extensively
about:
Children at risk, especially delinquency (Adler, 19301l963, 1930/
1983c, 1935)
Women's rights and the equality of the sexes (Adler, 1978)
Women's rights to abortion (Adler, 1978)

Adult education (Hoffman, 1994)
Teacher training (Adler, 1924a, 1929b)
Community mental health and the establishment of family coun-
seling clinics (Adler, 1929b)
Experimental schools for public students (Birnbaum, 1935; Hoff-
man, 1994; Spiel, 1956)
Brief psychotherapy ("The Father of Self-Help," 1995; Mani-
acci,1996a)
Family counseling and education (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987)
This work stands in sharp contrast to Freud, who maintained a rela-

tively neutral stance towards many of these issues and never openly ad-
dressed most of them. Adler's split with Freud was as much about Adler
returning to the doctrines that had preoccupied him prior to his associa-
tion with the psychoanalytic movement as it was about the theoretical
and technical issues he and Freud debated.
The final break with Freud centered around two key issues that
are touched on only briefly here-the masculine protest (Adler, 1939;
Mosak & Schneider, 1977) and the nature and origin of repression
(Adler, 1911, 1956). Adler felt that the "driving force" behind "psychic
disturbances" was the "masculine protest." The masculine protest was
the attempt of some people to deal with society's overvaluation of mas-
culinity. Men who subscribed to this overvaluation wanted to be "like a
real man" or, in other words, powerful. If they failed to meet this stan-
dard, they became discouraged, became resigned, "withdrew," or over-
compensated. Women who similarly overvalued masculinity competed
with men, identified with men, overcompensated, became reSigned, or
"withdrew." Adler felt that the striving of the disturbed individual was of
a socially useless nature, and that this striving "to be above others" had
its roots in the prevailing social orientation of the day; that is, masculin-
ity was viewed as dominant, and those who felt "weak, or inferior"
viewed themselves as "feminine."2 Adler felt that this was a result of
both psychological dynamics taking place within the individuals and the
social values of the day. Freud wholeheartedly disagreed and responded
that the masculine protest was, in reality, nothing other than "penis
envy" or "the fear of castration." For Freud, social influences played lit-
tle, if any, role in the etiology of psychic disturbances.
Adler felt that "repression," or the ability to not deal with certain is-
sues or actually "remove them from consciousness" was not the result of
culture, but actually a sign of poor adjustment to society. Freud felt that
repression resulted from individuals having to adapt to culture and
hence "repress" their instinctual life. Freud felt that neurosis was the
price we pay for civilization. Adler felt it was the price we pay for our
lack of civilization. Adler felt that healthy adaptation came because of an
adjustment to society, and repression was therefore a sign of poor adjust-
ment. Individuals who were "well adjusted" learned to adapt their
"drives" to society, in constructive, prosocial ways and had no need to
repress them. Hence, for Adler, repression was but one of many "safe-
guarding mechanisms" (Adler, 1911; Credner. 1936) individuals em-
ployed if "neurotic." For Freud, at the time of the break, repression was
the cause of neurotic disturbance, and not simply one particular defense
mechanism (fascinatingly enough, many years later, he reversed his po-
sition and adopted Adler's).
For the first time in the history of science, these two contrasting posi-
tions (Freud's and Adler's) were put to a vote by members of the society,
and "scientific facts" were decided by majority vote (Colby, 1951, 1956;
Furtmiiller, 1964; Nunberg & Federn, 1962). Adler "lost" the vote and
left the society.
Adler was an important coworker, whom Freud considered to be a
"serious opponent" to psychoanalysis. He may have been Freud's per-
sonal physician, and Freud himself turned over many of his patients to
Adler prior to Adler's resignation. Thus, Freud lost the first of his "disci-
ples," although Adler did not regard himself as one.
Adler originally entitled his new group The Society for Free Psycho-
analytic Research.' Later, the name was changed to Individual Psychol-
ogy. with "individual" meaning "indivisible," that is, holistic (derived
from the Latin individuum). Adler and coworkers founded their own
journal. started their own Adlerian organization, and began accepting
members.
Early in its inception, its primary focus was upon psychoanalysis.
Adler himself maintained his private practice as a psychiatrist, but after
World War I (during which time Adler served as a military physician)
Adler turned much more social in his orientation and began working full
force for many of the social issues listed previously. Hence, his work falls
approximately into two periods: Prior to the First World War, Adler was
a psychoanalyst. and that can be seen in his two most important, early
works-The Neurotic Constitution (19121l983b), and The Practice and The-
ory of Individual Psychology (1920/ 1983d).
These are the only two works Adler himself wrote on his own, with the
latter being a collection of his papers that he assembled. After World War 1.
Adler wrote increasingly as a philosopher. social psychologist, and educa-
tor, with works such as Understanding Human Nature (1927/1957), The Sci-
ence of Living (1929c), The Education of Children (193011970), What Life Should
Mean to You (1931/1958), and Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind
(1933/1964f) being directed to the lay public. These works are primarily
based upon lectures and notebooks of Adler and were assembled by
members of his group, with his approval.
D Adler and America:

The Early American Movement
In 1926 Adler made his first trip to the United States. Though he was 56
years old, he began to learn English, and soon he was not only profiCient
but fluent. He lectured, did public demonstrations, and began to write
and publish in English. As the Fascists came to power in Austria (Hoff-
man, 1994), he and his wife and family moved to America, at first part-
time as he continued to lecture worldwide in 1932; then by 1935, he
settled in New York City and accepted the first chair of medical psychol-
ogy at Long Island Medical College. He also served as visiting professor at
Columbia University. Adler wrote, maintained his practice, lectured on
an international circuit, and did numerous demonstrations and public
education seminars. He died of heart failure while on a lecture tour in
Aberdeen, Scotland, on May 28, 1937, while he was on a walk (Feld-
mann, 1972). His work was carried on in this country by his followers,
most notably Rudolf Dreikurs, a psychiatrist who originally studied with
Adler in Vienna and later relocated to Chicago; Dreikurs' colleagues,
Bernard Shulman and Harold Mosak; Adler's children, Alexandra and
Kurt; and Lydia Sicher.
Adler was very popular with American audiences. His work was well
received. His pragmatic, socially oriented system seemed easy to grasp
and nicely fit the prevailing Zeitgeist. After Adler's death, the movement,
particularly in America, lost its momentum. The behaviorists had a
stronghold in the universities and psychology departments; the psycho-
analysts held virtually a monopoly in the psychiatric training centers and
hospitals. Adlerians were without a place to train and educate new
members, and by and large they either "died off" or practiced in silence,
so as not to draw the wrath of the prevailing psychoanalysts who were
still opposed to Adler's system.
Dreikurs fought hard to change this situation (Terner & Pew, 1978).
He was a psychiatrist with a forceful personality and a strong, deter-
mined sense of rightness. Dreikurs lectured, did public demonstrations,
and openly challenged not only the psychiatric community but psychol-
ogists and educators as well. Through his writings, his beginning of a
new American journal, and his teaching, Dreikurs began to revive the
Adlerian movement in this country.
D Individual Psychology: Its Current Status

Adlerian psychology is alive and well as we enter the turn of the century.
In America, its principal organization is the North American Society of
Adlerian Psychology (NASAP), with its conferences, workshops, news-
letters, and journal, the Journal of Individual Psychology, published quar-
terly by the University of Texas Press. There is an international journal;
international organizations such as the International Association of Indi-
vidual Psychology (IAIP) and the International Congress of Adlerian
Summer Schools and Institutes (ICASSI), which offers yearly confer-
ences throughout the world; and numerous member organizations
throughout the world.
Training in Adlerian psychology can be found at many universities and
colleges in the United States and abroad as well as at numerous free-
standing, postgraduate training institutes throughout the United States
and Canada. In addition, the Adler School of Professional Psychology in
Chicago is one of the oldest Adlerian training sites in the United States.
Originally founded by Dreikurs, Shulman, and Mosak in 1952 as the Al-
fred Adler Institute of Chicago, it was, in its early years, a postgraduate
training center. In 1972, it began offering a Master of Arts degree in
counseling psychology, and in 1987 an accredited Doctor of Psychology
(Psy.D.) degree in clinical psychology. Through these and other training
sites and institutions, Adlerians are growing in numbers and becoming
increasingly integrated into mainstream practice.
n The "Friends of Adler" Phenomenon

O'Connell (1976) coined the phrase, "friends of Adler phenomenon." By
this he meant many theorists have borrowed extensively from Adler
without giving him due credit. Indeed, as Ellenberger (1970) has stated,
"It would not be easy to find another author from which so much has
been borrowed from all sides without acknowledgment than Adler"
(p. 645). Similarly, Wilder (Adler & Deutsch, 1959, p. xv) has observed,
"Most observations and ideas of Alfred Adler have subtly and quietly
permeated modern psychological thinking to such a degree that the
proper question is not whether one is an Adlerian but how much of an
Adlerian one is." With the increasing trend to psychotherapy integration
(d. Norcross & Goldfried, 1992, for example), Adler's system is gaining
even greater recognition. As is evident throughout the remainder of this
text, Adlerian psychology provides a basis for integrating many diverse
systems and strategies of psychotherapy and counseling. A recent study

by Sherman and Dinkmeyer (1987) found that
Adlerian theory in particular overlaps to a high degree with most other the-
ories ... [a fact that] is well borne out by the fact that on over 92% of the
items, the Adlerians were in agreement with the majority of the other theo-
rists on the degree to which these items were accepted or rejected. (p. 105)
The family therapy work of Minuchin (1974) and Haley (1976); the
existential work of Frankl (1983), May (1983), Yalom (1980), and Sartre
(1943/1956) (Frankl and May studied with Adler [Ansbacher, 1959a]);
the self-psychology of Kohut (1971,1977) and Basch (1988); the cogni-
tive therapy of Ellis (1973) and Beck (1976); Kernberg's (1975) object
relations theory; the" cultural schools" of Fromm (1941), Horney (1945,
1950) and Sullivan (1953, 1964); and the integrationist/constructionist
viewpoints of Guidano and Liotti (1983), Mahoney (1991), Safran and
Segal (1990), and Wachtel (1977) all share striking similarities to Adler's
work. The commentaries by Ansbacher and Ansbacher (Adler, 1956,
1964g, 1978), Ellenberger (1970), and Ford and Urban (1963) offer pos-
sible explanations for such oversight of Adler's name while "borrowing"
heavily from his theory. Our point in mentioning such trends is to make
readers aware that Adler's theory and system has more to offer students
and practitioners than historical significance. By learning the principles
and applications of Adlerian psychology, it is easier to make the transition
to contemporary clinical practice within other systems of thought.
D Summary
This chapter commences by stating that all people desire to know, and
that believing is what we humans do best. Our quest for understanding
ourselves, our world, and our future may be the single most distinguish-
ing feature of human nature. This book attempts to provide answers to
some of these timeless questions, but from a perspective, for no one can
see without seeing from somewhere. Adler (1937 /1964b), in the last
year of his life, wrote that
Everyone subordinates all experiences and problems to his own concep-

tion. This conception is usually a tacit assumption and as such unknown to
the person. Yet he lives and dies for the inferences he draws from such a
conception. It is amusing, and sad at the same time, to see how even scien-
tists-especially philosophers, sociologists, and psychologists-are caught
in this net. In that it also has its assumptions, its conception of life, its style
l O A Primer of Adlerian Psychology
of life, Individual Psychology is no exception. But it differs in that it is well

aware of this fact. (p. 24)
It is against this "awareness," this background of a man who was

small, poor sighted, physically ill and near death on several occasions,
and considered poor in schooL that we present this text. Adler overcame
his fear of death by becoming a physician; he studied hard to overcome
his academic troubles; he became interested in social causes and the in-
fluence the environment had upon those less fortunate or privileged;
and he was attracted to and married a strong, politically active woman.
He stressed social and sexual equality, finding a place in life in usefuL
prosocial ways and coming to grips with the challenges life presents us
in cooperative, egalitarian ways. That was the background of Alfred
Adler, the man. What follows is the philosophy and system of psy-
chology of Adler the theorist, philosopher, social scientist, educator and
psychiatrist.
D Points to Consider
It is difficult to separate a theory from the person creating the the-
ory. The personality of the theorist often "spills into" his or her theory.
Adler was not a disciple of Freud, but rather an important coworker.
He had his own theory about human nature before he began working
with Freud.
Many of Adler's key concepts and insights have been absorbed into
other systems, often without credit to their originator. With this real-
ization, theoretical integration of diverse systems can be facilitated by
learning the principles of Adlerian psychology.
D Questions
1. What was Adler's original choice of a medical specialty? How might
this have influenced his theory?
2. What were some of the contributions Adler made to psychoanalysis
which were later adopted by Freud?
3. What were the two issues Adler and Freud debated during their
break-up?
4. Adler's theorizing can be divided into two periods. What are those
two periods?
5. What were some of the social issues Adler addressed and incorporated
into his system?
D Notes
'This is consonant with Adler's early theory expressed in Study of Organ Inferiority and Its
Psychical Compensation (1907/1917). His specialization in ophthalmology, according to this
theory, could have been a compensation for his poor eyesight.
2Although Adler described the premises underlying the masculine protest. he totally dis-
agreed with them and endorsed the notion of sexual equality (Mosak & Schneider, 1977).
3This was essentially a Freudian society that was "free" of Freud.
A Critique of the Theory of Individual Psychology
Adler, A. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler ( H.L. Ansbacher & R.R.
Ansbacher , Eds.). New York: Basic Books.
This is considered to be the primary text for understanding Adler. The Ansbachers have
surveyed Adler's writings and come up with selections which provide readers with an
overview of Adler's theory. It also has some very helpful commentaries.
Adler, A. (1964). Superiority and social interest ( H.L. Ansbacher & R.R. Ansbacher , Eds.).
Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
This is a collection of Adler's later writings. As before, the Ansbachers have collected sev-
eral writings from diverse sources, these mostly being from the last part of Adler's life. Once
again, there are extremely useful commentaries throughout the text.
Adler, A. (1978). Cooperation between the sexes: Writings on women, love and marriage,
sexuality and its disorders ( H.L. Ansbacher & R.R. Ansbacher , Eds.). New York:
Doubleday.
The last in the Ansbachers' trilogy, this volume examines Adler's early theoretical work, a
period in which most of his writings had to do with love, sexuality, and gender dy-namics.
The commentaries, as usual, are excellent.
Dreikurs, R. , & Soltz, V. (1964). Children: The challenge. New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce.
This is one of the best books on parenting ever written. It is both theoretically sound and
pragmatically helpful. It is Adlerian theory in practice, specifically as it applies to family
dynamics.
Grunwald, B. B. , & McAbee, H. (1985). Guiding the family. Muncie, IN: Accelerated
Development.
These were students and coworkers of Dreikurs. In this book, clear, concise guidelines are
presented for conducting family counseling from an Adlerian perspective with families from
different backgrounds and with varied problems. Included are verbatim transcripts of what
Adlerian family counselors actually do during sessions. A wonder-ful text for graduate
students.
Hoffman, E. (1994). The drive for self: Alfred Adler and the founding of Individual
Psychology. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
This is probably the best biography of Alfred Adler available, or ever written. Hoffman
examines, in detail, Adler's childhood influences, cultural and economic background, and
theoretical development. A wonderful piece of scholarship that is very well written.
Mosak, H. H. , & Maniacci, M.P. (1995). The case of Roger. In D. Wedding & R.J. Corsini
(Eds.), Case studies in psychotherapy (2nd ed., pp.23–49). Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock.
This is a transcript of brief psychotherapy (9 weeks) done before a live graduate student
audience at an Adlerian training institute. The Adlerian tactics of life style assessment,
interpretation, The Question, humor, encouragement, dream interpretation, and many
others are demonstrated.
Mosak, H. H. , & Maniacci, M.P. (1998). Tactics in counseling and psychotherapy. Itasca,
IL: F.E. Peacock.
A useful manual designed to discuss what to do when therapists find themselves in various
situations with certain clients. Over 100 tactics are described, almost all with actual case
examples demonstrating their use.
Powers, R. L. , & Griffith, J. (1987). Understanding life-style: The psycho-clarity© process.
Chicago: Americas Institute of Adlerian Studies.
This a very good manual about how to conduct an initial interview and life style assessment
interview. Included are forms needed to do the work, consent forms, billing agreements,
and extremely useful transcripts detailing the “nuts and bolts” of how the process unfolds.
Sherman, R. , & Dinkmeyer, D. (1987). Systems of family therapy: An Adlerian integration.
New York: Brunner/Mazel.
This book examines Adlerian family therapy and describes its theoretical underpinnings and
practical applications. Included is something unique: five chapters written by experts in
family therapy who received training in both Adlerian family therapy and one other system,
such as structural family therapy or strategic family therapy. This books demonstrates how
Adlerian family therapy can be integrative and serve as a basis for mastering other systems
of family therapy. A very good book.
Shulman, B. H. , & Mosak, H.H. (1988). Manual for life style assessment. Muncie, IN:
Accelerated Development.
This is the text for collecting, interpreting, and summarizing family constellation and early
recollection material. It is written both as a theoretical textbook and a clinical manual.
Adlerian and cognitive therapies: Towards an integrative dialogue [special issue]. (1997).
Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 11 (3).
In 1997, several theorists and clinicians from Adlerian, cognitive-behavioral, and con-
structionist backgrounds began a dialogue exploring the theoretical and clinical similarities
and differences between Adlerian and cognitive psychotherapies. This special issue
explores their dialogue and points to future directions both Adlerians and cognitive
therapists may want to explore.
Sperry, L. , & Carlson, J. (Eds.). (1996). Psychopathology and psychotherapy: From DSM-
IV diagnosis to treatment (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Accelerated Development.
This edited book explores the DSAf-ZV from an Adlerian perspective. As noted often
throughout this text and annotated bibliography, Adlerian psychology is extremely useful for
theoretical integration. The editors have asked experts in the field to write about how
Adlerian formulations can be used to both understand and develop a treatment plan that not
only is theoretically solid but incorporates the DSM-IV model. A very helpful manual.
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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What are some of the basic assumptions of Individual Psychology?

What are some of the basic assumptions of Individual Psychology?

A PRIMER OF ADLERIAN PSYCHOLOGY

Published in Great Britain

A PRIMER OF ADLERIAN PSYCHOLOGY: The Analytic-Behavioral-Cognitive

Cover design by Marja Walker.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 1-58391-003-4 (paper)

Harold H. Mosak: To Ada, a class act ...

Alfred Adler and Adlerian Psychology: An Overview 1

Basic Assumptions and Philosophy of Individual Psychology 12

The Development of the Life Style 30

The Style of Life 46

Inferiorities, Inferiority Feelings, and Inferiority Complexes 78

The Tasks of Life 96

Understanding a Person 131

Encouraging Growth 146

A Critique of the Theory of Individual Psychology 162

All men by nature desire to know.

BELIEVING is what we humans do best.

Who am I? Where do I come from? What is all of this about? Ques-

Individual Psychology, which is essentially a child of this age, will have a

Adler's words have been prophetic. Many of the insights he

There have been other attempts to systematize Adler's work in the

Chapter 9 is an overview of what Adlerians assess when they begin

D Alfred Adler: A Biographical Sketch

These issues of belonging, inferiority, and weakness had a large influ-

D Adler and Freud: Adler as a Psychoanalyst

In two footnotes to that paper, Adler continues to note that:

Women's rights to abortion (Adler, 1978)

This work stands in sharp contrast to Freud, who maintained a rela-

D Adler and America:

D Individual Psychology: Its Current Status

n The "Friends of Adler" Phenomenon

systems and strategies of psychotherapy and counseling. A recent study

Everyone subordinates all experiences and problems to his own concep-

of life, Individual Psychology is no exception. But it differs in that it is well

It is against this "awareness," this background of a man who was

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