REVIEWER IN SCIENCE

Electro Magnetic Waves

Electricity
- a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles 
Electric Field
- a region around a charged particle or object within which a force would be exerted on other charged particles or
objects.
Magnetism
- is the force exerted by magnets when they attract or repel each other.
Magnetic Field
- is the region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts.
What are electromagnetic waves?
 How electromagnetic waves are formed?
 How electric charges produce electromagnetic waves?
Electromagnetic Waves…
 Do not need matter to transfer energy.
 Are made by vibrating electric charges and can travel through space by transferring energy between vibrating
electric and magnetic fields.
How do moving charges create magnetic fields?
 Any moving electric charge is surrounded by an electric field and a magnetic field.
What happens when electric and magnetic fields change?
 A changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field.
Making Electromagnetic Waves
 When an electric charge vibrates, the electric field around it changes creating a changing magnetic field.
 The magnetic and electric fields create each other again and again.
 An EM wave travels in all directions. The figure only shows a wave traveling in one direction.
 The electric and magnetic fields vibrate at right angles to the direction the wave travels, so it is a transverse
wave.
Properties of EM Waves
All matter contains charged particles that are always moving; therefore, all objects emit EM waves.
Amplitude
- The amplitude of electromagnetic waves relates to its intensity or brightness (as in the case of visible light).
Wavelength
- The wavelengths determine how matter responds to the electromagnetic wave, and those characteristics
determine the name we give that group of wavelengths.
Frequency
- The frequency of any waveform equals the velocity divided by the wavelength. The units of measurement are in
cycles per second or Hertz.
What is the wavelength & frequency of an EM wave?
 Wavelength = distance from crest to crest.
 Frequency = number of wavelengths that pass a given point in 1 s.
 As frequency increases, wavelength becomes smaller
What is the speed of EM waves?
 All EM waves travel 300,000 km/sec in space. (speed of light-nature’s limit!)
 EM waves usually travel slowest in solids and fastest in gases.
Electromagnetic Waves
How they are formed
Waves made by vibrating electric charges that can travel through space where there is no matter
Kind of waves
- Transverse with alternating electric and magnetic fields
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 It is a disturbance in space
 It is the highest point in a wave.
 It is the distance from the midpoint to the highest (or lowest) point of a wave.
 It refers to the number of waves produced in one second.
 It refers to the extent or the limits between which variation is possible.
 The EM spectrum is the ENTIRE range of EM waves in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength.
 As you go from left  right, the wavelengths get smaller and the frequencies get higher. This is an inverse
relationship between wave size and frequency. (As one goes up, the other goes down.) This is because the speed
of ALL EM waves is the speed of light (300,000 km/s).
The Waves
Radio waves: Have the longest wavelengths and the lowest frequencies; wavelengths range from 1000s of meters
to .001 m
 Used in: RADAR, cooking food, satellite transmissions
Infrared waves (heat): Have a shorter wavelength, from .001 m to 700 nm, and therefore, a higher frequency.
 Used for finding people in the dark and in TV remote control devices
Visible light: Wavelengths range from 700 nm (red light) to 30 nm (violet light) with frequencies higher than infrared
waves.
 These are the waves in the EM spectrum that human can see.
 Visible light waves are a very small part of the EM spectrum!
ROY G. BV
 red
 orange
 yellow
 green
 blue
 violet

Ultraviolet Light: Wavelengths range from 400 nm to 10 nm; the frequency (and therefore the energy) is high enough
with UV rays to penetrate living cells and cause them damage.
 Although we cannot see UV light, bees, bats, butterflies, some small rodents and birds can.
 UV on our skin produces vitamin D in our bodies. Too much UV can lead to sunburn and skin cancer. UV
rays are easily blocked by clothing.
 Used for sterilization because they kill bacteria.
X-Rays: Wavelengths from 10 nm to .001 nm. These rays have enough energy to penetrate deep into tissues and cause
damage to cells; are stopped by dense materials, such as bone.
 Used to look at solid structures, such as bones and bridges (for cracks), and for treatment of cancer.
Gamma Rays: Carry the most energy and have the shortest wavelengths, less than one trillionth of a meter (10 -12).
 Gamma rays have enough energy to go through most materials easily; you would need a 3-4 ft thick
concrete wall to stop them!
 Gamma rays are released by nuclear reactions in nuclear power plants, by nuclear bombs, and by
naturally occurring elements on Earth.
 Sometimes used in the treatment of cancers.

Radio Waves

Transmitter

Receiver
RADIO TRANSMITTERS
• Microphone/Power Supply
• Oscillator
• Modulator
• Amplifier
• Antenna

MICROPHONE

- transform sound wave to electrical signals

OSCILLATOR

- Creates alternating current at the frequency on which the transmitter will transmit. The oscillator usually
generates a sine wave, which is referred to as a carrier wave.

MODULATOR

- converting data into radio waves by adding information to an electronic or optical carrier signal.

AMPLIFIER

- Amplifies the modulated carrier wave to increase its power. The more powerful the amplifier, the more
powerful the broadcast.
ANTENNA
• Converts the amplified signal to radio waves.
RADIO RECEIVERS
• Antenna
• Tuner
• RF Amplifier
• Detector/Demodulator
• Loudspeaker

ANTENNA
• Captures the radio waves. Typically, the antenna is simply a length of wire. When this wire is exposed to radio
waves, the waves induce a very small alternating current in the antenna.
TUNER

- Select the frequency of the weak modulated carrier waves of sound waves

AMPLIFIER
• A sensitive amplifier that amplifies the very weak radio frequency (RF) signal from the antenna so that the signal
can be processed by the tuner.
DETECTOR/DEMODULATOR
• Responsible for separating the audio information from the carrier wave.
AUDIO AMPLIFIER/LOUDSPEAKER
• This component’s job is to amplify the weak signal that comes from the detector so that it can be heard. This can
be done using a simple transistor amplifier circuit.
• Convert sound signals of sound waves to return to its original form
Common Problems
• Signal interference from other senders, nearly at the same frequency
• Limitations on the bandwidth of the medium/channel
• Variations in the weather, changing the properties of the medium
• Large noise level in the medium
• Electronic interference from electric, electronic equipment
• Antenna problems and line of sight

Microwaves
• Microwaves are used in telecommunication as well as for cooking food. It can penetrate the atmosphere of the
Earth.
• Microwaves signals are transmitted by an antenna to a satellite which amplifies and re-transmits the signal to an
antenna in other parts of the world.
• It has short wavelengths and are reflected by small objects. This property is used by RADAR or RAdio Detection
And Ranging
• Microwaves are used to transmit television news coverage from mobile broadcast vehicles back to the station.
Infrared Waves
- discovered by William Herschel, a German born British musician and self-taught astronomer in 1800.
Characteristics of Infrared Waves
Infrared waves lie between microwaves and visible waves.
• Frequency:
8 x 1010 to 4 x 1014 Hertz
• Wavelength:
7.5 x 10-7 to 0.001 Meters
Shorter Wavelengths
• “Near infrared” light is not hot at all.
• Waves are about the size of microscopic cells.
Longer Wavelengths
• Waves are able pass through clouds of dust, water vapor.
• Waves are thermal.
• Waves are about the size of a pin head.

Applications of Infrared Waves

Astronomy: Infrared Telescopes
• Telescopes reveal information about the universe which the visible light technology cannot detect.
• Objects like the center of our galaxy, which we can't see in visible light because dust clouds are in the way can
be "seen" by looking at the infrared light given off.
• Infrared Telescopes are typically placed in high and dry areas like the mountains of Hawaii.
Heat Lamp
• The higher the temperature, the more rays. If the temperature is very high there will be rays of visible and
infrared light.
• The biggest source of radiation heat is the sun. Its infrared radiation heats the earth’s atmosphere.
• There are infrared heaters that are used to treat muscle injuries. The heat stimulates blood flow, speeding up
the heating process.
Photography: Thermography
• Thermography is used to determine the relative temperature of objects by detecting amounts of radiation it
produces.
• Thermograms use light sensitive crystals to generate electrical information which converts into an image.
• Theromography is also a form of night vision.
Visibility

Animals
• Snakes in the pit viper family, like rattlesnakes, have sensory “pits” to seek prey.
• Snakes with two sensory pits have depth perception in the infrared.
• Flickering tongues of snakes are equipped with infrared heat sensors that help with finding warm bodies of their
prey.
Humans
• Infrared is an invisible form of energy.
• Humans cannot see infrared light with the naked eye, but can feel it as heat.
Technology
• Infrared can be seen through special cameras and film that detect the difference in temperature and assign
different colors to them
Warfare: Heat Seeking Missiles
• Missiles are sent out to follow their targets based on their infrared radiation.
Meteorology: Weather Satellites
 • Infrared technology is used to determine water temperature, map cloud patterns, and make weather
predictions.

In any thermogram, the brighter colors (red, orange, and yellow) indicate warmer temperatures (more heat and
infrared radiation emitted) while the purples and dark blue/black indicate cooler temperatures (less heat and infrared
radiation emitted). 

X-Rays
• Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than UV-rays
• Carry a great amount of energy
• Can penetrate most matter
• Bones and teeth absorb x-rays. (The light part of an x-ray image indicates a place where the x-ray was absorbed)
• Too much exposure can cause cancer
• (lead vest at dentist protects organs from unnecessary exposure)
• Used by engineers to check for tiny cracks in structures.
• The rays pass through the cracks and the cracks appear dark on film.

Gamma Rays
• Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than X-rays
• Carry the greatest amount of energy and penetrate the most.
• Used in radiation treatment to kill cancer cells.
• Can be very harmful if not used correctly.

Exploding nuclear weapons emit gamma rays

CURVED MIRRORS
- Most curved mirrors have a spherical shape, as indicated in the figure below, and are referred to as spherical
mirrors.
Spherical Mirrors
- Pieces of reflecting material in the shape of part of the surface of a sphere.
- Convex mirror: mirror surface bulges out.
- Mirrors on your car, mirror in a store.

Concave mirror:
- mirror surface caves in.

Have you seen one?

What  are the images from these mirrors?
Curved Mirrors
- If the inside of this spherical section is a reflecting surface, the result is a concave spherical mirror. If the outside
surface is reflecting, the result is a convex spherical mirror. The two situations are illustrated in the figures
below.
Characterization of curved mirror
●Center of the sphere: C
●Focal point: the point where all the incident parallel rays are focused. It is the middle point between the surface of the
mirror and the center.
●Focal length: the distance between the surface of the mirror and the focal point
 
Spherical Mirrors - Concave & Convex

 
Also called DIVERGING mirror  Also called CONVERGING mirror                          

Concave  Mirrors
•Curves inward
•May be real or virtual image

Concave Mirror

Convex Mirrors
•Curves outward
•Reduces images
•Virtual images
–Use:  Rear view mirrors, store security…
CAUTION!  Objects are closer than they appear!

Convex Mirror

Curved Mirrors
•The easiest way to find the image formed by a mirror is to draw a few rays and see how they reflect.
•In this method, called ray tracing, we draw the paths of rays of light as they reflect from a mirror and use them to find
the location of the image.
Summary of three rays
•All incident rays parallel to the axis are reflected so that they appear to be coming from the focal point, F.
•All rays that (when extended) pass through C are reflected  back on themselves.
•All rays that (when extended) pass through F are reflected back parallel to the axis.
 
 
You need to draw only two rays to determine an image
Ray Diagram
A ray diagram is a pictorial representation of how the light travels to form an image and can tell you the characteristics
of the image.

Rule One: Draw a ray, starting from the top of the object, parallel to the principal axis and then through “f” after
reflection.

Rule Two: Draw a ray, starting from the top of the object, through C, then back upon itself.
What do you notice about the two lines?
THEY INTERSECT
The intersection is the location of the image.
Ray Diagram - Image Characteristics
For a real object close to the mirror but outside of the center of curvature, the real image is formed between C and f.
The image is inverted and smaller than the object.

For a real object at C, the real image is formed at C. The image is inverted and the same size as the object.

For a real object between C and f, a real image is formed outside of C. The image is inverted and larger than the object.

For a real object at f, no image is formed. The reflected rays are parallel and never converge.
For a real object between f and the mirror, a virtual image is formed behind the mirror. The image is upright and larger
than the object.

CONVEX MIRRORS
Image formed by a convex mirror

Properties of the image

 It is a virtual image
 It is an upright (or erect) image.
 It is closer to the mirror than the real object
 The image is smaller than the real object.
Parallel Light From Faraway
 All rays are nearly parallel.
 Rays parallel to each other are imaged on the focal plane.
 The image comes from a ray passing through the center of the mirror, OR a ray going through the focal point.
Mirror Equation
Terminology
•So = Size of object
•SI = Size of image
•do = Distance of the object
•di = Distance of the image
•f = focal length
Using the ray diagramming for object
1. Between C and F
2. Beyond C
1/f = 1/dO + 1/di
M = SI  = - dI
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
      SO        dO

•M = 1       Same size
•M > |1|  Enlarged
•M < |1|  Reduced
LENSES
REFRACTION
AS LIGHT GOES FROM ONE MEDIUM TO ANOTHER, THE
VELOCITY CHANGES!

CONVEX
A CONVERGING LENS (CONVEX) TAKES LIGHT RAYS AND
BRING THEM TO A POINT.
CONCAVE
A DIVERGING LENS (CONCAVE) TAKES LIGHT RAYS AND
SPREADS THEM OUTWARD.

LENSES – AN APPLICATION OF REFRACTION

RULE #1: DRAW A RAY, STARTING FROM THE TOP OF THE OBJECT, PARALLEL TO THE PRINCIPAL AXIS, THEN THROUGH
“F” AFTER REFRACTION.
RULE #2: DRAW A RAY, STARTING FROM THE TOP OF THE OBJECT, THROUGH “F”, THEN PARALLEL TO THE PRINCIPAL
AXIS, AFTER REFRACTION.
RULE #3: DRAW A RAY THROUGH THE CENTER OF THE LENS.

IMAGE FORMED BY A CONCAVE LENS