Lesson 2

Stoichiometry and
Chemical Measurements

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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to

Ø solve problems involving stoichiometry

Ø describe the different types of solutions
Ø explain the ways of expressing concentration of solution
Ø illustrate the proper ways of preparing solutions with specific concentrations
Ø solve problems that involve calculation of the concentration of samples
Ø differentiate the types of errors with their sources, detection and elimination
Ø illustrate the ways of expressing accuracy and precision
Ø carry out calculation in the propagation of errors and uncertainty

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Stoichiometry

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 Review of the fundamentals
The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it
contains, but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion, such as the mole.

What is a mole?
The mole is an amount unit similar to familiar units like pair, dozen, gross, etc. It provides
a specific measure of the number of atoms or molecules in a bulk sample of matter.

The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole
contains exactly 6.02214076 × 1023 elementary entities. This number is the
fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant when expressed in mol−1, and
is called the Avogadro number.

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Review of the fundamentals
A mole is a standard scientific unit for measuring
large quantities of very small entities such as atoms,
molecules, or other specified particles.

Consistent with its definition as an amount unit, 1 mole of any element

contains the same number of atoms as 1 mole of any other element. The
masses of 1 mole of different elements, however, are different, since the
masses of the individual atoms are drastically different. The molar
mass (atomic mass, atomic weight/molecular weight, formula weight) of an
element/compound is the mass in grams of 1 mole of that substance, a
property expressed in units of grams per mole (g/mol).

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Mole-Mass Conversion

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Mass-Particle No. Conversion

1 mole = 6.02×1023 particles

= 6.02×1023 atoms
= 6.02×1023 molecules

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Factor-Label Method
It is easier to write out the solution to a problem so that units in the
denominator of each succeeding term eliminate the units in the numerator
of the preceding one until the units of the answer are obtained.

This method has been referred to as the

factor-label method, dimensional analysis,
or the picket fence method.

It is practical to always use dimensional analysis to set up a

calculation properly. Don’t just memorize a formula.

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Stoichiometry
Chemical stoichiometry is a section of chemistry that involves using relationships
between reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction to determine desired
quantitative data. In Greek, stoikhein means element and metron means
measure, so stoichiometry literally translated means the measure of elements.

In order to use stoichiometry to run calculations about chemical reactions, it is important

to first understand the relationships that exist between products and reactants and why
they exist, which require understanding how to balance reactions.
A chemical equation is like a recipe for a reaction so it displays all the
ingredients or terms of a chemical reaction. It includes the elements,
molecules, or ions in the reactants and in the products as well as their
states, and the proportion for how much of each particle is create relative
to one another, through the stoichiometric coefficient.
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Stoichiometry
• Write a balanced equation A B
• Convert the given mass in grams
to moles using the molecular mass Mass of Mass of
of the given substance A B

• Calculate the number of moles of Multiply by Molar mass of B

the sought substance using the Divide by Molar Mass of A
coefficient or the mole ratio in the
balanced equation Multiply by Coefficient
• Convert the computed number of of A and B from balanced equation
moles to mass in grams using the
molecular mass of the sought Moles Moles
of A of B
substance

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Mass-Mass Conversion
EXAMPLE: balanced chemical equation: CH4 + 4Cl2 → CCl4 + 4HCl

!"# $%! , !"# %$# -'.,' +

g HCl= _g CH4 &'.)* + & !"# $%! & !"# %$#

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Solutions
Solutions are homogenous mixtures which are governed by solubility principles.

Components
ü Solute – the substance being dissolved;
usually present in smaller amounts. Solubility
ü Solvent – medium into which solutes vqualitative study of solutions
are dissolved; usually present in v defined as the maximum
amount of solute that
greater amounts, thereby determines
dissolves in a given quantity
the resulting phase of the solution of solvent at a specific
temperature

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Types of Solution
Based on the phase of
the solution
Based on the capacity of the
solution to dissolve the solute
Based on the conducting
Saturated Solution nature of the solution
Unsaturated Solution
Supersaturated Solution Based on the amount of
Nonelectrolyte solution solute present
Strong electrolyte solution
Weak electrolyte solution
Dilute solution
Concentrated solution
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Concentration of Solutions
It is not enough to identify a dilute or concentrated solution.
There should be a precise way of expressing the relative amount of solute and
solvent in a solution. This is quantitatively described as solution concentration.

Concentration – a measure of the amount

of solute contained in a given solution

The most common ways to express concentration in analytical chemistry

are molarity, weight percent, volume percent, weight-to-volume percent,
parts per thousand, parts per million and parts per billion.

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Molarity
Molarity refers the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
The unit of molar concentration is molar, symbolized by M,
which has the dimensions of mol/L, or mol L-1.

Molar analytical concentration (analytical molarity or analytical concentration) is the

total number of moles of a solute, regardless of its chemical state, in 1 L of solution. It
describes how a solution of a given concentration can be prepared.
The molar equilibrium concentration (equilibrium molarity or equilibrium concentration)
refers to the molar concentration of a particular species in a solution at equilibrium.

For example, the molar equilibrium concentration of The analytical molarity

H2SO4 in a solution with a molar analytical concentration, is given by the notation
CH2SO4 = 1.0 M is actually 0.0 M because the strong acid is CX , while equilibrium
completely dissociated into a mixture of ions. molarity is given by [X]
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Percent Concentration
Calculations for solid samples are based on weight.The most common way of expressing the
results of macro determinations is to give the weight of analyte as a percent of the weight
of sample (weight/weight basis). The weight units of analyte and sample are the same.

It is important to note that in such

calculations, grams of solute do not
cancel with grams of sample solution;
the fraction represents grams of
solute per gram of sample.

The same principle is applied to liquid samples whose concentration can be

expressed as volume percent. It can also be expressed as weight (g) by volume (mL).
Whenever a concentration is expressed as a percentage, it should be clearly
specified whether this is wt/vol or wt/wt or vol/vol.
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Percent Concentration
Trace concentrations are usually given
in smaller units, such as parts per
thousand (ppt),
parts per million (ppm), or
parts per billion (ppb).

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Table 2.1 Ways of Expressing Concentration

From: https://chem.libretexts.org
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Table 2.2 Concentrated Solutions of Common Acids and Bases
Chemical Name Molecular Approx. Strength Molarity of Milliliters of Concd. Reagent
Formula of Concd. Reagent Necessary to Prepare 1 Liter
Concd. Reagenta of 1 Normal Soln.c
Acetic Acid, Glacial CH3COOH 99.8 17.4 57.5
Formic Acid HCOOH 90.0 23.6 42.5
Hydrochloric Acid HCl 37.2 12.1 82.5
Hydrofluoric Acid HF 49.0 28.9 34.5
Nitric Acid HNO3 70.4 15.9 63.0
Perchloric Acid HClO4 70.5 11.7 85.5
Perchloric Acid HClO4 61.3 9.5 105.5
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 85.5 14.8 22.5
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 96.0 18.0 28.0
Ammonium Hydroxide NH4OH 56.6b 14.5 69.0
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH 50.5 19.4 51.5
Potassium Hydroxide KOH 45.0 11.7 85.5
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Preparation of Solution
A stock solution is prepared by weighing
Preparing Stock Solution out an appropriate portion of a pure solid
or by measuring out an appropriate volume
of a pure liquid, placing it in a suitable flask,
and diluting to a known volume.

Solutions are often prepared by diluting a

more concentrated stock solution.
Preparing Solution by Dilution
A known volume of the stock solution is
transferred to a new container and
brought to a new volume.

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Preparation of Solution
from Solid Solute

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Preparation of Solution
Dilution from Stock Solution

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