Quantum wells and quantum dots for photonics and electronics:

fundamentals and applications

M. Willandery, E. L. Ivchenkoz and Y. Fuy

yPhysical Electronics and Photonics, Department of Microelectronics and Nanoscience
University of Gothenberg and Chalmers University of Technology
Fysikgränd 3, S-412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
zA. F. Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute, 194021 St. Petersburg, Russia

Abstract

We present our recent results on exciton-polariton pho-

tonics in microcavities with embedded quantum wells

S (τ) (a.u.)
(QWs) and in quantum-dot (QD) lattices. Quantum trans-
port in nanostructures based on QWs and QDs will be dis-

3
cussed as well.
4
3

)
eV
0 2

(m
1
1 Introduction 2 1

-ω
Dela

o
yτ ( 3
ps) 4 0

ω
c
In bulk crystals, the exciton-photon coupling renormal- Figure 1. The calculated time-integrated non-
izes the dispersion of bare photons and mechanical exci- linear signal as a function of the interpulse
tons leading to the formation of mixed modes or exciton- time delay  and the cavity-exciton detuning
polaritons [1]. New intriguing properties of exciton- !c , !0. The set of parameters used in the
polaritons have been revealed in semiconductor heterostruc- calculation is given in the text. (after [11])
tures: (i) short-period quantum-well (QW) structures and
superlattices where one can use the approximation of ef- containing a QW between the cavity mirrors [10, 11]. A
fective uniform local medium [2] and apply the methods sequence of two coherent pulses with the wavevectors 1 k
of resonant spectroscopy developed for bulk crystals, (ii)
in long-period multiple-quantum-well (MQW) structures
k
and 2 creates a third-order dielectric polarization which
serves as a source for a new light wave propagating in the
composed of a finite number of wells, in particular the so-
called resonant Bragg structures [3], (iii) in quantum micro-
k k
direction 2 2 , 1 . The first experiments on four-wave mix-
ing response of quantum wells embedded in GaAs/AlGaAs
cavities where a QW-exciton is coupled with a cavity pho- Fabry-Pérot microcavities were reported in [12, 13]. Recent
ton mode and the Rabi splitting between the branches of results have been published in [14, 15, 16].
two-dimensional exciton-polaritons reaches values of sev-
We consider a multilayered heterostructure grown by us-
eral meV [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
ing four compositional materials labelled as A,B,C,D and
consisting of Nl pairs of the C/B distributed Bragg reflec-
Here we present our recent results on exciton-polariton
photonics in microcavities with embedded QWs and ex-
tor (DBR), an active region A with a quantum well D in
its center and Nr pairs of the B/C DBR grown on the sub-
tend the theory of exciton-polaritons to three-dimensional
quantum-dot (QD) lattices. Finally, the quantum transport
strate A. The optical properties of the DBR’s, or mirrors,
in nanostructures based on QWs and QDs will be discussed.
are characterized by the amplitude reflection and transmis-
0 describing reflection from the
sion coefficients: rmj , rmj
2 Quantum microcavity: four wave mixing left, j = l, and right, j = r, mirror for the light incident
respectively from the active layer (r) and from the exter-
In this section we present a theory of degenerate four- nal medium (r0 ), vacuum or substrate, and tmj , t0mj (the
wave mixing in a semiconductor planar microcavity same but for transmission through the mirror j ). The basic
equations describing dynamics of the photonic mode in the
microcavity and the exciton in the QW can be written as τ =0.5 ps
 
@ + i(! , ! ) + , P (t) = i, E (t) + F (t) ; Γ =0.1 ps-1
bi

@t 0 0 NL (1) δ =3.5 ps-1

bi

   
@ + i(! , ! ) + E (t) = ,~ i P (t) + t0ml E (t) :
@t c c  2 0 (a) Ω=10 ps-1

Here ! is the current frequency of the light pulses, !0 and

|E (t)|2 (a.u.)
!c are the exciton and bare-photon-mode resonance fre-
quencies, , and ,0 are the exciton non-radiative and radia-

3
tive damping rates in a single QW, c is the photon-mode (b) Ω=2.4 ps-1

damping rate determining the cavity linewidth, it is a sum

of the escape rates through the left and right mirrors

c = cl + cr ; cj = 14 (1 ,jrmj j),~  18 1 , jrmj j2 ,~ ;

,

(2) 0 1 2 3 4

P (t) is the slowly-varying amplitude of the excitonic Time t (ps)

polarization averaged over the QW width a, E  (t) is

0(t) is Figure 2. Time-resolved four-wave-mixing
the electric field in the center of the QW, E signal calculated for the biexcitonic (solid
the slowly-varying amplitude of the initial radiation. lines) and two-level-like (dotted lines) mech-
It consists of two pulses and, say, for Lorentzian anisms of nonlinearity. [11]
pulses is given by E0;1 exp (,jt , t1 j=p) exp (ik1;xx) +
E0;2 exp (,jt , t2 j=p ) exp (ik2;xx), if (x; z ) is the plane
k
of incidence and j = (kjx; 0; kjz). In the following
we omit everywhere the exponential functions exp (ikj;xx) 2k2 , k1 direction is induced by the term
bearing in mind that Ej describe the amplitudes of the  
k k k k k
three waves 1 ; 2 and 3 = 2 2 , 1 independently de- FNL (t) = iP1 (t)P2 (t) 1 P2 (t) + 2 E2(t) : (5)
tected. Other notations introduced above are as follows:
 = "b (2ka),1; k = (!0=c)nc , and hereafter we neglect The biexcitonic mechanism of nonlinearity does not con-
the difference between the dielectric constant of the active tribute to the four-wave mixing for the circularly polarized
layer, n2c , and the background dielectric constant, "b , of the pulses but can play an important role in the formation of
QW material. While deriving Eqs. (1) we considered thin self-diffracted signals for the linear polarization of pump
enough QWs satisfying the condition ka  1. This simple beams. Let B be the amplitude of the biexcitonic wave
model of two coupled oscillators has been successfully used function and bi be the biexciton binding energy related to
to describe optical properties of the QW microcavities in the h. Then FNL (t) in Eq. (1) is given by
FNL (t) = i bi B (t)E1 (t)
linear regime. [7, 8, 9] In a particular case of the coincid-
ing frequencies !0 = !c , eigenfrequencies of the coupled (6)
modes, or exciton-polaritons, are
s and one has to introduce an additional equation for B (t):
 2
! = 
, i ;
= ,~ ,0 , c 2, , ; = c 2+ , :

@ + i(! , ! ,  ) + ,  B (t) = ,i P (t)E (t) ;
@t 0 bi bi bi 2 2
(3)
The difference !+ , !, = 2
is usually called the Rabi
(7)
where ,bi is the biexciton damping rate.
splitting.
The term FNL (t) in Eq. (1) is a nonlinear part giv-
Fig. 1 illustrates both the beat-like dependence of the
time-integrated four-wave-mixing response on the time de-
lay  between the pulses and the effect of detuning between
ing rise to the third-order polarization. For the so-called
anharmonic-oscillator-like, P 3, and two-level-like, P 2E ,
the cavity and exciton resonances the latter being kept equal
to the light current frequency !
contributions one has
 . For the numerical com-
 
FNL (t) = ijP (t)j2 1 P (t) + 2 E (t) ; (4) putation, we used the Al0:2Ga0:8As -cavity parameters of
Ref. [4] with the distributed Bragg reflectors comprising 24
where 1 and 2 are constant coefficients. According to Al0:4Ga0:6 As/AlAs stacks on the cavity front side (air in-
Eq. (4) the polarization, P3, of the wave propagating in the terface) and 33 stacks on the substrate side. The refractive
indices are as follows: nc = 3:54, next;r = 3:63 (sub- the background dielectric constant which is assumed to co-
strate), n1 = 3:17 and n2 = 3:45 (DBR). The calculated
k0 = !=c, k = k0nb and nb = p"b . In the following we
incide with the dielectric constant of the barrier material,
values of c and , ~ are 0.51 ps,1 and 117 ps,1. A single
QW was assumed to be embedded in the center of the active neglect the overlap of exciton envelope functions a and
layer and values of , = 1:0 ps,1 and ,0 = 0:05 ps,1 were a a
a0 with 6= 0 so that excitons excited in different dots are
chosen for the exciton non-radiative and radiative damping assumed to be coupled only via the electromagnetic field.
rates. In this case the Rabi splitting 2
equals to 4:8 ps,1 . We seek for Bloch-like solutions of Eq. (8) satisfying the
Fig. 2 shows the time evolution of the self-diffracted signal E r a
translational symmetry K ( + ) = exp (i ) K ( ),Ka E r
jE3(t)j2 for the two-level-like (dotted lines) and the biex- K
where the wave vector is defined within the first Brillouin
citonic (solid) mechanisms of nonlinearity. The interpulse K
zone. The exciton-polariton dispersion !( ) can be shown
delay  was chosen to be 0:5 ps,1 and values of
= 10 to satisfy the equation
ps,1 and
= 2:5 ps,1 for the Rabi frequency were used
to calculate curves in Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b respectively. The K)jj = 0 ;
Detjj , R (!; (11)
biexciton parameters are ,bi = 0:1 ps,1, bi = 3:5 ps,1
R = k0 Tv (!) jIKj+Kb j+Sbj2(,Kk+2 b) ;
hbi = 2:3 meV).
(or 
2 X 2
(12)
Concluding the section we would like to stress that as 0 b
compared to a single-QW structure the quantum-cavity non- Z
linear response is enhanced by four to five orders of magni- IQ = 0 (r)eiQrdr ; S =  , QkQ 
2 ; (13)
tude.
where ;  = x; y; z , ; is the Kronecker symbol, ’s b
3 Exciton-polaritons in quantum-dot lattices are the reciprocal lattice vectors and v0 is the volume of the
lattice primitive cell.
Recently van Coevorden et al. [17] have calculated the Similarly to [17] we consider a face-centered-cubic lat-
optical band structure of a three-dimensional (3D) lattice of tice with the lattice constant a and the unit-cell volume
resonant two-level atoms. They have solved numerically the v0 = a3=4. It is p convenient to introduce a dimensionless
dispersion equation for light waves in a face-centered-cubic parameter P = ( 3c=a!0nb)3 and the dimensionless fre-
atomic lattice and demonstrated that, in the certain range of quency
= !=!0 . The calculation is performed for spher-
parameters, there exists an overlap of photonic band gaps in ical QDs with the radius R exceeding the Bohr radius aB in
all directions in the frequency region near the two-level res- which case we have
onance. Here we consider the photonic (or more precisely,  3=2
exciton-polaritonic) band structure of lattices formed by a IQ =  2aR sin QR
QR[2 , (QR)2 ] : (14)
3D periodic array of quantum dots (QDs). B
We start from the wave equation
Then Eq. (12) can be transformed into

E + k2 E = ,4k0 1 + k,2grad div
2, Pexc


2
R (
; K) = N
2
, 1  (
; K) ;
(8)
(15)
for the electric field vector E with the excitonic contribu-
tion to the nonlocal dielectric polarization being taken in
 (
; K) =
X f( jK + bjR) S (K + b) ;

2 ,
2 (K + b)
the form (see [18]) (16)
Z b
X
4Pexc(r) = T (!) a (r) a (r )E(r )dr : 64 !LT R 3 2 sin x 2
0 0 0
  
a
(9) 
N =  ! a ; f (x) = x(2 , x2) ; (17)
0
Here a are the lattice translation vectors enumerating dots,
(Q) = cQ=!0nb . Eq. (11) is equivalent to the three sep-
a (r)  0 (r , a) is the envelope function of an exci- arate equations Rj (
; K) = 1 where Rj (j = 1; 2; 3) are
ton excited in the ath QD at coinciding electron and hole
eigenvalues of the matrix R .
coordinates. The other notations are
Further simplifications follow taking into account a
3 small value of the parameter N in Eq. (15) since, in semi-
T (!) = 2 "b!!2LT,!!0 a2 B ; (10) conductors, the ratio !LT =!0 typically lies between 10,4
0 and 10,3. Then in the frequency region given by the condi-
!LT and aB are the exciton longitudinal-transverse split- tion j
, 1j  P 1=3 , 1 one can readily use the approximate
ting and Bohr radius in the corresponding bulk semicon- K
equation
, 1  (N=2)j (1; ) where j are eigenvalues
ductor, !0 is the QD-exciton resonance frequency, "b is of the  matrix.
 3
Source Gate Drain
2 (Esi,fsi)
E fs (Edi,fdi)
1 n-AlGaAs E fd
LT n+ n+
0
(w-w0)/w

-1 y
Ecs
-2 z Ecd
GaAs substrate
-3 (a) x (b) x=0 x=L

-4
-5 Figure 4. (a) Schematic conduction channel
X U L L G D X W K (shadow area) in a GaAs/AlGaAs heterojunc-
Figure 3. Exciton-polariton dispersion near tion field effect transistor. (b) Schematic en-
the exciton resonance frequency !0 in a face- ergy band structure.
centered-cubic lattice of spherical QDs. The
dashed lines show the photon dispersion in
the empty lattice, i.e. for !LT = 0, the dotted and design devices on a sub-100 nm scale it is necessary to
horizontal line indicates the value ! = !0 . go beyond the well established Boltzmann equations and
develop simulation techniques based on quantum kinetic
equations. This becomes particularly important since the
Fig. 3 shows the photonic band structure calculated for future VLSI scaling realization of gate lengths is expected
the dots of radius R = a=4 and for P = 1:1, !LT =!0 = to 70 nm and below [22, 23].
5  10,4 . The dispersion on the  line is characterized Most recently reported experimental fabrication indi-
by a giant anticrossing between the branches of bare trans- cates [24] clearly normal transistor operation features in
verse photon and exciton modes. At the X point, the gap is short channel transistors at room temperature. It also shows
determined by the separation between the longitudinal and wave interference effect and conductance quantization at
lower transverse branches, it is still remarkable and exceeds relatively high temperature [25, 26, 27]. Extensive theo-
0:5!LT . However near the points U and W the exciton- retical works have been devoted in this fast developing de-
polariton branches converge and the gap almost disappears. vice physics field [28], e.g., Monte Carlo simulation [29],
Note that the anticrossing in the
and  directions can be non-equilibrium Green’s function theory [30] and real-time
described with a high accuracy by retaining in the sum over Green’s function formalism [31], Wigner function [32] and
b b
in Eq. (16) the two terms due to = 0; ,(4=a)(0; 0; 1) many more.
for the
points and b
= 0; ,(2=a)(1; 1; 1) for the  A typical heterojunction field effect transistors (FET) is
points. shown schematically by Fig. 4a. The conduction channel
The 3D QD arrays with periods comparable with the (shadow area) is formed at the GaAs/AlGaAs heterointer-
light wavelength (P  1) and with sizes exceeding the face due to the energy band offset between GaAs and Al-
bulk-exciton Bohr radius could be grown artificially or by GaAs. When the width of the structure (geometric exten-
embedding semiconductor microcrystals into the pores of sion in the z -direction) is quite narrow, the conduction chan-
porous materials like the synthetic opal [19]. It should nel becomes a quantum wire. The gate controls the energy
be mentioned that the developed theory takes into account sublevels in the conduction channel.
a contribution of only one exciton resonance which is We concentrate on the electron transport in the quantum
valid if the separation between the exciton size-quantization wire. The source is grounded and the drain is biased at VD
levels is much larger than the bulk value of the exciton so that its local potential energy is decreased by eVD . Be-
longitudinal-transverse splitting, !LT . In the opposite limit cause of the large spatial extensions of the source and drain,
of extremely large bulk-exciton translational effective mass quantum quantization effects are negligible in these areas.
Dr r Er
one can use the local material relation ( ) = "( ; !) ( ) Quasi-equilibrium states, defined by local Fermi levels, Efs
as it was done by Sigalas et al. [20] for phonon-polaritons and Efd , respectively, are usually assumed there due to the
in a two-dimensional lattice consisting of semiconductor high doping levels. When assuming the same doping levels
cylinders. in the source and drain, Efs = Ef and Efd = Ef , eVD .
Quantum mechanical nature of the carrier is expected
due to reduced dimensions. The carrier is described by the
4 Quantum kinetic transport Schrödinger equation

2 2 
In 1990 high electron mobility transistors with gate
lengths as short as 25 nm were fabricated [21]. To analyse
E = , h2mr + V  (18)
at steady state. Here V is electric potential energy and m 1.2
is the electron effective mass. (a)
T=4.2 K (b) T=300 K
1

Current density [A/cm]

An electron from the source injected into the conduct-
ing channel is described by is eiksx , where is and Ei are
i
0.8

ith eigenfunction and eigenvalue in the yz -plane in the con- 0.6

duction channel
0.4
  2 
h2 @ 2 @
Es s = , 2m @y2 + @z 2 + Vs is :
i i (19) 0.2

0
0 0.125 0.25 0 0.125 0.25
Here Vs is the potential energy at x = 0. Fig. 4b schemat- Drain bias [volt]
ically shows the conduction band profile of the field effect
transistor. The wave vector of the propagating wave ksi must Figure 5. Calculated ID -VD characteristics of
be real. the HEMT at (a) 4.2 K and (b) 300 K. The dotted
The electron wave becomes partially reflected from the lines in (a) are obtained by setting jtj2 = 1.
conduction channel and the total wave function of the elec- The gate voltage, Vg = 0:2; 0:4; 0:6; 0:8; 1:0; 1:2
tron in the source region is volt, respectively.
X
(x < 0) = iseiksi x + rl lse,iksl x : (20)
l relationship between ID and VD at low drain bias. The cur-
It is partially transmitted into the drain rent density becomes saturated when the drain bias is much
X increased to such a value that the local Fermi level of the
(x > L) = tl ld eikdl x : (21) drain is below the conduction bandedge of the source. At
l this moment, all the states occupied in the source contribute
to the total current and all the occupied states in the drain
Here (ld ; Edl ) are eigenstates in the conduction channel at become reflected from the conduction channel.
x = L. However, the current density (solid lines) never reaches
In the formalism of the quantum transport, the total elec- its optimal value at perfect transmission when jtj2 = 1. The
tron energy, Eks ;i, is conserved so that the sums over l in wave reflection is enhanced by the large potential energy
Eqs. (20,21) are restricted by the following equation difference between the source and the drain due to the drain
2 i 2 2 l 2 2 l 2 bias. It is easy to pshow that when the drain bias is large
Eks;i = Esi + h 2(mks) = Esl + h 2(mks) = Edl + h 2(mkd) : enough, ID / 1= VD which is clearly demonstrated in
Fig. 5. (However, for large VD our model of its distribution
(22)
Here ksl and kdl may be imaginary to represent decaying
across the conduction channel is oversimplified.)
When the temperature is increased, high kinetic energy
waves in the source and drain.
p the critical value of the drain
states become occupied, thus
bias at which ID / 1= VD becomes valid is much in-
The amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves
creased. Normal transistor I -V characteristics at room tem-
are obtained from Schrödinger equation, Eq. (18), by satis-
fying the wavefunction boundary conditions, Eqs. (20,21),
perature is obtained which is presented in Fig. 5b.
and the energy conservation Eq. (22). The current density
from the source to the drain is
5 Quantum dot cellular automata
XZ 2dks X hkl
Is = e f (Eks ;i ; Ef ) jtl j2 d :
2 m (23)
i l Ambitions of researchers have been to develop faster
and denser integrated circuit and the field is sliding to-
Here f (E; Ef ) is the Fermi distribution function. wards nanoelectronics and molecular electronics [33, 34],
A similar expression is obtained for the current density among them are cellular automata and cellular neural net-
Id transmitting from the drain to the source. The net current works [35, 36, 37]. The design depends on the dynam-
density ID between the source and the drain is given by ics of direct, local interactions between devices and their
ID = Is + Id . neighbours. The Lent-Porod quantum-dot cellular automata
In Fig. 5 we present the numerically calculated ID -VD (QCA) scheme composes of many quantum dot cells seek-
characteristics of the FET in Fig. 4a at 4.2 K and 300 K. ing the lowest energy state for the entire assembly of cells.
We first look at the dotted lines in Fig. 5a which are calcu- A quantum cell with two electrons is proposed by Lent et
lated by setting jtj2 = 1. We observe the expected linear al. In the cell, the two electrons are confined in two of the
 x 2 7
y 4 13 15
Upper Gate 10 12
3 8
Dielectric 5 9 14
Lower Gate 1 6 11
Oxide
R1
Inverted
z R2
p-Silicon
Back contact

Figure 7. (a) Lent-Porod QCA. (b) One elec-

tron in the QCA in the time-domain. (c) Two
Figure 6. (a) Schematic picture of the dual- electrons in the QCA.
gate Si-based quantum dot system. (b) Con-
duction band edge. Vlower = 1:6 V, Vupper = 8:4
V. (c) Local densities of states in the inverted
area when x = 0, E = ,7:4 meV. dot, we now study the dynamic motion of electrons in the
quantum dot array of Fig. 7a. Because of the complication
r r
in the many-particle wave state f ( 1 ; 2; : : :), we first as-
sume the upper and lower gate configuration of Vupper =
five quantum dots. 8:4 V, Vlower = 1:6 V, so that each quantum dot in the QCA
The general Schrödinger equation is [38, 39] has one localized electron state available to locate an elec-
" #
h 2 r2rj 2 tron.
, 2m + V (rj ) + 4jrq , r j ;
X X
H= When one electron is introduced into the system, the
j i<j i j Schrödinger equation Eq. (24) is solved by expanding the
@ g(r ; r ; : : :) = Hg(r ; r ; : : :) ;
ih @t full wave state g into one-electron eigenstates of the quan-
1 2 1 2 (24)
tum dots,
X
where it is important to notice that the wave state g(r) = Anm nm ; (25)
r r
g( 1 ; 2; : : :) is antisymmetric in the coordinates of all elec-
where the sub-states of quantum dot n are denoted as Enm
trons in the system.
We apply the dual-gate n-Si material system [40] and nm respectively for subband m. The Schrödinger
(Fig. 6a) and set the gate sizes to R1 = 10 and R2 = 30 equation becomes

ih dA
nm and the thickness of 40 nm for the dielectric material to X
ij Anm Hijnm ;
dt =
separate the two gates. (26)
In Fig. 6b we plot the conduction band edge of the sys- nm
tem when there is only one electron accumulated in the
inverted area. The sample temperature is set as 4 K. The where Hijnm = hij jH jnmi.
coordinate system is presented in Fig. 6a where the center The above equation has been extensively used in the lit-
x = y = z = 0 is set at the oxide-silicon interface. The erature. Now we introduce one electron into the system
conduction bandedge of the silicon at x = y = z = 0 is
,0:164 meV. It is very important to note that this is far be- Ai1(t = 0) = i;1 (27)
low the Fermi level (Ef = ,3:0 meV). By the semiclassical
particle picture (setting the electron wave functions constant by the edge contacts. We calculate the motion of this elec-
in the classically allowed region and zero in the classically tron in the time-domain by Eq. (26) and the result is pre-
forbidden region), a large number of electrons would accu- sented in Fig. 7b. Here we see that due to the wavefunction
mulate in this inverted area. However, by the quantum me- overlapping this electron moves from one quantum cell to
chanical consideration, there is only one localized electron the other and gets bounced back from the other end of the
state. quantum dot array. The spatial distribution of the electron
Knowing the energy band structure of a single quantum is extending in the time domain.
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2
V = 4jrq , r j (30)
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Vi1 j1 i2 j2 n1 m1 n2 m2 = [6] T. B. Norris, J.-K. Rhee, C.-Y. Sung, Y. Arakawa, M. Nish-

hi1 j1 (r1)i2 j2 (r2 )jV jn1m1 (r1 )n2m2 (r2 )i

ioka, and C. Weisbuch, “Time-resolved vacuum Rabi oscil-

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