A&A 625, A118 (2019)

https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201935034 Astronomy
&
© M. Keppler et al. 2019
Astrophysics

Highly structured disk around the planet host PDS 70 revealed

by high-angular resolution observations with ALMA
M. Keppler1 , R. Teague2 , J. Bae3 , M. Benisty4,5,6 , T. Henning1 , R. van Boekel1 , E. Chapillon7,8 , P. Pinilla9 ,
J. P. Williams10 , G. H.-M. Bertrang1 , S. Facchini11 , M. Flock1 , Ch. Ginski12,13 , A. Juhasz14 , H. Klahr1 , Y. Liu15,1 ,
A. Müller1 , L. M. Pérez4 , A. Pohl1 , G. Rosotti13 , M. Samland1 , and D. Semenov1,16

1
Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, 311 West Hall, 1085 S. University Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
3
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution for Science, 5241 Broad Branch Road, NW, Washington,
DC 20015, USA
4
Departamento de Astronomía, Universidad de Chile, Camino El Observatorio 1515, Las Condes, Santiago, Chile
5
Unidad Mixta Internacional Franco-Chilena de Astronomía (CNRS, UMI 3386), Departamento de Astronomía, Universidad de
Chile, Camino El Observatorio 1515, Las Condes, Santiago, Chile
6
Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, 38000 Grenoble, France
7
Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM), 300 rue de la Piscine, 38406 Saint Martin d’Hères, France
8
Laboratoire d’astrophysique de Bordeaux, Université Bordeaux, CNRS, B18N, allee Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,
33615 Pessac, France
9
Department of Astronomy/Steward Observatory, The University of Arizona, 933 North Cherry Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
10
Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
11
European Southern Observatory, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 2, 85748 Garching, Germany
12
Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
13
Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, PO Box 9513, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
14
Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 OHA, UK
15
Purple Mountain Observatory & Key Laboratory for Radio Astronomy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2 West Beijing Road,
Nanjing 210008, PR China
16
Department of Chemistry, Ludwig Maximilian University, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
Received 8 January 2019 / Accepted 20 February 2019

ABSTRACT

Context. Imaged in the gap of a transition disk and found at a separation of about 195 mas (∼22 au) from its host star at a position
angle of about 155◦ , PDS 70 b is the most robustly detected young planet to date. This system is therefore a unique laboratory for
characterizing the properties of young planetary systems at the stage of their formation.
Aims. We aim to trace direct and indirect imprints of PDS 70 b on the gas and dust emission of the circumstellar disk in order to study
the properties of this ∼5 Myr young planetary system.
Methods. We obtained ALMA band 7 observations of PDS 70 in dust continuum and 12 CO (3–2) and combined them with archival
data. This resulted in an unprecedented angular resolution of about 70 mas (∼8 au).
Results. We derive an upper limit on circumplanetary material at the location of PDS 70 b of ∼0.01 M⊕ and find a highly structured
circumstellar disk in both dust and gas. The outer dust ring peaks at 0.6500 (74 au) and reveals a possible second unresolved peak at
about 0.5300 (60 au). The integrated intensity of CO also shows evidence of a depletion of emission at ∼0.200 (23 au) with a width of
∼0.100 (11 au). The gas kinematics show evidence of a deviation from Keplerian rotation inside .0.800 (91 au). This implies a pressure
gradient that can account for the location of the dust ring well beyond the location of PDS 70 b. Farther in, we detect an inner disk
that appears to be connected to the outer disk by a possible bridge feature in the northwest region in both gas and dust. We compare
the observations to hydrodynamical simulations that include a planet with different masses that cover the estimated mass range that
was previously derived from near-infrared photometry (∼5–9 M Jup ). We find that even a planet with a mass of 10 MJup may not be
sufficient to explain the extent of the wide gap, and an additional low-mass companion may be needed to account for the observed disk
morphology.
Key words. stars: individual: PDS 70 – techniques: interferometric – hydrodynamics – planet-disk interactions –
protoplanetary disks

1. Introduction early in the history of a young stellar system. Although these sub-
structures are often interpreted as direct imprints of planet–disk
In recent years, high angular resolution observations of proto- interactions, it is still challenging to understand and constrain
planetary disks have revolutionized our view of disk evolution the architectures of planetary systems that are needed to account
and showed that small-scale structures such as concentric rings for them (e.g., Bae et al. 2018), or to rule out alternative scenar-
and spiral arms are ubiquitous (e.g., Andrews et al. 2018; Long ios (e.g., magneto-hydrodynamical instabilities, Ruge et al. 2016;
et al. 2018a), suggesting that planet formation might occur very Flock et al. 2017). In addition, an accurate determination of the
A118, page 1 of 15
Open Access article, published by EDP Sciences, under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Open Access funding provided by Max Planck Society.
 A&A 625, A118 (2019)

properties of young planets (e.g., luminosity and mass at a given 2. Observations and data reduction
age) is needed to constrain the formation mechanisms that are at
work (e.g., Mordasini et al. 2017). We obtained ALMA Cycle 5 director discretionary time (DDT)
The theory of interactions of embedded planets with their observations (Project ID: 2017.A.00006.S, PI: M. Keppler) of
natal environment, the protoplanetary disk, and their relation to PDS 70 in band 7 on 2, 3 and 6 December 2017 under very
the observational signatures have been studied by many authors good weather conditions (mean precipitable water vapor, pwv,
(e.g., Paardekooper & Mellema 2004; Jin et al. 2016; Dipierro ≤0.9 mm). For three of the four spectral windows, the correlator
et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2018; Zhang et al. 2018). Currently the most was tuned to a center frequency of 357.2, 355.3, and 344.3 GHz
promising methods for understanding the interaction of a young for continuum observations in dual-polarization mode with a
planet with its environment and its further evolution are to detect bandwidth of 2.0 GHz. The fourth spectral window was centered
it through direct imaging (e.g., Keppler et al. 2018) or through around the 12 CO(3–2) transition at 345.8 GHz with a band-
the perturbations that it induces in the velocity field of the field width of 0.938 GHz. The quasars J1427-4206, J1337-1257, and
(e.g., Pérez et al. 2015). J1517-2422 were used as bandpass, phase, and flux calibrators.
Current direct-imaging infrared surveys reach detection lim- The calibration was performed using the Common Astronomy
its of a few Jupiter masses (e.g., Maire et al. 2017; Uyama et al. Software Package (CASA), version 5.1.1. The total on-source
2017), but are often limited by bright and complex disk features. integration time was 1.9 h.
Numerous claims of companion candidates in disks that show In addition to the 12 CO J = 3–2 line, we detected emis-
asymmetric features are indeed still debated (e.g., HD 100546, sion from the HCN (J = 4–3; 354.505 GHz), HCO+ (J = 4–3;
HD 169142, MWC 758, LkCa15; see Quanz et al. 2015; Currie 356.734 GHz), and H13 CN (J = 4–3; 345.340 GHz) lines. In
et al. 2015; Follette et al. 2017; Rameau et al. 2017; Biller et al. this paper, we focus on the dust continuum and 12 CO emission,
2014; Reggiani et al. 2014, 2018; Ligi et al. 2018; Kraus & Ireland however.
2012; Sallum et al. 2015; Mendigutía et al. 2018) and require Because the extended antenna configuration filters out the
confirmation through additional observations at different filter largest spatial scales in the disk, we made use of the archival
bands, for example. Cycle 3 data taken in a similar spectral setup and presented
The presence of three different planets in the disk around by Long et al. (2018b) to recover the short baselines. Details
HD 163296 was claimed by two teams with a complementary regarding the observing strategy and setup are described in Long
method based on perturbations in the Keplerian velocity field of et al. (2018b). We transferred both Cycle 3 and Cycle 5 data to
the disk. Pinte et al. (2018) detected a localized (both in space CASA v.5.3.0 and subtracted the continuum emission from
and velocity) deformation of the isovelocity curves in 12 CO the line data using the task UVCONTSUB. We corrected the phase
transitions that was consistent with the spiral wake induced by center of the Cycle 3 data for the shift due to the proper motion
a 2 MJup planet at 260 au. Teague et al. (2018a) measured the of the star (−29.7, −23.8) mas yr−1 , Gaia Collaboration 2016,
rotation velocity curves of CO isotopologues as a function of 2018) with respect to to the Cycle 5 data set. We then combined
distance to the star and found local pressure gradients consistent the two data sets and shifted the phase center by an amount of
with gaps carved by two ∼1 MJup planets at 83 and 137 au. (0.50900 , 0.49000 ), which was found to be the center of the disk
Using the Spectro-Polarimetric High-contrast Exo- by fitting a two-dimensional Gaussian to the continuum Cycle 5
planet REsearch instrument on the Very Large Telescope emission using the UVMODELFIT tool. We finally used the task
(VLT/SPHERE) and complementary datasets covering multiple TCLEAN for imaging, applying Briggs weighting with a robust
epochs and various near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths, we recently parameter of 0.5. Because self-calibration of both continuum
discovered a companion to the 5.4 ± 1.0 Myr old (Müller et al. and CO data did not significantly improve the images, we
2018) and 113.4 ± 0.5 pc distant (Gaia Collaboration 2016, 2018) will base our analysis on the non-self-calibrated data. The
T Tauri star PDS 70 (Keppler et al. 2018; Müller et al. 2018). resulting beam size for the dust continuum at a mean frequency
Comparison of the NIR photometry to evolutionary models of 350.6 GHz (855 µm) is 74 × 57 mas (8.4 × 6.5 au) with a
implies that the companion is in the planetary mass regime position angle (PA) of 63◦ . We measured an rms noise level of
(∼5–9 MJup , Keppler et al. 2018) which is consistent with the 0.026 mJy beam−1 from emission-free regions. For the CO, we
mass range inferred from atmospheric modeling (∼2–17 MJup , obtained a beam size of 76 × 61 mas (8.6 × 6.9 au) with a PA
Müller et al. 2018). PDS 70 b is located at a projected separation of 60◦ and a channel width of 425 m s−1 . The noise level per
of about 22 au from the central star, within the large gap of channel is determined to be 1.26 mJy beam−1 .
the transition disk of its host, between an inner disk and a
well-resolved outer disk (Hashimoto et al. 2012, 2015; Long
et al. 2018b; Keppler et al. 2018). Follow-up direct-imaging 3. Results
observations with the Magellan Adaptive Optics telescope
3.1. 855 µm dust continuum
(MagAO) in the Hα line enabled a 2–3σ detection of the
companion at two different epochs. The observations imply that Figure 1 (right column) shows the continuum image at
it is likely still accreting gas from the disk (Wagner et al. 2018). 350.6 GHz (855 µm). The disk is detected at a high signal-to-
This object is therefore a unique case of a directly imaged planet noise ratio (S /N; ∼65 at the peak). The integrated flux density of
that still shapes its natal environment. the disk inside 1.300 after applying 2σ clipping is 230 ± 23 mJy,
In this paper, we present new ALMA band 7 observations where the error bar is dominated by the ∼10% uncertainty of
of PDS 70 obtained in Cycle 5. We combined the data with the absolute amplitude calibration of ALMA in Band 71 . This
archival observations presented by Long et al. (2018b), thereby is consistent with the value found by Long et al. (2018b). The
obtaining an unprecedented angular resolution of ∼0.0700 . In dust continuum shows evidence of a large cavity, a dust ring
Sect. 2 we describe the observing setup and data reduction, and
Sect. 3 presents our results, which are discussed and compared 1 See https://almascience.nrao.edu/documents-and-
to hydrodynamical simulations in Sect. 4. tools/cycle6/alma-proposers-guide

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 M. Keppler et al.: PDS 70 ALMA observations

mJy beam−1 km s−1 mJy beam−1

0 10 20 30 40 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

1.5 1.5
(a) (b)
1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5
Offset (arcsec)

Offset (arcsec)
0.0 0.0

−0.5 −0.5

−1.0 −1.0

−1.5 −1.5
1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 −0.5 −1.0 −1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 −0.5 −1.0 −1.5
Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec)

(c)
continuum absorption (d)
peak
inner disk
0.5 shadowing 0.5
Offset (arcsec)

Offset (arcsec)

spur

0.0 0.0

spur
−0.5 PDS 70b −0.5

PDS 70b

0.5 0.0 −0.5 0.5 0.0 −0.5

Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec)

Fig. 1. Observations of the 12 CO (left column) and the 350.6 GHz continuum (right column). Bottom row: closer view of the observations including
annotations where the color scaling has been stretched to bring out detail. The contours for the 12 CO are starting at 20% of the peak value to the
peak in steps of 10%. For the continuum, the gray dashed contour is 5σ, and black contours start at 10σ and increase in steps of 10σ, where
σ = 26 µJy beam−1 . The synthesized beams are shown in the bottom left corner of each panel.

with a brightness distribution that is slightly asymmetric in 3.1.1. Disk radial and azimuthal morphology
both radial and azimuthal direction, an inner disk, as well as a
possible bridge feature, all of which we describe in the following Figure 2 (uppermost, gray line) shows the azimuthally aver-
paragraphs. aged and deprojected radial profile of the dust continuum, which
By fitting a two-dimensional Gaussian to the two data clearly reveals a large gap and a ring component. The emission
sets using the task UVMODELFIT, we find a disk inclination strongly decreases inside the ring, where the flux is reduced by
of 51.7 ± 0.1◦ and 52.1 ± 0.1◦ and a PA of 156.7 ± 0.1◦ and more than 90%.
159.7 ± 0.1◦ , for the Cycle 5 and Cycle 3 data sets, respectively. The radial profile of the ring is asymmetric, which is best
We verified the inclination using only short baselines (<150 kλ, seen in the cuts along the major and minor axes (Fig. 2,
which correspond to the location of the null in the real part of colored lines). The inner edge of the continuum ring reveals
the visibilities, see Fig. A.4) for the Gaussian fit, which ensures a second peak located at a deprojected distance of about
that the cavity is not resolved, as well as by using a disk model. 0.5300 (60 au). The feature is most pronounced along the major
These efforts yielded similarly good fits in all cases; the values axes, which can be explained by the projection effect as well
for the inclination were consistently within 3◦ . We note, how- as by the beam, whose major axis is oriented roughly along
ever, that all these models assume axial symmetry and therefore the minor axis of the disk. Observations at even higher angu-
none of them reproduces the real morphology of the disk. Con- lar resolution are required to quantify this structure in greater
sidering the complexity of the continuum emission that appears detail.
to be highly structured, such simple modeling appears limited. To quantify the radial brightness distribution of the dust
We adopt a final value of 51.7◦ because this corresponds to the ring, we used the same approach as Pinilla et al. (2018). We
model with the fewest assumptions. first deprojected the data assuming an inclination of 51.7◦ , and

A118, page 3 of 15
 A&A 625, A118 (2019)

Deprojected radius [au] detected in the spectral energy distribution (SED). Our obser-
0 50 100 150 vations marginally resolve the emission inside the innermost
∼80 mas (9 au) at a 5σ level. Observations at longer wavelengths
NE SW Total will enable us to establish the spectral index of this central emis-
6
SE NW sion, which is required to exclude the possible contribution from
free–free emission.
5
3.1.3. Possible bridge feature
flux density + offset

4 We detect a spur that projects from the dust ring into the gap in
the direction of the inner disk at a PA of about 285◦ (referred
to as “spur” in Fig. 1 and best seen in panel d). This signal is
3 even more clearly detected in the DDT data alone, which have a
slightly higher resolution (71 × 56 mas, see Fig. A.5). It is possi-
ble that the signal forms a bridge feature that connects the outer
2 and inner disks. Whereas the spur is detected at high confidence
(>5σ), the continuous connection to the inner disk in the dust
continuum remains to be confirmed with deeper observations.
1
Interestingly, this feature is cospatial with an extended feature
found in scattered light (Keppler et al. 2018; Müller et al. 2018,
0
see Fig. A.5). Furthermore, the CO shows evidence of a feature
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 at that same location that seems indeed to connect the outer and
Deprojected radius [arcsec]
inner disk (see Sect. 3.2).

Fig. 2. Radial profiles of the deprojected dust continuum image along 3.1.4. Upper limits on CPD dust mass
the semi-major (red, orange) and the semi-minor (green, blue) axes, as
well as averaged over the entire azimuth (gray). The black line in the Figure 2 shows that the radial profile along the southeast semi-
uppermost plot corresponds to the best-fit model of the radial profile major axis presents a marginally (S /N ∼ 3) enhanced signal at
found in Sect. 3.1.1. The deprojection assumes that the continuum is ∼0.200 . This roughly corresponds to the expected location of
geometrically flat. Radial samples are taken every ∼1/4 beam (20 mas), PDS 70 b. We note, however, that flux density variations of simi-
and the cuts along the minor and major axes are azimuthally averaged lar amplitude are present at several other position angles as well,
in a cone of ±10◦ around the corresponding axes. The black arrow high- and the persistence of this signal is therefore to be tested with
lights a bump in the profile close to the location of PDS 70 b, and the deeper observations.
dotted circles mark the location of the second peak.
Circumplanetary disks (CPD) are expected to have outer
radii Rout of a fraction (∼30–70%) of the Hill radius RH (e.g.,
fit the real part of the deprojected visibilities with a radially Quillen & Trilling 1998; D’Angelo et al. 2003; Ayliffe & Bate
asymmetric Gaussian ring using a Markov chain Monte Carlo 2009; Szulágyi et al. 2014), where RH = aP (MP /3M? )1/3 and
(MCMC) method using emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013). aP is distance of the planet to the star. For a 5 MJup com-
The best-fit model has a peak radial position of 73.7 ± 0.1 au, panion at 22 au, this corresponds to ∼0.8–1.9 au, and the disk
and an inner and outer width of 14.8 ± 0.1 and 13.4 ± 0.1 au. The is therefore expected to be unresolved. Our measured noise
ring is therefore radially resolved by our observations. The best level of 0.026 mJy beam−1 translates into a 5σ upper limit
fit model is overplotted in Fig. 2 (black line) and is shown in on the flux density of an unresolved CPD around PDS 70 b of
Fig. A.4. 0.130 mJy beam−1 .
We confirm the azimuthal brightness enhancement of the We compared this value to the theoretically expected emis-
ring that was reported by Long et al. (2018b) on the northwest sion from a CPD in order to derive an upper limit on the dust
side of the disk, which peaks at a PA of ∼327◦ and is roughly mass. For this aim, we followed the approach presented by Isella
13% brighter than the opposite disk side2 . If the dust is optically et al. (2014), where the dust temperature T d in the CPD at a given
thin, the asymmetry could trace the presence of an overdensity. radius r from the planet is described as
As we argue below, the dust is likely almost optically thick. The
brightness enhancement is therefore likely a combination of dif- T d4 (r) = T irr,?
4 4
(aP ) + T irr,p 4
(r) + T acc (r), (1)
ferences in mass density and temperature. Observations at longer
wavelengths are required to break the degeneracies of temper- where T irr,? is the temperature of the surrounding circumstellar
ature and density effects and to conclude on the origin of the disk heated by the central star at the distance of the planet to
azimuthal brightness asymmetry. the star, T irr,p is the temperature due to the heating by the planet
itself, and T acc denotes the contribution from viscous accretion
within the CPD.
3.1.2. Inner disk For T irr,? we adopted a value of 19 K at a distance of 22 au
from the star, which is estimated from our radiative transfer mod-
Our image also confirms the detection of a compact signal
els (Keppler et al. 2018). The irradiation by the planet, T irr,p , can
toward the location of the star, which has been detected and
be estimated (assuming a CPD aspect ratio of 0.1; Zhu et al.
attributed to be a possible inner disk component by Long et al.
2018) as
(2018b) the existence of which is consistent with the NIR excess
!1/4
2 Value found by comparing the peak pixel value of the northwest side Lp
T irr,p (r) = , (2)
with the peak pixel value of the southeast side. σSB 40πr2
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 M. Keppler et al.: PDS 70 ALMA observations

where z /r ∼ 0.25 (Rosenfeld et al. 2013). In addition, several

0.014 0.19 other features are visible, including two gaps (a prominent gap
0.17 at ∼0.200 and a faint gap at ∼0.600 ), a bridge-like feature similar
0.012
CPD dust mass [M⊕ ]

0.15 to the one observed in the continuum, and apparent shadowing

flux density [mJy]

0.010 0.13 along the major and minor axes that has previously been reported
0.008
5-σ 0.12 by Long et al. (2018b).
0.10 Toward the center of the image, the inner disk component
0.006 0.08 is clearly detected, extending out to approximately 15 au, which
3-σ 0.07 is consistent with estimates from scattered light (Keppler et al.
0.004 2018). For disks shaped by planets, a bright gaseous inner disk
2-σ 0.05
(implying a gas gap rather than a cavity) is in agreement with
0.002 0.03
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 the predictions from hydrodynamical models, even for the cases
CPD outer radius [au] where the planet mass is as high as 10 MJup (Facchini et al.
2018).
Fig. 3. Theoretically expected flux densities from a CPD around a At about the same location as the spur found in the contin-
5 MJup planet at the location of PDS 70 b with different dust masses and uum, the zeroth-moment map shows evidence of an extended
outer disk radii, following the prescription from Isella et al. (2014). The
signal that connects the inner disk and the outer ring in the
contours mark the 2, 3, and 5σ detection limits from the observations.
northwest region. This signal may be connected to the extended
feature detected in the NIR (Keppler et al. 2018; Müller et al.
where we used Lp ∼1.5 × 10−4 L as the luminosity of PDS 70 b 2018, and Fig. A.5, right panel, of this paper), and might also
(Müller et al. 2018). Finally, the heating due to accreting material be related to the features seen in CO and HCO+ by Long et al.
is given by (2018b) at similar locations. If this feature indeed connects the
outer and inner disks, it may be tracing gas flow through the gap
3GMp Ṁacc  r 1/2 #
from the outer to the inner disk (e.g., Tang et al. 2017; Casassus
"
4 p
T acc (r) = 1 − , (3)
8πσSB r3 r et al. 2015; Price et al. 2018). This hypothesis could be confirmed
through the detection of localised velocity changes in the given
where Ṁacc is the mass accretion rate onto the planet and rp is the region, which we do not detect with our spectral resolution, how-
planetary radius. Following Wagner et al. (2018), we assumed ever. The nature of this feature therefore needs to be tested with
Ṁacc ∼ 10−8 MJup yr−1 and rP ∼ 3 RJup (Müller et al. 2018). observations at higher spectral and angular resolution.
As in Isella et al. (2014), we assumed a power-law surface The inner gap at ∼0.200 is likely due to a gap opened by
density Σ(r) = C × r−3/4 , where C isR rthe normalization constant PDS 70 b and is discussed further in Sect. 4.1. The outer gap
out
for the total CPD dust mass Md = r Σ(r)2πrdr. We therefore at ∼0.600 can be explained by continuum absorption of the bot-
in
computed the expected millimeter flux Fd for a given Md by inte- tom side of the disk: as shown in Fig. 4, the contours of equal
grating the flux density contribution from each radius over the projected velocity at the top and bottom sides of the disk in
entire CPD: regions between the disk major and minor axes are spatially off-
set. While emission from the bottom side travels through the
2πcosi rout midplane toward the observer, it is absorbed by the dust, which
Z " #!
Σ(r)κ
Fd = 1 − exp − × Bν (T d (r))rdr. (4) reduces the integrated flux at that location (e.g., Isella et al.
d2 rin cosi
2018). As emission from the bottom side of the disk is almost
Here, κ denotes the dust opacity, which we assumed to be entirely absorbed, we conclude that the dust ring is likely opti-
3.5 cm2 g−1 at 855 µm, linearly scaled from Andrews et al. cally thick at ν = 345 GHz, a result which has found at millimeter
(2012), Bν is the Planck function evaluated at T d , and i is the CPD wavelengths for other disks as well (e.g., Pinilla et al. 2017).
inclination, which we assumed to be equal to the inclination of Along the disk major and minor axes, on the other hand, the
the circumstellar disk (51.7◦ ). iso-velocity contours do overlap. Because the 12 CO is optically
We computed the expected flux densities for different CPD thick, emission from the bottom side of the disk is self-absorbed
dust masses considering outer CPD radii of 0.3–0.7 rH and and only the top side is visible. This causes the apparent shad-
assuming that the CPD touches the planetary surface (e.g., owing along the major and minor axes of the disk (and the
rin = rp , but note that regions in which the temperature exceeds shadowing observed in the HCO+ data presented by Long et al.
the sublimation temperature of silicates (∼1500 K) were taken 2018b). A more elevated emission layer results in a larger
out of the integral). The result was compared to our noise level of azimuthal variance, because the two sides become more spatially
0.026 mJy beam−1 and is shown in Fig. 3. With the given choice resolved. The difference between the value along an inter-axis
of parameters, we find a 5σ upper dust mass limit of ∼0.01 M⊕ region and along an axis will peak at roughly a factor of two, a
(∼0.8 lunar masses). This value is roughly independent of the feature that is commonly seen in the integrated intensity maps
outer CPD radius, which means that the emission is likely opti- of high spatial resolution observations of 12 CO (e.g., Rosenfeld
cally thin. As shown in Appendix A.1, this detection limit holds et al. 2013).
for the entire estimated mass range of PDS 70 b.
3.2.1. Deriving a 12 CO emission surface
3.2. 12 CO J=3 – 2
Because the 12 CO emission comes from an elevated layer above
Figures 1a and c show the 12 CO J = 3 − 2 integrated intensity the midplane, we needed to deproject the data in order to pre-
(zeroth-moment) map; panel c includes annotations of the main cisely analyze the emission and velocity structure as a function
features. The asymmetry with respect to the disk major axis is of the radius. For this aim, we wished to derive constraints on the
clear. This is due to the significantly elevated τ ∼ 1 surface emission height of the 12 CO. Following Teague et al. (2018b),
of the 12 CO, which is typically assumed to trace disk layers we generated a map of the rotation velocity using the method
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 A&A 625, A118 (2019)

vLSR vLSR ± 2 ∆vchan vLSR ± 4 ∆vchan vLSR ± 6 ∆vchan vLSR ± 8 ∆vchan

1 - ∆v
Offset (arcsec)

+ ∆v

upper
−1 lower

1 0 −1 1 0 −1 1 0 −1 1 0 −1 1 0 −1
Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec)

Fig. 4. Iso-velocity contours for the upper (blue) and lower (red) sides of the disk at different velocities with a flared emission surface. Along the
major and minor axes, shown by the black dotted lines, the iso-velocity contours overlap, as in the leftmost and rightmost panels, and thus only
emission from the upper side of the disk is visible. Conversely, in inter-axis regions, the iso-velocity contours are spatially separated, as in the
central panels, so that emission from both sides of the disk reaches the observer. Based on Fig. 4 from Rosenfeld et al. (2013).

1.5 (a) 1.5 (b)

11 11

1.0 1.0
9 9
Velocity

Velocity
Offset (arcsec)

Offset (arcsec)
0.5 0.5
7 7

0.0 0.0
5 5
(km s−1 )

(km s−1 )
−0.5 −0.5
3 3
−1.0 −1.0
1 1
−1.5 −1.5
−1 −1
1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 −0.5 −1.0 −1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 −0.5 −1.0 −1.5
Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec)

Fig. 5. Rotation profile of the 12 CO emission (left), using the method presented in Teague & Foreman-Mackey (2018), with the best-fit surface
overlaid (right). The solid lines show the top surface, and the dotted lines show the far surface.

presented in Teague & Foreman-Mackey (2018)3 , which is robust Using this emission surface, the data were deprojected into
against confusion from the near and far sides of the disk4 . We bins of constant radius and were azimuthally averaged with the
then fit a Keplerian rotation pattern to the data, including a flared resulting integrated intensity profiles shown in Fig. 6. The radial
emission surface parameterized as z(r) = z0 × (r / 100 )ϕ , and fixed profile of the integrated flux density in the top panel shows a
the inclination at i = 51.7◦ to break the degeneracy with the stel- clear gap at 0.200 (∼23 au), consistent with the orbit of PDS 70b
lar mass. We note that our modeling of the surface height is (Keppler et al. 2018; Müller et al. 2018) and a gap width of ∼0.100 .
limited to a generic model of a flared surface because the reso- Because of the very high optical depth of 12 CO, any visible gap
lution of our data is limited. To perform more detailed modeling feature requires a significant depletion of gas or considerable
of the emission surface under consideration of spatial varia- change in gas temperature (e.g., Facchini et al. 2018).
tions of the underlying gas density structure, a higher resolution Using the brightness temperature, T B , presented in Fig. 6
is required. Our modeling results in a tight constraint on the (lower panel) as a proxy of the gas temperature, we infer a drop in
emission surface of the local gas temperature across the gap. This is consistent with a
 r 0.76±0.01 surface density depletion of the gas, which would move the τ = 1
z(r)(00 ) = (0.33 ± 0.01) × 00 , (5) surface of the 12 CO deeper within the disk, closer to the cooler
1 midplane, therefore dropping the temperature. One possibility to
with the additional parameters of Mstar = 0.875 ± 0.03 Msun , clearly distinguish the effects of temperature and density on the
PA = 160.4◦ ± 0.1◦ , and vLSR = 5505 ± 2 m s−1 . These uncertain- brightness temperature is to use the CO line width as a tracer for
ties describe the 16th to 84th percentile range of the posterior temperature variations (Teague et al. 2018a), for which higher
distributions for each parameter which are symmetric about the spectral resolution is required than given by our data, however.
median. We note that these uncertainties correspond to the sta- From the integrated flux density profile, we find that the gap
tistical uncertainties and do not take into account the systematic extends from about 0.1 to 0.300 (∼11 to 34 au). It is spatially
uncertainties that may be significantly larger. Figure 5 shows the resolved, and does not seem to extend out to the location of the
best-fit emission surface overlaid on the rotation map. dust continuum ring, although it is not possible to measure the
12
3 Using bettermoments (Teague & Foreman-Mackey 2018).
CO depletion accurately because of its large optical depth. This
4 Carrying out this modeling approach on an intensity-weighted aver- preferential depletion of grains compared to gas within a cavity
age velocity map (first-moment map), we find a much flatter disk due to is a common feature for transition disks (van der Marel et al.
the averaging of the upper and lower sides of the disk. 2015, 2016).

A118, page 6 of 15
 M. Keppler et al.: PDS 70 ALMA observations
(Jy beam−1 m s−1 )

PDS 70b continuum

60

40

20
Fν dv

0
R

60
(K)

40
TB

20

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Radius (arcsec)

Fig. 6. Radial profiles of the 12 CO integrated intensity (top), and bright-

ness temperature (bottom). Radial samples are taken every 1/4 beam
and the error bar shows the standard deviation in the azimuthal bin. The
vertical dotted line shows the orbit of PDS 70b, while the gray shaded
region shows the extent of the continuum ring. The beam size is shown
in the top right corner of each panel. Fig. 7. Top panel: measured rotation curve with 1σ uncertainties. The
blue line and blue shadowed area show the running mean and its stan-
dard deviation. The dashed gray lines show the Keplerian rotation curve
assuming the best-fit stellar mass (0.88 M , thick) and including the 3σ
3.2.2. 12 CO rotation curve uncertainties on the stellar mass (corresponding to 0.79 and 0.97 M
Radial gas pressure gradients perturb the gas rotation velocity respectively, thin) derived from the rotation map fitting. The uncertain-
ties of the stellar mass correspond to the statistical uncertainties and do
and are used as tracers for planet-induced perturbations (Pérez
not include the systematics. Bottom panel: relative residuals (blue solid)
et al. 2015; Pinte et al. 2018; Teague et al. 2018a). Veloc- and uncertainties (blue shaded area) between a smooth Keplerian curve
ity distortions by the planet at the close-in location of 22 au and the inferred rotation curve. The green hatched area highlights the
are small, such that their detection in single-channel maps as uncertainty of the absolute scaling of δvrot inferred by the 3σ statisti-
described by Pinte et al. (2018) is hampered by our limited angu- cal uncertainties on the stellar mass. In both panels, the gray shaded
lar and spectral resolution (see also Sect. 4.1.2), and further by region shows the extent of the continuum ring. The vertical dotted line
the relatively low S/N of the CO emission at the location of shows the orbit of PDS 70 b and the shaded vertical gray region traces
the planet (well within the CO-integrated flux density gap). To the location of the continuum emission.
improve the S/N of potential kinematic perturbations we there-
fore used an azimuthally averaged rotation curve of the 12 CO
data to probe the underlying gas density structure (Teague et al. (bottom panel) shows the residuals of the rotation curve (blue),
2018a). This is even possible in cases when the line emission where the green hatched area marks the uncertainty of the zero-
is optically thick. Whereas a negative pressure gradient induces point of δvrot inferred by the 3σ statistical uncertainties of the
sub-Keplerian rotation, a positive pressure gradient would cause stellar mass. Within these uncertainties, the peak of the contin-
super-Keplerian rotation. uum ring (∼0.6500 ) lies close to the location where δvrot recovers
Following the method described in Teague et al. (2018b), we Keplerian rotation and therefore where pressure reaches its
inferred the rotation profile by determining the rotation veloc- maximum.
ity for each radius which allows for all spectra in an annulus A significant deviation of up to ∼12% at ∼0.200 is observed,
to be shifted back to the same systemic velocity5 . We ran ten which is suggestive of significant changes in the gas pressure at
different realizations of this, randomizing the pixels taken from this location, consistent with the structure observed in the rota-
each annulus (making sure they are separated by at least one tion map in Fig. 5. The rotation curve clearly demonstrates a
FWHM of the beam), and randomizing the radial locations of positive pressure gradient between ∼0.4 and 0.800 , reaching a
the annuli while maintaining a radial bin width of a quarter beam maximum at about 0.5500 . This implies that the gas density is
width. The resulting rotation curve and the residual relative to the likely depleted beyond ∼0.400 , and therefore suggests that the gap
best-fit Keplerian profile are plotted in Fig. 7. is in reality larger than what is observed in integrated emission:
The absolute scale of the deviation from Keplerian rota- if the gap were only as wide as the gap in the 12 CO integrated
tion depends on the reference Keplerian velocity and therefore emission, then we would expect the peak residual of the rota-
on the assumed stellar mass. The systematic uncertainties on tion curve to fall at the edge of the gap at ∼0.300 (see Fig. 1 in
the dynamical determination of the stellar mass as well as the Teague et al. 2018a, for example), but the peak is found closer
parameterization of the surface together with the fact that our to 0.5500 . The shape of the residual curve in the inner disk,
fiducial model for the rotation velocity does not take into account r < 0.300 , is dominated by the steep gradients in the intensity
the overall pressure gradient in the disk may cause the uncer- profile that are due to both the inner disk and the gap; this
tainty of the absolute scaling to be as large as 10%. Figure 7 makes a direct analysis challenging. A more thorough discus-
sion of this effect and the effect of beam smearing is discussed
5 A Python implementation of this method, eddy (see Teague 2019), is in Sect. 4.1.2 in the context of hydrodynamical models and in
publicly available at https://github.com/richteague/eddy. Appendix A.2.
A118, page 7 of 15
 A&A 625, A118 (2019)

10
hydrodynamic and radiative transfer simulations that we present
(mJy beam−1 )

in the next section.

5

4.1. Hydrodynamic and radiative transfer models

Flux Density

4.1.1. Model setup

−5
−5 0 5 10 15 To simulate interaction between PDS 70 b and the circumstellar
Velocity (km s−1 )
disk of PDS 70, we carried out three-dimensional hydrodynamic
15
1 6.03 km s−1 6.45 km s−1 6.88 km s−1 calculations using FARGO3D (Benítez-Llambay & Masset 2016;
Masset 2000). We adopted the disk density and aspect ratio
Offset (arcsec)

10
0
profiles used in Keppler et al. (2018)
−1 5
!−1
R R
!
Σgas (R) = Σc exp − (6)
−2
0
Rc Rc
2 1 0 −1 2 1 0 −1 2 1 0 −1
Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec) and
Fig. 8. Top panel: CO line profile extracted at the location of the point
!f
H H R
source. Bottom panel: CO channel maps around 6.45 km s−1 . The white = × , (7)
circle indicates the location of the point source. R R p Rp
where Rc = 40 au, Rp = 22 au is the distance of PDS 70 b
3.2.3. Potential point source assuming a circular orbit, (H/R)p = 0.089, and f = 0.25.
We tentatively detect a point source in the 12 CO emission maps Σc = 2.87 g cm−2 was chosen such that the total gas mass in
at a projected separation of ∼0.3900 and a PA of ∼260◦ . This cor- the disk was 0.003 M , consistent with the model presented in
responds to a deprojected radius of ∼71 au, if it comes from the Keppler et al. (2018). The surface density profiles are shown in
midplane. The peak is detected at a ∼6σ level and is spatially Fig. 9a. We assumed a vertically isothermal disk temperature
offset from the Keplerian emission pattern. Figure 8 shows the structure and used an isothermal equation of state.
spectrum extracted at the location of the source, and three chan- The simulation domain extends from r = 0.2 Rp to 9 Rp in the
nel maps showing the offset nature of the emission. The signal radial direction, from π/2 − 0.4 to π/2 in the meridional direc-
appears at a velocity of around 6.45 km s−1 , corresponding to tion, and from 0 to 2π in the azimuthal direction. We adopted
a redshift of roughly 1 km s−1 with respect to the line center 256 logarithmically spaced grid cells in the radial direction, 48
of the Keplerian profile. The spectrum also shows a blueshifted uniformly spaced grid cells in the meridional direction, and 420
peak, whose emission may be biased from the bottom side of the uniformly spaced grid cells in the azimuthal direction. A disk
disk, however. Interestingly, if it were located in the midplane, viscosity of α = 10−3 was added to the simulations. This value of
the source would be located well within the dust continuum ring, turbulence is consistent with the level of turbulence constrained
close to the dip between the main and the tentative second peak for the protoplanetary disks around TW Hya (Teague et al. 2016,
detected in the continuum profiles (see Sect. 3.1.1). Spatially off- 2018c; Flaherty et al. 2018) and HD 163296 (Flaherty et al. 2015,
set emission has been shown to potentially be a signature of a 2017).
CPD (Pérez et al. 2015), as the additional rotation of the CPD We tested three planet masses: 2, 5, and 10 MJup , cover-
would shift the emission from the Keplerian pattern. If the sig- ing the range of potential planet masses proposed by Keppler
nal were indeed connected to a forming embedded planet, this et al. (2018), assuming a 0.85 solar-mass star. The simulations
might explain the azimuthal gap found in the HCO+ emission at ran for 1000 orbits, after which we find that the gap width
a similar location (Long et al. 2018b) because chemical changes and depth reached a quasi-steady state. This is in agreement
due to heating from the planet may locally deplete HCO (Cleeves with other planet–disk interaction simulations from the literature
et al. 2015). Additional observations are required to confirm the (e.g., Duffell & MacFadyen 2013; Fung et al. 2014; Kanagawa
potential point source. et al. 2015). The radial profile of the deviations from Keplerian
rotation after 1000 orbits is shown in Fig. 10b.
We generated 12 CO image cubes using the radiative transfer
4. Discussion code RADMC3D version 0.416 . We first computed the ther-
mal structure of the disk by running a thermal Monte Carlo
As shown by theoretical studies, the interaction of a massive
calculation. To do so, we placed a 0.85 solar-mass star at the
body with the disk opens a gap in the gas (e.g., Lin & Papaloizou
center. This star had an effective temperature of 3972 K and a
1986). The perturbation of the local gas density causes a change
radius of 1.26 R (Pecaut & Mamajek 2016; Keppler et al. 2018),
in the local pressure gradient, which manifests itself in two
emitting 108 photon packages. As in Keppler et al. (2018), we
ways. First, it generates a pressure bump outside the planetary
considered two grain size distributions whose number density
orbit, trapping large dust particles (while small particles that
followed a power law as a function of the grain size a with
are well coupled to the gas may still enter the gap). This leads
n(a) ∝ a−3.5 : small grains ranged from 0.001 to 0.15 µm and
to a spatial segregation of large and small grains (e.g., Pinilla
large grains ranged from 0.15 to 1000 µm. The relative mass frac-
et al. 2012). Second, the change in pressure gradient manifests
tion of small to large grains was 1/31, implying that about 3% of
itself in a local deviation from Keplerian rotation the ampli-
the total dust mass was confined within the small grain popula-
tude of which is sensitive to the planet mass (Teague et al.
tion. This is consistent with previous radiative transfer models of
2018a).
Our aim is to investigate the impact of PDS 70 b on the 6 http://www.ita.uni-heidelberg.de/~dullemond/
observed disk morphology. For this purpose we carried out software/radmc-3d/

A118, page 8 of 15
 M. Keppler et al.: PDS 70 ALMA observations

Radius (au) Radius (au)

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
102
Surface density [g cm−2 ]

raw models 6000 convolved models + obs.

100 2 Mjup

vrot [m/s]
5 Mjup
10−2 2 Mjup 4000 10 Mjup
5 Mjup data
10−4 10 Mjup (a)
(a) obs. 2000

10−6 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Radius (arcsec)
Radius (arcsec) Radius (au)
Radius (au)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.2
raw models
Int. flux density [arb. units]

1.0
convolved models + obs. 0.1
0.8

δvrot
0.0
0.6

0.4 −0.1 (b)

0.2 (b)
−0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Radius (arcsec)
Radius (arcsec) Radius (au)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.2
Fig. 9. Comparison of hydrodynamical models including a 2 MJup convolved models + obs.
(yellow), 5 MJup (green), and 10 MJup (red) planet located at 0.200 with 0.1
the observations (blue). Panel a: azimuthally averaged surface density
δvrot

profiles of hydrodynamical simulations. The dotted line corresponds 0.0

to the initial unperturbed surface density profile. Panel b: integrated
−0.1
azimuthally averaged CO flux density of observations and ALMA- (c)
simulated models, after applying 2σ clipping. In each panel, the gray −0.2
shaded area indicates the extension of the continuum ring, and the ver- 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
tical dotted line corresponds to the approximate location of PDS 70 b. Radius (arcsec)
The black bar in the second panel indicates the major axis of the beam
(0.07600 ). Fig. 10. Comparison of hydrodynamical models including a 2 MJup
(yellow), 5 MJup (green), and 10 MJup (red) planet located at 0.200
with the observations (blue). Panel a: rotation velocity as a function
PDS 70 (Dong et al. 2012; Keppler et al. 2018). We assumed that of deprojected distance. The gray dash-dotted line indicates the unper-
the grains are composed of 70% astronomical silicates (Draine turbed Keplerian profile around a 0.88 M star. Panel b: deviation from
2003) and 30% amorphous carbon grains (Zubko et al. 1996). Keplerian rotation of the hydrodynamical simulations at the τ = 1 sur-
The grain opacity was computed according to the Mie theory face. Panel c: deviation from Keplerian rotation of ALMA-simulated
using the BHMIE code (Bohren & Huffman 1983). models and observations. The plot shows the running mean and stan-
dard deviations. The inner region up to 160 mas is affected by beam
CO line radiative transfer was done under local thermal equi-
confusion effects and is therefore blocked out. In each panel, the gray
librium (LTE) assumptions, assuming a constant 12 CO to H2 shaded area indicates the extension of the continuum ring, and the ver-
ratio of 10−4 (e.g., Lacy et al. 1994; Williams & Best 2014). tical dotted line corresponds to the approximate location of PDS 70 b.
A local spatially unresolved microturbulence was added at a The black bar in the first and third panel indicates the major axis of the
constant level of 30 m s−1 . This choice is equivalent to α of a beam (0.07600 ).
few × 10−3 . We simulated the ALMA observations using the
SIMOBSERVE task in CASA version 5.1.2. using the same veloc-
ity resolution, synthesized beam, and on-source integration time We compare the radial profiles of the simulated and observed
as were used in the observations. Thermal noise from the atmo- integrated flux densities in Fig. 9b. The profiles show evidence of
sphere and from the antenna receivers was added by setting the a depletion in integrated flux density at the location of the planet,
thermalnoise option in the simobserve task to tsys-atm. Using which is stronger for higher planet masses. The width and depth
the same tools as for the observations, we derived the velocity- of the depleted flux density in the observations are reasonably
integrated flux density, as well as the rotation profiles for each well reproduced by a 5 MJup planet. We note that the models
simulation (Figs. 9 and 10). appear to overestimate the increase in flux density toward the
inner disk. Because CO is optically thick, this is likely caused by
4.1.2. Comparison with observations a different temperature structure of the inner disk region, the rea-
son for which could be a different density profile than assumed
The disk density distribution from the hydrodynamic model and (e.g., overestimation of the actual density in the inner part of the
a simulated 12 CO zeroth-moment map are presented in Fig. 11. disk, or a different gap shape), but needs further investigation
The 5 MJup planet opens a gap around its orbit, which is with higher angular resolution that is able to better resolve these
clearly visible in the simulated zeroth moment map. We find inner regions.
that velocity kinks associated with the planet-driven spiral arms Figure 10a presents the absolute rotation profiles, and the
are present in raw simulated channel maps, similar to what is residual δvrot profiles before and after radiative transfer and
found in HD 163296 (Pinte et al. 2018). However, the velocity ALMA simulations are shown in panels b and c, respectively.
distortions are too small and thus smeared out after convolution We note two points: first, a comparison of the residual model
with the ALMA beam. profiles before and after convolution alters the overall shape of
A118, page 9 of 15
 A&A 625, A118 (2019)

Fig. 11. Left panel: three-dimensional volume rendering of the gas density (in a normalized unit with logarithmic scaling) after evolution of 1000
orbits in the inner 100 au of the model disk with a 5 MJup planet at 22 au. Ticks on the axes mark every 25 au. Right panel: simulated 12 CO
zeroth-moment map based on the hydrodynamic model presented in the left panel.

the rotation curves. Second, the residual curve of the PDS 70 isothermal assumption and introducing a more physical prescrip-
disk follows the general shape of the modeled curves, but it dif- tion of the vertical temperature structure may be able to solve this
fers with respect to the location of the maximum, as well as the discrepancy, but is beyond the scope of this study.
velocity gradient toward the inner disk. Toward the inner region the observed rotation curve is flat-
The change in the shape of the rotation curve when sim- ter, which may again be due to a slightly different gap shape
ulating the observations is due to beam convolution effects in (i.e., a flatter inner edge). The most conspicuous difference to
the presence of strong radial gradients in intensity and veloc- the models is the region of super-Keplerian rotation beyond the
ity. This is described in detail in Appendix A.2. In brief, sharp planet, which extend farther out than in the models. As shown in
edges in the flux density profile induce a distortion in the mea- Sect. 3.2.2, within the uncertainties, the observed rotation curve
surement of the rotation curve because the velocities measured returns to Keplerian rotation close to the location of maximum
within one beam are biased toward those at the highest line inten- emission in the continuum ring (∼0.6500 or 74 au) (see Fig. 7).
sity. This causes the velocity to be overestimated in the inner This is consistent with the interpretation of large grains being
region of the gap and underestimated at the outer edge of the trapped in the region of maximum pressure (e.g., Pinilla et al.
gap. The resulting rotation curve is of a characteristic shape that 2012). While we have shown that the observed integrated flux
is asymmetric with respect to the gap center (see Fig. A.2). It density profile can be reproduced well by one planet of 5 MJup ,
shows evidence of strong super-Keplerian rotation in the inner the large extension of super-Keplerian rotation and the concomi-
gap region, and a weaker region of sub-Keplerian rotation at tant far-out location of the continuum ring imply that the gap
the outer gap edge. This effect is now superimposed on the is wider in reality than predicted by all the models. It there-
effect of the planet-induced pressure gradient on the rotation pro- fore appears within our model assumptions that only one planet
file (sub-/super-Keplerian rotation inside/outside the planetary located at the orbit of PDS 70 b may not be sufficient to gener-
orbit). This effect can be fully accounted for when performing ate a kinematic signature in the disk with the inferred width or
forward modeling. As Fig. 10c shows, all convolved model pro- maintain a continuum ring at ∼74 au. This scenario needs to be
files show this characteristic shape, and the amplitudes of their probed by future observations at higher spectral resolution.
minima and maxima depend on the planetary mass. This is consistent with gap width considerations in the lit-
The observed rotation curve of PDS 70 shows the same erature. As an example, hydrodynamical and dust simulations
characteristic transition from sub-Keplerian to super-Keplerian suggest that the accumulation of large dust grains is expected to
transition as the models. While we found that the width and be found at roughly 10 RH outward of the planetary orbit (Pinilla
depth of the integrated flux density profiles seem consistent with et al. 2012; Rosotti et al. 2016). For a 10 MJup planet at the
the effect of a 5 MJup planet, we find that the radial loca- location of the PDS 70 b orbit, the dust ring would therefore be
tion and the amplitude of the minimum δvrot of the rotation expected at about 46–56 au, assuming a stellar mass of 0.88 M .
curve of the PDS 70 disk is best matched by the perturbations This suggests that an additional low-mass planet located
created by a 10 MJup planet. We note, however, that our hydro- beyond PDS 70 or the combination with other physical mecha-
dynamic models consider a vertically isothermal temperature nisms such as photoevaporation or dead zones may be needed
structure, whereas in a more realistic approach (introducing a to explain the outward-shifted location of the pressure bump.
more physical prescription for the vertical temperature struc- Models indeed predict that large gaps in transitional disks can be
ture), the deviation from Keplerian rotation may be higher in reproduced by introducing multiple planets (Dodson-Robinson
the disk surface than in the midplane, implying that the δvrot & Salyk 2011; Zhu et al. 2011; Duffell & Dong 2015). Detailed
in the current models may be underestimated (Bae et al, in modeling of the system by introducing multiple planets as well
prep.; see also Fig. 3 of Teague et al. 2018a). Relaxing the as deep observations are required to constrain the planetary

A118, page 10 of 15
 M. Keppler et al.: PDS 70 ALMA observations

architecture that is responsible for the observed features; this is – We derived upper limits on the circumplanetary disk. Based
beyond the scope of this study. on the noise level of the image we infer a 5σ upper dust limit
An alternative scenario to explain the distant location of the lower than ∼0.01 M⊕ .
ring compared to the position of PDS 70 b is to consider that the – The CO-integrated intensity shows evidence of two radial
ring traces a secondary pressure bump. Single planets can indeed intensity depressions; the inner depression of the flux den-
open multiple gaps in a disk with low viscosity, or alternatively, sity lies at ∼0.200 (corresponding to the location of PDS 70 b)
vortices generated at the edge of a gap can lead to a secondary and a second gap at about 0.600 . The inner gap is most
ring (Lobo Gomes et al. 2015). In this latter scenario, the pri- likely carved by PDS 70 b. Comparison of the flux density
mary ring, located at ∼50 au (corresponding to ∼10 RH from a profile to hydrodynamical simulations showed that the gap
5 MJup planet at 22 au), would be depleted. The secondary ring width and depth is best reproduced by a 5 MJup body. The
would be located at ∼1.5 × the location of the primary ring (Lobo outer gap can be explained by the dust being optically thick.
Gomes et al. 2015), corresponding to ∼75 au, which is where the Furthermore, we found evidence for an azimuthal intensity
dust ring is found in the PDS 70 system. Furthermore, secondary modulation that is due to self-absorption by optically thick
vortices may be generated at the edge of the secondary ring. If CO. We also detected a bridge-like feature in the CO at the
this is the case, this may also explain the azimuthal asymmetry location of the spur seen in the continuum as well as the inner
observed in the dust continuum. A detailed exploration of this disk, which extended out to ∼15 au. Finally, we reported the
scenario will be the subject of a follow-up study. tentative detection of a possible point source in the 12 CO
emission maps, the existence of which needs to be confirmed
4.2. Upper limit on CPD dust mass with additional observations.
– We detected significant deviation from Keplerian rotation
The detection of Hα emission at the location PDS 70 implies inside ∼0.800 . The width of the δvrot feature is consistent with
that PDS 70 b is actively accreting (Wagner et al. 2018) and the far-out location of the dust ring. Comparison to hydrody-
therefore likely possesses an accretion disk. Still, we can only namical simulations implies that the depth of the kinematic
derive upper limits on the circumplanetary disk with our data. signature is best matched by a ∼10 MJup object (within our
Models of planet formation predict circumplanetary dust around model assumptions of an isothermal disk), but the width of
young planets, implying that CPDs should be frequent. How- the feature suggests that one planet alone located at the orbit
ever, searches for circumplanetary material in the submillime- of PDS 70 b may not be sufficient to generate a gap with the
ter/millimeter continuum around other young substellar compan- inferred extension. An additional physical mechanisms or a
ions have been unsuccessful, although active accretion through second low-mass body may be required to explain the disk
the Hα and/or Paβ lines was detected in some of these cases morphology. Future observations at higher angular and spec-
(e.g., Isella et al. 2014; Bowler et al. 2015; MacGregor et al. tral resolution will allow us to place tighter constraints on the
2017; Wolff et al. 2017; Ricci et al. 2017; Pineda et al. 2019). planetary system architecture that can account for all of the
Our upper limit on the CPD dust content of ∼0.01 M⊕ is similar observed features in the PDS 70 disk morphology.
to that derived for other systems (Pineda et al. 2019).
The detection of CPDs in the (sub-)millimeter regime may Acknowledgements. We thank the anonymous referee for constructive
be challenging for several reasons. First, CPDs are expected to comments that helped improve the manuscript. This paper makes
use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.A.00006.S,
be very small, which substantially reduces the emitting area and ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00888.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (represent-
therefore the expected signal. Second, because the large grains ing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC
are substantially trapped in the outer dust ring, the replenishment (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan) and KASI (Republic of Korea),
of large grains within the gap is expected to be inefficient. Even in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is
if small grains pass the gap and replenish the CPD, the radial operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy
Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under
drift is expected to be extremely efficient when they grow. The cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This publication has
radial drift will deplete the large grains very fast (Pinilla et al. received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innova-
2013; Zhu et al. 2018). A search for the CPD using gas kine- tion program under grant agreement No 730562 (RadioNet). R.T. acknowledges
matics as a tracer or NIR observations might therefore be more funding from the NSF grants AST-1514670 and NASA NNX16AB48G. M.B.
acknowledges funding from ANR of France under contract number ANR-16-
promising. CE31-0013 (Planet Forming disks). J.B. acknowledges support from NASA grant
NNX17AE31G and computing resources provided by the Advanced Research
Computing at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Y.L. acknowledges
5. Summary and conclusions supports by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province of China (Grant
No. BK20181513) and by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
The young planet PDS 70 b is the most robust case of a directly No. 11503087). S.F. acknowledges an ESO Fellowship. G.R. and A.J. are
imaged forming planet in the gap of a transition disk. We supported by the DISCSIM project, grant agreement 341137 funded by the
obtained ALMA Band 7 DDT observations in Cycle 5 and com- European Research Council under ERC-2013-ADG. G.R. acknowledges support
bined them with previous Cycle 3 data (Long et al. 2018b) to from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO, program
number 016.Veni.192.233). G.H.M.B. and M.F. acknowledge funding from
study the natal environment of the planet at high angular res- the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon
olution (∼0.0700 ) in dust continuum and at the 12 CO J = 3–2 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 757957). L.P.
transition. Our conclusions are listed below. acknowledges support from CONICYT project Basal AFB-170002 and from
– We detected the emission from the dust continuum as a FONDECYT Iniciación project No. 11181068. A.M. acknowledges the support
highly structured ring. Its radial distribution peaks at ∼74 au. of the DFG priority program SPP 1992 “Exploring the Diversity of Extrasolar
Planets” (MU 4172/1-1).
The inner edge of the ring shows evidence of a marginally
resolved second ring component that peaks at around 60 au.
We also detected a spur that projects into the gap at a References
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 M. Keppler et al.: PDS 70 ALMA observations

Appendix A: Appendix information therefore conclude that the temperature structure in our calcu-
lation is insensitive to the choice of the planet mass within the
0.014
estimated range for a CPD of a given size.
2 Mjup 10 Mjup
0.012 The outer radius does depend on the planet mass, however.
5 Mjup 17 Mjup
The lower the planet mass, the smaller the disk it will be able
CPD dust mass [M⊕ ]

0.010 to retain. This is illustrated in Fig. A.1, which shows the 5σ and
3σ detection limits for the estimated mass ranges based on the
0.008 comparison of NIR photometry with evolutionary models and
0.006
atmospheric modeling (Keppler et al. 2018; Müller et al. 2018).
The figure illustrates that (1) at a given CPD size, the CPD flux
0.004 is independent of the planetary mass, (2) the 5σ detection limits
(thick lines) are rather constant for all disk sizes, mostly below
0.002 ∼0.01 M⊕ , indicating optically thin emission (except for the case
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
of 2 MJup , where emission is in transition to optically thick), and
CPD outer radius [au]
(3) CPDs around planets with different masses cover different
Fig. A.1. CPD 5σ (thick line) and 3σ (thin line) detection limits for ranges of disk sizes.
different planet masses covering the mass range for PDS 70 b estimated
by Keppler et al. (2018) and Müller et al. (2018). A.2. Effect of beam smearing on the rotation curve
For a beam of a given size, the spectrum, and thus the velocity of
A.1. Dependency of CPD detection limits on planetary mass the gas traced, observed at each pixel corresponds to the average
and accretion rate of all spectra within the beam centered on that pixel, weighted by
We explore the dependency of the CPD detection limit on the their line intensities and the beam shape. If the intensity gradient
planetary mass and accretion rate. In our approach, the CPD tem- across the beam is steep, this will cause the sampled velocity to
perature profile results from three contributions: heating from be strongly biased toward the region of highest intensity, rather
irradiation by the central star, from irradiation by the planet, than the beam center.
and from viscous accretion (see Eq. (1)). The irradiation by the This effect is illustrated in Fig. A.2 (left). For a smooth radial
planet depends on its luminosity, and therefore on its tempera- disk intensity profile, the figure shows for each distance the sam-
ture and radius (T P ∼ 1200 K, rP ∼3 RJup for PDS 70 b; Müller pled radius, that is, the radius within the beam at which the
et al. 2018), and the contribution from accretional heating is pro- velocity receives the highest weighting and which therefore cor-
portional to the product of planet mass and accretion rate (see responds to the effective radius at which the velocity is observed.
Eqs. (2) and (3)). Their relative contribution can be expressed This is shown for different power-law exponents of the radial
as intensity profile of the disk. We note that the steeper the intensity
profile, the greater the bias of the sampled radius toward smaller
4
T acc 30G Mp Ṁacc  r 1/2 # radii, and the greater the overestimate of the measured velocity.
"
p
4
(r) = 4 2
1− . (A.1) This is even more complex when the intensity profile devi-
T irr,p 8πσSB T p rp r r
ates from a simple power law, as in the presence of a gap
structure. The additional steep gradients at the gap edges cause
This expression has a maximum at about 2.25 × rp , and we
regions closer to the inner gap edge to become even more biased
can therefore write
toward smaller distances and therefore higher velocities, whereas
4
T acc 5GMp Ṁacc regions close to the outer gap edge are biased toward larger dis-
4
≤ tances and lower velocities. Figure A.2 (bottom right) shows the
T irr,p 18πσSB T p4 rp3
!4 !3 deviation from Keplerian rotation, assuming an intensity pro-
1200 K 3 RJup MP Ṁacc file with a gap structure centered around 0.200 and a beam size
! !
≈ 0.03 × × × .
TP RP 5 MJup 10−8 MJup yr−1 of 76 mas (top right). The resulting δvrot profile is asymmetric
with respect to the gap center, with super-Keplerian rotation in
(A.2) the inner regions changing into sub-Keplerian rotation beyond
∼0.300 , and the strength of the deviation is sensitive to the gap
For the given parameter choice, accretional heating is there- depth. This beam-smearing effect is added to the deviation from
fore negligible. Keplerian rotation that is due to the planet-induced pressure
For a planetary mass of 5 MJup and radius of 3 RJup , Wagner gradient.
et al. (2018) calculated an accretion rate for PDS 70 b of 3 × 10−9 Figure A.3 demonstrates the effects of this bias using the
to 9 × 10−8 MJup yr−1 , depending on the assumed extinction. radial intensity profile from Fig. 6 and compares this effect to
Thus, even in case of high extinction and therefore high accretion the functional form from the pressure gradient (shown in light
4 4
rate, the term T acc /T irr,p is lower than 0.3, and the contribu- blue). The resulting profile is the combination of both factors,
tion from accretional heating is still marginal. We note that the whose relative amplitudes depend on the gap shape. While this
planetary mass cannot be varied independently of the accre- limits interpretation, these effects are fully accounted for with
tion rate because the product MP Ṁacc is to be conserved. We forward modeling, as presented in Sect. 4.1.

A118, page 13 of 15
 A&A 625, A118 (2019)

0.5
Fν ∝ r −1 1.0

Fν / Fν, 0
Fν ∝ r −2
0.4
Sampled Radius (arcsec) Fν ∝ r −3
0.5

0.3 0.0

30
0.2
20

(%)
10
0.1

δvrot
0

0.0 −10
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radius (arcsec) Radius (arcsec)

Fig. A.2. Effect of beam convolution in the presence of intensity gradients on the radial sampling of the rotation velocity. Left panel: deviation of
the sampled radius (i.e. the radius within the beam at which the intensity and therefore the weighting of the velocity is highest due to the convolution
with the beam) from the real radius in the presence of smooth intensity profiles with different power-law indices. The effect is stronger for steeper
intensity profiles. Right panels: effect of beam convolution in the presence of a gap-shaped intensity profile with varying depths (upper right) on
the resulting residual rotation curve (bottom right). In both cases, a beam size of 76 mas is assumed, shown by the horizontal black bar.

0.5 10 1.0
(a) (b)
(arcsec)

δvrot
dI / dr
0.4
5 0.5
(%)

0.3
Sampled Radius

dI / dr
0 0.0
δvrot

0.2
−5 −0.5
0.1
−10 −1.0

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radius (arcsec) Radius (arcsec)

Fig. A.3. Similar to Fig. A.2, but using the observed intensity profile from Fig. 6. Left panel: bias in the sampled radius caused by the gap at 0.200 ,
shown by the vertical dashed line. Right panel: resulting deviation in velocity expected by this bias in red. For contrast, the blue line shows the
deviations expected from a pressure gradient, here using the normalized radial gradient of the intensity as a proxy. The recovered δvrot therefore is
a combination of these two effects.

Fig. A.4. Results on the MCMC fit of the deprojected and binned vis-
ibilities of the dust continuum, following the approach by Pinilla et al.
(2018).

A118, page 14 of 15
 M. Keppler et al.: PDS 70 ALMA observations

1.0 1.0 0.36

1.38
0.29
1.21
0.5 0.5 0.21
1.03
0.14
Offset (arcsec)

Offset (arcsec)
0.86

[mJy/beam]
0.07

[arb.]
0.0 0.68 0.0
-0.01
0.50
-0.08
0.33
−0.5 −0.5 -0.15
0.15
-0.23
-0.02
-0.30
−1.0 -0.20 −1.0
1.0 0.5 0.0 −0.5 −1.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 −0.5 −1.0
Offset (arcsec) Offset (arcsec)

Fig. A.5. Cycle 5 dust continuum data (left) and SPHERE NIR image (right, from Müller et al. 2018), the ALMA Cycle 5 data contours are
overlaid in white. The solid contours show levels of 2, 3, 5, and 10σ, and the dotted line corresponds to 1σ.

A118, page 15 of 15