2022

Analysis of Truss

Student Name
[Company name]
3/14/2022
Table of Contents
Client Briefing theory ...................................................................................................................... 3
Assumption ................................................................................................................................. 3
stability of the truss .................................................................................................................... 3
Derivation.................................................................................................................................... 5
Truss Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 7
Reactions ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Member forces and nature of forces ........................................................................................ 13
Construction material science ...................................................................................................... 14
Raw materials their sources and purposes ............................................................................... 14
Production stage of cement.......................................................................................................... 15
Crushing and grinding ............................................................................................................... 15
Blending .................................................................................................................................... 16
Burning ...................................................................................................................................... 16
Grinding..................................................................................................................................... 16
Importance of hydration and its products ................................................................................ 17
Types of corrosion..................................................................................................................... 18
Mechanism of corrosion of reinforcement in concrete ........................................................... 18
Measures to control corrosion ................................................................................................. 19
o Cement-Polymer Composite Coated Rebars (CPCC) ...................................................... 19
o Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coated Rebars (FBEC) ................................................................. 19
o Corrosion Resistant Steel Deformed Rebars (CRSD) ...................................................... 19
References .................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 1 External unstable truss ..................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2 Internally unstable truss ................................................................................................... 4
Figure 3 Manufacturing of ordinary Portland cement.................................................................. 15
Figure 4 Products of hydration ..................................................................................................... 17
Figure 5Mechanism of corrosion in concrete ............................................................................... 18
Client Briefing theory
Truss is a structure system formed by arranging elements in triangular pattern. Truss is used to
support long span slab instead of beam. In highway bridges, trusses are used to distribute the load
of deck in itself and act as a supporting structure. Truss is classified into different type based on
the arrangement of triangles and material used. Truss is designed to carry pure tension and
compression forces. In this way, no moment and shear are formed at truss

Assumption
• During the analysis of truss, it is assumed that all the joints of the truss are pinned, in
this way no moment or shear stresses are produced in the truss.
• During load calculations, it was assumed that load is applied to the joints only.
• All the members are straight.
• The weight of the truss is neglected.
• All the members are connected to their end only.

stability of the truss

Stability refers to the resistance of truss against the deformation of large strain or unusual
movement. External stability refers to the resistance of support reactions of the truss. A truss is
externally stable if it has minimum three support reaction, one pinned and other is hinge. In
other words, if the line of action of all the support are concurrent, the truss is considered as
externally stable.

Figure 1 External unstable truss

The truss showing in figure 1 is externally unstable because all the reactions are parallel, as a
result when horizonal load is applied at the structure, the truss starts moving in horizonal
direction. To make this truss stable, pin support should be placed to resist horizonal forces.

Internal stability is the resistance of all the members against the load. In other words, if the
number of members is less than the required one, the structure undergoes large movement.
Number of members should satisfy the following equation

Number of members = 2(Number of joint) – number of reactions

Figure 2 Internally unstable truss

The truss showing in figure 2 in internally unstable because the required number of members
are less than 2(Number of joint) – number of reactions

Determinacy

Structure is classified as determinate and indeterminate structures. Determinate structure is

one which can be analyze using equation of equilibrium. Truss is classified as externally
indeterminate and internally indeterminate. External determinate truss is a truss whose
number of reactions are equal to number of equilibrium equations. If the numbers of reactions
are more than the number of equilibrium equations, the truss in considered as indeterminate
truss while if the number reactions are less than the number of equilibrium equations, the truss
in considered as unstable. In relation to this, if the number of members in the truss is greater
than the equation below, the truss is considered as externally indeterminate

Number of members >2(Number of joint) – number of reactions

Equation of determinacy

Determinacy of the truss is determined using the equation (m+r = 2j)

Number of members = m = 7

Number of joints = j = 5

Number of reactions = r = 3

7 + 3 = 2(5)

10 = 10

This proves that the truss is stable as well as determinate.

Derivation
As there is a hinge at each end of each member, there are 2m connections between members
and hinged joints in the structure (where mm is the number of truss members). To find the
number of equations of condition at each joint, the equation e=n−1, e=n−1 applies. This
equation tells that for each hinged joint, there are e=n−1ec=n−1 equations of condition,
where n is the number of members connected to the hinge. This means that each joint has one
less equation of condition than the number of members connected to it. Therefore, we must
subtract 11 from the total number of hinged connections at for each joint. The total number of
equations of condition for the whole truss then becomes the total number of connections
between members connected to hinged joints, minus the number of joints (since we have to
subtract 11 for each joint):

e=2m−j(4)e=2m−j

where m is the number of truss members and j is the total number of joints between truss
members.
If sub this value of e into the general equation for indeterminacy (3)

(m +r = 2j) Proved.
Truss Analysis
Reactions
Member forces and nature of forces
Construction material science
Raw materials their sources and purposes
Following are the main raw materials used in the construction of ordinary Portland cement

Lime Ca(0H)2

The main source of lime is limestone. It makes the cement sound and strong. The excess lime
quantity makes the cement unsound and cause the cement to expend and disintegrate.

Silicon (Si)

The main source of silicon is sand, old bottles or argillaceous rock. It gives strength to the
cement by the formation of dicalcium silicate and tricalciums silicate. The silica in excess
quantity causes the cement to set slowly.

Iron oxide Fe (OH)2

The primary source of iron oxide is clay. The main function of iron oxide in cement is to give
color, hardness and strength to the cement.

Alumina Al

The primary source of aluminum is mud- clay The main function of aluminum is to set the
cement quickly.
Production stage of cement
Portland cement is made in four stages: (1) crushing and grinding the raw materials, (2)
blending the materials in the proper proportions, (3) kilning the prepared mix, and (4) grinding
the kilned product, known as "clinker," along with about 5% gypsum (to control the time of set
of the cement). The wet, dry, and semidry processes are so named because the raw materials
are ground wet and fed to the kiln as a slurry, ground dry and fed as a dry powder, or ground
dry and then moistened to form nodules that are fed to the kiln as nodules.

Crushing and grinding

Except for soft materials, which are crushed in two stages and then ground in a rotating,
cylindrical ball mill or tube mill containing a charge of steel grinding balls, all materials are
crushed first. This grinding can be done wet or dry, depending on the process, but raw
materials may need to be dried first in cylindrical, rotary dryers for dry grinding. Soft materials
are broken down in wash mills by vigorous stirring with water, resulting in a fine slurry that is
filtered to remove oversize particles.

Figure 3 Manufacturing of ordinary Portland cement

Blending
Selective quarrying and control of the raw material fed to the crushing and grinding plant yield
a first approximation of the chemical composition required for a particular cement. Material is
drawn from two or more batches containing raw mixes with slightly different compositions for
finer control. These mixes are stored in silos in the dry process and slurry tanks in the wet
process. Agitation and vigorous circulation induced by compressed air ensure thorough mixing
of the dry materials in the silos. The slurry tanks in the wet process are stirred by mechanical
means, compressed air, or both.

Burning
Bottle kilns were the first kilns to burn cement in batches, followed by chamber kilns, and
finally continuous shaft kilns. In some countries, the shaft kiln is still used in a modernized form,
but the rotary kiln is the most common method of burning. These kilns are made up of a steel,
cylindrical shell lined with refractory materials and can be up to 200 meters (660 feet) long and
six meters in diameter in wet process plants but shorter in dry process plants. They spin slowly
on an axis that is angled to the horizontal by a few degrees.

Grinding
In horizontal mills similar to those used for grinding raw materials, the clinker and the required
amount of gypsum are ground to a fine powder. The material may pass through the mill
without being separated from the ground product (open-circuit grinding), or it may be
separated from the ground product and returned to the mill for further grinding (closed-circuit
grinding). A small amount of grinding aid is sometimes added to the feed material. The addition
of an air-entraining agent is made in the same way for air-entraining cements.
Importance of hydration and its products
Hydration of cement is the chemical reaction that occurs when cement and water come into
contact. This reaction is exothermic, which means that a lot of heat is released during the
hydration of cement. This is referred to as the 'heat of hydration.' Cement hydration is a slow
and gradual process. This reaction is faster in the beginning and continues to slow down
indefinitely.

When the process of hydration takes places, mainly four main products are formed

Figure 4 Products of hydration

When water is added to cement, each of the compound’s hydrates and contributes to the
finished concrete. Only calcium silicates contribute to the strength of the material. The majority
of the early strength comes from tricalcium silicate (first 7 days). Dicalcium silicate, which reacts
more slowly, only contributes to the strength of the structure later on.

Tricalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate +Calcium hydroxide + heat

2 Ca3SiO5 + 7 H2O ---> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + 3 Ca (OH)2 + 173.6kJ

One of the most important products of the hydration process is calcium silicate hydrate, which
determines the good properties of cement. From the above reactions, it can be seen that C3S
produces more calcium hydroxide than C2S.
Calcium hydroxide is not a desirable product in concrete because it is soluble in water and can
be leached out, making the concrete porous and reducing the concrete's durability, especially in
hydraulic structures.

Types of corrosion
Following are the types of corrosion.

o UNIFORM CORROSION
o PITTING CORROSION
o CREVICE CORROSION
o INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
o STRESS CORROSION CRACKING (SCC)
o GALVANIC CORROSION

Mechanism of corrosion of reinforcement in concrete

When the protective layer in concrete steel reinforcement is destroyed, corrosion occurs. The
high pH of the surrounding portland-cement paste usually protects steel in concrete from
corrosion. Steel will not corrode at a pH of 12.5, which is the minimum pH of cement paste. If
moisture, oxygen, and chloride ions are present, corrosion may occur when the pH is lowered
(for example, to pH 10 or less). The protective layer on the steel reinforcement is destroyed by
chloride ions, making it prone to corrosion. The corrosion product (rust) takes up more space
than the steel and causes destructive stresses on the concrete around it.

Figure 5Mechanism of corrosion in concrete

Measures to control corrosion
o Cement-Polymer Composite Coated Rebars (CPCC)
Because cement polymer coated rebars embedded in concrete are surrounded by an alkaline
medium, cement-based coatings are better for preventing reinforcement corrosion. On rebar,
two coats of cement polymer are applied.

o Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coated Rebars (FBEC)

Fusion bonded epoxy coated rebar is made from finely ground fused powder particles that are
100 percent solid. When heated, these particles melt and form a continuous adherent film. In
the case of FBEC rebars, no passivating primer film is provided. In the path of an intimate bond
between rebar and alkaline concrete, fusion bonded epoxy coating introduces a medium of
weakness.

o Corrosion Resistant Steel Deformed Rebars (CRSD)

The formation of an initial layer of protective oxide or rust is the first step in the corrosion
resistance mechanism. (Hypo oxidants.) Unlike normal rebar rust, the CRSD rust is passive,
persistent, and self-renewing. The protective oxide is finely textured, adheres firmly, and acts as
a barrier to moisture, oxygen, carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, and chloride, effectively
preventing further corrosion. Scale on normal steel bars is a flaky, coarse-textured oxide that
allows moisture and oxygen to reach the underlying bars, allowing corrosion to continue.
Because corrosion resistance is built into the grade's chemistry, if the passive oxide layer is
removed in any way, a new passive layer form almost immediately.
References
o Csernak, S.F. and Csernak, S.F., 2012. Structural steel design. Pearson.
o Segui, W.T., 2012. Steel design. Cengage Learning.
o Muir, L. and Duncan, C.J., 2011. The AISC 2010 Specification and the 14th Edition Steel
Construction Manual. In Structures Congress 2011 (pp. 661-675).
o Böhni, H. ed., 2005. Corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. Elsevier.