Seeing and Touching Structural Concepts in Class T
Seeing and Touching Structural Concepts in Class T
Seeing and Touching Structural Concepts in Class T
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Tianjian Ji
The University of Manchester
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INTRODUCTION
There are often criticisms from the construction industry that graduates tend to
place over reliance on the use of computers. Graduates are generally good at
using computers but many are unable to judge whether the results obtained
from computers are correct. This indicates that students may not be made
adequately familiar with basic structural concepts during their university
studies.
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The Standing Committee on Structural Safety (SCOSS) has published its
twelfth report for the years between 1997 and 1999 [1]. The report provided
nine recommendations on general principles and one of these related to the use
of computers and university education. It stated that:
Feedback from industry and from students also places an emphasis on the
significance of understanding basic structural concepts and on the need for
developing new ways to illustrate these concepts in class teaching.
It has been observed in class teaching that students show a greater interest in
topics which are demonstrated physically than in topics which are explained by
words and blackboard/OHP diagrams alone. This paper illustrates how
structural concepts can be introduced into class teaching in ways in which they
can be seen and touched by using simple physical models.
THE APPROACH
Structural concepts and principles are abstract because they cannot be seen and
touched directly. For instance, force paths transmit loads from their points of
action to structural supports, and resonance describes vibration characteristics
of a structure. Many students experience difficulties in understanding such
concepts. If such concepts and principles could be made more observable and
touchable, students would be better able to understand them and would be more
attentive in class learning situations.
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• providing associated good engineering examples to demonstrate the
applications of the structural concepts and principles which help to bridge
the gaps between students’ knowledge and practice;
• converting appropriate research output which particularly involves structural
concepts into teaching material to improve existing course contents.
Engineering examples are examined and appropriate designs are selected for
showing how related structural concepts can be applied in practice. Bad
examples, such as collapses, are equally sought as these often show the
consequence of the misunderstanding of structural concepts.
Table 1 summarises the contributions of the themes to the six typical examples
that are described in the following sections.
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EQUILIBRIUM
Equilibrium is the most important concept in statics. Whilst students are taught
at an early stage how to make use of equilibrium equations it is desirable to
show them how a structure achieves equilibrium and how the concept of
equilibrium is used in practice.
Students are asked to place a ruler to span between two round pens lying on
their tables which of course they find easy to do. They are then asked to
support the ruler with only one pen. This they struggle to do and the
equilibrium achieved can be felt to be unstable.
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THE DIRECT FORCE PATH
When calculating the displacement of a pin jointed structure (e.g. a truss) at the
point of application of a unit load, the following equation can be used [2]:
M
N i2 Li
∆=∑ (1)
i =1 Ei Ai
where N i , Li , Ei and Ai are the internal force, length, Young’s modulus and
area of the i th member of the M member structure, respectively. The inverse
of this displacement is the stiffness of the structure at the point of application
of the unit load. Recent research [3] has shown that two structural concepts
can be derived from examination of Eq.1. They are:
• The more direct the force path, the stiffer the structure.
• The more uniform the force distribution, the stiffer the structure.
In order to demonstrate the first concept, the physical models shown in Fig.2a
were built. The two plastic frames have the same dimensions and use the same
amount of material, the only difference being in the arrangements of bracing
members. Students are asked to push a top end joint of each frame horizontally
to feel the stiffness of each frame. They experience that the right frame is
much stiffer than the left frame as the stiffness of the right frame is about four
times that of the left frame. It is explained to students that the load they
applied to the right frame is transmitted to its supports through a direct force
path while in the case of the left frame the force path is zigzag.
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a) The demonstration model b) The collapsed structure
Why can we not build cantilever grandstands, such as that shown in Fig.3b,
with longer spans that would increase seating and service areas without
occupying further land? The question is posed to attract the attention of
students at the start of a lecture on calculating the deflections of beam
members. Students may give different answers and are then told that the
answer and demonstrations will be provided during the lecture.
Students are shown how to derive the following formulae [2] for the maximum
deflections of a cantilever carrying a point load at its free end (Eq.2a) or a
uniformly distributed load (Eq.2b):
PL3 qL4
∆= (a) ∆= (b) (2)
3EI 8 EI
Eq.2a indicates that if the span of the cantilever is doubled then its maximum
deflection will be multiplied by a factor of eight. This effect is demonstrated
simply with a 1-metre wood ruler that has a weight attached to its free end.
First students observe the displacement at the free end of the cantilever with a
span of 350mm (Fig.3a) and then see a much larger end displacement when the
span becomes 700mm (Fig.3c). Although no measurements may be taken in
the class, students are able to see the significance of span in the relationship
shown in Eq.2a. and they are also able to feel how the flexibility (inverse of
stiffness) of the cantilever increases with span.
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a) The deflection of a cantilever (1) b) A grandstand full of spectators
If the ruler is then turned through 90 degrees about its longitudinal axis, the
second moment of area will be enlarged (h / b) 2 times and correspondingly the
deflection reduces significantly as shown in Fig.3d. This demonstrates that an
increase in the depth of the cantilever is more effective than an increase in its
width to reduce deflections.
It is pointed out to students that the relationship between deflection and span is
more exaggerated for a cantilever carrying distributed load as indicated by
Eq.2b. For a cantilever carrying a uniformly distributed load, its end
deflection is proportional to span to the power of four, i.e. if the span increases
by say only 10%, the deflection will increase by 46%.
RESONANCE
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Resonance is an important concept in vibration. Students are introduced to the
concept in their pre-university studies but many have not actually seen or felt
resonance.
Theory familiar to most students shows that for a SDOF system subject to a
harmonic load the dynamic magnification factor for the system, defined as the
ratio of the maximum dynamic displacement to the maximum static
displacement, is [5]:
∆d 1
M= =
∆s (1 − β ) + (2ζβ ) 2
2 2
(3)
where β is the ratio of the load (or base movement) frequency to the system
natural frequency and ζ is the critical damping. The variation in dynamic
magnification factor with β , shown in Fig.4a, indicates that:
• when the load frequency is less than a quarter of the structure natural
frequency, dynamic displacements are close to the static displacement,
• when the load frequency is more than twice the structure natural frequency,
dynamic displacements are much less than the static displacement,
• when the load frequency is equal to the structure natural frequency,
resonance will occur and dynamic displacements can be many times the
static displacement.
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a) The magnification factor b) A SDOF system
The person holding the string first moves his/her hand slowly up-and-down
which creates a movement of the mass almost the same as the hand movement.
When the hand is moved quickly up-and-down, the hand movement is much
larger than the movement of the mass. Finally, when the hand moves up-and-
down at a frequency close to the natural frequency of the system, resonance
develops and the movement of the mass is much larger than that of the hand.
STRUCTURAL CONTROL
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The same weight is placed on the top of each ring and the reduced deformation
of the tied ring is apparent and its increased stiffness can be felt.
It is explained that the force in the wire increases as the applied load increases,
and produces a bending moment in the ring in the opposite direction to the
bending moment caused by the external load. In this way, the wire balances
some of the internal forces and reduces the response of the ring. The material
used in the wire to create this structural control is negligible compared to the
material used in the original system.
A bridge that uses the concept demonstrated with the rubber rings is shown in
Fig.5b.
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order to cause a vertical vibration, what is the frequency of the motion?
Assume elastic response of the beam and neglect its relatively small mass.
To obtain the answer given in the book, the frequency of the human-beam
system is worked out as follows:
1 k 1 mg 1 1 g 1 9810
f = = = = = 3.36 Hz (4)
2π m 2π ∆ m 2π ∆ 2π 22
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experiments students are additionally introduced to methods of making
dynamic measurements, acceleration-time histories and frequency spectra.
CONCLUSIONS
The approach described in this paper has been found to help students to grasp
structural concepts and to understand better how structural concepts can be
applied in engineering practice. The use of simple demonstrations in lectures,
which enable students to actually feel what is happening, has been found to
make them more receptive to the presentation of theory. The demonstrations,
in breaking up the delivery of theory, tend to lighten the atmosphere and this
seems to result in better overall concentration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The models shown in Fig.2a and Fig.5a were made by two students, Mr R
Roohi and Miss W Yip, respectively.
REFERENCES
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