Gurumantra of Zoology Final File)

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Guru Mantra Series
PROTOZOA

 Science of protozoa is called Protozoology
 Protozoans are microscopic, unicellular or acellular organism with one or more
nuclei.
 Protozoa exhibit protoplasmic level of organization.
 Usually symmetrical. But, Giardia is bilaterally symmetrical.
 Locomotory organelles in protozoa: pseudopodia (Amoeba), flagella (Euglena,
Trypanosoma) and cilia (Paramecium).
 Mode of nutrition : holozoic (Amoeba), holophytic (Euglena), saprozoic and
parasitic
 Digestion in protozoa is always intracellular.
 Excretion and Gaseous exchange: by diffusion through general body surface.
 Excretory product: ammonia.
 In protozoa osmoregulation takes place with the help of contractile vacuole.
 Contractile vacuole are absent in marine & parasitic protozoans.
 Asexual reproduction by binary fission, multiple fission & budding.
 Binary fission in Paramecium is transverse
 Two common types of sexual reproduction are:
Syngamy :fusion of two sex cells.
Conjugation :temporary contact of two individuals with nuclear exchange.
 Classification of protozoa is mainly based on locomotary organs.
 Protozoan class that does not carry its name after locomotory organ is Sporozoa.
Amoeba proteus
 Amoeba has no fixed shape.
 Body of Amoeba is covered by plasmalemma. .
 Plasmalemma is excretory( ammonia diffuses out through it), respiratory
(diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place through it).
 Endoplasm is divided into outer plasma gel and inner plasma sol .
 Locomotion of Amoeba is known as “amoeboid movement.”
 Sol-gel theory is most widely accepted for locomotion in Amoeba .
 Accoroding to sol-gel theory Amoeboid movement is due to change in the
viscosity of cytoplasm.
 The type of pseudopodium in Amoeba proteus is lobopodium.
 Mode of nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic, i.e, Amoeba is heterotrophic. Amoeba
feeds on an inactive prey by a method called Circumfluence.
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 Digestion is intracellular. Amoeba cannot digest fat.
 Food vacuole of Amoeba is analogous to the alimentary canal of an animal or
gastrovascular cavity of Hydra.
 Contractile vacuole is found only in freshwater forms; absent in marine and
parasitic forms.
 Contractile vacuole of Amoeba is analogous to uriniferous tubules of frog.
 Reproduction : Asexual methods eg: binary fission, multiple fission &
sporulation.
 Multiple fission or sporulation takes place during unfavourable condition
after encystment.
 Products of multiple fission are called ‘Amoebulae’.
Entamoeba histolytica
 Intestinal parasite found in upper part of colon and lower part of ileum of
man(enodoparasite).
 Causes Amoebiasis / Amoebic dysentery & liver abscess in chronic condition.
 Monogenetic (has only one host)
 Differs from paramecium in absence of contractile vacuole
 Occurance :2 forms: Magna form/ Trophozoite form( Pathogenic form)
 Minuta form (Non pathogenic form).
 Minuta form undergoes encystment in the lumen of the
intestine of man.
 A mature cyst is called Quadrinucleate cyst; has four nuclei and two
chromatoidal bodies.
 Quadrinucleate cyst is the infective stage.
 Mode of transmission: Contaminated food & water with cyst.
 Mainly E Histolytica is transmitted by housefly
Leishmania donovani
 It is a digenetic pathogen, intermediate host (vector) is sandfly
 Causes: Visceral leishmaniasis or Kala-azar or Black fever or Dum Dum fever.
 Primary / Definitive host: Man
 Leishmania donovani has 2 forms.
Amastigote form ("Leishmanial Promastigote form ("Leptomonas
form") form")
Found in man Found in sandfly
Feeding stage Infective stage
 Promastigote changes into Amastigote form in man.
Amastigote changes into Promastigote form in sandfly.
 L. tropica causes Dermal Leishmaniasis / Oriental sore .
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Giardia lamblia
 Giardia is commonly called "Grand old man of intestine”.
 Causes Back Packer’s disease in man/ Giardiasis.
 Location on human body: duodenum and the upper part of the jejunum.
 Body is bilaterally symmetrical.
 Trophozoite: Binucleated and Feeding stage
 Cystic form : Quadrinucleated and Infective stage
 Trophozoites attach to intestinal mucosa and cause poor absorption of nutrients
leading to Stetorrhoea (Fatty diarrhea).

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Guru Mantra Series
PORIFERA

 Study of porifers or sponges: Parazoology
 All adult sponges are sessile ( sedentary) but Larva is active and floating.
 May be solitary (e.g. Sycon) or colonial (e.g. Leucosolenia)
 In poriferans numerous mouthlets (ostia) and one exit (osculum) is present.
 When carmine particle is place closed to ostia of sponges, it will be ingested and
if placed closed to osculum, it will be carried away.
 Body is diploblastic:
a. Outer layer Pinacoderm (=ectoderm) having 2 types of cells.
i) Flattened cells ( Pinacocytes)
ii) Tubular cells ( Porocytes)- special cells for passage of incoming water.
b. Inner layer Choanoderm (=endoderm) having flagellated cells called
Choanocytes or collar cells.
 Choanocytes or collar cells are characteristics features of all sponges.
 In between Pinacoderm and Choanoderm is a non cellular layer called
Mesenchyme is present.
 Different types of amoebocytes are:
a. Archaeocytes – Undifferentiated totipotent cells (Reproductive cells).
b. Chromocytes - With pigment granuoles.
c. Scleroblasts – Spicules forming cells
d. Thesocytes – Food reserving cells
f. Trophocytes –Nutrients supplying cells (Nurse cells).
g. Phagocytes - Engulf foreign particle
h. Myocytes – Highly contractile spindle shaped cells, form sphincters around
ostia and osculum
 The water current through the body of sponge is maintained by Choanocytes.
 Spongocoel or paragastric cavity is common cavity in all sponges lined with
flagellated choanocytes.
 Sponges have a canal system also called aquiferous ( serves for respiration,
excretion, nutrition and reproduction).
 Types of canal system:
a. Asconoid type eg., Leucosolenia
b. Syconoid type eg., Sycon
c. Leuconoid type eg., Demospongia
 The simplest type of canal system in Porifera is Asconoid type.
 The path of water current in Leucosolenia is

Dermal ostia  gastral ostia  spongocoel  osculum.
 Nutrition is holozoic and digestion is intracellular.
 Reproduction may be asexual by budding/ gemmulation (i.e.gemmule
formation) or sexual by ova and sperm.
 Gemmules are internal buds containing Archaeocytes.
 Development indirect. Larval forms are:
a. Amphiblastula (hollow) Eg. Sycon.
b. Parenchymula (solid) Eg., Leucosolenia.
 Sponges have great regenerating power due to archaeocytes ( totipotient cells).
 Poriferans are classified into three classes on the basis of their skeletal structure.
Calcarea/ Hexactinellida/ Demospongiae
Calcaspongiae Hyalospongiaes
(Limy sponges) (Glass sponges)
Type of skeletal Presence of Presence of Presence of
structure calcareous silicious spicules silicious spicules
spicules(Triaxon (Triaxon or 6 (monoaxon,
or tetraxon) rayed) tetraxon) or
spongin fibres or
both or none.
Common Sycon (Crown Hyalonema Euspongia (Bath
examples sponge or Urn (Glass rope sponge)
sponge) sponge) Spongilla (Fresh
Leucosolenia Euplectella water sponge)
(Venus flower Cliona (Boring
basket) sponge or
Sulphur sponge)
 Euplectella (Venus flower-basket) is famous for beuty of skeleton,
 Cloiona (Boring sponge) is detrimental to pearl industry.
 When bath sponges disintegrates and dries, only sponging fibres are left

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Guru Mantra Series
COELENTERATA/ CNIDARIA

 Study of coelenterates: Cnidology
 All cnidarians are radially symmetrical except sea anemone (biradially
symmetrical).
 The phylum Cnidaria comprises the animal with unique stinging/ adhesive
structures called cnidae or nematocysts or Cnidoblast.
 Nematocysts are mainly concerned with food capture and attachement, offence
and defence
 Cnidarians are radially symmetrical animals with cell tissue grade of body
organization .
 Diploblastic metazoa with two germ layers: ectoderm and endoderm
(gastroderm) separated by mesogloea.
 Members of this phylum are mostly dimorphic and called as Zooids.
 Polymorphism is the characteristic of the phylum coelenterata.
 Alternation of generation (Metagenesis) is well demarcated.
 Members like Physalia (Portugese man-of- war) exhibit polymorphism.
 Asexual reproduction by budding.
 Larval form: Planula larva
 Medusoid stage is absent in both Sea anemone & Hydra.
 Corals are skeleton of dead anthozoa animals.
 A coral island with a central shallow lake is known as Atoll.
Hydra
 Hydra is solitary, fresh water, diploblastic coelenterate.
 Hypostome bears 6-10 tentacles which help in locomotion and feeding.
 Tentacles of hydra are hollow.
 Proximal end is Basal disc and distal end is Hypostome with a mouth at its apex.
 The growth zone of Hydra is located just below the tentacles.
 Central body cavity of Hydra is the Coelonteron/Gastrovascular cavity.
 Hydra exists in Polyp form.
 Zoochlorella is an intracellular symbiont in Hydra.
 Body wall has outer ectoderm, inner endo- or gastroderm with mesogloea in
between the two.
 Mesogloea is secreted by both ectoderm and endoderm.
 The no. of myonemes in muscle tail of epithelio-muscle cells is two.

 Myofibrils of Hydra are smooth.
 Cnidoblasts are most abundant on tentacles and absent on Pedal disc.
Penetrants/Stenoteles arelargest
Volvents/Desmonemes are smallest
 The Penetrant injects poisonous fluid 'Hypnotoxin' in the body of prey that
paralyses or kills the prey.
 Stimulus receiving part of nematoblast is Cnidocil ( acts as a trigger).
 Nerve cells were first seen in animal kingdom in Hydra.
 Hydra is carnivorous and the digestion is first extracullar followed by
intracellular.
 Hydra can digest all types of food except starch.
 Fastest mode of locomotion in Hydra is by somersault movement.
 Hydra opens its mouth due to the influence of a chemical substance known as
Glutathion.
 Respiration, excretion and osmoregulation take place through the general body
surface.
 Asexual reproduction in Hydra occurs by budding (In favourable condition)
which are endogenous.
 Sexual reproduction in Hydra occurs by syngamy/fusion of gametes (In unfavourable
condition).
 Hydra regenerates by morphollaxis.

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Guru Mantra Series
Platyhelminthes

 First animal to have organ system organization and cephalization.
 Body dorsoventrally flattened, leaflike or tapelike.
 Triploblastic and bilaterally symmetrical; Acoelomate.
 Segmentation is absent in Platyhelminthes i.e. body not metamerically
segmented.
 Alimentary canal is incomplete or absent.
 Respiration and nutrition through general body surface.
 Excretion in Platyhelminthes takes place by Flame cells/ Solenocytes/
Protonephridia.
 Main excretory products are ammonia, fatty acids and Co2.
 Skeletal, respitatory and circulatory organs are absent.
 Presence of Parenchyma (mesodermal) between alimentary canal and body wall.
 Mostly parasitic, some are free living.
 Development is direct in free living forms and indirect in parasitic forms.
 Classification is based on presence or absence of digestive system and cilia in
epidermis.
 All trematods are hermaphrodite except blood fluke.
 Flattened leaf like body belongs to trematods.
Fasciola hepatica (Sheep fluke / Liver fluke)

 Found in the large bile passages and ducts of liver of sheep and man.
 Digenetic parasite:
 Primary host is mammal
 Secondary/intermediate host is Snail.
 Fasciola hepatica causes 'liver rot', hepatitis.
 Posterior sucker is called Acetabulum.
 Laurer's canal appears during the breeding season.
 Epidermis is syncytial (tegument) contains polymucosaccharides, polyphenols &
scleroproteins.
 Flame cells of Fasciola arise from Mesoderm.
 Larval stage completes in 5 stages:
 MiracidiumSporocystRediaCercariaMetacercaria (phenomenon is
Polyembryony).
 Metacercaria is the infective stage.

Tapeworm
 Body tapelike, divisible into 3 parts: head, neck & strobila.
1. Head: Also called Scolex;
Note:T. saginata differs from T. solium in absence of hooks upon scolex.
2. Neck: Budding zone or Proliferation zone.
3. Strobila:
 Consists of 800-1000 similar rectangular segments called Proglottids.
 Youngest segments lie near the neck, oldest lie at the rear end.
 Anterior 200 segments bear male reproductive organs only.
 Behind 200 segments develop female reproductive organs .
 Posterior segments are ripe/ gravid.
 Gravid segments of Taenia have only uterus with eggs.
 Last gravid segment detach one by one from the body and the
phenomenon is called Apolysis.
 Apolysis helps in continuity of generation.
 Pseudosegmentation or Strobilization takes place from the neck
region.
 Nutrition through general body surface (Osmotrophy) and has no
digestive organs.
 Six hooked embryo of Teania is called Onchosphere or Hexacanth.
 Taenia solium : pig tapeworm
 cysticercus larva is found in pork meet
 Diphylobothrium Latum :(Fish tapeworm)
 Schistosoma (Blood / Lymphatic fluke)
 Endoparasite in hepatic portal system & mesenteric blood vessels.
 Causes a disease Schistosomiasis.
 Sexual dimorphism distinct; male is smaller and female is longer and
slender.
 Female is lodged in the gynophoric canal of male.
 If a Planaria is cut transversely into two halves, anterior half regenerates a new
tail & posterior half generates a new head. It involves two processes:
 Epimorphosis (formation of missing part)
 Morphollaxis ( fitting of original parts with the regenerated parts)
 In planaria, development is direct & fertilization is internal.
 Most characteristic feature of planarian is presence of Rhabdites.
 Filaria is a helminth.

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Guru Mantra Series
Aschelminthes

 Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, unsegmented cylindrical true worms
(Pseudocoelomate).
 Pseudocoelom is a derivative of Blastocoel.
 Epidermis is Syncytial / Coenocytic.
 Presence of sensory papillae. (Amphid---in mouth; Phasmid-----in anus)
 All are dioecious i.e. sexes are separate. Aschelminthes first unisexual phylum.
 Class Nematoda is divided into 2 groups:
a) Aphasmida-Absence of phasmid Eg. Whipworm (Trichuris trichuria)
b) Phasmida—Presence of phasmid.Eg:
i) Ascaris lumbricoides (Round worm)
ii) Ancylostoma duodenale (Hook worm)
iii) Wuchereria bancrofti (Filarial worm)
iv) Loa loa (Eye worm)
 Trichinella spiralis (Trichinea worm) : Smallest nematode Parasite in human.
 Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis):Largest nematode parasite in human.
 Loa loa (Eye worm):Causes conjunctivitis.
 Ascaris lumbricoides (Round worm)
Ascaris lumbricoides (Round worm)

 Monogenetic; found in small intestine (jejunum) of Man
 Causes ascariasis.
 Resistant cuticle on the body surface is modification for its parasitic life.
 Male Ascaris are smaller with curved posterior end while the females are larger
with straight posterior end.
 A pair of pineal setae is present in cloacal aperture of male Ascaris.
 Males Ascaris are monarchic/monodelphic (presence of single testis)
 Females Ascaris are diorchic/didelphic (presence of a pair of ovaries)
 In Ascaris, fertilization occurs in uterus.
 Moulting in the life cycle of Ascaris occurs Four times.
 1st moulting in soil
 2nd and 3rd moultings in lungs.
 4th moulting in intestine.
 2nd stage larva enters the lungs and 4th stage larva comes out of the lungs.
 The hatching of juvenile of Ascaris in the body of human host occurs in intestine.

 After hatching the rhabditiform larva of Ascaris undergoes a typical wandering
journey to return back to intestine in about 20 days.
 Route for Ascaris is:
outside → intestine → liver → lungs → trachea → oesophagus → intestine
 The excretory organ of Ascaris is H shaped.
 Mode of infection: through contaminated food and water.
 Infective stage: Embryonated egg with rhabditiform larva (2nd stage infective)
 Treatment of Ascariasis: CCl4, oil of chenopodium etc.
Ancylostoma duodenale (Hook worm )

 Monogenetic; found in small intestine of human.
 Causes Ancylostomiasis.
 Mode of infection: Via skin.
Wuchereria bancrofti (Bancroft's filaria)

 Digenetic and viviparous.
a) Human (primary / definitive host)
b) Female Culex mosquito (Secondary/ intermediate host)
 Found in lymphatic system of human.
 Causes: Wuchereriasis/ Filariasis/ Elephantiasis
 Infective stage: Microfilaria (3rd stage infective)

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Guru Mantra Series
Annelida

 Annelids are with bilateral symmetry and tube within the tube body plan.
 Circulatory system closed type.
 The most important characteristic of an annelid is metamerism.
 Excretory organ is Nephridium.
 Cuticle of annelids is non-chitinous and albuminoid.
 Annelids have Schizocoelic coelom.
 Nereis is gregarious, nocturnal & carnivorous.
 Parapodia are found in Polychaeta.
 All worms are triploblastic.
 A suctorial mouth is found in leech.
 Leech, centipede and earthworm all have ventral nerve cord in common.
 Leech is a blood sucking ecto-parasite (i.e. sanguivorous).
 The body of Hirudinaria (Leech) consists of 33 segments.
 Botryoidal tissue is related to leech.
 Botryoidal tissue of leech is a connective tissue.
 Hirudin secreted by the salivary glands is present in the saliva of leech.
Arthropoda
 Largest phylum in the animal kingdom in terms of both number of taxa and
biomass.
 Presence of jointed appendages is characteristics features.
 Body is covered by Chitinous exoskeleton (Cuticle) which undergoes periodical
ecdysis. Cuticle is secreted by epidermis of skin.
 Body is metamerically segmented and the no. of segments is always fixed.
 Circulatory system – Open type.
 Alimentary canal is complete consisting of foregut, midgut & hindgut.
 Mouth parts adapted for various modes of feeding in Arthropods are:
 Biting & chewing type: Eg. Cockroach, grasshoppers etc.
 Chewing & lapping type: Eg. Bees & wasps.
 Piercing & sucking type: Eg. Bugs, Aphids, Mosquitoes, fly etc.
 Sponging type: Eg. Housefly
 Siphoning type: Eg. Butterflies & Moths
 Excretion through Green glands (in aquatic forms) and malpighian tubules (in
terrestrial forms).

Class: Arachnida
 Body is divisible into prosoma (head + thorax) & ophisthosoma.
 Respiration through book lungs. Gills absent.
 Eg. Scorpion, Ticks, Mites, Spider
 The gland involved in the formation of thread in spider is Spinneretes.
 Scorpions are neurotoxic.
Class: Crustacea
 Body is divisible into cephalothorax and abdomen.
 Presence of hard shield called carapace on dorsal surface.
 Excretion through Coxal/ Antennary/ Green glands.
 Respiration by gills.
 In Prawn, only oxygenated blood flows.
 Eg. Daphnia (water flea), Cancer (crab), Paleomon (Prawn), Astacus (Cray fish),
Shrimp.
Class: Chilopoda
 The 1st pair of legs is modified into poison claws.
 Eg. Scolopendra (Centipede)
Class: Insecta
 Body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen.
 Presence of a pair of antennae.
 Presence of 3 pairs of legs (hexapoda) and usually 2 pairs of wings.
 Respiration takes place by tracheae.
 Excretion by Malpighian tubules.
 Eg: Cockroach, Flea, Lice (Pediculus), Butterfly, MothWasp, Bees, Mosquitoes,
Sandfly,Tse-Tse fly, Housefly, Silkworm, etc.
 Excretory product of terrestrial insects is uric acid.
Peripatus -connecting link between annelida & arthropoda.
Limulus - living fossil.
Cockroach (Periplaneta americana)

 Periplaneta americana is commonly called 'Bombay canary' or 'American
cockroach' or 'ship cockroach'.
 The total no. of segments in cockroach is 20 in embryonic stage and 19 in adult.
 Cockroach has 'Mosaic vision' due to the presence of compound eye.
 The visual unit of cockroach is called Ommatidium.
 Each joint of tarsus possesses soft pad with bristles called Plantulae.
 Fifth tarsomere is structure with bristles called Arolium.
 Circulatory system is open type. Haemoglobin absent in blood, so called
haemolymph.

 Main excretory organs are malpighian tubules and excretory product is uric
acid.
 Respiratory organ of cockroach is trachea
 Egg of cockroach is centrolecithal.
 Larva of cockroach is called Nymph.
 The feature that distinguishes female cockroach from male cockroach is the
absence of Anal style.
Housefly (Musca)
 Housefly is saprophagous.
 Larvae are legless & headless called Grub/ Maggot.
 Imago is a young fly.
Mosquito
Types:
 Anopheles: Causes Malaria
 Culex: Causes Filaria, Japanese encephalitis
 Aedes: Causes Dengue fever, Yellow fever
 Mansonia: Causes Filaria, Chikunguniya.
 The pedicel of antenna possesses a proprioceptor called Johnstons' organ,
(sensitive to carbondioxide and sound vibrations).
 The piercing elements in the mouthparts of female Anopheles are maxillae and
mandibles.
 Larva of mosquito is called Wriggler.
 The pupa of mosquito is called Tumbler.
Honey bee (Apis indica)
 Culture of honeybee: Apiculture.
 Outer surface of each tibia of metathoracic legs of Honeybee has a depression
called Pollen basket.
 A colony of Honey bee consists of about 60,000 individuals and are of 3 castes:
 Queen (single): Is a fertile female developed from fertilized ovum and has
stings.
 Drones (2-3 % of colony) : Are fertile males developed from unfertilized ova and
have no stings.
 Workers (97-98% of colony) : Are sterile females developed from fertilized
ova.
 Round dance represents:
 The source of food is within 75 m from the hive.
 It doesn't indicate direction of source.
 Waggle dance represents:
 The source of food is more than 75 m away from the hive.
 It indicates the direction of source.
 Male bee called 'Drone' is parthenogenetically developed.

 Larva of Honeybee is called Grub.

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Guru Mantra Series
MOLLUSCA

 Study of molluscs: Malacology
 Study of shells of molluscs: Conchology
 Triploblastic, soft bodied animals with bilateral symmetry except gastropods.
Gastropods are assymmetrical due to twisting known as torsion.
 Body of mollusks is unsegmented except Neopilina.
 Body mollusca consists of:
a. Foot (ventral and locomotory)
b. Head (with eyes and tentacles)
c. Visceral mass
 Rasping organ called radula is distinguishing feature of mollusca.
 Visceral mass secretes a glandular skin fold known as Mantle.
 Circulatory system is open (except in Cuttle fish).
 Blood is blue due to copper containing respiratory pigment called haemocyanin.
 Excretion by a pair of kidneys/organs of Bojanus and pericardial gland or Keber's
organ.
 Veliger is larva of marine pelecypods.
 Umbo is the thickest and oldest part of shell of Unio. It is first formed.
 Green gland is the digestive gland of Unio, comparable to liver of vertebrates.
 Ink glands are usually present in Cephalopods.
 Eolis is popularly known as Sea slug.
 Cephalopoda is the class of animals in which foot is located on head.
 Lime containing cells of digestive glands of Pila contain phosphate of lime.
 Siphon jet system for locomotion is found in Cephalopoda.

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ECHINODERMATA =HEDGEHOG; DERMA=SKIN)

 Exclusively marine bottom dwellers and few are pelagic (living on surface of
water)
 Spiny skinned; triploblastic; Enterocoelic coelomate; organ system grade of
organization; gregarious
 Echinoderms larvae have bilateral symmetry but undergo a metamorphosis to
form radially symmetrical adult.
 Locomotion by contractile appendages of ambulacral system called tube feet.
 Tube feet consist of ampulla, podium and sucker. It also serves for respiration
and food capturing.
 Presence of water vascular system in which water enters the body through a
porous plate known as madreporite.
 Presence of pinna like structure called Pedicellariae that protect the skin gills. It
is the unique feature of echinoderms.
 Respiration by
a. dermal branchiae or papulae (Star fish)
b. gills (Sea urchin)
c. genital bursa ( Brittle star)
d. cloacal respiratory tree ( holothurians)
 Nervous system is simple; brain absent.
 Circulatory system is open type; heart absent. Blood does not contain respiratory
pigment.
 Sexes separate, copulation absent; fertilization external; few viviparous.
 Eggs are homolecithal (yolk uniformly distributed in the egg).
 Cleavage is radial and indeterminate.
 Development indirect.
 Power of regeneration (Epimorphosis) is well marked.
 Excretory organs are absent.
 "Aristotle's lantern" is a masticatory organ found in "Sea urchins".
 The cardiac stomach comes out of the body, feeds and digests food outside the
body (i.e. Extra oral digestion occurs) in Starfish.
 Main function of ambulacral system in echinoderm is locomotion. It is derived
from larval coelom.
 Madreporic canal is also called Stone canal.

 Classification: 5 classes on the basis of shape/position of madreporite and larval
forms.
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Guru Mantra Series
CHORDATA
 All chordates possess notochord, pharyngeal gill slits and dorsal tubular nerve
cord at least in some stages of development.
 The centrum of a vertebra is the part of notochord.
 Spinal cord is the dorsal tubular nerve cord.
 Other general characteristics of chordates are: triploblastic nature; bilateral
symmetry; organ system organization; metamerism; cephalization; endoskeleton;
enterocoelic coelom; closed circulation with specialized respiratory and excretory
organs.
 Classification: Phylum Chordata is divided into 3 sub-phyla on the basis of
future of notochord:
1. Urochordata
 Notochord is present only in the tail of larval stage.
 Body covered by a leathery test or tunic formed of tunicine and hence called
Tunicata.
 Numerous branchial baskets are present..
 These show retrogressive metamorphosis.
 Eg: Herdmania (sea squirt), Salpa, Doliolum, Pyrosoma (It is bioluminescent)
2. Cephalochordata
 Notochord extends up to the tip of the head.
 Tail is present throughout life.
 Eg: Amphioxus (Lancelet), Brachiostama
3. Vertebrata
 Notochord is replaced by vertebral column.
 Brain is protected by a brain box called cranium and hence called Craniata.
 Sub-phylum Vertebrata is divided into 2 sub-divisions on the basis of jaws:
A. Agnatha
 Mouth is not bounded by jaws. So called Agnathans (jawless vertebrates).
 Single class – Cyclostoma
 Presence of circular mouth bounded by suctorial funnel but is jawless.
 Heart is 2-chambered.
 Lateral line sense organs are absent.
 Development includes an ammonoetes larva resembling Amphioxus
in structure and functioning.
 Cranial nerves first appeared in Agnathans.

 Eg: Petromyzon (Sea-lamprey)
B. Gnathostomata
 Mouth is always bounded by jaws, so called Gnathans (jawed vertebrates)
 Gnathostomata is divided into 2 super classes:
- Super class: Pisces
 Locomotion by fins.
 Exclusively aquatic.
 Respiration by gills.
 Heart is 2 chambered.
 Lateral line organs are found in Osteichthyes.
 Key points to remember on fishes:
 Largest fish: Rhinedon
 Smallest fish: Pigmy goby
 Fastest fish: Sail fish
 Most beautiful fish: Zebra fish
 Most primitive fish: Climatius
 Most poisonous fish: Stone fish
 Most common food fish: Pomphret
 Flying fish: Exocoetus
 Climbing fish: Anabas
 Devonian period is the golden period of fishes.
 Study of skates, rays & sharks is called Torpedology.
 Urinary bladder is absent in fishes.
- Super class: Tetrapoda
 Locomotion by 2 pairs of limbs.
 Primary respiratory organs are lungs.
 Heart is 3 or 4 chambered.
 It is sub-divided into 4 classes on the basis of skin:
a) Class : Amphibia
 These are amphibious animals. No amphibian is marine. Some are
arboreal (eg.Hyla) while some are terrestrial (eg. toad).
 No exoskeleton.
 Teeth are homodont, polyphyodont and acrodont.
 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs but digits have neither nails nor claws.
 Three chambered heart (2 auricles & 1 ventricle).
 Double circulation in which ventricles pumps mixed blood. RBCs are
oval, biconvex & nucleated.
 Excretory organs are kidneys, which are pronephros in larva and
mesonephros in adults.
 Excretion is generally ureotelic (exception: salamanders are ammonotelic
).

 These are ectothermic/poikilothermic (cold blooded). So, hibernate
(winter sleep) in winter and aestivate (summer sleep) in summer
months.
 Fertilization may be external (Frog) or internal (Salamander).
 Amphibians evolved during Devonian period and dominated during
carboniferous period.
 Carboniferous period is called age of amphibians.
 It has 3 orders: Apoda,Urodela and Anura.
 Amphibians without tail fall in Anura.
b) Class Reptilia
 Skin is non-glandular except femoral glands in male lizards.
 2 sacral vertebrae in the vertebral column. All vertebrae are procoelous.
 Pentadactyl limbs with nailed and clawed digits.
 Heart is 3 chambered with incompletely divided ventricle. It is 4
chambered in crocodiles.
 Hepatic portal system is well developed but renal portal system is
reduced.
 First appearance of Hypophyseal portal system.
 Uricotelic excretion.
 Presence of copulatory organs in the male eg. hemipenis in lizards and
penis in turtles and crocodiles.
 Shelled and cledoic eggs.
 Reptiles are the first true terrestrial vertebrates .
 It has 3 sub-classes:
Anapsida Parapsida Diapsida
Temporal fossae 1.temporal fossa Two temporal fossa
absent. present present.
Eg: Chelone Extinct. Eg: Lizards,
(Green sea turtle snakes, crocodiles.
/ Soup turtle)
 When lizards are threatened they can break off their tails and escape.
This phenomenon is called Autotomy.
c) Class : Aves
 Skin is dry and non-glandular except Oil / Uropygial / Preening gland
on tail.
 Presence of feathery exoskeleton.
 Fore limbs are generally modified into wings.
 Long bones are pneumatic ; Bone marrow absent.
 Vertebrae are heterocoelous.
 Ribs are double headed with uncinate process.
 2 clavicles are fused to form Forcula which is also known as Wish bone.
.

 Sound producing organ is syrinx.
 Heart is 4 chambered.
 Kideys are metanephric , Uricotelic excretion
 Urinary bladder is absent.
 Homeothermal / warm blooded.
 When a bird is transferred from 30°c to 10°c, its body temperature is
maintained at original level .
 Study of birds: Ornithology.
 Study of nests: Nidology.
 Aerial mode of animal adaptation is known as Volant.
d) Class : Mammalia
 Hairy quadrupeds (Exoskeleton of hair & locomotion on four limbs).
 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs with nails/ claws/ hoofs on digits.
 The main features of mammals are presence of mammary glands, oil or
sweat glands on skin, external ear (pinna), diaphragm & viviparity.
 Tectorial membrane is present in ear of mammal.
 Presence of corpus callosum and optic quadrigemina.
 Glisson’s capsules are found in liver of mammal.
 Vertebrae – amphiplatyan.
 Presence of 7 cervical vertebrae (including giraffe).
 Heart is 4 chambered.
 RBCs are biconcave and non-nucleated except in Camel and Llama
where RBC is nucleated.
 Teeth are heterodont, thecodont and diphyodont.
 Metanephric kidneys and ureotelic excretion.
 All mammals are viviparous except Prototherians.
 In viviparous animals, fertilization is internal.
 Mammals are classified into 3 sub-classes:
a) Prototheria b) Allotheria c) Theria
 Theria is further divided into 3 Infra classes:
a) Pantotheria b) Metatheria c) Eutheria
 Most distinguishing feature of eutherian mammals is the presence of
placenta.
 Rodents are characterized by chisel-like incisors. They include rat, mice
& squirrels.
 Lagomorphs include rabbits, hares & guinea pigs.
 The ungulates are categorized as even toed (Arteodactyla) Eg: cow,
buffalo, goat, sheep etc. or odd toed (Perisodactyla) Eg: horse, zebra etc.
 Most primitive placental mammal is Shrew.
 The primates include:
a) Prosimians: Lemurs, Lorises and Tarsiers etc.
b) Simians: such as monkeys, apes and human.

i. Monkeys:
* New world monkeys: Spider monkeys
* Old world monkeys: Rhesus monkeys
ii. Apes: Gibbon, orangutan, chimpanzee and gorilla
 Gibbon is the most primitive and gorilla is the most developed ape.
 The characteristic feature of primates is the grasping limb with
opposable thumb.
 Mammalian embryo has parasitic mode of nutrition.
 Tertiary period, Eocene epoch is called the "Age of mammals".

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Guru Mantra Series
Introduction to zoology
BRANCHES OF ZOOLOGY:
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Acarology Study of mites and ticks.
Anatomy Study of structure of internal organs.

Anthropology Study of natural history of man.
Aphidology Study of aphids.
Apiculture The rearing of honey-bees and obtaining honey.
Aquaculture The culture of fish and other aquatic animals.
Araneology Study of spiders.

Bacteriology Study of bacteria.
Batrecology Study of frogs.
Carcinology Study of Crustaceans

Cnidology Study of coelenterates.
Conchology Study of molluscan shells.

Entomology Study of insects.
Ethology Study of behaviour of animals.
Eugenics Study of improvement of human race by improving

genetic constitution of human race.
Euphenics Study of improvement of human race by altering the
proteins during protein synthesis in cells. This is also
called Medical engineering.
Euthenics Science of improvement of modern generation of man
through better nutrition and environment.
Herpatology Study of reptiles.
Icthyology Study of fishes.

Karyology Study of nucleus.

Malacology Study of molluscs.
Mammology Study of mammals.
Microbiology Study of microorganisms.

Nematology Study of nematodes.
Nidology Study of nests of birds.

Ophiology Study of snakes.
Palaeontology Study of fossils.
Parazoology Study of sponges.

Phenology Study of bird migration.
Pisciculture Rearing of fishes in ponds.

Saurology Study of lizards.
Sericulture Rearing of silk worms and obtaining silk.
SOME FAMOUS BOOKS AND AUTHORS
Author Name of Book

Aristotle Aristoria Animalia and Historia Animalium
Linnaeus Systema Naturae and species plantanum
Oparin The origin of life on earth
Darwin Origin of species by Natural selection
Theophrastus Historia Plantarum
Lamarck Philosphic Zoologique
T.H. Malthus Essays on principles of Human Population
Fathers of Various Branches of Zoology
Aristotle Father of Biology, Zoology and Embryology.

G.J. Mendel Father of Genetics.
Empedocles Father of Evolutionary ideas.
Hugo de Vries Father of Mutation.
Karl Ernst Von Baer Father of Modern Embryology.
Georges cuvier Father of Modern Palaeontology

Leonardo da Vinci Father of Palaeontology.

Carolus Linnaeus Father of Taxonomy.
A. V. Leeuwenhoek Father of protozoology.
Father Saurez Father of Special Creation Theory.

K. Landsteiner Father of Blood groups.
William Harvey Father of Blood Circulation.

G. Cuvier Father of Comparative Anatomy.
Bateson Father of Modern Genetics.
Hippocrates Father of Medicine.

Louis Pasteur Father of Microbiology.
Edward Jenner Father of Immunology.

Robert Koch Father of Bacteriology.
Xavier Bichat Father of Histology.
Marcello Malpighi Father of Microscopic Anatomy.

Thomas Addison Father of Endocrinology.
Ivan Pavlov Father of Conditional reflexes
Some Important Biologial Facts
Largest egg Struthio (Ostrich)

Longest cell Neuron
Largest teeth Tusk of elephant

Largest human Gluteus maximus
muscle
Deadly poisonous Hydrophis (Sea Snake)
snake
Smallest animal Babesia (Parasitic protozoa)
Smallest bird Humming bird of Cuba.

Smallest mammal Shrew.
Primitive mammal Echidna (Egg laying).

Poisonous lizard Heloderma (Gila monster).
Flying lizard Draco
Flying fish Exocoetus.

Largest gland in body Liver.
Brunner's gland Duodenum and secretes mucous.
Ceruminous gland External ear

Conglobate gland Male cockroach
Collaterial gland Female cockroach.

Cowper's gland Reproductive tract of Male rabbit.
Green gland Antenna of Prawn (Excretory in function).
Harderian gland Eye of mammals.

Ink gland Sepia (Protective in function)
Lachrymal (tear) Eye of mammals

gland
Mehli's gland Reproductive organ of Fosciola.
Meibomian gland Eye of mammal.

Mushroom gland Male cockroach.
Phallic gland Male cockroach
Preen gland Birds
Sebaceous gland Skin of mammal
Sweat gland Mammals only.

Utricular gland Male cockroach
Zeis gland Eye lashes of vertebrate.

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Guru Mantra Series
Biology of following
PARAMECIUM
 Paramecium is commonly called ‘slipper animalcule’.
 Body is externally covered by pellicle
 Body is uniformly ciliated except the caudal end that has large cilia forming caudal tuft.
 In Paramecium, cilia aids in locomotion.
 Two contractile vacuoles open permanently on dorsal surface, each with 6 -10 radiating canals/
accessory vacuoles.
 Trichocysts are organs of attachments; also called as organs of offence and defence.
 Nuclear apparatus:
 Binucleate
 Larger nucleus is macronucleus consisting Tropochromatin; controls metabolic
activities.
 Smaller nucleus is micronucleus consisting Idiochromatin ;controls reproductive
activities.
 Nutrition: Mode of nutrition is holozoic.
 Digested food is distributed throughout the endoplasm by cyclosis (Streaming movement of
cytoplasm).
 Undigested food materials are thrown out through permanent cell anal aperture – the cytopyge.
 Excretion is through general body surface and contractile vacuoles.
 Osmoregulation is done by contractile vacuoles only.
 Asexual mode of reproduction occurs by binary fission.
 Sexual mode of reproduction occurs by conjugation.
 Each pair of conjugating Paramecia forms 8 individuals after conjugation.
 Each ex-conjugant gives 4 individuals.
 Some killer strains of Paramecia have toxin secreting kappa particle (k-particles) in their
cytoplasm.
Plasmodium
 Also known as ‘Malarial Parasite’.
 Malaria caused by Plasmodium was discovered by Charles laveran.
 Plasmodium species causing different malaria
Parasite Name Type of malaria Granules
1. P. vivax Benign tertian malaria Schuffner’s granules
2. P. falciparum Malignant tertian Maurer’s dots
malaria/cerebral malaria/
Black water fever
3. P. malariae Benign quartan malaria Ziemann’s dots
4. P. ovale Benign tertian malaria Jame’s dots

 All Plasmodium causes Benign malaria except P. falciparum.
 All Plasmodium causes Tertian malaria except P. malariae.
 Vector of malaria : Female anopheles mosquito.
 Plasmodium is digenetic:
- Man: Intermediate / secondary host
- Female anopheles mosquito: Definitive/primary host.
 The asexual cycle(schizogony) of Plasmodium is completed in: Man.
 The sexual cycle (gamogony) is completed in :Female anopheles mosquito.
 Sporogony in Plasmodium takes place in stomach wall of mosquito.
 Sporozoite is the infective stage of Plasmodium present in saliva of female Anopheles mosquito.
 Sporozoite is formed from sporoblast.
 Sporozoites in the blood invade the liver cells and multiply asexually forming schizonts that
rupture to liberate Merozoites.
 Tropozoites are formed when merozoites invade the fresh RBCs.
 Tropozoites in RBC grows in size and soon a vacuole formed in the cytoplasm pushes the nucleus
to one side. This ring shaped tropozoite is called Signet ring stage.
 Meanwhile, Hb decomposes into globin and haematin. -Globin is consumed as food while
Haematin forms a toxic pigment called Haemozoin.
 Release of Haemozoin in blood brings about periodic fever in a malarial patient.
 The micro-merozoites / Erythrocytic merozoites liberated from schizont in the RBC again invade
new liver cells causing Post-erythrocytic schizogony.
 Gametocyte stage of malarial parasite escapes digestion in stomach of mosquito.
 The process of formation of whip like microgametes or sperm is known as exflagellation.
 Zygote (synkaryon) is formed by fusion of micro- and macrogametes.
 Zygote transforms into motile Ookinete.
 Ookinetes penetrate peritrophic membrane and forms oocysts/sporonts on the wall of the stomach
of mosquito.
 Oocysts multiply asexually to produce sporozoites.
 P.falciparum lacks Exo-erythrocytic cycle.
 Spleen is the storehouse of malarial parasite in human’s body.
Earthworm (Pheretima Posthuma)

1. Structures located on various segments: -
Segments Structures located

14-16th Segment Clitellum
14th One female genital opening
18th A pair of male genital openings
10, 11th Testes, testes sac
13th Ovary
17th 19th Accessory glands [a pair in each]
7th ,9th A pair of lateral heart each
12th ,13th A pair of lateral esophageal heart each
3rd -last segment Integumentary nephridia

4th , 5th and 6th Pharyngeal nephridia
15th -last segment Septal nephridia
 1st segment: peristomium

 Prostomium: fleshy lobefold overhanging mouth.
2. Setae:
 Locomotary organ
 Absent in 1st,last and clitellar segments.
 Arrangement of setae:Perichaetine
 Made up of chitin, insoluble in 40% KOH
 80-100 setae per ring (segment)
3. Body wall: 4 Layers
 Cuticle: Non Cellular , Secreted by epidermis.
 Epidermis: 4 types of cells, majority are supporting cells.
 Muscular layer: outer circular muscle and inner longitudinal muscle.
 Contraction of circular muscle : cause elongation of the body
 Contraction of longitudinal muscle: cause shortening of the body.
 Coelomic layer / parietal peritoneum
4. Body Cavity:
 True coelom (Schizocoel)
 Has alkaline coelomic fluid with 4 kinds of cells:
 Amoebocytes : Largest
 Chloragogen cells: Analogous to liver of vertebrates
 Circular nucleated cells
 Mucocytes : Numerous.
 Coelomic Fluid : Alkaline, secreted by parietal peritoneum and acts as hydraulic
skeleton to help in locomotion.
5. Septa:
 Divide coelom into chambers.
 Absent in first four segments.
 1st septum: in segment 4/5, thin and membranous
 Septa absent in segment 9/10 due to presence of large gizzard.
6. Alimentary canal / digestive system:
 Tube within tube plan, complete alimentary canal.
 Locations of different parts:
 Buccal Chamber : 2 - 3
 Gizzard : 8-9
 Pharynx : 3-4
 Stomach : 9-13
 Oesophagus : 5-7
 Intestine : 14-onwards.

 Mode of nutrition in earthworm is saprozoic.It feeds on humus.
 Most effective organ for food digestion:Pharynx
 Organ for grinding the food: Gizzard
 Longitudinal muscle fibres are absent in gizzard.
 Calciferous glands are present on wall of stomach.
 Intestine: 3 regions
 Pretyphlosolar : in segments 15-26
 Typhosolar : 26th segment - 22 or 23 segment above the anus.
 Post typhlosolar: last 23-25 segments.
 Role of typhlosole in earthworm is to increase the absorptive surface area.
 Intestinal Caeca arise from segment 26 and extend forward up to 22nd
or 23rd segment, secrete amylolytic ferment (starch splitting enzyme).
7. Blood vascular system:
 Closed type.
 Blood: Red, Hb is dissolved in plasma, no RBCs.
 Dorsal blood vessel : Largest blood vessel.
 Considered as true heart.
 Distributive in segments 1-13 and collecting in segments 14 onwards.
 Blood flow : Posterior to anterior.
 Ventral blood vessel : Main distributive blood vessel, no valves.
 Blood flow: anterior to posterior
 Lateral hearts: A Pair in each of 7th and 9th , send blood from dorsal vessel to
ventral vessel.
 Lateral Oesophageal Heart:A Pair in each 12th and 13th , send blood from
supraoesophageal and dorsal vessel to ventral vessel.
 Anterior loops:A pair in each of 10th and 11th segments.
 Blood glands: 4th , 5th and 6th segments.
 Lymph glands: A pair in each from 26th onwards.
8. Respiratory system.
 No respiratory organs, respiration occurs by general body surface (cutaneous).
 If skin dries, it cannot respire and die due to asphyxia
9. Excretory System:
 Excretory organs: Nephridia
 Segmental nephridia which are ectodermal in origin.
 3 types of nephridia.
Type Class Location
Septal( typical ) Enteronephric 15th onwards
Pharyngeal Enteronephric 4th ,5th and 6th
Integumentary Exonephric Except first 3 segments.
 Septal nephridia: Largest

 Absent in anterior 14 segments.
 Only nephridia with nephrostome or funnel.
 Pharyngeal nephridia
 Present in 4th , 5th and 6th segment
 Without nephrostome.
 Integumentary nephridia :
 Smallest and most numerous.
 V-Shaped, without nephrostome
Note: Forest of nephridia: Clitellar segments (14th-16th)
 Excretory products: Urea (about 50%), ammonia (40%) +(creatinine )
 Earthworms are mainly Ureotelic but during scarcity of water acts as
ammonotelic.
10. Nervous system:
 Cerebral / suprapharyngeal ganglia : Also called brain, present in 3rd segment
dorsally.
 No. of sub-pharyngeal ganglia = 1 pair.
 Nerve ring of earthworm is formed encircling pharynx.
 Nerve cord of earthworm: Ventral and solid.
 All the nerves present in earthworm are of mixed type.
 8-10 pairs of nerves arise from cerebral ganglia.
 2 Pairs of nerves arise from peri / circum - pharyngeal.
 3 Pairs of nerves arise from sub pharyngeal ganglia.
11. Reproductive System:
 Earthworms are monoecious or hermaphrodite / bisexual.
 Protandrous and thus avoid self- fertilization.
 In earthworm, ovaries are larger than testes.
 Spermatheca are meant for receiving sperm from another worm during
copulation and temporary storage of sperm.
 Cocoons are formed by glandular clitellum.
Note : Main function of clitellum is cocoon formation.
 Fertilization: External and occurs in cocoon/ootheca.
 Development of earthworm is direct with no larval and pupal stages.
 Metamorphosis does not occur in earthworm.
 A coccon may contain many fertilized eggs, but only one embryo develops,other
eggs serve as nurse cells.
Frog (Rana Tigrina)

 Study of frog: Batrecology
 Super class: Tetrapoda, class: Amphibia, order: Anura
 Feeding nature:

Tadpole is herbivorous Adult is carnivorous (Insectivorous) and
predaceous.
 Poikilothermic (Cold Blooded) animal.
 Croaking: By male frogs only due to presence of vocal cords
Advertisement of home and husband.
 Frog undergoes two kinds of sleeps:
i. Hibernation: Winter sleep
ii. Aestivation: summer sleep
1. External Features of frog

 Body divided into head and trunk
a) Head: Bears mouth, external nostrils, eyes and ear.

 External nares : 2 in number, respiratory in function.
 Eyes: Have immovable upper eyelid and movable lower eyelid.
 No external ear.
 Head bears small lightly colored spot called brow spot (3rd eye).
b) Trunk:
 2 pairs of limb, no tail.
 Presence of nuptial or amplexusory pad in inner finger of male during breeding
seasons.
2. Skin of Frog
 Frog lacks exoskeleton. Skin surface is smooth and slimy.
 Color changes to match with surrounding and the phenomenon is called metachrosis.
 Color change is regulated by pituitary gland (intermediate lobe).
 Skin contains chromatophores in upper portion of dermis for color change.
 2 layers: Epidermis and Dermis.
a. Epidermis: Ectodermal in origin

i. Stratum corneum: Outermost layer, keratinized cell in it cast off
periodically called as moulting / ecdysis.
ii. Stratum germinativum / Malphighian layer:
 Innermost layer of epidermis.
 Continuously dividing layer.
b. Dermis: Mesodermal in origin.

i) Stratum Spongiosum: consists cutaneous glands( mucous and
poison) and chromatophores.
 Chromatophores provide coloration to the skin.
ii) Stratum compactum

3. Digestive system.
 Lower jaw is devoid of teeth.
 Dentition: homodont, acrodont and polyphyodont.
 Dental formula is absent.
 Taste buds are absent in tongue but taste papillae are present.
 Epiglottis is absent in frog.
 No digestion of food takes place in buccopharyngeal cavity due to the absence of salivary
glands.
 Small, less developed oesophagus due to absence of neck.
 Stomach: Anterior part is cardiac part and posterior part is pyloric part.
 Contains gastric glands, which are of 3 types.
a. Peptic / zymogen / Chief Cells : Secrete pepsinogen

b. Oxyntic Cells : Secret HCl.
c. Mucous gland: Sectetc mucin.
 Small intestine: Has anterior duodenum and posterior ileum.
 Absence of Brunner's gland and crypts of liberkuhn.
 Mucosal layer of Ileum have many intestinal glands secreting succus entericus.
Glands associated:
 Liver:
 Largest gland, largest internal organ of body.
 3 lobed - right, middle and left.
 Middle lobe bears gall bladder.
 Liver secretes bile salts (Na taurocholate, Na glycolate) and bile pigments
(billirubin, billiverdin)
 Bile does not contain any digestive enzymes, it only helps in emulsification of fat.
 Pancreas:
 2nd largest gland, mixed gland.
 Exocrine function: Secretes
i. Trypsinogen:acts on protein
ii. Amylase : acts on starch
iii. Lipase: acts on fat.
 Endocrine function: Secretes:
i. Insulin (glucose glycogen)

ii. Glucagon (glycogenglucose)
4. Respiratory System:
Modes of respiration.
 Cutaneous respiration(5%):
 Respiratory substrate is skin.
 Dermis is the site for gaseous exchange (acts as alveoli).
 Occurs in water, during hibernation and aestivation.

 Buccopharyngeal respiration (5%) :
 Performed when oxygen requirement is less.
 Lining layer of Buccopharyngeal cavity is site of gaseous exchange.
 Pulmonary respiration (65%) :
 Occurs by lungs when oxygen demand is high.
 Laryngotracheal chamber is voice box or sound producing organ of frog.
 Lungs in frog are without alveoli.
 Trachea of frog has only cricoid and arytenoids cartilages. Thyroid cartilage is
absent.
 Respiratory centre is located in medulla oblongata.
 Two muscles are involved in ventilation:
i) Sternohyoid or sternohyal muscle.

ii) Petrohyoid or petrohyal muscle
 Contraction of Sternohyoid lowers the floor of buccopharyngeal cavity causing
inspiration.
 Contraction of Petrohyoid raises floor of buccopharyngeal cavity causing
expiration.
5. Circulatory System.
 RBCs in frog: Oval, nucleated and biconvex.
 Heart of frog is three chambered (2 auricles and 1 ventricle)
 Two auricles are separated by an intera-uricular septum while they are
separated from ventricle by coronary sulcus.
 Chordae tendineae: Strong thread like structures that support
auriculoventricular valves.
 Columnae Cornae: number of fissures and ridges in the ventricle.
 Sinus venosus: triangular sac on dorsal side of heart which receives 3 venacava
(2 precavals and 1 postcaval).
 Truncus Arteriosus: tubular structure on ventral side of heart ,consists
proximally conus arteriosus / pylangium and distally synangium / ventral aorta
/ bulbous arteriosus.
 Cardiac cycle of frog is of 0.94 Sec.
 Frog's heart beats 64 times / minute.
 Precaval of venous system is formed by union of :
 External jugular: Lingual + Mandibular
 Innominate: Sub scapular + Internal Jugular.
 Subclavian: Brachial + Musculo-cutaneous.
 Anterior abdominal vein in frog is formed by 2 pelvic veins.
 There are two pairs of lymph hearts in frog. (absent in man)
 Lymph differs from blood in that is is colourless and has no respiratory
Pigments.

 RBC of frog is elliptical, nucleated and biconvex.
6. Nervous system.
 Brain has 2 protective coverings:
 Outer thick Duramater.
 Inner thin piamater.
 Space between these is filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid.

Parts Cavity Function
a) Olfactory lobes Rhinocoel / Olfactory Controls sense of smell.
ventricle
b) Cerebral Lateral ventricles/ contraction of muscle.
hemisphere paracoel (I+II) Diencephaion
Diocoel (III Metabolism ofVentricle) Carbohydrate
c) Optic lobes Optocoel Controls
sight
d) Cerebellum 4th ventricle
Coordination of muscular action.
e) Medulla Oblongata Metacoel / 4th Controls involuntary
Ventricle
activity and reflex action.
 The two lateral ventricles open jointly though Foramen of monro into diocoel /
III rd ventricle.
 The two optocoels are connected to 4th ventricle by Iter/ Aqueduct of Sylvius.
 Spinal cord is the center of reflex actions.
 No. of cranial nerves = 10 pairs.
 No. of spinal nerves = 10 pairs but, in Rana tigrina, no of Spinal nerves = 9 pairs.
 All spinal nerves are of mixed type.
 Remain of pineal stalk in adult is called brow spot.
 Spinal cord runs upto urostyle and ends as cauda equina.
 Roof of diencephalon and medulla wall are non-nervous and highly vascular
called as anterior and posterior choroid plexuses respectively.
7. Excretory System:
 Kidneys situated outside coelom in subvertebral lymph sinus.
 level of 2 kidneys is same.
 Pronephric kidney in tadpole, mesonephric in adult.
 Malpighian body = Bowman's capsule + glomerulus.
 Bidder's canal is present.
 Kidney is not differentiated into cortex and medulla and is composed of
uriniferous tubules / nephrons.

 Number of nephron = 2000-2500 per kidney.
 Frog is ammonotelic in tadpole stage but ureotelic in adult.
8. Reproductive System.
 Sexual dimorphism is seen(presence of vocal sacs and amplexusary pads in
males).
 Cells of sertoli / Nurse cells : nourishes developing sperms.
 Cells of Leydig are found in connective tissue of testes.
 Copulatory organs are absent in frog.
 Mesorchium is a peritoneal fold that connects testis and kidney in frog.
 Mesovarium attaches ovaries to dorsal abdominal wall.
 Egg of Frog: Telolecithal and Mesolecithal.
 Thyroxin hormone of thyroid gland regulates metamorphosis (complete ) in
frog .
 Frog has only estrogen hormone, no progesterone hormone.
 Development is indirect with tadpole larva.
 Tadpole larva is herbivorous.
9. Miscellaneous:
 Digital formula of forelimb: 0, 2, 2, 3, 3
 Digital formula of hind limb: 2, 2,3, 4, 3
 Longest bone of frog: Tibio - fibula
 1st vertebra: Atlas, acoelous.
 22d - 7th vertebra (typical) : Precoelous
 8th vertebra : Amphicoelous
 9th (sacral) vertebra: Acoelous (biconvex)
 last vertebra (urostyle): rod shaped, plough - share shaped.
 Ribs are absent in frog.
 Jaw suspension in frog: Autostylic.
 Vertebral column consists of 10 vertebrae.
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Guru Mantra Series
RABBIT /MAN
 Belongs to order Lagomorpha and class mammalian.
 Burrow or tunnel of rabbit is known as warren.
 Rabbit is fossorial, herbivorous, Gregarious, crepuscular, coprophagus and
Homiothermic animal.
 Body is divided into four parts: Head, Neck, trunk and tail.
 Epidermis of rabbit is made up of 5 layers:
 Stratum corneum: Presence of keratin

 Stratum lucidium: presence of Eleiden
 Stratum granulosum: presence of keratohyalin.
 Stratum spinosum
 Stratum germinativum/Malpighian layer: dividing layer
 Claws present on digits are derivative of epidermis.
 Dermis is mesodermal in origin.
 Dermis has hair follicles,sweat glands, sebaceous glands, etc.
1. Digestive system:
 Long alimentary canal is present due to herbivorous habit.
 Dentition in rabbit is thecodont, Diphyodont and heterodont.
 In rabbit, canine teeth are absent.
 Diastema is the toothless space between incisors and pre- molars
2033
 Dental formula in rabbit = .
1023
2 1 2 3
 Dental formula in man = .
2 1 2 3
 Enamel is hardest substance of the body.
 Dentine is the hardest tissue of the body.
 Eustachian tube connects middle ear to pharynx.
 Oxyntic/parietal cells secrete HCl, Goblet cells secrete mucous, zymogen cells
secrete propepsin and Argentaffin cells secrete serotonin.
 Brunner's gland in rabbit are present in duodenum.
 Peyer's patches are lymphoid tissues present on the surface of Ileum.
 Crypts of liberkuhn, present at the base of villi, secrete succus entericus.
 In rabbit, there are 4 pairs of salivary glands while in man there are 3 pairs.
 Liver of rabbit is divided in 5 lobes.
 Presence of Glisson's capsule and phagocytic kuffer's cell in liver.
 Pancreas secrete insulin(by -cells) and glucagon (by alpha cells)
 Food in mouth is called Bolus while in stomach it is known as chyme.
2. Respiratory system:
 Only pulmonary respiration occurs .
 Larynx or sound box has 4 supporting cartilages.
 Trachea is also known as wind pipe.
 Lungs are 6 lobed. Right lungs have 4 lobes while left lungs have 2 lobes.
 Inspiration involves contraction of external intercoastals.
 Expiration involves contraction of internal intercostals.
 98% of the oxygen is transported in the form of oxyhemoglobin.
 Transport of CO2 occurs as:
 5 % in form of carbonic acid
 10 % as carbamino compounds
 85 % as sodium bicarbonate.

 One chloride ion from the plasma moves into the RBC for every bicarbonate ion
moving from it into the plasma. This is called choride shift or Hamburger's
phenomena.
 Haldane effect promotes CO2 transport while Bohr's effect promotes O2
transport.
3. Circulatory system:
 Heart of rabbit is myogenic.
 Heart is divided into upper auricular part and lower ventricular part by coronary
sulcus.
 Auricular appendix is a swollen flap like structure on the base of each auricle.
 Eustachian valve guards the opening of inferior venacava into right auricle.
 In wall of both ventricle, muscles are arranged in bundles called columnae
cornea or papillary muscle.
 Right auricle opens into right ventricle through right auriculo-ventricular
aperture guarded by tricuspid valve (mitral valve).
 Left auricle opens into ventricle of its side through left auriculo-ventricular
aperture guarded by bicuspid valve.
 Chordae tendinae keeps the valve in position.
 A cardiac cycle is completed in 0.8 sec.
 Auricular systole: 0.1sec.
 Ventricular systole: 0.3 sec.
 Joint diastole : 0.4 sec.
4. Nervous system:
 Brain is ectodermal in origin and covered by 3 meninges (outer dura, middle
arachnoid and inner piamater.)
 Corpus callosum connects the two hemisphere of cerebrum.
 Cerebellum helps in equilibrium and controlling voluntary muscular
movements.
 Medulla controls involuntary activities.
 Cavity of olfactory lobe is rhinocoel which is connected to cavity of cerebral
hemisphere called lateral ventricles which opens into third ventricle or diocoel
via foramen of monro.
 A narrow passage called Iter or sylvian aqueduct is found in mid-brain which
connects diocoel with 4th ventricle or metacoel of medulla.
 There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 37 pairs of spinal nerves in rabbit.
 Cranial nerve: C8 T12 L7 S4 Cd6
 Purely sensory cranal nerves: I, II, VIII.
 Purely motor cranial nerves: III, IV, VI, XI, XII
 Mixed nerves: V, VII, IX , X
5. Excretory system

 Excretory organs are a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder and
urethra.
 Kidneys are bean shaped and metanephric.
 Excretion is ureotelic as urea is the main nitrogenous excretory waste.
6. Reproductive system.
 Dioecious; sexual dimorphism is seen; fertilization internal ; viviparous.
Male reproductive system
 It consists of a pair of testes, vasa deferentia, epididymis, urethra, penis and few
accessory glands.
 A pair of testes lies in scrotal sac.
 Inguinal canals connect cavity of scrotum and abdominal cavity.
 Testes are attached to post. end of scrotum by gubernaculums.
 Spermatic cord attaches the anterior end of testes (caput epididymis )to
dorsal abdominal wall.
 Penis is composed of a pair of corpora cavernosa dorsolaterally and corpus
spongiosum mid ventrally.
 Uterus masculinus in male rabbit lies at junction of vas deferens and rostrate
gland.
Female reproductive system
 It consists of a pair of ovaries, oviducts, vagina and vulva.
 ovaries are paired, small, ovoid, whitish structures suspended by mesovarium.
 Corpus luteum are present in rabbit's ovaries and produce progesterone
hormone.
 The oviducts are also called fallopian tubes.
 Fallopian tubes of both sides swell to form uteri; uteri combine to form a
common median vagina.
 Vestibule opens outside ventral to anus through longitudinal slit like aperture
called vulva.
 Accessory female reproductive glands are Bartholin's glands, rectal glands and
perineal glands.
 Eggs of rabbit are microlecithal.
 The gestation period of rabbit is 22-30 days.
 Ovum is surrounded form inside to outside by viteline membrane, zona
pellucida and corona radiata respectively.

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Guru Mantra Series
HUMAN BLOOD GROUPING

 Two types of systems: ABO system and Rhesus system.
1. ABO system:
 It is based on antigens A and B present on RBC membrane.
 Discovered by Karl Landsteiner.
Blood Group Antigen (Ag) Antibody (Ab) Frequency
A A Anti - B 42%
B B Anti - A 9%
AB A,B None 3%
O – Anti - A, Anti – B 46%
 Universal donor: 'O' – Ve
 Universal receiver: 'AB' +Ve
 Peptic ulcer is common in blood group O
 Gastric carcinoma is common in blood group A
2. Rhesus system.
 Based on Rh or D antigen present on RBC membrane
 85% of the population of Rh +Ve
 Erythroblastosis foetalis (hemolytic disease of new born) are seen in 2nd child
born form a Rh +Ve father and Rh -Ve mother.
SENSE ORGANS
Eye
 Eyes are the sensitive detectors of light, hence called ‘Photo receptors’.
 Eyeball is made basically of three layers (i) sclera, (ii) uvea(choroid) and (iii)
retina.
 Sclera and uvea are mesodermal, rest of the eye is ectodermal.
 The continuation of the epidermis over the eye is called conjunctiva.
 The outer layer of eyeball is called fibrous tunic (sclerotic+ cornea).
 Conjunctiva covers the cornea.
 Vascular tunic is the middle layer of the eyeball. It is composed of three
portions: posterior choroid, anterior ciliary body and iris.
 Choroid is called the pigmented layer of eyes. It absorps light rays and are not
reflected back out of the eyeball.

 Ciliary body contains a smooth muscle called ciliary muscle in the eye.
 The focal length of eye lens is controlled by ciliary muscle.
 Iris is the third portion of the vascular tunic and consists of circular sphincter
and radial dilators.
 The function of iris is to alter the size of pupil.
 Pupil is the area through which light enters the eyeball and so it is the aperture
that regulates light entering into eyeball.
 Anterior chamber is the space between the iris and cornea.
 Posterior chamber is the space between lens and iris.
 Both anterior chamber and posterior chamber are filled with a fluid called
aqueous humor.
 The large space between the lens and retina is filled with a viscous matrix called
vitreous humor.
 Canal of Schlemm drains aqueous humor and passes to blood.
 The third and inner coat of eye is retina ;function is image formation.
 Retina consists of three zones:
 Photoreceptor neurons(rods and cones)
 Bipolar neurons
 Ganglio neurons
 Rods outnumber cones in human retina.
 Rods contain a reddish-purple pigmented compound called rhodopsin or visual
purple.
 Rods are highly sensitive even to dim light. They are specialized for night vision.
 Cones are receptors for daylight and colour .
 Maculae lutea or yellow spot is in the exact center of the retina.
 Cones are most densely concerted in the central fovea, a small depression in the
center of macula lutea.
 The fovea is the area of sharpest vision because of high concentration of cones.
 The visual pigments for colour vision are: erythropsin (sensitive to red),
Chloropsin (sensitive to blue).
 Colour vision in man is trichromatic.
 Retina of owl contains only cones.
Ear
 Ears are the statoacoustic organs meant for both balancing and hearing.
 Ears are paired structures attached to the skull posterio-laterally in all
vertebrates.
 Three regions of ear are external, middle and internal.
 External ear consists of pinna (auricle) and auditory canal (external auditory
meatus).

 Pinna is provided with voluntary muscles in rabbit; voluntary muscles are absent
in man.
 Pinna is designed to collect sound waves.
 Auditory canal conducts sound waves to middle ear.
 Auditory canal contains few hairs and specialized sebaceous glands called
ceruminous glands.
 Tympanic membrane (eardrum) separates middle ear from external ear.
 Three auditory ossicles in the middle ear are malleus, stapes and incus.
 According to shape, auditory ossicles are named hammer, anvil and strirrup
respectively.
 Tympanic cavity is connected with auditory capsule by two apertures.
 The internal or inner ear is called the labyrinth.
 Labyrinth consists of two main divisions (i) Bony labyrinth and (ii)Membranous
labyrinth.
 Bony labyrinth is filled with a fluid called perilymph.
 Membranous labyrinth contains a fluid called endolymph.
 Membranous labyrinth is called stato – acoustic organ because it is concerned
with both balancing and hearing.
 Membranous labyrinth is divided into three parts:
(i) Body proper (Utriculus and Sacculus), (ii) Semicircular canals and (iii)
Cochlea.
 Utriculus and sacculus are connected by a small narrow Sacculo-utricular duct.
 A special group of sensory cells called macula are found in both utriculus and
sacculus and sacculus.
 Three semicircular canals are anterior vertical, posterior vertical and horizontal.
 The lower end of each semicircular canal has a swelling called ampulla
 Each ampulla has a group of sensory hair cells called crista.
 Cristae are covered by a mass of gelatinous material called the cupula.
 Cochlea is a long coiled, tubular and blind outgrowth of sacculus. Cochlea makes
1 1
22 tubular in rabbit 22 turns in man.
 Two partitions in cochlea are dorsal vestibular membrane (Reissner’s

membrane) and ventral basilar membrane.
 Three chambers in cochlea are scala vestibula, scala media and scala tympani.
 Helicotrema permits continuity between scala vestibula and scala tympani
 Scala media contains the organ of hearing named organ of corti .
 Organ of Corti is associated with hearing.
 Hearing is controlled by auditory area of the temporal lobe of cerebral cortex.
 Defects of ear
 Labyrinthine disease: Malfunction of inner ear.
 Meniere’s disease: Loss of hearing due to defect in cochlea.

 Otitis media: Acute infection of middle ear.
 Eustachitis: Inflammation of Eustachian tube.
 Myringitis (Tympanitis): Inflammation of eardrum.
 Otalgia: Ear ache (pain in ear)

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Guru Mantra Series
ENDOCRINOLOGY
 The word 'hormone' was introduced by Starling.
 Hormones are secreted by ductless glands (endocrine glands), released directly
into the blood.
 Study of endocrine glands and hormones called Endocrinology.
 Father of endocrinology: Thomas Addison.
 Gland with duct: Exocrine gland
 Gland without duct: Endocrine gland
 The tissue on which the hormone acts is known as ' Target tissue' .
 Autocrine hormones are those that act on the cells secreting it.Eg: platelet
activating factor.
 Paracrine hormones are those that act on the cell adjacent to the cell secreting it.
Eg: Gastrin hormone secreted by G-cells of stomach.
Pituitary gland:
 Smallest endocrine gland.
 Ectodermal in origin.
 It is controlled by hypothalamus.
 Also called 'master gland'.
 Lies in hypophyseal fossa or sella turcica of sphenoid bone.
 Attached to hypothalamus by infundibular stalk.
 Divided into three parts:
 Adenohypophysis
 Pars intermedia: vestigial part
 Neurohypophysis.
 Adenohypophysis secrete GH, TSH, FSH, ACTH, LH and Prolactin.
 Intermediate lobe secrets MSH (Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone).
 Neurohypophysis secrete antidiuretic and oxytocin.
 Hypersecretion of growth hormones result Simmond's disease in adult and
dwarfism in growth years.
 Prolactin is also known as milk producing hormone or hormone of maternity.
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) promotes reabsorption of water from glomerular
filtrate; its hyposecretion results in diabetes insipidus.
 Oxytocin is also called milk ejection hormone.
 Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscles of uterus inducing
labour pain for child birth.

Thyroid gland:
 Largest endocrine gland of the body located at the level of C5-T1 on the anterior
part of neck.
 The greatest concentration of iodine is found in thyroid.
 It is only endocrine gland that stores its secretory product in large quantity.
 Thyroid regulates the basal metabolic rate (BMR).
 Thyroid initiates, regulates and plays a key role in the metamorphosis of frog's
tadpole.
 Childhood hypothyroidism: Cretinism
 Adulthood hypothyroidism: Myxoedema (Gull's disease).
 Hyperthyroidism: Graves disease ( Exopthalmic goitre).
 Simple goitre: due to low intake of iodine through diet.
 Parafollicular (c - cells) cells in thyroid secrete calcitonin.
 Calcitonin lower the amount of calcium and phosphate in the blood.
Parathyroid gland:
 Has 2 kinds of cells : Chief cells and Oxyphil cells.
 Chief cells synthesize parathormone (PTH) or Colip's hormone
 PTH decreases blood Phosphate level and increases blood Calcium level.
 PTH is the major hormone for regulating serum Ca++.
 Disease:
 Increase in PTH  Rickets in children
 Osteomalacia / osteoporosis in adult.

 Decrease in PTH  Tetany
Adrenal gland (suprarenal gland)
 2 in number located one each in upper pole of each kidney enclosed by renal
fascia.
 It is also known as emergency gland.
 Divided into outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla.
 Adrenal cortex is mesodermal in origin while medulla is ectodermal in origin.
 Adrenal cortex is divided into 3 zones:
 Outer: Zone glomerulosa  Secrete mineralocorticoids
 Middle: Zone fasciculata  Secrete glucocorticoids
 Inner: Zone reticularis  Secrete sex steroids.
 Increase in mineralocorticoid: Conn's syndrome.

 Increase in glucocorticoid: Cushing's syndrome.
 Decrease in glucocorticoid: Addison's disease.
 Adrenal medulla secretes 2 hormones:
 Epinephrine(adrenaline): life saving hormone.
 Norepinephrine.
 Adrenal medulla contributes 3F reactions i.e. Fright, fight and flight.

Pancreas:
 2nd largest gland, mixed gland (heterocrine gland).
 Endocrine part: Islets of langerhans having alpha and  cells.
 Alpha - cells secrete glucagon, causes conversion of glycogen to glucose.
  - cells secrete insulin, causes conversion of glucose to glycogen.
 Hypersecretion of insulin results in diabetes mellitus.
 Banting and Best discovered insulin from pancreas of dog.
Other glands and hormones:
 Melatonin is secreted by pineal gland.
 Thymus is called "the throne of immunity" or " training school of T -
lymphocytes".
 Progesterone hormone in graffian follicle of mammals is produced by zona
pellucida.
 Progesterone is responsible for implantation of embryo in uterus as well as for
growth and maintenance of foetus.
 All hormones secreted from anterior pituitary have negative feedback
mechanism except prolactin.

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Guru Mantra Series
Animal Tissues
 Study of tissues is known as histology.
 Founder of Histology: Marcello Malpighi
Epithelial tissue:
 It comprises of cells with minimal intercellular spaces that rest upon the
basement membrane.
 Only tissue with variable origin i.e.derived from all three germ
layers(ectoderm,endoderm and mesoderm).
 Simple squamous epithelium: Found in lining of heart, blood vessels, serous
cavities, lung alveoli as well as descending limb of loop of Henle and Bowman's
capsule.
 Simple cuboidal: Found in thyroid follicles and PCT of kidney.
 Nonciliated simple columnar: lines stomach and intestine.
 Ciliated simple columnar: lines upper respiratory tract.
 Pseudostratified: lines trachea, Eustachian tube.
 Keratinized stratified squamous: skin (epidermis).
 Non - Keratinized stratified squamous: Lines mouth, tongue.
 Transitional epithelium: Lines the urinary bladder.
 Holocrine glands are those in which product of secretion is shed with the whole
cell by destruction of cells. Eg. sebaceous gland of skin, tarsal gland.
 Apocrine glands are those in which secretory product is discharged with the
parts of the apical cytoplasm. Eg. mammary gland.
 Merocrine( epicrine) glands are those in which secretion is discharged through
the intact cell membrane without cellular destruction. Eg. digestive gland.
Connective tissue:
 Mesodermal in origin, most abundant.
 Mast cells are modified basophils of blood.
 Mast cells secrete heparin (anti - coagulant), histamine (vasodilator ) and
serotonin (Vasoconstricter).
 Adipose tissue are modified for fat storage.
 Tendons connect skeletal muscle to a bone.
 Ligaments connect bones together.
 Three kinds of cells are present in cartilage namely chondroblasts, chondrocytes
and chondroclasts.
 Most abundant kind of cartilage is Hyaline cartilage.

 Elastic cartilage is found in the wall of larynx, earpinna, epiglottis and
Eustachian tube.
 Fibro cartilage is the strongest cartilage.
 Osteology is the study of bone.
 Osteoblasts are bone forming cells while osteoclasts help in bone resorption.
 Mammalian bone is characterized by the presence of haversian system (osteon).
 Volkman's canal connect different haversian systems.
 RBCs of mammals are round, biconcave and non- nucleated.
 Graveyard of RBCs is spleen which receives only oxygenated blood.
 Formation of RBCs is called erythropoiesis which occurs in bone marrow.
 Anemia is decrease in RBC count while polycythemia is increase in RBC count.
 Most abundant type of WBCs are neutrophils.
 Largest type of WBCs are monocytes while smallest are lymphocytes.
 Types of macrophages:
 Liver: Kupffer cells
 Bone: Osteoclast
 Kidney: Messangial cells
 Lungs: Dust cells
 Brain: Microglia
 Spleen: Sinusoidal cells
 Connective tissue: Histiocytes
 Skin: Dendritic cells
 Thymus: Hassal corpuscles
 Lymph differs from blood in having no RBCs.
 Serum means plasma minus fibrinogen.
Muscular tissue:
 Study of muscle is called myology.
 Cytoplasm of muscle cells (excluding myofibrils) is called sarcoplasm.
 The cell membrane of muscle cell is called sarcolemma.
 Mitochondria of muscle cell is called sarcosome.
 Endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cell is called sarcoplasmic reticulum.
 Skeletal muscle is also known as striated or voluntary muscle.
 Visceral muscle is nonstraited and involuntary.
 Cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary.
 Myofibrils are the structural unit of muscle contraction.
 Skeletal muscles has cross striations that gives alternate dark (anisotropic or A
band) and light (isotropic or I bands) band.
 H (Hensen's line) band bisects the A band while Z(krause's line) bisects the I
band.
 Sarcomere is the distance between two Z-lines in a myofibril.
 Sarcomere is the functional unit of muscle contraction.

 Skeletal muscle contains two types of myofilaments: thick and thin filaments.
 Thick: Myosin
 Thin: Actin,Troponin T,I,C ;Tropomyosin
 Total number of muscles in our body is 639.
 Epimysium is the connective tissue sheath that wraps the whole muscle belly.
 Perimysium wraps each muscle fasciculi.
 Endomysium wraps each muscle fibre.
 Cardiac muscle are connected by intercalated disc.
 Largest muscle is Gluteus maximus and longest muscle is Sartorius (Tailor’s
muscle).
 Strongest muscle in the body is Massetor.
 Smallest muscle of the body is Stapedius.
Nervous tissue:
 Originate from ectoderm(but microglia and meninges are derived from
mesoderm).
 Composed of 2 types of cells :i)Excitable neurons and ii)Non excitable
neuroglia.
 Neurons are structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
 Neurons are largest cells of the body.
 Neurons consists of cell body/soma,dendrites and axon. Dendrites are sensory in
function; conducts impulse to the cell body while axon are motor in function;
conducts impulse away from the cell body.
 Myelination in CNS is done by Oligodendrocyte.
 Myelination in PNS is done by Schwann cells.
 Blood brain barrier in brain is formed by Astrocytes.
 Macrophages in the brain are called microglia.
 Internal lining of ventricles and neural canal is formed by Ependymal cells.
 Least power of regeneration is found in neurons due to the absence of centrioles.
 Nissl's granules are present in neuron.
 Nodes of Ranvier are constrictions in the axons.
 Majority of neurons are multipolar.
 Apolar neurons are found in Chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla.
 Unipolar neurons are found in Hydra.
 Bipolar neurons are found in retina of eyes.
 Endoneurium is the covering of each nerve fibre.
 Perineurium is covering of each nerve fasciculus.
 Epineurium is covering of each bundle of fasciculi.

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Guru Mantra Series
RABBIT BONES
 Endoskeleton or rabbit is primarily divided into :
 Axial skeleton : consists of skull, vertebral column including ribs.
 Appendicular skeleton : consists of limbs and girdle.
1. Axial skeleton:
 Vertebral formula in rabbit: C7T12 L7S4Cd16
 But in man vertebral formula: C7T12L5S5Cd4
 All vertebra in rabbit are acoelous or amphiplatyon i.e.their centra are flattened
at both surfaces.
 No. of vertebra in rabbit = 46/47.
 No. of cervical vertebra = 7 in all mammals except Seacow and sloths where it is
6.
 Cervical vertebra is characterized by the presence of vertebrarterial canal.
 Atlas ( 1st cervical vertebra ) has large neural arch but lacks centrum.
 Odontoid process is present in Axis vertebrae ( 2nd cervical vertebra)
 The articulation between axis and atlas is a kind of Ball and Socket joint.
 Presence of unpaired Hypapohyses in the anterior lumbars only.
 Sacral vertebra are fused together to form a single structure called the sacrum ;
with this vertebra articulates the pelvic girdle.
 There are 12 to 13 pairs of ribs.
 Each ribs has a bony vertebral portion and a cartilaginous costal or sternal
portion.
 The head of each ribs from 1st – 9th has two projections:
 Capitulum attached to centrum
 Tuberculum attached to transverse process of corresponding thoracic vertebra.
 True ribs (attached directly to the sternum) are first seven pairs.
 False ribs ( in which sternal portions are attached to those of 7th) are 8th and 9th
pair of ribs.
 Floating ribs are last 3 pairs.They have no attachments with sternum at all.
 Sternum consists of 7 bony structures known as sternebrae.
 Sternum has three parts: anterior presternum, middle mesosternum and
posterior metasternum or xiphisternum.
 Xiphisternum bears a terminal expanded flap known as Xiphoid cartilage.
 Skull of rabbit is Tropobasic(inter-orbital septum is absent).
 Jaw suspension is craniostylic because lower jaw is firmly attached to upper jaw.
 Zygomatic arc in rabbit is formed by Jugal, Maxilla and squamosal.

 Lower jaw consists a single bone on each side known as dentary.
 Lower jaw articulates with glenoid fossa of squamosal.
 Dentary possess coronoid process and angular process.
 Auditory or ear ossicles consists of maleus, Incus and stapes.
 Eustachian tube is an aperture between the tympanic and the peri-otic bone.
 Alisphenoids are wing like bones in skull.
 Skull of rabbit is dicondylic.
 Neck of giraffe is larger due to elongation of cervical vertebrae.
 Caudal vertebra is an anticlinal vertebra.
2. Appendicular skeleton:
 The two halves of pectoral girdle are separate due to the presence of thoracic
ribs.
 Each individual half is called innominate that consists of Supra scapula,
triangular scapula , coracoid and clavicle.
 Glenoid cavity is present in pectoral girdle.
 Clavicle is much reduced in rabbit.
 Pelvic girdle is composed of two halves called Os-innominata which unite
posteriorly by a pubic symphysis and connected anteriorly with the sacrum.
 Pelvic girdle consists of illium, ischium and pubis.
 Pubis is the smallest among them.
 Acetabulum is present in pelvic girdle to which the head of femur fits.
 Between ischium and pubis is present a cavity known as obturator foramen.
 Pubis does not take part in formation of acetabulum due to the presence of
cotyloid bone.
 Deltoid ridge is present in humerus.
 Distal end of humerus has a pulley like trochlea and supratrochlear or olecranon
fossa.
 Ventral side of humerus has a coronoid fossa.
 Olecranon process and deep sigmoid notch are present in ulna
 Ulna is responsible for the formation of elbow.
 Number of carpal bones is 8 in rabbits which are arranged in two rows. But in
Oryctolagus, the number of carpal bones is 9.
 Proximal/1st row : radiale,intermedium and ulnare.
 Distal/2nd row: Trapezium, Trapezoid , Centrale, Magnum, Unciform and
pisiform.
 No. of metacarpal bones is five.
 No. of phallenges is 14.
 Digital formula of forelimb of rabbits is 2,3,3,3,3.
 Femur is the longest and stoutest bone of rabbit.

 Proximal end of femur bears a rounded head that fits into acetabulum of pelvic
girdle.
 Lesser, greater and third trochanters are present in femur.
 Tibia is a stout and a straight bone while Fibula is a slender bone fused distally
with tibia.
 Distal end of tibia articulates with the tarsal bones.
 Cnemial crest is present in tibia.
 Number of tarsal bones is 6 which are arranged in 3 rows.
 1st row : Astragalus and calcaneum
 2nd row : centrale or navicular bone
 3rd row : mesocuneiform, ectocuneiform ,cuboid
 Number of metatarsal is 5.
 Digital formula of hindlinb of rabbit is 0,3,3,3,3

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Guru Mantra Series
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
 The scientific study of animal behaviour is called ethology.

 There are two kinds of behavior :
 Stereotype or innate behaviour
 Learned or acquired behavior
 Stereotype (inherent) behavior includes inborn adaptive mechanism with which
the animals face the environment.
 Reflexes, taxis and instincts are 3 kinds of stereotype behavior.
 Learned behavior are an adaptive change in individual’s behavior as a result of
previous experience.
 Reflex action is a rapid, automatic motor response to a sensory stimulus that is
not under the voluntary control of brain.
 If the reflex arc passes through spinal cord, it is called spinal reflex Eg: knee
jerking.
 If the reflex arc passes through brain, it is cranial reflex. eg: Eye blinking.
 Hunger and cough reflexes involve both spinal and cerebral reflexes.
 Stretch reflex is a contracting response which occurs when a skeletal muscle with
an intact nerve supply is stretched.
 Taxis or taxic response is a directional movement of the whole organism in
response to an external directional stimulus.
 Kinesis or kinetic response is a non-directional movement in which the rate of
movement is related to intensity of stimulus and not to the direction of
stimulation. Eg: the movement of tentacles of Hydra.
 Tropism is the turning movement in plants and sessile animals in response to
stimulus.
 Klinotaxis is movement in which animals try to orient their body by comparing
intensities of stimulation on two sides of the body. Eg: Euglena, Planaria,
earthworm,etc.
 Klinotaxis is shown by organisms that bears sensory receptors but no sense
organs.
 Tropotaxis is behavioral response of bilaterally symmetrical animals due to
stimulus leading to orientation of the body straight towards the stimulus.Eg:
Argulus (fish louse), grayling butterflies,etc.
 Telotaxis is the orientation of a bilaterally symmetrical animal at any one of the
stimuli but not intermediate or both when two sources of stimuli of same
intensity operate at the same time.

 Telotaxis is shown by honey bee.
 Menotaxis is the orientation of the body in response to stimulus at a constant
angle.
 Menotaxis is also known as ‘light compass response’.
 Mnenotaxis is the orientation of animals depending on some complex stimuli
like direction, land marks eg: Hunting wasps.
 Dominance is the behaviour of animal in which one dominates others by
aggression or threat.
 Leadership refers to ability and action of giving guidance to the members of the
group.
 Leadership is the highest position in the social rank or hierarchy.
 In red deer, female (called 'hind') acts as a leader of the herd.
 In case of Rhesus monkey, herd leadership and dominance go together.
 Leadership and dominance are irrespecrive of age and sex ,but mostly matured
and physically strong male becomes the leader of the group.
Fish migration:
 Classified by Myers into 3 types.
i. Diadromous: true migratory fishes which migrate between sea and fresh
water.
 Anadromous: from sea to fresh water Fg: Salmon, Hilsa, sea lamprey etc
 Catadromous: from fresh water to sea.Eg eels(Anguilla)
 Amphidromous: Migration in both direction Eg: Gobies fish
ii. Potamodromous: migration confined to fresh water only. eg: carp and trout
fishes
iii. Ocenodronous: migration confined to sea water only. Eg: tunna,herrings
etc
 Birds are the greatest migrant.
 Bobwhite and ruffled sand grouse donot migrate at all .These non migratory
birds are called residents.
 The golden plover has a world record of longest flight.
 Migration in birds is under the hormonal influence of Thymus gland.
ANIMAL ADAPTATION
 Adaptation is the fitness or adjustment of animals or plants with their habitat.
 Term 'adaptation' was first used by H.F Osborn.
 Primary adaptation is the adaptation in the original direction (e.g.: Terrestrial 
cursorial).
 Secondary adaptation is the adaptation in the reverse direction. (e.g.: Terrestrial
 aquatic)
 The diversification of organism in different types of habitat from common
ancestral form is termed as adaptive radiation.

 Convergent adaptation is represented by analogous organs while divergent
adaptation is represented by homologous organs.
 Coloration (camouflage), mimicry,etc. that protect the animals from their natural
enemies are examples of protective coloration.
 On the basis of habitat, adaptation may be classified into following:
 Terrestrial: for living on land.
 Aquatic: for living in water.
 Aerial or Volant:. for living in air
 Fossorial: for burrowing /digging.
 Arboreal: for living on tree.
 Scansorial: for climbing.
 Saltatorial: for jumping.
 Cursorial: for fast running.
 Amphibious: for living on land as well as water.
 Sanguivorous/Hematophagous: for feeding on blood.
 Cave : for living on cave.
 Presence of feather, beak, pneumatic bones, pygostyle, long and mobile neck,
sternum bearing 'keel' or 'carina' and furcula are distinguishing features of
Volant adaptation.
 Normal body temperature of bird is 46 C.
 Beak is the modification of jawbones in birds and helps in preening.
 Only amphibian capable of gliding is Rhacohorus.
 Among invertebrates, only insects can fly.
 Wings of insects are simply the extensions of body wall.
 Forelimbs of bats are modified into wings or patagia.
 Xerocles are the animals found in desert. eg: Phrynosoma (Horn toad), Camel etc.
 Xerophytes are plants found in desert.
 Desert lizard has hygroscopic skin that absorps water from the atmosphere.
 Various water conservation mechanisms like presence of water cells in stomach,
presence of venom, protective coloration,enlarged eyelids,etc. are adaptational
features of Xerocles.
 Arboreal adaptation is the adaptation for climbing inclined or vertical surfaces.
 Tail acts as a balancing organ and is generally long and best developed in
arboreal forms.
 In Hemidactylus limbs have clawed digits which are provided with numerous
small lamellae. They produce suction by vacuum.
 Loss of digits for faster locomotion is found in cursorial animals.
 In plantigrade, entire palm or sole rests on ground eg: Bear, man, etc.
 In digitigrade, there is walking or running upon the digits eg. dogs.
 In unguligrade, there is walking on modified nails or hoof. eg. Horse, Cattle, etc.
 Primary aquatic vertebrates are primitive gill breathing vertebrates while
secondary aquatic animals are lung breathers.

 Streamlined body contour, locomotion by lateral undulation of flexible body,
presence of swim bladder, respiration by gills, lateral line sense organs and
mucous glands are major primary aquatic adaptation.
 Gills are covered by gill covering or operculum in bony fishes and are free in
cartilaginous fishes.
 Nictitating membrane is the 3rd eye lid and is for eye protection and for making
vision clear.
 Ectoparasites live on the body of host. Eg: Hydramoeba hydroxena on hydra.
 Endoparasites live inside the body of host. Eg: Ascaris –has muscular suctorial
pharynx.
 High reproductive capacity, anaerobic respiration due to low oxygen, poorly
developed sense organs and nervous system ,absorption by general body
surfaces are features of parasitic adaptation.
 In tapeworms, body is externally covered by resistant cuticle to protect them
from action of digestive enzymes secreted by host.

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Guru Mantra Series
EVOLUTION
 The main theme of organic evolution is “descent with modifications”i.e. doctrine of desires.
 Phylogenetic tree is scheme of classification which provides a proof of descent from a common
ancestor.
 Study of functional anatomy is called tectology.
 Homologous organs (suggest divergent evolution) are organs that are similar in origin but
similar or dissimilar in function. eg: limbs of vertebrates , Eye structure of vertebrates.
 Analogous of organs (suggest convergent evolution ) are organs that have different embryonic
origin but perform similar functions eg. Fins of fishes and flippers of whales , wings of insect and
wings of birds and bats.
 Vestigial organs are the organs which were function in ancestors but non - functional in
descendents. eg: Nictitating membrane, vermiform appendix
 connecting links:
 Virus: between non-living and living.
 Euglena: between plants and animals.
 Proterospongia: between protozoa and porifera.
 Neoplina: between annelida and mollusca.
 Peripatus: between annelida and arthropoda.
 Chimaera (rabbit fish) : between amphibia and reptiles.
 Semauria: between amphibia and birds.
 Archaeopteryx: between repties and mammals.
 Ornithorhynchus: between reptiles and mammals.
 Balanoglossus: between chordates and non- chordate.
 Atavism is sudden reappearance of some ancestral organs which have either completely
disappeared or are present as vestigial organs.Eg: Large canine in man, elongation of tail bone,
thick hair on the body, functional nipple in male,etc.
 E. Haeckel formulated the 'Biogenetic law' The law states 'ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny'.
 Fossils are the preserved remains or impressions of organisms on the rocks.
 Pseudofossils are fossil like impressions formed on some rocks due to mineral deposition.
 Geological time scale is tabulated notation of sequence and duration of different eras and periods
with dominant forms of life.
 Earth has 5 eras: Archaezoic-Proterozoic-Paleozoic-Mesozoic-Cenozoic
 Stage in the evolution of horse:
Eohippus (earliest), Mesohippus, Merychippus, Pliohippus, Eqqus (modern horse).
 The ultimate source of organic variation is mutation .
 Palaeontology is the study of fossils or extinct life.
 Lamarckism or theory of inheritance of acquired characters was given by lamarck and
published in book 'Philosophie Zoologique'.
 Theory of continuity of Germplasm or Germplasm theory was formulated by Weismann.
 Theory of Natural selection was jointly profounded by Darwin and Wallace.
 The unit of natural selection is individual.

 The basis of evolution is species.
 The term 'survival of fittest' was given by Herbert spencer while ' natural selection' by Darwin.
 Mutation theory of evolution was proposed by Hugo de vries.
 According to neo-Darwinias, both mutation and natural selection are responsible for evolution.
 The chief neo-Darwinians are Weismann, Mendel and de vries.
 First reptiles appeared doing carboniferous period of palaceozoic era from stem reptiles called
'cotylosaurs'
 Mesozoic era is the age of reptiles.
 Dinosaurs (extinct reptiles) originated during Triassic period along with primitive mammals.
 Dinosaurs were most abundant during Jurassic period.
 Archaeopteryx lived in Jurassic period.
 Devonian period of Paleozoic era is called the age of fishes; amphibians also originated in this
period.
 Reptiles originated in carboniferous period which is also called the age of pteridophytes.
 By cretaceous period, dinosaurs became extinct.
 Cenozoic era is called " the age of mammals and birds".
 Age of man or epoch of human civilization is holocene.
Human Evolution
 Mammals originated in the Triassic period from therapsid reptiles.
 Linnaeus gave scientific name "Homo sapiens".
 The oldest fossil of man was discovered from Africa.
 Holocene epoch is considered as the age of man.
 Anthropology is the study of human evolution.
 Genology is sequential arrangement of stages of evolution.
 Human belongs to order Primates of class Mammalia.
 Primates originated in Paleocene epoch of tertiary period of Cenozoic era.
 Closest relative of man is chimpanzee.The banding pattern and chromosome number best explains
the common origin of man and chimpanzee.
 Cradle of human evolution is central Africa.
 Place of man's origin is Central Asia.
 Ancestor of man who first stood erect was Australopithecus.
 Nut cracker fossil man was Handy man.
 First man who lived in caves and ceremonial burial of dead was practiced were
Neanderthal men.
 Development of first speech centre, clothes made of animal hides, Protruding jaws and prognathus
face are features of Neanderthal man.
 Colored rock - paintings were first made by Cro-Magnon man.
 Immediate ancestor of modern man was Cro-magnon man.
 Tools and fire were first used by Java-Ape man.
 Table:
Ancestors Discovery Cranial capacity
Ramapithecus G.E. Lewis -
Australopithecus Lucy & Raymond dart -
Handy man Leaky 700 cc.
Java - ape man Eugene Dubois 900 cc.
Peking man W.C. pie 1075 cc.

Neanderthal man C. Fuwortt 1400cc.
Cro-Magnon man Mac Gregor 1600cc.
 Largest cranial capacity is found in Cro-Magnon man.
ORIGIN OF LIFE
Theories of origin of life are:
1. Theory of special creation: oldest theory proposed by Hebrew et al.
 According to it, life was created by some supernatural power.
2. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis):
 According to the theory, life arose from non living matters on numerous occasion by a process of
spontaneous generation.
3. Cosmozoic theory / panspermia theory:
 Proposed by Ritcher and supported by Arrhenius.
 By this theory, life comes from outer space in the form of spores.
4. Theroy of catastrophism:
 Sudden creation of life from inorganic material, was supported by Georges
cuvier, the ‘father of modern palaeontology'.
5. Theory of Biogenesis:
 New organisms can from only from pre-existing ones
 F. Redi, Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur support it.
 Pasteur is famous for 'Germ theory of Diseases'.
6. Biochemical evolution:
 "Life arose according to chemical and physical laws".
 Most widely accepted theory of origin of life.
 Gases in primitive earth: H2, N2, NH 3, H2O, CH4, CO2 etc
 In Miller's experiment, CH4, NH3 and H2 were used in proportion of 2:2:1 respectively
 The products formed as a result of Miller's experiment were: amino acids, glycine and nitrogenous
bases.
 Miller's experiment proves that life first originated in water.
 Coacervates were aggregates of proteins.
 Opinion of oparin and Haldane was supported by experiment of Miller - Urey.
 The atmosphere of primitive earth was reducing not oxidizing as it is today.
 The pre-cell stage of life (Eobiont) was formed during the Chemogeny stage.

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Guru Mantra Series
DISEASES
 Disease means lack of ease or comfort.It is departure from the state of health.
 Types of diseases :
 Communicable: can be transmitted by vector.Eg: common cold, Influenza,
measles, malaria, typhoid,etc.
 Non- communicable: are not transmitted from one person to another. Eg: cancer,
genetic disorders, etc.
1. Tuberculosis(Koch's disease):
 The causative agent is Mycobacterium tuberculosis(an AFB +ve bacteria).
 About 45 % of Nepalese population is infected with TB.
 Can affect all organs except hair and nail.
 TB is a disease of poverty.
 Most infective and common type of TB is Pulmonary.
 MOT: droplet infection and ingestion of contaminated milk.
 Cough with hemoptysis is the main symptom.
 Mantoux (tuberculin) test is used to diagnose disease.
 Ghon's focus (primary focus) is the primary lesion in lungs by M. tuberculosis.
 Ghon's complex: Ghon's focus lesion in hilor lymph node.
 Treatment is done by multi Drug Regimen and the first line drugs are "PRISE" ie pyrizinamid,
Rifampicin, isoniazid, streptomycin and Ethambutol.
 Prevention is done by BCG vaccination.
2. Ascariasis (Round worm/Juka):
 The most common helminthic infestation in Nepal.
 Longest intestinal parasite, more common in children.
 Causative agent is Ascaris lumbricoides.
 MOT: through contaminated food and water.
 Infective forms is Embryonated egg (Rhabditiform larva).
 Oil of chenopodium is given for its treatment.
3. Giardiasis:
 Causative agent is Giardia lambia / intestinalis.
 MOT: faecal-oral route
 Quadrinucleated cyst is the infective form.
 Giardiasis is the commonest cause of diarrhoea in the adults/hostels.
4. HIV/AIDS:
 Also known as slims disease.
 AIDS(Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is the end stage of HIV(Human Immuno
Deficiency Virus).
 Virus was first detected by Dr. Luc Montagnier and Dr. Robert Gallo.
 HIV mainly affects helps T - lymphocytes (CD4 - Tcells).
 Sexual contact is the major mode of transmission.
 HIV is not transmitted by casual contact or by insects such as by a mosquito bite.

 HIV is highest among sexual workers followed by IV drug abusers.
 Antibody test is negative but the person can transmit the disease in window period (latent
period) /phase of sero-conversion.
 Diagnosis of HIV is done by ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immune Sorbet Assay) and western
blot.
 Western blot detects protein and is a confirmatory test while ELISA detects antibody.
5. Typhoid fever:
 Typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella typhi.
 Human is the only reservoir of salmonella.
 MOT: feco-oral route
 If affects peyer's patches of Ileum, cause ulceration of peyer's patches.
 Diagnosis of typhoid is made by:
 B - Blood culture on first week.
 A - antibody test (widal test) on second week.
 S - Stool test on third week.
 U - Urine culture on fourth week.
6. Cancer:
 Uncontrolled proliferation of cells lead to growth of cancer.
 Oncology is study of tumors.
 Tumor (neoplasm) is of two main types:
a. Benign tumor which is slow growing and less invasive.
b. Malignant tumor which is fast growing and more invasive.
 The spread of cancerous cells to distant sites is called metastasis.
 Carcinomas are malignant growth of the epithelial tissue that cover or line body organs.Eg: lung
cancer, breast cancer.
 Sarcomas are malignat growth of the connective tissue that are derived from primitive
mesoderm.Eg: Osteosarcoma
 Leukemias means cancer of blood forming tissue like stem cells in bone marrow. Eg: Blood
cancer
 Melanoma is cancer of pigment cells of the skin.
 Adenoma is cancer of glands.
 Myoma is cancer of muscle tissue.
 Lymphoma is cancer of lymphoid tissue.Eg: Hodgkin's lymphoma
 Tumor producing viruses are called oncoviruses.
 Lung cancer is most common cancer in men.
 Breast cancer is most common type in women.
 Acute leukaemic leukemia (ALL) is most common cancer in children.
7. Social diseases:
 Psychosis is a severe mental disorder in which one loses contact with reality
 Neurosis is a mild type of metal illness.
 Nicotine is a substance that causes addiction to tobacco.
 Nicotine acts as a tranquillizer.
 The effect of alcohol on the central Nervous system is as a depressant.
 Alcohol intake causes " fatty liver syndrome" leading to cirrhosis of liver.
 Sedatives and tranquillizers: Benzodiazepines, barbiturates .
 Opiate narcotics: opium, morphine, Heroin, codeine

 Stimulants: caffeine, cocaine, Amphetamines, Doxapram.
 Hallucinogens: LSD, Bhang, Marijuana, Ganja
 LSD is one of the most dangerous hallucinogens of modern times.
 Mildest among the stimulants is caffeine, commonly taken in the form of tea, coffee and cola
drinks.
 Heroin is the most dangerous narcotics.
 Nicotine is a toxic substance present in cigarette smoke.
 Nicotine is responsible for tobacco addiction.

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Guru Mantra Series
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT IN FROG:

Types of eggs
1. On the basis of amount of yolk:
i. Alecithal: eggs with no yolk
ii. Microlecithal: eggs with very little amount of yolk.Eg:Placental mammals.
iii. Mesolecithal: eggs with moderate amount of yolk. Eg:frogs and lung fishes.
iv. Megalecithal: Eggs with large amount of yolk.Eg:Reptiles and birds.
2. On the basis of distribution of yolk:
i. Homolecithal: yolk distributed evenly Eg:echinoderms, Ascaris
ii. Telolecithal: yolk condensed at one pole.Eg:frog, reptiles and birds
iii. Meiolecithal:yolk strongly concentrated in telolecithal.Eg:reptiles, few bony
fishes,etc.
iv. Centolecithal: Yolk is concentrated in the centre.Eg:insects
Types of Cleavages:
i. Holoblastic: A cleavage furrow divides entire egg.Eg: frog
ii. Equal Holoblastic: produced blastomeres are of equal sizes
iii. Unequal Holoblastic: produced blastomeres are of unequal size ,macromeres are
larger while micromeres are smaller.
iv. Meroblastic: Incomplete division of eggs takes place where cytoplasmic animal
pole divides but yolk vegetal pole remains undivided.
Types of Blastula:
i. Coeloblastula: Blastula consisting of one or many layers of numerous cells
arranged around large blastocoel.Eg:frog
ii. Stereoblastula: Single blastocoels surrounded by densely packed,large size and
small number of cells.Eg: Nereis
iii. Discoblastula: having a discoid cleavage.Eg: birds and reptiles
iv. Superficial blastula: found in insects.
 Aristotle is regarded as the founder of science of embryology.

 Father of modern embryology is Karl Ernst Von Baer.

 Pedogamy is the sexual reproduction of animal in larval condition.
 Teratology is the study of abnormal embryonic development in animals.
 Fertilization is frog is external talking place in water.
 A grey crescent appears in the equatorial zone geometrically opposite to sperm entrance.
 Grey crescent marks the dorsal side of future embryo.
 Frog's egg is mesolecithal (based on amount of yolk) and telolecithal (based on distribution of
yolk).
 Upper black or darkly pigmented part is animal hemisphere. Lower unpigmented or white part is
vegetal hemisphere.
 The correct sequence in the development of frog is: Fertilization, cleavage, morula, blastula and
gastrula.
 First and second cleavage are holoblastic and equal while all divisions from third cleavage are
unequal holoblastic.
 After 6th/7th cleavage division, the embryo looks like a mulberry shape ball of cells. This is called
Morula stage.
 A cavity called blastocoel appears towards animal hemisphere and this blastula of frog is called
coeloblastula.
 Gastrulation is the process by which a blastula is converted into gastrula.
 By the end of gastrulation, it is converted in to a 3-layered embryo made of ectoderm, endoderm
and mesoderm often enclosing an archenteron.
 Gastrulation results in the formation of a new cavity, archenteron which opens outside through
blastopore.
 Archenteron is present in the lumen of future gut.
 Blastopore occurs in gastrula and opens into archenteron.
 Blastopore will give rise to future anus in frog.
 Posterior side of future tadpole is represented by the side of frog's embryo bearing the yolk plug.
 Neurulation is the stage after gastrulation where neural tube, notochord and gut forms
 Formation of notochord is called ontogenesis.
Fate of germ layers:
a. Ectoderm: Epidermis, Nervous system (brain and spinal cord), eye (retina, lens
and cornea), internal ear.
b. Mesoderm:Dermis, muscular tissue, connective tissue, vascular system, urinary
and reproductive system, eye(choroids).
c. Endoderm: gut, Tongue, lungs, liver, pancreas, middle ear.
Reproductive terms:
i. Autotomy: Phenomena in which an animal cuts its own part which can be
regenerated again. Eg: Hydra, Lizard.
ii. Hermaphroditism: Male and female reproductive organs are present on same
individual;also called bisexual form. Eg:Earthworm
iii. Neoteny: Phenomena in which larva becomes sexually matured and starts
reproducing. Eg: Axolotl larva of Ambystoma.
iv. Metagenesis: Asexually and sexually reproduced forms alternate with each other
in a life cycle. Eg: Obelia
v. Paedogenesis: when larva produces larva.

vi. Polyembryony: Production of several embryos from the same individual. Eg:
Fasciola
vii. Dioecious:Unisexual forms i.e.male and female reproductive organs are present
on different individuals.

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Guru Mantra Series

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Fasciola hepatica (Sheep fluke / Liver fluke)

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Ascaris lumbricoides (Round worm)

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Ancylostoma duodenale (Hook worm )

Wuchereria bancrofti (Bancroft's filaria)

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Cockroach (Periplaneta americana)

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ECHINODERMATA =HEDGEHOG; DERMA=SKIN)

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Acarology Study of mites and ticks.

Anatomy Study of structure of internal organs.

Araneology Study of spiders.

Carcinology Study of Crustaceans

Conchology Study of molluscan shells.

Eugenics Study of improvement of human race by improving

Icthyology Study of fishes.

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Microbiology Study of microorganisms.

Nidology Study of nests of birds.

Parazoology Study of sponges.

Pisciculture Rearing of fishes in ponds.

SOME FAMOUS BOOKS AND AUTHORS

Author Name of Book

Fathers of Various Branches of Zoology

Aristotle Father of Biology, Zoology and Embryology.

Georges cuvier Father of Modern Palaeontology

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Father Saurez Father of Special Creation Theory.

William Harvey Father of Blood Circulation.

Hippocrates Father of Medicine.

Edward Jenner Father of Immunology.

Marcello Malpighi Father of Microscopic Anatomy.

Some Important Biologial Facts

Largest egg Struthio (Ostrich)

Largest teeth Tusk of elephant

Smallest bird Humming bird of Cuba.

Primitive mammal Echidna (Egg laying).

Flying fish Exocoetus.

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