Enlightment -> 

European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th century.

 Ideas concerning: God, reason, nature, man. Those ideas were simplified into worldview, that
investigated revolutionary development (art, philosophy, politics)
 Use and celebration of reason, reason was regarded as a power
 Possibility of human progress, improvement.
 Men wanted to be useful citizens; key words: knowledge, freedom, happiness.
Enlightment beliefs:
 The rule of law
 Welfare (dobrobyt) and the general good
 Progress
 Efficient administration
 Better education, poorhouses, founding of orphanages (sierocińce), emancipation of serfs
 Toleration and free press
 Abolition of torture and persecution (prześladowanie), humanitarianism
 Abolition of privilege (immunitet) for some estates
Enlightment in France (before the Revolution of 1789):
 More serfs before the revolution were free
 French philosophers -> literary man, scientists and thinkers of the 18th century France, they were
united in spite of divergent (rozbieżny) personal views.
 They expressed support for social, political and economic forces; they believed in their
enormous abilities.
 Scientific achievements and inventions made a revolution, they were listed
in ENCYCLOPEDIA -> the great work of the Enlightment, it was published in 28 volumes,
from 1751 to 1780.
France before the Revolution of 1789.
Ancien regime = absolute monarchy -> a term, that refers to the political & social system existing in
France under the Bourbon dynasty. In the second half of 17th century France was an absolute monarchy
on the rule of the hereditary monarch, who was the sole source of political power. He ruled with
support of the nobility.
LOUIS XIV from BOURBON DYNASTY -> ruled France during the late 17th and early 18th century.
He said ‘’I am the state’’ – the most famous statement of absolutism. He called himself The Sun King
(Król Słońce). Louis XIV died at the beginning of the 18th century, he was the most famous member of
the Bourbon dynasty.
The official royal residence was Palace of Versailles.
 In the second half of the 18th century -> 5 states were regarded as a great powers of Europe and
decided on European policy (because of the military forces). France, Great Britain, Prussia,
Russia and Austria. They were engaged in the SEVEN YEARS WAR.
Seven Years War -> 1756-1763
- The major military conflict before the French Revolution, which involved great powers of the Europe.
- France, Austria and Russia were allied against Prussia and Great Britain.
- The concentration of the war was in German states. Silesia had been rested from Austria by Prussia in
1740’s. Austria wanted to regain it. The king of Prussia then was Friedrich II (crashed the huge French
and Austrian armies during the War).
- Seven Years War also involved overseas colonial empires between France and Great Britain. They fought
to control India and North America. The war ended with some terms of treaties. Under those terms Great
Britain gained French Canada and became a leader in colonization.
- Prussia maintained (utrzymała) its possession of Silesia and confirmed (potwierdziła) its status as a major
European power.
-Defeated: Austria, France. Victorious: Great Britain (gained Canada in 1763, Prussia (gained Silesia).
LOUIS XV -> Louis’ XIV successor. He became a king at the age of 5. He reigned from 1715 to 1774. He
was Louis’ XIV grandson.
 He got married with Marie Leszczynska (a daughter of the dethroned polish king – Stanislaw
Leszczynski)
 he lacked in self-confidence and his government became degenerated. He isolated himself
from the court.
 -His mistress was Madame de Pompadour. They were connected by common policy. 1745 -
> Louis XV took Madame de Pompadour as his official mistress. The collaboration between
them was political and artistic; they patronized all the forms of decorative arts. The most
famous porcelain factory was built at Sevres and Madame was a protector of most of the
French authors. She was also a protector of the editors of Encyclopedia. Madame was blamed
of the defeats during Seven Years War.
 After the end of the Seven Years War, Madame de Pompadour died.
 The last mistress of the Louis XV was Madame du Barry. She was unpopular in France.
Louis’ XV reigns were bad in policy, his court had a huge extravagances (wydatki) and it gave a
reverse (niepowodzenie) in military, so France went to the path of the revolution.
He died in 1774 and was succeeded by his grandson, LOUIS XVI.
LOUIS XVI -> he was 20 years old, immature and lacking self-confidence. He was frigid (oziębły) in
relations with Marie Antoinette, his young wife. He had an operation and physical defect.
Marie Antoinette – Austrian archduchess (arcyksiężniczka). She was a daughter of Maria Theresa,
Austrian empress who died in 1780. Her successor was her son, Joseph II. They were form Habsburg
dynasty.
The social order of the ancient regime.
Before the revolution 1789 -> France was one of the most populous (zaludniony) country. With
Corsica it had about 26 million inhabitants.
Corsica – island on the Mediterranean Sea, over the Sardinia. Its main city is Ajaccio. Corsica is the 4
th largest island on the Mediterranean Sea, it became a province of France during the reigns of Louis
XV (France annexed it in 1769).
 Population of France was homogenous (jednorodna) in religion and ethnic. 97% of the
population belonged to the Catholic Church. Most of the population (about 84%) lived in rural
areas – France was an agricultural country. Its largest city was Paris (it has over half a million
of inhabitants).
Social structure before the Revolution:
the social structure for centuries was based on the system of feudal obligation. Officially, every subject
(poddany) of the French king belonged to one of the 3 estates.
First Estate – CLERGY -> all of the clergy was around 130 000 of people. From bishops at the top to
parish priests (proboszczowie) at the bottom. All the clergy has its own status, before the Revolution
they were benefited from privileges.
Second Estate – NOBILITY -> 170 000-200 000 French subjects were members of the Second
Estate.  The nobility was divided into:
1. NOBILITY OF THE SWORD (szlachta rodowa) – those, whose ancestors were
nobles, dated from medieval period. Families of the Nobility of The Sword derived their
rank from military service and from long standing possession.
1. The Court Nobility (szlachta dworska) – hereditary aristocracy. They numbered
about 4000 families, who lived permanently in Paris or Versailles, dealing with
pinpricks (‘’szpilki’’) and gossips at court. They wanted to increase their income and
play higher political role.
 2. The Provincial Nobility (szlachta prowincjonalna) – they were extremely diverse
in economic terms. Some of them lived a life of ease (dostatnie życie) in their
chateaux (zamek na wsi). They lived off (utrzymywali się z ) rents paid by peasants,
they hunted and played cards. Some of them they were working on their fields and
living on the level of peasants, but in case of the law they were equal with the rest of
the nobility.
2. NOBILITY OF THE ROBE (szlachta urzędnicza) – consisted of those, who acquired
noble status through holding certain high state offices, for example in the Royal Judiciary
(administracja państwowa). Many of the bourgeoisie who had money entered the rank of
the Nobility of The Robe, because the bought high state offices in Civil Service and
Royal Judiciary. But they were disdained by some families from the Nobility of The
Sword.
They had great fortunes, were well-educated and were judges in Parlement.
Parlement -> supreme court under the ancient regime. It could restrict the license of the royal
authority (samowola władzy królewskiej). There was originally one Parlement (in Paris), there
were created later for provinces, but this in Paris retained (utrzymywać) jurisdiction of the
kingdom. At first duties of Parlement were strictly judicial, but they gradually considered about
registering (rejestrować) all royal edicts before they became a law.
Third Estate – BURGHERS (mieszczanie) AND FREE PEASANTS -> Third Estate consisted
of burghers and free peasants (but not serfs). It was accounted for 99% of the French society under
the ancient regime. Peasants were the most numerous group .  The vast majority of them were
free, but bound by various, archaic duties towards their lords and the state.
They weren’t privileged. They had to pay a taille – it was a tax imposed (narzucona) on each
household and based on how much land the household held.
They also paid a poll tax (la capitacion = pogłowne, podatek od głowy) – it was a tax of an
uniform amount levied (nałożony) on each individual (jednostka) or head.
Roman Catholic Church received from peasants tithes (dziesięciny). More of the 1/3 of the
peasants lived in properties (majątki), the whole rest – in difficult conditions.
Serfdom in France before the Revolution was practically unknown and it was abolished in 1789,
during the Revolution.
Towns people (burghers) – diverse social group. They differed in terms of income (they were
working). At the top of the group was bourgeoisie, composed of: bankers, entrepreneurs and
wealthy merchants.
Vagrants (włóczędzy) -  no laws.
After 1740 -> overall industrial production in France rose annually about 2%, but not on the same
scale as in Great Britain. Mining became the major industry. It attracted and employed amounts of
workers, new manufactures were founded.
Ancien regime collapsed, because:
 Financial crisis – caused by inefficient and corrupt tax system (clergy and nobility had too
many privileges). Government also made France to take part in American Revolution, which
cost a lot of money.
 France before the outbreak of the Revolution had anachronistic (staroświecki) social order.
 Decline (spadek) of the prestige of the absolute monarchy
 Impact of the Enlightment ideas (they were quite revolutionary)
 Crop failures in 1788 – food became expensive, especially bread.
By the end of 1780’s state’s position became hopeless, the swelling financial debt made its position
very difficult.
August 1786-> Charles Alexander de Calonne (the Controller General of Finances) made a major
reforms in France. He submitted (argumentował) to king Louis XVI to a reform. The plan involved
increasing the taxation to privileged estate through the proportional tax on land.
Assembly of Notables (Zgromadzenie Notabli) suggested to call the Estates General.
Estates General-> Stany Generalne. Representative assembly of the three estates of the pre-
revolutionary monarchy. They were convinced infrequently to advise and aid the monarchy in ruling
the state.  (the first National Assembly of the representatives of the three estates met in France in 1302
to aid Phillip IV The Fair against pope Boniface VIII).
The king opened the Estates General at 5 th May 1789 at Versailles.
Summer 1788 -> French Financial Minister become Jacques Necker, a Swiss banker.
Estates General at 5 th May 1789 at Versailles -> Louis XVI granted the freedom of press, so
France was flooded with pamphlets (the most popular was wrote by Joseph Emanuel Sieyes : ’’What
is the Third Estate’’ – ‘’what is the Third Estet? Nothing. But it want to be something.’’)
 Elections to the Estates General were held between January and April 1789, elected:
300 deputies for the clergy
600 deputies for the Third Estate
300 for the nobility
So generally – 1200 deputies.
 -The Third Estate refused to do a service. Deputies of The Third estate were merchants,
lawyers, intellectualists, bankers and entrepreneurs. They wanted all deputies to debate
together (but they were divided). They also hoped to introduce the one-man one-vote
rule.
After the opening Estates General:
17 th June 1789 -> Deputies of the Third estate declared themselves as National Assembly and
they were supported by parish priests. They occupied king’s court, because royal officials locked
the meetings.
Louis XVI -> gave in and urged the nobles and clergy to join the National Constituent
Assembly on 9 th July 1789.
On 11 th July 1789 -> Louis XVI dismissed Jacques Necker. Parisians read this as a signal of
beginning the Revolution.
14 th July 1789-> Revolution began in Paris.
A large crowd invaded the Hotel des Invalides (Pałac Inwalidów) in which was stored weapon.
The crowd seized thousands of riffles. Then, the crowd moved to the Bastille (fortress, prison,
symbol of the French absolutism, it had an infamous reputation, there were imprisoned king’s
enemies without trial). Dozens of participants were killed. The crowd massacred several of the
soldiers and the building was destroyed.
Revolutionary Municipality (Rewolucyjna Władza Miasta) was formed.
National Guard (Gwardia Narodowa) was organized to patrol the streets. Commandor of the
Guard was Marquiz de La Fayette (he fought in the American Revolution, then he was a member
of the National Assembly, he was a member of the First Estate; his political views: liberal, he
became the leader of Liberal Aristocrats and supported religious toleration and abolition of
slavery)
14 th July 1789 -> Parisian insurrection, it had a violent dimension and charged the course
of the Revolution.
17 th July 1789 -> the Town Hall (Hotel de Ville) – Lousi XVI travelled to Paris and he
publically donned a cockade (przywdział kokardę). Cockade became a symbol of the Revolution.
It was a combination of colors: white for the Bourbons, blue and red for the city of Paris. These 3
colors became the national flag.
  In the countryside peasants carried their own kind of rebellion. Their revolt was
autonomous and reinforced (wsparło) urban uprising to the benefit of the National
Assembly.
 In July peasants in many regions of France abandoned the castles of nobles and burned
the documents of feudal obligation. This is known as a Great Fear (20 th July 6 th
August 1789)
 Deputies of the National Assembly on the night of 4 th August 1789 decreed the
abolition of feudalism and Church tithe (dziesięcina). By sweeping away the old
privileges the August 4 th Decree permitted The Assembly to construct the new regime.
 26 th August 1789 -> Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
(Deklaracja Praw Człowieka i Obywatela) was promulgated by the National
Constituent Assembly. It contained principles, that inspired the Revolution. It consisted
17 articles, which were to serve as the preamble of the Constitution of 1791 (September
1791 – first Constitution in France).
Basic Principles of the Declaration:
 1st article: ‘’all men are born free and equal in rights’’. Rights specified as a rights of
private property (własność), resistance to oppression (opór wobec ucisku), inviolability
(nienaruszalność) of the person and freedom.
 6 th article: ‘’all citizens are equal and they had the right to participate in legislation
directly or indirectly’’
 7 th article: ‘’no one can be arrested without judicial order.’’
 10 th and 11 th articles: ‘’ Freedom of religion [10] and freedom of speech [11] are safe
guarded with the bounds of public order.’’
The document reflected the interests of bourgeoisie, who wrote it. Property was given the status
of inviolable right, which could be taken by the state only if indemnity (odszkodowanie) was paid.
Offices and positions were opened for all citizens.
Idea of Constitution was derived from some American States (New Hampshire and Virginia).
Ideas came also from thinkers, like Montesquieu (separation of the powers), John Locke (natural
rights), Rousseau (sovereignty of the nations), Voltaire (individuality must be safe guarded and
cannot be arrested without judiciary).
Declaration was an effect of the ancien regime, system before the revolution and system of
privileges.
Decree of August the 4 th and Declaration were innovations, which Louis XVI refused to
sanction (poprzeć).
Jean-Paul Marat -> supported the king, he thought, that he is still capable to reign.
5 th October 1789 -> an armed crowd of 7 thousands men marched toVersailles, followed by the
National Guard of Paris.
6 th October 1789 -> royal family were forced to move from Versailles to Paris. They were taken
to Tuilleres Palace (residence near Louvre)and never returned to Versailles.
1789-1791 -> National Assembly acted as a Constituent Assembly. It had many difficult tasks. For
example:
 To transform the political system of France in the direction of limited monarchy.
 To draft and adopt the constitution.
 To pay all the huge national debt and carry out a reform of tax system.
 To decentralize the administration by giving more powers to local authorities.
 To develop an uniform system of laws.
 To agree a new relationship between the state and the Roman Catholic Church
 No longer tax avoidance (unikanie)
November 1789 ->  National Constituent Assembly decided that the Church property would be
taken over by the state. They were called ‘’national lands’’. The Roman Catholic Church owned
about 10% of the lands in France. Assembly intended to sell them to the public and pay with
asignats (banknoty). Buyers of the lands were supporters of the Revolution. Structure of the
French lands ownership became changed, nobility who were émigrés had their lands confiscated.
Indirect taxes were abolished.
Economic reforms:
 Mixture of Enlightment ideas and suppression (tłumienie)
 Free trade introduced particularly in grain
 Guilds (craft guilds – cechy, merchant guilds – gildie) and internal tariffs were abolished
 Uniform system of weights and meaqsures was introduced
 Le Chapelier Law – enacted (uchwalony) in 1791. Strikes became illegal in France.
Despite those reforms there was still financial crisis.
 Administrative system was sweeped away, France became divided into 83 departments.

Departments were subdivided into districts (okręgi) and communes (gmniy).

This transformation promoted centralization of France and helped its economy. Citizens elected
their own local features. It was their own legislatures (zgromadzenia ustawodawcze).
Judicial reform -> the revolutionaries swept away judicial system of the ancien regime. They
established a civil court in each district and criminal court in each department. Judges on all
tribunals were to be elected.
The Assembly decreed, that felonies (ciężkie przestępstwa) would be tried by juries (ławy
przysięgłych). Criminal defendants (oskarżeni) gained the right to counsel (adwokat). This right
had been demanded during the ancien regime.
 Deputies hoped to make administration of justice more accessible and expeditious
(sprawny).
Civil code = kodeks cywilny
Penal code = kodeks karny
 The new penal code was adopted in 1791. Fewer crimes were punishable by death.
All sentences of death were to be carried out by the guillotine (instrument was
introduced in 1792. Later the French underworld (świat przestępczy) called it ‘’the
widow’’. Invented by Joseph Guillotine – medic, physician, elected to the National
Assembly).
 Practices like torture, branding (piętnowanie) and hanging were abolished.
State & Roman Catholic Church:
 Church properties were taken by the state, state was responsible for Church’s affairs,
new financial and administrative framework for the Church was created.
 Civil Consitution of the Clergy, July 1790 -> reorganized Church in France on
national bases.
 Reduced number of bishops from 144 to 83, to have each diocese (diecezja)
correspond to a department.
 Bishops were to be elected by citizens, by departmental electional assemblies.
 Parish priests (proboszczowie) were also elected, by electors in districts
 State has to pay a clergy’s wages
This constitution passed by the National assembly was formally sanctioned by Louis
XVI. It provoked much opposition in France. Many clerics were against it (because of the
limitation of pope’s jurisdiction to spiritual affairs)
 November 1790-> National Assembly ordered the clergy to declare the support of the
Constitution. Priests divided into refractory (nieposłuszni) and constitutional. Pope Pius
VI condemned the Civil Constitution of Clergy in spring 1791.
Revolutionary Government claimed refractory priests the enemies of the state (in some
places they were supported by the people). It cause a schism in Catholic Church.
By 1791 the National Assembly found itself in the crossfire (pod presją) between the
machinations of counterrevolutionaries and denunciations of radicals. They must
cooperate with the king. Louis XVI publically distanced himself from the revolutionaries,
but privately he was in a league with them. He secretly corresponded with royal houses in
Spain and Austria.
June 1791 -> Louis XVI decided to abandon the Touilleres Palace and flee to Belgium.
He was recognized near the border in Varennes and forcibly returned to Paris.
Political Clubs during the Revolution:
They were groups of deputies and politically active citizens. And initially they promoted civil education and
publicized the Assembly’s reforms. But soon some became more active in influencing political decisions.
Bourgeoisie, professionals, intellectualists, sprinkling (garstka) of liberal nobles and shopkeepers or peasants joined
them. Political clubs were prime vehicle of the revolution.
1. The Jacobin Club-> the most powerful and famous political club.
Originally known as the Club of Bretan at Versailles (because they were deputies from the Bretany (Bretonia).
Reconstituted when the National Assembly moved to Paris, under the name Society of the Paris Friends of
The Constitution (official name, but commonly they were called The Jacobins Club, because its sessions were
held in former monastery of the Dominicans, who were known in Paris as Jacobins).
Their main purpose was to protect the Revolution against possibly aristocratic reaction. The club soon admitted
new deputies, usually prospered bourgeoisie or men of letters.
By July 1790-> 1200 members of the club. The club also acquired affiliates throughout the France.
July 1791 -> Jacobin Club split over a petition calling for the removal of Louis XVI (after his unsuccessful attempt
to flee the France). Many of the deputies left to join the Club of Feuillants.Maximilien Robespierre assumed a
position of prominence (zajął wysokie stanowisko) in Jacobin Club.
2. Club of Feuillants-> group of modern members of the Jacobins formed it. It was a conservatic
political club. They met in former monastery of the Feuillants (reformed Cisterians), situated near
the Tuilleres Palace.
Cisterians -> a religious order founded in 11th century in France by Saint Robert.
This political club appeared after Louis’ XVI attempt to flee from the state in opposition to petition calling the
replacement of the king. They were against republicans and modern monarchists. Feuillants were in fear of the
revolution, they thought it would be a distraction of monarchy and private property.
3. Club of Cordelieres -> founded in 1790, its main aims: representing interests of lower social
groups. It was founded to prevent the abuse of power (nadużycie władzy) and infractions of the
rights of man (naruszenia praw człowieka).
The club’s popular name was derived from the nationalized monastery of Cordelieres (Franciscans – founde in
13 th century by Sain Francis).
Cordelieres became a political force under the leadership of Jean-Paul Marat and Georges Danton. Marat
was murdered by Charlotte Corday from Girondists, when he was at the bathtub. After Louis XVI attempt to
flee to Belgium Cordelieres demanded deposition of the king (usunięcie) and organized
afamous demonstration in the Champ-the-Mars (Pola Marsowe) in Paris on 11 th July 1791 to present
their petition(it called for the removal of the king). It was dispersed by the National Guard (its commander –
Lafayette). Petition resulted in death of 50 demonstrators and temporary disbanding of the club.
September 1791 -> Constitution adopted in France by National constituent Assembly. A new parliament
was elected, National Constituent Assembly dissolved and was replaced by new parliament known as
Legislative Assembly. It was in session from 10 th October 1791 to 20 th September 1792. A leading role in
Legislative Assembly played the Girondins.
Girondins -> revolutionaries, loose grouping of republican politicians. Many of the came from the department
of Gironde. They were lawyers, intellectuals and journalists, originally they were members of the Jacobin Club,
but they left it in August 1792 (because The Jacobins became too radical for them)
They inspired the measures taken against the émigrés and anti-revolutionary priests.
Émigrés- mostly aristocrats, they emigrated from France and plotted against the revolutionary government.
They wanted to restore the ancien regime.
Émigrés who didn’t return by January 1792 were liable to death as traitors (the same year their property would
be confiscated by the state.
Leader of Girondins-> Jacques-Pierre Brissot. Girondines supported for the war, because Brissot argued that
only war would consolidate (połączyć) the revolutionaries by unmasking their enemies and inaugurating
the universal freedom (liberty).
Girondins believed, they would seize power in France.
Spring 1792 -> Girondins reached the highest power and popularity. In March 1792 two of them entered the
government under the king Louis XVI.
Maximilien Robespierre (leader of the Jacobins) opposed Brissot in Legislative Assembly, but in April
1792 France declared war on Austria. King wanted the war, he supported the Girondins, because he thought that
France would be defeated and ancien regime would be restored. Constitution of 1791 and Revolution limited his
power.
WAR WITH AUSTRIA:
April-September 1792 (I phase of the war):
France suffered defeat, Prussia joined war on site of the Austria. Prussian army crossed frontiers and advanced
into France.
10 August 1792 -> Paris revolutionaries rose and occupied Tuilleres Palace. Royal family was imprisoned in
the Temple (fortified monastery of Templars).
September 1792-> Parisian crowd broke into prisons and massacred the nobles and clergy. Meanwhile,
volunteers awaken the French national army and on 20 th September 1792 invaded Austro-Prussian forces at
Valmy (Battle at Valmy 20 th September 1792).
22 nd September 1792 -> a new elected assembly became The National Convention (Konwent
Narodowy). It met and proclaimed the abolition of monarchy and establishment of the republic.
First republic of France (1792-1804)
National Convention-> an assembly, it governed France from 22 nd September 1792 until 26 th October
1795. It was elected to provide a new constitution, it has 749 deputies.
Two opposing factions in the National Convention:
Girondins vs Montagnards (Mountan Men – górale)
Girondins – modern policy
Montagnards – radicals, they depended on the support of the petty (nieznaczący) bourgeoisie
and Sanscullotes (extreme radical revolutionaries, initially from poorer classes from Paris – workers, craftsmen,
shopkeepers). Montagnards were associated with the Jacobins and the Cordelieres.
Differences between them:
Girondins: favored bourgeoisie republic, while the Mountagnards: favored poorer classes and wanted them to
seize the power.
 Girondins were discredited because of the defeat in the war (they wanted the war) and purged
(usunięty) from National Convention by the popular Insurrection of 31 st May – 2 nd June
1793, made by the Mountagnards (Jacobins). Brissot and other Girondins were executed.
 After purging the Girondins, the Jacobin Dictatorship began. (new face of the French revolution)
June 1793- July 1794-> Jacobin Dictatorship (September 1793-July 1794 ->The Reign of Terror, it took
place during the Jacobin Dictatorship). Jacobins used guillotine and terror to fight with the enemy.
Ruling organs:
1. Committee of Public Safety-> initially led by Georges Danton, later by Robespierre. It was set
up in April 1793, to check the work of ministers and provide defense against the enemy. It gained
dictatorial control over the France.
Firstly, the Committee of Public safety consisted of 90 members, then their number decreased into 20. They
were elected by the National Convention for one month and obliged to reelection.
Leading figure in the Committee (from April to July) was Georges Danton.
Georges Danton-> headed the Cordelieres during the Revolution. He and his followers pursued the policy
of moderation ( wstrzemięźliwość) and reconciliation (pojednanie). He must deal with hard military
situation.
First Coalition-> after Louis’ XVI death. He was executed in January 1793 and the First Coalition was
established. It consisted of some European powers: Great Britain, Austria and Prussia (against France).
July 1793 -> Robespierre (leader of the Jacobins) replaced Danton in the Committee of The Public safety.
From September 1793 to July 1794 it was composed of the same men and headed by Robespierre. It
controlled France, dominating the national Convention, relied on the support of the Jacobins, under its
direction measures were taken against the enemies of the revolution.
 French economy was placed on the world’s bases.
 Conscription (pobór do wojska) was undertaken (podjęty).
 Decisions in the Committee were taken in common, but its members specialized in different areas:
Robespierre
Louis de Saint-Just
Couthon
CALLED THE TRIUMVIVATE
They specialized in general political matters. Members of the Comiiee of Public Safety were also Lazare –
Carnot (military matters), Robert Linde (supplies – zaopatrzenie).
 Reign of terror was administrated by the Committee of General Security along with the Comitte
of Public Safety.
2. Committee of General Security-> founded in 1793 by The National Convention. It was directed
by the political police and directed revolutionary justice. Secret police had a group of spies.
3. Revolutionary Tribunal-> it was a court, instituted in Paris by the National Convention for the
trial of political offenders.
March 1793-> on the proposal of Danton the National Convention established Revolutionary
Tribunal. The court received this name by the Decree of October 1793. Structure (nominated by the
National Convention):
Jury (ława przysięgłych)
Public prosecutor (oskrażyciel publiczny)
Two substitutes (zastępcy)
 From its judgments there was no appeal.
Public Prosecutor of the Tribunal-> Antoine Fouquier-Tinville, a friend and relative of CamilDesmoulins
(from Cordelieres).
 Revolutionary Tribunal terrorized the royalty, refractory priests and other participants of counter
revolution.
 It came to be used for personal ends by Maximillien Robespierre to condemnation of his
opponents, for example Georges Danton.
LAW OF 22 TRIAL-> promulgated in June 1794, during the reign of terror.
When the Republic of France was proclaimed, a new calendar (French republican Calendar) was adopted. It
replaced a Gregorian Calendar. The new law forbade prisoners to employ counsel (adwokat) for their
defense. It also suppressed (zataić) the hearing of witnesses and made death a sole penalty.
 During the 49 days between passing of the Law and fall of the Robespierre, over 1 thousand
people were condemned, including innocent victims, List of convicted were signed after revision
(po korekcie) by Committee of General Security and Comitte of public Safety.
 Most famous victims of Revolutionary Tribunal were: Marie Antoinette, Danton and his
supporters, several of the Girondins.
 Similar tribunals operated in provinces.
Fall of Robespierre and collapse of the Jacobin Dictatorship & Reign of Terror:
 Robespierre had a lot of enemies – deputies of the National Convention (moderated deputies).
They were known as Thermidorians, and conspiracy that brought about Robespierre’s reign is
known as a Thermidorian Reaction.
9 th of Thermidor Year II (27 th July 1794)-> Thermidorian Reaction took place, it marked the end of
Jacobin Dictatorship. It was a revolt which resulted in the fall of Robespierre.
Robespierre wanted to make a speech in the National Convention, but deputies shouted him down and
decreed his arrest. He was arrested along with his brother Augustin, Couthon, Louis Saint-Just and Francois
Harriot (Commandeering Chief of National Guard, Robespierre’s loyal supporter). They were guillotined
the following day, on 10 th of Thermidor Year II (28 th July 1794).
The Directory
 Robespierre was called incorruptible (nieprzekupny). He was ousted from power by
Thermidorian reaction, also known as The Coup (zamach stanu)
 Key figures of the Thermidorans:
Jean-Lambert Tallien
Paul Barras
Joseph Fouché
Their political views: they were former Jacobins, but they were more moderate than the Jacobins. Tjhey
opposed restoration of the monarchy and voted for the execution of the king. They didn’t approve the
egalitarian aims (zrównujące wszystkich) of Robespierre’s policy.
The Mountagnards-> radical deputies in the National Convention, closely associated with the Jacobins.
They depended on the Support of the Sanscullotes.
Sanscullotes worn the pantaloons (long trousers in place of the cullote – silk breeches (jedwabne, krótkie
spodnie). Poor people – long trousers, upper classes – silk breeches. The Sanscullotes worn also
carmagnole (short jacket) and the red hat of liberty.
 Under the Sanscullotes’ pressure the Mountagnards brought
The Maximum-> government control of prices. The Mountagnards also taxed the rich. They stated, that
education should be free and compulsory. They brought national assistance to poor and disabled. And they
also ordered the confiscation and sale of the property of émigrés.
 When the Thermidorian finally came to power, The Maximum was abolished by them. The social
laws introduced by Robespierre were no longer applied. Efforts towards the economic quality
were abandoned.
 When the Thermidorian came to power, reaction set in France. The National Convention became
to debate the new constitution. It was passed in August 1795 and is known as The Constitution
of Year III.
 Meanwhile, in the West and South-West, a royalist White Terror broke out. They tried to seize
power, but they were crushed by the general Napoleon Bonaparte. A few days later (in October
1795) the National Convention dispersed.
 The new Revolutionary Government was established. It was set up by the Constitution of Year III. It is
known as The Directory (Dyrektoriat). It lasted from 1795 to 1799. The Directory included bicameral
legislative known as:
THE CORPSE LEGISLATIVE
1. COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED (the lower house)
Consisted of 500 delegates, 40 years old or over. They proposed legislation (ustawodawstwo).
2. COUNCIL OF ANCIENTS (the upper house)
Consisted of 250 delegates, 40 years of age or more. They held the power to accept or veto the proposed legislation.
They also picked the executive. (władzę wykonawczą)
The executive-> consisted of 5 Directors. They were elected from a list drawn up by the Council of Five Hundred
and picked up by The Council of Ancients. Directors were chosen each year by the rotation. They were 40 years old
or over, they chose ministers, generals, correctors etc.
The Directory -> suffered from corruptions and were influenced by the politics. Against them were representatives
of the Republicans. It didn’t have any positive domestic policy, it led to recurrent (powtarząjące się) revolts against
them. (made by The Royalists & The Jacobins, but the revolts failed).
The First Coalition 1793-1797-> Great Britain, Austria and Prussia formed it after the execution of Louis XVI.
After this coalition, French army activated.
1795-> France defeated Austria and Prussia. French pushed to Amsterdam, Rhine River and
Pyrenees. Prussia (German kingdom established in 1701, ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty, it was an absolute
monarchy) had been forced out of the First Coalition and signed the separate peace with France.
In the same year the United Provinces of the Netherlands became a French-influenced Batavian Republic – in early
17 th century Holland and the Netherlands appeared as an independent states.
There was also a French army in Northern Italy. It threatened Austrians and its commander was reluctant
(niechętny) to move.
1796 -> he was replaced by general Napoleon Bonaparte.
The Treaty of Campo Formio.
1769 -> Napoleon Bonaparte was born. He was born during the Louis’ XV reign, in Ajaccio (Corsica). He was a son
of the lawyer. Napoleon was educated in continental France, finished military academy in Paris and became artillery
officer.
1793 -> he was 24 years old, when he was promoted to Brigadier General. He remained loyal to the Jacobins and he
proved to be useful for The Directory.
1796 -> Napoleon was appointed Commandeering Chief of the Army of Italy ( French army which stationed in
Northern Italy, it fought the Austrians).
March 1796-> He married Josephine de Beauharnais, Alexander’s Beauharnais daughter (he was guillotined
during the reign of terror. She had a lot of romances and 2 children.
2 days after his wedding Napoleon left home and arrived at his headquarters in Nice (Nicea – sea port located in
Southern France. He found, that his army consisted of ill paid, ill fighting and ill equipped soldiers.
October 1796-> Napoleon’s first proclamation to his troops. It resulted in number of splendid victories over the
Austria.
Battles in Northern Italy 1796-1797:
1. Battle of Lodi – 1796
2. Battle of Arcola – 1796
3. Battle of Rivoli – January 1797, the last battle.
In all those battles Austrians were defeated.
Battle of Lodi (1796) -> Napoleon earned confidence and loyalty of his soldiers and they nicknamed him ‘’The
Little Corporal’’ (‘’Mały Kapral’’), in recognition to his personal courage. Napoleon led his army to a number
of splendid victories.
Next, he marched on Vienna. He was about 100 km from Vienna, when the Austrians sued for (poprosili o)
armistice.
1797 -> The Treaty of Campo Formio was signed.
It was a peace settlement between Austria and France.
Terms of the treaty:
Lot of fresh territories to France
Marked the Napoleon’s victory over the First Coalition.
 After the conclusion of the Treaty, only Great Britain remain hostile to France. War on the sea
against British forces continued. The Directory (which wanted to invade Britain) appointed
Bonaparte to command the army along the British Channel.
February 1797-> Bonaparte found out, that his invasion could be overtaken (uprzedzony) by the British.
1798-> Charles de Talleyrand suggested that France should stroke (uderzyć) on the Great Britain’s forces by
occupying Egypt and threatening India (British colonies). Egypt was then a province of the Ottoman Empire,
but the Ottoman power was declined (ubywająca) and the Mamelukes had virtual power over the country.
The Mamelukes -> a caste of soldiers of slave origin or the heirs of such men.
 They controlled Egypt when Napoleon invaded the country. The expedition sailed from Toulon in
May 1798 (Toulon- French port, main French Naval base situated on the Mediterranean).
 At first, the expedition was a great success, Napoleon captured Malta (an island on the
Mediterranean, given by the emperor Charles V to the Hospitalers [Szpitalnicy] in the 1 st half of
the 16 th century. The Hospitalers were a military order of the Roman Catholic Church, they
fortified ad administrated the island until it was captured by Bonaparte).
 After capturing Malta, French landed at Abukir Bay on 1 st July 1798. They captured
Alexandria. When they took it, Napoleon issued an Arabic proclamation, he sured the Egyptians,
that he came as a friend to Islam and to the Ottoman South. Then, he wanted to punish the
Mamelukes.
 From Alexandria, French advanced to the Cairo (capital of Egypt, founded in the middle ages).
THE BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS (near Cairo) July 1798 -> The Mamelukes were crashed by Napoleon.
After the battle he entered the Cairo and demonstrated his sympathy to religious leaders.
1 st August 1798 -> French squadron (eskadra) at anchor (na kotwicy) in Abukir Bay was completely destroyed
by admiral’s Horatio Nelson’s fleet. The battle is known as a Battle of The Nile.
Results of the battle:
 It isolated Napoleon’s army in Egypt.
 Heightened British prestige and secured their control of the Mediterranean.
 The next anti-French coalition was formed: THE SECOND COALITION (Great Britain, Austria
and Russia)
 Show the Europe, that Bonaparte is not impossible to beat.
Spring 1799-> French Army of the Italy was defeated so it had to abandon the great part of Italian Peninsula.
The Directory-> was ineffective.
Emanuel Sieyes -> one of the directors, he was convinced, that only a military dictatorship can restore the
monarchy. Napoleon left his army in Egypt and managed to return to France in order to set the republic and
seize the power.
November 1799 -> The Coup d’état overthrew The Directory. It is also known as the Revolt of the Brumaire
or 18 Brumaire. Emanuel Sieyes, Pierre Roger Ducos and Fouché were forced by Napoleon to resign as
Directors. The Coup d’état brought Bonaparte to power as a 30 years old man. He proclaimed the end of the
revolution