EM 1110-2-1100 Ch4

EM 1110-2-1100
(Part VI)
Change 3 (28 Sep 11)
CHAPTER 4
Materials and Construction Aspects
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
VI-4-1. Material Requirements ..........................................................................................VI-4-1
a. Material properties and strength .......................................................................VI-4-1

b. Material durability ............................................................................................VI-4-2
c. Material adaptability .........................................................................................VI-4-4
d. Material costs ....................................................................................................VI-4-4
e. Material availability ..........................................................................................VI-4-4
f. Material handling requirements .........................................................................VI-4-6
g. Material maintenance requirements ..................................................................VI-4-7
h. Material environmental impacts .......................................................................VI-4-8
VI-4-2. Earth and Sand ......................................................................................................VI-4-9
a. Uses of earth and sand in coastal construction .................................................VI-4-9

b. Physical and mechanical properties of earth and sand ...................................VI-4-10
c. Placement considerations for earth and sand ..................................................VI-4-15
d. Environmental effects on earth and sand ........................................................VI-4-15
VI-4-3. Stone ...................................................................................................................VI-4-16
a. Use of stone in coastal construction ................................................................VI-4-16

b. Physical and mechanical properties of rock ...................................................VI-4-17
c. Quarrystone procurement and inspection guidelines ......................................VI-4-22
d. Placement considerations for stone.................................................................VI-4-23
e. Environmental effects on stone .......................................................................VI-4-27
VI-4-4. Portland Cement Concrete and Bituminous Concrete ........................................VI-4-28
a. Use of concrete and asphalt in coastal construction .......................................VI-4-28

b. Physical and mechanical properties of concrete .............................................VI-4-30
c. Physical and mechanical properties of asphalt ...............................................VI-4-35
d. Concrete construction practices ......................................................................VI-4-36
e. Concrete for armor units .................................................................................VI-4-38
f. Environmental effects on concrete and asphalt ...............................................VI-4-39
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VI-4-5. Steel and Other Metals ........................................................................................VI-4-40
a. Use of metal in coastal construction ...............................................................VI-4-40

b. Physical and mechanical properties of metals ................................................VI-4-41
c. Design values for structural metals .................................................................VI-4-43
d. Metal protective treatments ............................................................................VI-4-46
e. Metal fasteners and connections .....................................................................VI-4-46
f. Environmental effects on metal .......................................................................VI-4-47
VI-4-6. Wood ...................................................................................................................VI-4-47
a. Use of wood in coastal construction ...............................................................VI-4-47

b. Physical and mechanical properties of wood ..................................................VI-4-48
c. Design values for structural lumber ................................................................VI-4-50
d. Wood preservatives and treatment ..................................................................VI-4-51
e. Wood fasteners and connectors.......................................................................VI-4-51
f. Environmental effects on wood .......................................................................VI-4-52
VI-4-7. Geotextiles and Plastics ......................................................................................VI-4-53
a. Use of plastics in coastal construction ............................................................VI-4-53

b. Physical and mechanical properties of plastics...............................................VI-4-55
c. Design requirements for geotextile fabrics .....................................................VI-4-57
d. Geotextile installation considerations .............................................................VI-4-61
e. Environmental effects on geotextiles and plastics ..........................................VI-4-64
VI-4-8. References ...........................................................................................................VI-4-65
VI-4-9. Acknowledgements .............................................................................................VI-4-68
VI-4-10. Symbols...............................................................................................................VI-4-69
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List of Figures
Figure VI-4-1. Uniform placement .................................................................................VI-4-25
Figure VI-4-2. Random placement..................................................................................VI-4-25
Figure VI-4-3 Selective placement ................................................................................VI-4-26
Figure VI-4-4 Special placement ...................................................................................VI-4-27
Figure VI-4-5 Typical use of geotextile fabric in coastal revetment .............................VI-4-54
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List of Tables
Table VI-4-1. Soil Density Parameters ..........................................................................VI-4-11
Table VI-4-2. Typical Soil Permeability Coefficients ..................................................VI-4-14
Table VI-4-3. Engineering Characteristics of Unweathered Common Rocks...............VI-4-18
Table VI-4-4. Durability Ranking for Common Stone ..................................................VI-4-21
Table VI-4-5. Approximate Criteria for Evaluating Stone ............................................VI-4-22
Table VI-4-6. Typical Compressive Strengths of Concrete ..........................................VI-4-31
Table VI-4-7. Concrete Compressive Strength for Different Water-Cement

Ratios ......................................................................................................VI-4-32
Table VI-4-8. Recommended Concrete Slump for Various Types of

Construction ............................................................................................VI-4-34
Table VI-4-9. Average Unit Weight of Fresh Concrete ................................................VI-4-35
Table VI-4-10. Specifications and Applications for Steel Suitable for Marine
Service ....................................................................................................VI-4-42
Table VI-4-11. Galvanic Series in Flowing Seawater at Ambient Temperature .............VI-4-44
Table VI-4-12. Tensile Stress Limits for Selected Metals and Alloys ............................VI-4-45
Table VI-4-13. General Characteristics of Common Wood ............................................VI-4-51
Table VI-4-14. Comparative Properties of Geotextile Materials ....................................VI-4-56
Table VI-4-15. Minimum Geotextile Fabric Physical Property Requirements ...............VI-4-59
Table VI-4-16. Determination of EOS and POA for Geotextiles ....................................VI-4-60
Table VI-4-17. Construction Limitations: Quarrystone Revetment ................................VI-4-62
Table VI-4-18. Construction Limitations: Block Revetments and Subaqueous

Applications ............................................................................................VI-4-63
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CHAPTER VI-4
Materials and Construction Aspects
VI-4-1. Material Requirements. Materials used to construct coastal engineering projects are
critically important to the success and longevity of the project. Selected construction materials
often must withstand the rigors of relentless wave pounding in a corrosive environment that may
undergo freeze-thaw cycles. Primary material selection criteria are physical properties and
strength, durability, adaptability, cost, availability, handling requirements, maintenance
requirements, and environmental impact. Knowledge of past material performance on similar
coastal projects is an important consideration for the design engineer. Much of the information
presented in the following sections was condensed from a comprehensive Special Report entitled
AConstruction Materials for Coastal Structures@ by Moffatt and Nichol (1983).
a. Material properties and strength. In practically all cases, common materials having
well- documented physical properties and strengths are used in construction of coastal project
elements. Sections in this chapter, beginning with Part VI-4-2, give properties for widely used
construction materials. General aspects of key material physical properties are listed below.
(1) Specific gravity. Specific gravity is a fundamental property for all coastal
construction materials. Coastal structures, such as breakwaters, rely on self-weight of the
structure to resist applied loads. Thus, materials with high specific gravity, like rock and
concrete, are ideally suited for these types of applications, particularly for submerged portions
where water buoyancy decreases effective structure weight. Specific gravity is also important for
structures such as surge barriers and piers, which must be designed to support the weight of the
component structural members. Materials with lower specific gravities, such as wood and
plastics, also have uses in coastal construction. Beach renourishment projects function best if the
placed beach fill material has a specific gravity the same as, or greater than, the native beach
sand.
(2) Strength. Depending on the application, materials used in coastal construction may
need to resist tension, compression, and flexure stresses. Material strength properties help
determine the size, shape, and stability of component structural members. Structures built of
stone, earth, concrete, and asphalt are capable of withstanding compression, shear, and impact
loading; but they generally cannot resist tensile loads. Tensile loads in concrete structures can be
tolerated provided there is sufficient steel reinforcing or prestressing of the member to carry the
tensile stress. Geosynthetics add tensile strength to the soil mass.
(a) Steel, and most other metals, can accommodate high levels of tensile, compressive
and torsional stresses and impact. Often steel structural members undergo considerable flexing
or displacement when subjected to bending moments, and this displacement must be considered
in the design. Metals also expand and contract with temperature change, which can introduce
additional stress into the structure.
(b) Wood also exhibits good tensile and compressive strengths, but wood is not isotropic
and its strength depends on orientation of the wood grain relative to the applied loads. Wood
components can tolerate significant deflection and movement without failing.
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(c) Geotextile fabrics are subjected mainly to tension, impacts, flexing, and fatigue.
Synthetic structural components can resist compression, tension, shear, and torsion to varying
degrees depending on the particular synthetic. Some plastics will undergo enormous deflection
before yielding, whereas some plastics have very little elongation prior to failure. Strength
characteristics of some synthetic materials will decrease in time due to ultraviolet radiation or
other environmental factors, and precautions must be taken when using these materials. Also
plastics can experience a slow, permanent deformation under constant load.
(3) Resistance to cyclic, impact, and seismic loads. Coastal engineering project elements
are often exposed to continual cyclic wave loading, impact loading from waves or vessels, and
occasionally accelerations due to seismic activity. Surviving these load conditions may require
that portions of rigid structures be able to absorb the load without exceeding the elastic yield
limit of the materials. Stone or earth structures resist these types of loads by providing stress
relief through differential settlement, nesting of stone layers, or local areas of damage.
(4) Flexibility. Flexibility is the property of a material that allows it to bend without
breaking. Materials with good flexibility will help absorb cyclic and impact loads, but continual
flexing might eventually lead to fatigue failure, plastic deformation, and crack formation.
Material flexibility is a relative term, and it depends on both the material and the shape of the
structural member. For example, steel columns and beams can be designed for little deformation
whereas steel rods and cables can be highly flexible. Generally, concrete and stone are
considered to have little flexibility, followed by the more flexible steel and wood. Rubber and
some synthetic materials are highly flexible. Flexibility can also be used to describe the response
of coastal projects. For instance, the individual armor stones on a jetty have no flexibility, but the
entire armor layer is capable of movement and settlement to a new position without undue loss
of functionality, thus making it a “flexible” structure. Likewise, beach fills can be termed
flexible structures even though the individual sand grains are rigid.
(5) Compatibility. Many projects combine different materials, and compatibility

problems may arise due to differences in material physical or chemical properties. The
constituent materials in composites such as concrete and asphalt must be compatible to attain
adequate strength. Rigidly combining structural components of different flexibilities or different
expansion coefficients may induce additional stresses or component failure. Different materials
(or materials in which properties vary) undergo abrasion at different rates. For example, armor
stones of different hardness may degrade at different rates, which may lead to weak spots in the
armor layer. Contact between different types of metals in the marine environment can cause a
galvanic reaction and rapid corrosion. Corrosion can also stem from contact with chemicals. For
example, materials used to contain contaminated sediment must be able to withstand any
chemical reactions that may result from direct contact with the contaminant.
b. Material durability. Durability is a relative term describing how well a material

withstands the rigors of the environment into which it is placed. The durability of a particular
coastal project element is a combination of the durability of the construction materials and the
capability of the project to continue functioning at an acceptable level even after the construction
material has begun to degrade. Therefore, material durability needs to be considered in terms of
the project’s design life, first costs, and projected maintenance expenses. Projects with short
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design lives can tolerate less durable materials at a reduced cost. Factors that affect a material’s
durability include its ability to resist abrasion, chemical attack and corrosion, marine
biodegradation, wet/dry cycles, freeze/thaw cycles, and temperature extremes.
(1) Earth and sand. Earth is generally considered durable unless changes in water content
or chemistry reduce grain size to the range of silts and clays. Quartz sand is very durable, but
sand mixtures with high carbonate content from shell material will be more vulnerable to
chemical attack if the water is acidic. Also shell particles are not as hard as quartz and are more
susceptible to abrasion.
(2) Stone. Igneous rock is considered to be the most durable, but this depends partially on
the geology of the rock. Sedimentary rock is usually stratified and subject to failure through
shear stress, impact, chemical deterioration, or changes in water content. Sedimentary armor
stones generally are more easily worn down by abrasion. Any armor stone that develops small
cracks may eventually fracture due to freeze/thaw cycles, irrespective of the type of rock.
(3) Concrete and asphalt. Concrete is considered to be durable and is usually expected to
last throughout the lifetime of most coastal projects, provided the concrete is not exposed to
adverse chemicals or excessive abrasion, and loads are within design limits. Cracks in concrete
may lead to spalling of the surface and exposure of steel reinforcement, which will immediately
begin to rust. Rough handling of individual concrete armor units during placement may result in
chipping or cracking of slender members. Asphalt it not considered to be a durable material
because it has low strength in both compression and tension, it is subject to chemical reaction, its
stiffness changes with temperature, and it is not resistant to impact or abrasion.
(4) Steel. Standard grade steel is considered very durable if properly protected from rust
and corrosion throughout the project lifetime. Bare steel will rapidly deteriorate in the corrosive
coastal environment. Sacrificial anodes should be provided to protect steel exposed to seawater.
Abrasion of steel components by sand, particularly near the seabed, is also a problem. Stainless
steel is more durable, but this advantage is often offset by increased cost.
(5) Wood. Although wood is considered less durable than concrete, lengthy service life
can be obtained for wood components. Wood durability depends on the characteristics of the
wood, its usage and exposure to the elements, and project maintenance. Wood is an organic
material that can be attacked by plants and marine animals if precautions are not taken. Fasteners
and connectors, such as bolts, nails, etc., must also be protected from corrosion to assure wood
structure longevity. Dry wood is the least fire-resistant material commonly used in coastal
projects.
(6) Geotextiles and plastics. Geotextiles and many plastics are generally resistant to
chemical and biological attack, but will deteriorate when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. The
rate of deterioration can be reduced by adding UV inhibitors, coatings, or by covering the
geosynthetic with soil, sand, water, or even algal growth. Use of synthetic materials in coastal
construction projects is relatively new, thus long-term durability of some synthetic materials in
the coastal environment has yet to be determined. Some synthetic materials are vulnerable to fire
and can generate toxic fumes when ignited. For these reasons and other functional requirements,
geotextiles are generally covered with soil.
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c. Material adaptability. Non-rigid mound-type stone and earthen structures can be
constructed in a variety of shapes and sizes, and these structures can accommodate changes in
foundation elevation and structure slope without losing functionality and structural stability.
Stone and earth can be used in most weather conditions and temperature extremes without
significant consequences.
(1) Concrete is very adaptable for use in coastal projects; however, cost often limits its
usage to applications that cannot be effectively constructed using less expensive materials such
as stone. For example, concrete vertical caisson breakwaters are used when water depths are too
great for conventional rubble-mound structures or when mooring facilities are needed adjacent to
the structure. Concrete is also viable for use as rubble-mound structure armor units, piles, and
sheetpiling.
(2) Steel is very adaptable for complex structures, support frameworks, structures with
movable parts, floating structures, and structure components. Except in the above cases, costs
generally limit steel usage to piles, sheetpiling, and beams.
(3) Wood is considered to be fairly adaptable for use in smaller structures and as
structure components, and it is easily stored and handled during construction. Synthetic materials
usually have specific functions determined by their hydraulic and strength properties, such as
geotechnical filter, separation of soil reinforcement. Geotextile tubes are finding a variety of uses
due to their capability to retain fine-grained material.
d. Material costs. Because of the large quantities of material needed for most coastal
projects, material cost is an important design consideration. Historically, coastal structures have
been built using common, readily available materials that were obtained locally at low cost.
When evaluating material costs, the cost of transporting the material to the job site must be
included. If the material is not locally available, transportation costs could equal or exceed
material costs per unit volume. Consequently, a more expensive local source may be preferable
to a less expensive alternative located further away from the project site. Any material selection
based on cost must include consideration of further maintenance expenses associated with the
selection. For example, selecting a local source of lesser-quality stone for a breakwater may
result in initial construction cost savings, but this choice may result in increased maintenance
expense due to stone fracturing and stone abrasion. At every juncture of the design process, the
coastal engineer should evaluate the costs associated with material specification. Significant cost
savings can be realized for bulk materials because of the vast quantities required. However,
practical choices are somewhat limited for most coastal projects. Any project design that requires
fabricated components should attempt to specify common “off-the-shelf” items rather than
custom-made parts. When feasible, this will result in both cost and time savings. Finally,
consider the costs associated with any special material handling requirements (see below). These
costs may more than offset any material cost savings.
e. Material availability. Availability of suitable materials for coastal project

construction and future maintenance is an important design consideration. Lack of viable local
sources for primary construction materials may limit design options or significantly increase
construction costs and time of construction. For example, use of concrete in remote locations
may not be feasible unless good quality sand and aggregate are locally available for onsite
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mixing. The projected rate of material usage must be matched with the rate that material can be
supplied. It may be necessary to stockpile material onsite to compensate for an intermittent
supply and to avoid slack work periods (Thomas and Hall 1992). If plans call for future project
replacement, modification, or maintenance, sufficient sources of similar (or required) materials
should be determined a priori. (See Part VI-3-7, “Construction Considerations,” for site-specific
design factors related to material availability.)
(1) Earth and sand. In most locations an adequate local source of earth exists for use in
dikes, fills, and foundations. Exceptions include areas characterized by deltaic deposits of silts
and clay and some rocky coastal regions. Less common are local sources of high-quality beach
sand for use in placed beach fills.
(2) Stone. Stone is generally abundant in most regions of the continental United States.
However, some locations, such as the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic, can be
as far as 250 km or more from stone sources. Other locations may have huge quantities of stone,
but the quality may not be adequate for coastal projects because of low density or low strength.
An example is volcanic rock on Pacific islands. Along high wave energy coasts, coastal projects
may require huge stones that are difficult to produce from local quarries.
(3) Concrete and asphalt. Cement, stone aggregate, and sand suitable for use in concrete
mixtures are available in all coastal regions in the United States. Concrete materials may have to
be transported to some remote locations, such as some of the smaller Pacific islands. Also,
difficult local access to material sources in remote regions may make importation of concrete
materials economically feasible. Generally, asphalt is available at most project sites in the United
States, but use of asphalt at other locations depends on availability of the asphalt components
and handling equipment.
(4) Steel. Standard grades of steel in common cross sections and stock lengths are
generally available for coastal projects. Special cross sections or less-common steel
specifications (such as high strength steel or even stainless steel) are less likely to be available
locally and may require substantial transportation costs between the mill and construction site.
Availability of prefabricated steel components depends largely on the project’s proximity to
qualified steel fabrication yard.
(5) Wood. In the past, wood was one of the most available materials for construction of
coastal projects. However, in recent years certain types and sizes of durable hardwoods have
become more difficult to obtain. This has resulted in fewer coastal projects in the United States
being constructed with wood as the primary construction material. Where available locally,
hardwood often compares favorably in terms of cost and utility to other construction materials
for projects such as bulkheads and piers.
(6) Geotextiles and plastics. It is unlikely that most coastal project sites will have a local
source of manufactured geotextiles and plastics. However, these materials are economically
transported to all regions of the United States. Availability of large quantities of synthetics may
require special orders to the factory with plenty of lead time to assure ontime delivery.
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f. Material handling requirements. A substantial portion of project construction cost
involves material handling. Included in handling costs are transportation of materials to the
construction site, onsite storage of materials, onsite material mixing and component fabrication,
and placement of materials to build the project. Projects in isolated locations must consider site
access and availability of equipment to handle materials. Conversely, projects in urbanized
coastal regions must consider impacts of large-sized material transport vehicles on congested
streets and space requirements for onsite material storage. Most materials can be transported by
conventional methods such as rail, barge, truck, or ship. Special allowances are needed for
oversized loads and loads exceeding usual United States highway load limits of 180-215 kN (20-
24 tons) per truck. Another important transportation consideration is projected future site access
for bringing in materials needed for long-term maintenance or rehabilitation. Just as important is
the ease with which materials can be handled either by hand or with conventional equipment.
Materials that are awkward to handle, require special handling techniques and equipment, or
require particular labor skills and specialized training add to project costs.
(1) Earth and sand. Earth is easily handled with conventional earth-moving equipment
and transportation methods. The availability of earth compaction equipment will determine how
earth fills will be compacted, which in turn factors into design load bearing capacity. If earth
handling results in formation of dust clouds, workers must wear some sort of breathing filters.
Sand from land-based sources is handled similarly to earth. However, sand obtained from
offshore sources must be dredged and pumped or transported to the project site. In these cases,
material handling will be a substantial portion of the project cost. Cost of earth and sand will
increase if sorting into acceptable grain size ranges is required.
(2) Stone. Stone handling limitations arise primarily with large armor stone sizes.
Availability of adequate handling equipment at quarries is a critical factor, as well as the cost of
quarrying and transporting large armor stones. Some quarries have equipment capable of
handling stones larger than allowed on public highways. Road weight limitations not only
influence armor layer design, but careful planning is also required to maximize usage of trucks
or rail transportation. Equipment must be available for handling of large armor stones at the
project site. Cranes must have sufficient lift capacity and must be able to reach outward
sufficient distances to place armor stones accurately at the toe of the structure. Approach roads
and staging areas must be able to support the heavy truck loads.
(3) Concrete and asphalt. Handling requirements for concrete and asphalt beyond normal
batch processing, truck hauling, and truck placement are a function of the particular structure
design. Some designs may require special handling equipment, such as cranes with buckets,
pumps, or roller compaction equipment. Availability of this equipment may influence the
structural design. Air or water temperature and underwater placement may have an impact on
concrete and asphalt handling requirements. Forms are needed to cast concrete armor units, and
special equipment is needed to fabricate reinforced or prestressed concrete piles. Consideration
should be given to whether special equipment, such as concrete forms, is reusable. Time should
be allowed for concrete armor units to cure before placing them on the structure.
(4) Steel. Conventional steel members and framework can be fabricated for easy
transport and handling using conventional equipment; however, some site assembly may be
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required. Unusual steel fabrications, or very heavy steel components, may require specially
designed or modified handling equipment.
(5) Wood. Typical wooden structural components present no difficulty in transporting

and handling. Application of chemical preservatives may require special equipment to assure
sufficient wood penetration.
(6) Geotextiles and plastics. Most synthetic materials can be transported by conventional
means. Special handling equipment and techniques may be required to place geotextile fabrics,
particularly in underwater applications. If the geotextile has specific weight less than water,
provisions must be made to hold the fabric in place until it is overlain with denser material.
Similarly, in above-water applications wind can lift sections of geotextile fabric unless it is
weighted.
g. Material maintenance requirements. Project maintenance requirements depend in part

on how selected materials deteriorate over time due to physical and chemical processes.
(1) Earth and sand. It is not necessary to protect earth and sand used in coastal projects
from physical or chemical deterioration, but it is necessary to prevent or retard removal of
material by wind or water erosion. The only maintenance costs will be associated with replacing
eroded material, and this cost will be affected by access to the earth and/or sand portions of the
project.
(2) Stone. The main concern with stone is reduction in size through abrasion and
splitting. Armor stones broken into smaller pieces can be removed from a structure by wave
action. Maintenance consists of replacing damaged or missing stones, which can entail
significant mobilization costs. Preservation of stone material is generally not feasible.
(3) Concrete and asphalt. Concrete quality is determined by the quality of its component
materials and the method of mixing and placement. Like stone, the main maintenance
requirement is periodically taking steps to prevent deterioration, or mending portions that have
cracked, broken, spalled, etc. Protective coatings can be applied to exposed concrete surfaces to
help prevent flaking and to seal cracks that might allow water to penetrate the surface and cause
corrosion of steel reinforcement. Some concrete sealants may become less effective when
exposed to certain chemicals that react with the sealant. Broken concrete armor units should be
replaced with new units. Care must be taken to assure replacement armor units are interlocked
into the armor layer rather than simply placed on top. During original construction, future
maintenance costs can be reduced by casting a suitable number of replacement armor units and
stockpiling them onsite. Maintenance of asphalt structures consists primarily of patching or
replacing damaged areas. Underlying earth materials may shift and settle, opening large cracks
in the asphalt cover layer. These cracks must be repaired before the fill material erodes. Also,
repeated cycles of large temperature change may open significant cracks in the asphalt.
Continuous maintenance of asphalt roadway surfaces is required to avoid damage to vehicles and
equipment.
(4) Steel. Steel must be protected from chemical and galvanic corrosion, unless it is made
of special alloys such as stainless steel. Exposed steel surfaces corrode very rapidly in coastal
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settings, especially in the wet-dry regions and at the sandline where sand particles continually
abrade the paint and protective rust. Most steel maintenance involves reapplying protective
coatings like paint, replacing corroded structural members and fasteners, and servicing the
cathodic protection system by replacing sacrificial anodes. Steel structural members damaged by
vessel impacts or debris should be replaced as soon as possible if the damage is severe enough to
threaten structural integrity. For example, a buckled steel strut could result in failure of adjacent
members at loads considerably below design values. Cosmetic damage, such as dents, can be
addressed during scheduled maintenance.
(5) Wood. Wood structure components are susceptible to biological attack at all places
except below the mud line. Most wood deterioration occurs in the wet and dry tidal range. Wood
maintenance consists of reapplying protective surface coatings such as paint and replacing
deteriorated wood portions with new material. It is usually not practical to re-treat deteriorated
pressure-treated, chemical-impregnated wood. These members should be replaced. Surface
coatings consist of antifouling paints or coating materials that resist borer penetration, such as a
0.5-mm-thick coating of epoxy. Maintenance of wood structures also involves replacement of
wood members damaged by vessel or wave impacts, fire, or exposure to harmful chemicals.
Broken structural members should be immediately replaced to avoid additional damage to
adjacent structure components. Pollutants in some harbors may be harmful to wood, but a side
benefit is the almost complete absence of marine life harmful to wood structures.
(6) Geotextiles and plastics. Maintenance requirements of synthetic materials vary

widely, depending on the material and its application. Maintenance of geotextiles may be
warranted if the fabric is exposed for a period of time. For example, loss of armor stone and
underlayer stone might expose the geotextile filter cloth, which could then be damaged by debris
or sunlight. Geotextiles used in sand-filled bags can usually withstand ultraviolet radiation, but
the bags can be torn or vandalized, requiring immediate repair. Repair can be accomplished by
sewing, overlapping, or gluing a patch to the damaged geotextile. Plastics can withstand
practically all naturally occurring chemicals found in coastal regions. However, pollutants or
spilled fuels may react with some plastics, causing rapid deterioration or change in the material’s
characteristics. Plastics can be physically damaged by impacts and by fatigue brought about by
cyclic loading. Determining whether or not broken plastic components is needed will depend
upon the importance of the plastic component to overall structural integrity.
h. Material environmental impacts. Long-term project success relies on the ability of the
selected construction materials to resist attacks from the surrounding environment by such
diverse factors as force loadings, corrosive chemicals, marine organisms, abrasion, fire, wet/dry
cycles, freeze/thaw cycles, etc. Equally important is minimizing effects that construction
materials may have on the natural environment in which they are placed. Strong justification is
needed to use any construction material that introduces adverse chemicals into the environment
that might impact plant and animal life in the immediate project vicinity. Coastal construction
can produce nonchemical adverse impacts such as high levels of turbidity from earth and sand
placement or from foundation dredging. Impacts also arise from burying or displacing species
during construction, although many mobile animal species simply migrate out of the area
temporarily. Completed coastal projects often provide viable habitat, thus offsetting somewhat
the negative environmental consequences of construction. An evaluation of potential
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environmental impacts of a project should consider future impacts that could arise from project
deterioration, vandalism, and subsequent repair or maintenance. Environmental impacts may be
reduced during repair and rehabilitation if materials from the original construction can be reused.
Finally, present and future visual impacts of the project definitely should not be ignored.
VI-4-2. Earth and Sand.
a. Uses of earth and sand in coastal construction. Coastal projects tend to be fairly large
and require a significant volume of construction materials. When feasible, structures are
designed to use earth or sand as an economical filler material, and in many cases the mechanical
strength properties of the soil are an integral part of the design. Below are some of the common
uses of earth and sand in coastal construction:
(1) Rubble-mound breakwaters. Sand may be used as core material to provide a structure
with a nearly impervious core, although sand-only cores are not common practice. The sand can
contain clays, but cohesive clay-like materials alone are unsuitable for breakwater cores. Sand
cores must be protected by geotextile or gravel filters and successively larger stone layers to
prevent loss of sand due to piping under wave and current action.
(2) Caissons. Sand or soil is used to fill the compartments of concrete caissons and
“cell-type” structures made of steel sheetpiles. Sand is preferred if the filler material is expected
to support road works. Fill material must be protected from wave action that could wash away
the soil.
(3) Bulkheads and vertical-front seawalls. Sand and soil are most often used as backfill
or as foundation material for bulkheads and seawalls. The backfill usually is compacted to
provide supportive soil pressure to resist wave loads and hydrostatic pressures. Soil may be
needed to level the working area for foundations, or in weak soil conditions, to replace
unsatisfactory in situ soil. Some circumstances may require coarser backfill material to promote
rapid draining.
(4) Dikes. Earthen dikes constructed of sand, clay, or a combination of both, are used as
dredged material containment structures and as storm protection structures. Dikes exposed to
wave action need to be protected against erosion, i.e., armored like a revetment.
(5) Beach and dune restoration. Beach-quality sand from either land or offshore sources
is the key ingredient for successful beach nourishment and dune restoration projects. Constructed
sand dunes can be temporarily stabilized using snow fencing while dune vegetation is being
established. Useful guidelines on stabilizing dunes with vegetation were given by Woodhouse
(1978).
(6) Land reclamation. Construction of coastal facilities such as harbors and marinas often
involves creation of new above-water land areas. Earth and sand used in these projects may
come from dredging or from inland sources. Soils used in most reclamation projects are expected
to have some degree of load- bearing capacity, depending on project requirements.
VI-4-9
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(7) Construction roads. Access to coastal projects may require construction of temporary
or permanent roads using earth, sand, and gravel. Initial construction or major rehabilitation of
shore-connected rubble-mound structures requires a roadway along the structure crest capable of
supporting a crane and heavy trucks. If a permanent crest road is not part of the structure design,
a temporary gravel road can be constructed that will eventually be washed away by storm waves.
(8) Concrete aggregate. Sand and gravel are essential ingredients in concrete and grouts
used in coastal construction.
b. Physical and mechanical properties of earth and sand. Part III-1 (Coastal Sediment
Properties) provides a thorough overview of sand composition, properties, and engineering
applications. The following sections cover a broader range of soils.
(1) General soil properties and classification. The terms “earth” and “soil” are used to
describe mixtures of a large assortment of materials comprised of various size particles. Soils are
classified according to grain size into groups that share similar engineering characteristics. One
such system is the widely used Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) as presented in Table
III-1-2 of Part III-1, “Coastal Sediment Properties.” This classification system spans the particle
size range that includes boulders, cobbles, gravels, sands, silts, and clays. Listed below are some
general engineering characteristics of soils classified according to the USCS (Eckert and
Callender 1987):
(a) Boulders and cobbles. “Boulders” and “cobbles” are rounded to angular, bulky, hard
rock particles. Boulders have an average diameter greater than 300 mm, whereas cobbles have
diameters spanning the range between 75 and 300 mm. Boulders and cobbles are very stable
components for fill and for stabilizing slopes, particularly when the particles are angular.
Including these larger particles as aggregates in finer grained soils helps improve the soil
capacity to support foundation loads.
(b) Gravels and sands. Gravels and sands are rounded to angular bulky, hard, rock
particles that can be naturally occurring or made by crushing larger stones. Gravels span the
range of grain diameters from 4.76 to 75 mm, and sands cover grain sizes in the range from
0.074 to 4.75 mm. Within each category there are further divisions such as “coarse” and “fine.”
Gravel and sand have essentially the same engineering properties; they differ mainly in degree.
They are easily compacted, little affected by moisture content, and unaffected by frost. Gravels
are more permeable than sands, and they are generally more resistant to erosion and piping.
Stability of sands and gravels generally decreases as the grain-size distribution becomes
narrower.
(c) Silts and clays. Soil particles with diameters less than 0.074 mm are silts or clays,
and the distinction between the two arises from its behavior under certain conditions. Silts are
inherently unstable, particularly when moisture content is increased, and they may reach a
“quick” state when saturated. Silts are difficult to compact, highly susceptible to frost heave, and
are easily eroded. Clays exhibit plastic behavior and have cohesive strength, which increases as
moisture content decreases. Clays have low permeability, are difficult to compact when wet, and
are difficult to drain. Clays resist erosion and piping when compacted, and they are not
susceptible to frost heave. However, clays do expand and contract with changes in moisture
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
content. In general, highly expansive clays should not be used to backfill coastal structures. The
most important engineering properties of soils are density, shear strength, compressibility, and
permeability. These properties are used to estimate slope stability, bearing capacity, settlement,
and erosion rate. Some of the basic soil properties can be determined using field and laboratory
tests. For other properties it is necessary to correlate the soil parameters with results from
previous experience. In the sections that follow, several key soil parameters are discussed. More
detailed information on these and other soil properties such as water content and grain-size
distribution are given in Eckert and Callender (1987) or in any geotechnical engineering
textbook.
(2) Soil density. Soil is a multiphase mixture composed of solid particles and void spaces
that are filled with water and/or gas. Consequently, in soil mechanics the term “density”
describes the overall soil density as a function of particle density and the relative proportion of
solids and voids in the sample. Table VI-4-1 shows a number of density-related parameters
commonly used by geotechnical engineers. Note that specific gravity G is determined using the
unit weight of fresh water. Typically, G ranges between 2.5 and 2.8 with preliminary calculation
“default” values of 2.65 for sand and 2.70 for clays. Void ratio and porosity are indicators of soil
compressibility and permeability. Geotechnical engineers prefer using void ratio because the
volume of solids remains constant during any soil volume change. Void ratio can range from
0.15 for well-compacted soils having a wide grain-size distribution to 4.0 for very loose clays
with high organic material content. Densely packed uniform spheres have a minimum void ratio
of 0.35. Table III-1-4 in Part III-1 gives typical density values for common coastal sediments.
Table VI-4-1
Soil Density Parameters
Name Symbol Defining Equation
Basic Parameters
Weight of solids Ws
Weight of water Ww
Volume of solids Vs
Volume of voids Vv
Total volume V Vs + Vv
Water unit weight γw
Derived Parameters
Dry soil γd Ws
Unit weight V
Moist soil γ W s W w
Unit weight V
Saturated soil γsat Ws Vv  w
Unit weight V
Immersed soil γsub Ws  Vs w
Unit weight V
Specific gravity G d
w
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Void ratio e Vv n
or
Vs 100  n
Porosity n Vv e
 100% or 100%
V 1 e
(3) Soil relative density and relative compaction. These two parameters give a measure of
a soil’s in situ density relative to the range of possibilities for that particular soil.
(a) Relative density is used for noncohesive sands, and it is defined as the percentage
given by the expression
e max - e
Dr   100% (VI-4-1)
e max - e min
where the numerator is “the difference between the void ratio of a cohesionless soil in the loosest
state (emax) to any given void ratio, e,” and the denominator is “the difference between void ratios
in the loosest and densest (emin) states.” Relative density provides a measure of the compactness
of granular materials used in coastal projects such as sand backfill or dike cores. In the field,
relative density is found using standard penetration tests or Dutch cone penetration tests. Actual
estimation of relative density should follow the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) Standards (ASTM D-4254 1994) or EM 1110-2-1906 (Department of the Army 1986).
However, because of the difficulty in establishing the loosest and densest states of cohesionless
soils, significant variations occur in determination of relative density, and correlations with other
soil engineering properties should be avoided except for use in preliminary calculations.
(b) Relative compaction describes the relative density of compacted soils, and it is
defined as “the ratio of the unit dry weight of an in situ material (γd) to the unit dry
weight of the soil when compacted to its maximum density (γdmax ),” or
d
Rc   100% (VI-4-2)
dmax
The Standard Proctor Method, given in EM 1110-2-1906 (Department of the Army 1986) is
recommended for determining maximum unit dry weight for coastal fills and embankment
applications. Relative compaction is normally used to describe cohesive soils (placed or
pre-existing) that have been stabilized or improved using compaction techniques.
(4) Soil shear strength. Soil fails when shear displacement occurs along a plane on which
soil stress limit is exceeded. For all but preliminary design, soil strength should be determined
using appropriate in situ or laboratory testing procedures as described in EM 1110-2-1906
(Department of the Army 1986) or ASTM Standards. Commonly performed tests are the
Unconsolidated-Undrained triaxial test, Consolidated- Undrained triaxial test, and the
Consolidated-Drained triaxial test. These tests produce stress-strain curves for the tested loading
condition, and the shear strength is defined as the first maximum that occurs on the curve. The
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
tests also reveal conditions of failure for the soil. Soil strength is usually presented in terms of
Mohr circles and Mohr failure envelopes. This allows shear strength to be expressed in terms of
cohesion, maximum stress, and the angle of internal friction. Noncohesive, granular soils (i.e.
sand) resist shearing through two mechanisms: (a) the frictional resistance between particles due
to the normal force acting at the point of contact; and (b) the interlocking of particles as they
attempt to shift past one another during strain. Frictional resistance is the principal source of soil
strength, and it is a function of the soil confining stress. Soil shear strength increases with
increases in confining stress. Highly compacted soils with low void ratios have increased
strength due to particle interlocking. The shear strength of placed or backfilled cohesive soil will
depend to a large extent on the moisture content (pore-pressure) and the compaction the soil
receives. Tests should be conducted after compaction to verify that design strength levels have
been achieved or surpassed. Shear strength of in situ cohesive soils depends on the method of
original deposition and the past overburden history. Undisturbed clays may be over-
consolidated, normally consolidated, or under-consolidated. Shear strength is determined using
the triaxial tests mentioned above.
(5) Soil compressibility. Soil compressibility is an indication of settlement that will occur
over time due to a given load condition or a change in groundwater level. Compressibility of
noncohesive materials is governed by the relative density of the soil, and estimates of soil
settlement are straightforward. Consolidation of cohesive soils is more complex and occurs in
three stages. Immediate settlement is compression of the soil matrix without any dissipation of
pore pressure or water expulsion. Some immediate settlement may be due to compression of
trapped gases in the soil. Primary consolidation occurs over time as increased pore pressures
force water from the soil voids. This process continues until all the excess pore pressure is
relieved. The rate of consolidation depends on soil permeability and the drainage characteristics
of the adjacent soil. After primary consolidation, Secondary compression can occur in soils
having higher plasticity or significant organic content, such as soft marine or estuarine deposits.
Consolidation tests are used to establish the coefficients necessary to estimate settlement of silts
and clays. Eckert and Callender (1987) describe the test and analysis methods, and they provide
an example application.
(6) Soil permeability. Permeability is a soil parameter related to laminar (viscous) flow
of water through the soil under the influence of gravity. Coastal geotechnical problems affected
by soil permeability include seepage through beach sand, consolidation of backfills and
hydraulically placed fills, and settlement of foundations. Viscous flow through soils is calculated
with an empirical relationship known as Darcy’s Law, which is applicable for soils from clays
and silts up to coarse sands. In its simplest form, Darcy=s equation for steady flow through
uniform soil is
h
Q= K A (VI-4-3)
L
where
Q = discharge
A = flow cross-sectional area
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
L = length of flow path
Δh = head difference over the flow length
The empirical coefficient K in Darcy’s equation is called the coefficient of permeability, and it is
a function of both the soil and the pore fluid. Soil particle size and gradation have the largest
influence on the coefficient of permeability. Soil permeability is best determined in the field
using pumping tests (see Eckert and Callender (1987) for an overview and references). Less
accurate permeability coefficients can be obtained with laboratory tests using falling- or
constant-head permeameters as described in EM 1110-2-1906 (Department of the Army 1986) or
ASTM Standards. Many empirical equations have been proposed to relate permeability to
characteristics of the soil such as effective grain size. However, these equations are generally
suited only for compacted, clean, coarse soils, whereas naturally occurring soils will exhibit
significant variation. Table VI-4-2 gives typical coefficients of permeability for common soils.
These values are suitable for use in preliminary design calculations.
Table VI-4-2
Typical Soil Permeability Coefficients (from Eckert and Callender (1987))
Particle Size Range, Permeability
cm “Effective” Size D10, Coefficient, k
Soil Types Dmax Dmin mm (cm/sec) (ft/yr)
Uniform, coarse sand 0.2 0.05 0.6 0.4 0.4 x 106
Uniform, medium sand 0.05 0.025 0.3 0.1 0.1 x 106
Clean, well-graded sand
1.0 0.0005 0.1 0.01 0.01 x 106
and gravel
Uniform, fine sand 0.025 0.005 0.06 40 x 10-4 4,000
Well-graded, silty sand and
0.5 0.001 0.02 4 x 10-4 400
gravel
Silty sand 0.2 0.0005 0.01 1 x 10-4 100
-4
Uniform silt 0.005 0.0005 0.006 0.5 x 10 50
-4
Sandy clay 0.10 0.0001 0.002 0.05 x 10 5
-4
Silty clay 0.005 0.0001 0.0015 0.01 x 10 1
Clay (30 to 50 percent clay
0.005 0.00005 0.0008 0.001 x 10-4 0.1
sizes)
(7) Soil mixtures. Depending on the borrow source, backfill material may be composed
of a mixture containing some fraction of gravel, sand, silt, or clay, along with a significant
percentage of organic materials such as vegetable matter or shell fragments. Soil properties of
soil mixtures containing a wide range of components will vary tremendously, and the soil should
be tested to assure compliance with specified strength and density requirements. Soil mixtures
containing organic materials are usually considered detrimental and should not be used because
they tend to be more compressible and have lower shear strengths.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
c. Placement considerations for earth and sand. The method chosen for earth placement
depends on such factors as location of material borrow source (land or offshore), type of fill,
availability of suitable equipment, environmental impacts of the method, and project economics.
(1) Dumped placement. Earth or sand obtained from upland sources or dredged from the
sea bottom can be transported to the construction site and dumped into place. For land-based
construction the mode of transport can be trucks, scrapers, conveyor belts, or other means,
depending on the transport distance. Typical land-based projects include backfilling seawalls and
bulkheads, placing foundation material, and placing the cores of shore-connected rubble-mound
structures. Offshore earth and sand can be placed by dumping from barges or by using draglines
and buckets for more precision. Dumped material that is not compacted will have low relative
densities, and settlement should be expected to occur over time. Barge dumping at sea creates
turbulence that will segregate material by grain size as it falls and increase turbidity as fine
particles are suspended in the water column.
(2) Hydraulic placement. Soils dredged from the sea or lake bottom can be transported
and placed hydraulically by moving the material as a slurry through a pipeline. The pipeline may
extend directly from the dredge to the project site, as in the case of some beach nourishment
projects; or barges that bring the material to the construction site can be emptied with hydraulic
pumping. Hydraulic placement offers greater accuracy than dumping for offshore applications
such as the cores of rubble-mound structures. Material placed underwater, either hydraulically or
by dumping, may be moved by waves and currents before it can be adequately protected with
overlying filters and armor layers. Land placement of earth and sand by hydraulic means
involves a large amount of wash water runoff that can erode sediment along the drainage path or
leave segregated pockets of fine-grained sediment that have engineering characteristics vastly
different from the rest of the fill.
(3) Compaction. Above water, earth and sand fills can be compacted by a number of
methods depending on the degree of compaction necessary to reach the specified soil parameters.
Construction documents should specify the required density, moisture limits, and lift thickness.
In situ testing is needed to verify that the compacted fill meets specifications. Mechanical
compaction of soils placed underwater is not practical; however, in some situations cyclic wave
loading will help compact placed sand.
d. Environmental effects on earth and sand.
(1) Effects of soils on the environment. Polluted soils should not be used in coastal
projects because contaminants may be released in coastal waters either by leeching out of the
placed fill material or through project damage and erosion of the fill material during storms.
Potential soil contaminants include industrial wastes such as toxic heavy metals (mercury,
cadmium, lead, and arsenic), chlorinated organic chemicals (DDT and PCB=s), and pathogens
(bacteria, viruses, and parasites) (Eckert and Callender 1987). Use of dredged materials in
coastal construction must be limited to good quality materials free of toxic wastes. See Engineer
Manual 1110-2-1204 (Department of the Army 1989) and Engineer Manual 1110-2-5025
(Department of the Army 1998) for related design guidance. Also examine recent Federal and
state environmental regulations pertaining to use of dredged material.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(2) Effects of the environment on soils. The particles comprising mixtures of earth and
sand are generally unaffected by the natural environment over the project life span. However,
structural components constructed using earth and sand are subject to natural forces that can
degrade the performance and functionality of the project. Erosion of materials and subsequent
decrease in fill volume can be caused by wind, rain, ice, currents, waves, burrowing animals, or
human activities. This may reduce the capacity of the soil to resist applied loads and result in
project damage. For example, vertical seawall designs often rely on the backfilled soil to help
resist wave impacts and water pressures. Unconsolidated sands and silts are most susceptible to
erosion. Gravel is more stable against erosion due to the size of the particles, and clays are more
stable because of tractive forces between particles. Liquefaction of submerged loose fine sand
and silts can occur in areas of high seismic activity or high wave action.
VI-4-3. Stone.
a. Use of stone in coastal construction. In the context of coastal engineering, “stone”

refers to individual blocks, or to fragments that have been broken or quarried from bedrock
exposures or obtained from boulders and cobbles in alluvium (Moffatt and Nichol 1983).
Commercial-grade stone can be classified according to size, shape, size distribution, and various
physical properties of the material. Stone is used extensively to construct coastal structures, and
it is by far the most common material used in the United States for breakwaters, jetties, groins,
revetments, and seawalls. Larger projects may contain more than a million tonnes of stone;
80 percent in the core and 20 percent in the armor layers (CIRIA/CUR 1991). Stone used as
aggregate and riprap is crushed, broken, or alluvial stone in which the shape of individual stones
has not been specified and the size distributions are fairly wide. Quarrystones are larger rock
pieces that are “blocky” in shape rather than elongated or “slabby.” A principal use of
quarrystone is in the armor layer of rubble-mound structures. Below are listed the major uses of
stone in coastal construction. Undoubtedly there are additional uses not mentioned. For example,
quarrystones make great gifts for your geologist friends.
(1) Rubble-mound structures. Large quarrystone with specified weight, density, and
durability are used for the primary armor layer of most rubble-mound structures. Underlayers are
composed of progressively smaller stone sizes; and in many cases, the rubble-mound core
material may be riprap or “quarry-run” stone. Quarry stone is also used to construct the base of
“composite structures” where a monolithic, vertical-front structure is placed on a rubble-mound
base.
(2) Riprap structures. Riprap is used more for shore and bank protection structures that
are not exposed to high waves or strong currents. The wider size distribution of riprap provides a
less uniform armor layer that is more susceptible to damage by strong waves and currents.
Riprap is less expensive than uniform stone, and placement on the slope is usually less precise
(e.g., dumping from trucks).
(3) Toe protection. Graded stone is used to protect the toes of sloping- and vertical-front
structures from undermining by scour. Stable stone sizes are selected based on the anticipated
maximum waves or currents.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(4) Scour blankets. Stone blankets are placed on the seafloor in areas subject to scour by
waves and/or currents. Often the scour blanket is a remediation response to scour that was not
anticipated in the original project design. Protection of bridge and pier pilings with scour
blankets is a routine application.
(5) Stone fill. Stone is used as a filler material for coastal structures such as cribs,
caissons, and gabions. (Gabions are steel wire cages filled with small stones that can be stacked
to form steep revetments and bank protection.)
(6) Filter layers. Smaller stones are used for filter layers over the foundation soil or in
drainage applications. Placement is usually by dumping. Selection of stone for a particular
project depends on the purpose of the project, design loads, and local availability of suitable
stone. In some cases, it may be necessary to evaluate the benefits of using inferior locally
available stone as opposed to transporting higher-quality stone from a distant source.
b. Physical and mechanical properties of rock. The paragraphs below provide an

overview of rock properties crucial for coastal engineering applications. These and other rock
properties are covered in much greater detail in the Manual on the Use of Rock in Coastal and
Shoreline Engineering (CIRIA/CUR 1991).
(1) Types of rock. Rock, as it occurs in nature, is classified into three distinct groups.
Igneous rocks are formed by crystallization and solidification of molten silicate magma.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by sedimentation (usually underwater) and subsequent
lithification of mineral grains. Metamorphic rocks are transformed igneous or sedimentary
rocks in which textures and minerals have been altered by heat and pressure over geological time
periods (CIRIA/CUR 1991). Within each major rock category are additional subdivisions based
mainly on composition and texture (Table VI-4-3). Some of the more common stone types are
described below:
(a) Granite is a term applied to medium- and coarse-grained igneous rocks consisting
mainly of feldspar and quartz. Mica may also exist in small quantities, but large amounts of mica
may result in fracture planes within the rock. Most granites are dense, hard, strong, have low
porosity, and are resistant to abrasion and impacts. These characteristics make granite a good
choice for riprap and armor stone.
(b) Basalt is a term applied to various dense, fine-grained, volcanic rocks (dacite,
andesite, trachyte, latite, basalt). Basaltic rock was formed by cooling lava, and it is composed
primarily of feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals. Some basalts may not be suitable for
concrete aggregates if they contain reactive substances in the pores. Basalts are generally very
dense, hard, tough, and durable, and they are good choices for aggregates, riprap, and armor
stone.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Table VI-4-3
Engineering Characteristics of Unweathered Common Rocks (from CIRIA/CUR (1991))
Rock Specific Unconfined Compressive Water
Rock Group Weight Strength Absorption Porosity
3 8
Name (kN/m ) (MPa) x 10 (%) (%)
Igneous
Granite 24.5-27.5 160-260 0.2-2.0 0.4-2.4
Diorite 25.5-30.4 160-260 --- 0.3-2.7
Gabbro 27.5-31.4 180-280 0.2-2.5 0.3-2.7
Rhyolite 22.6-27.5 100-260 0.2-5.0 0.4-6.0
Andesite 23.5-29.4 160-260 0.2-10 0.1-10
Basalt 24.5-30.4 160-280 0.1-1.0 0.1-1.0
Sedimentary
Quartzite 25.5-27.5 220-260 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.5
Sandstone 22.6-27.5 15-220 1.0-15 5-20
Siltstone 22.6-27.5 60-100 1.0-10 5-10
Shale 22.6-26.5 15-60 1.0-10 5-30
Limestone 22.6-26.5 30-120 0.2-5.0 0.5-20
Chalks 14.7-22.6 5-30 2.0-30 20-30
Metamorphic
Phyllite 22.6-26.5 60-90 0.5-6.0 5-10
Schist 26.5-31.4 70-120 0.4-5.0 5-10
Gneiss 25.5-27.5 150-260 0.5-1.5 0.5-1.5
Marble 26.5-27.5 130-240 0.5-2.0 0.5-2.0
Slate 26.5-27.5 70-120 0.5-5.0 0.5-5.0
(c) Carbonate is a broad term applied to limestone, dolomite, and marble. These rocks
contain varying amounts of calcite and span the range from fine-grained to very coarse-grained.
Often a high percentage of clays make some carbonate rock unsuitable for use as stone in coastal
construction. Conversely, high sand or silica content may harden carbonates. Marble is limestone
or dolomite transformed by metamorphic processes into a harder, more crystalline structure.
Carbonate stone that is physically sound, dense, tough, and strong is suitable for concrete
aggregate, riprap, and armor stone.
(d) Sandstone is sedimentary rock composed of small (0.25-6.0 mm) particles cemented
together. Strength and durability of sandstone varies greatly depending on the cementing
material. Rock cemented by silica or calcite is suitable for use as crushed and broken stone,
whereas rock cemented with clay or iron oxide is inadequate for most applications. Sandstone is
more porous than granite and basalt. Other less common rocks may be available for use in
coastal construction, and many types have attributes necessary for use as armor stone and riprap.
Moffatt and Nichol (1983) and CIRIA/CUR (1991) describe several additional rock types.
VI-4-18
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(2) Specific weight. Most coastal applications of stone require that the stones remain
stable and stationary under all imposed wave and current forces. For structures in which the
armor layer stones are not bound together by concrete or asphalt, stability is achieved through
the relatively high specific weight of stone, assisted to some degree by the friction and
mechanical interlocking that occurs between adjacent stones. Table VI-4-3 includes typical
ranges of specific weight for common stone. Stones with high specific weight are best for
primary layer armor units, but less dense stones can be used successfully. Specific weight is not
as important for core material and underlayer stones, which are held in place by the primary
armor layer. Design methods used to calculate stable armor stone weight depend on stone
specific weight. Therefore, once the design is complete and stone specific weight has been
specified, it is important to ensure stones used in the project meet or exceed the assumed specific
weight used in design. Armor stones are usually purchased by weight, whereas core and
secondary layer stones may be specified according to volume.
(3) Stone size and distribution. Quarries produce crushed and broken stone in sizes
ranging from small gravel to huge blocks that cannot be handled and transported without special
equipment. A rough estimate of stone size for a somewhat round stone is given as the diameter
of an equivalent-volume sphere, i.e.,
Ws
D s  1.24(
1/ 3
) (VI-4-4)
s
where
Ws = stone weight
γs =stone specific weight in compatible units
Quarry output can be categorized according to median stone diameter and size distribution about
the median. Categories of stone based on size and gradation include the following:
(a) Armor stones are selected by weight and density to resist wave loads. Ideally, all
armor stones are blocky in shape and nearly uniform in size. The largest stone dimension on an
individual stone should be no more than three times the shortest dimension.
(b) Underlayer stones are smaller stones randomly placed in a layer to support the
primary armor layer. The size distribution of underlayer stone can be reasonably wide, provided
the smallest stones in the distribution are still too large to pass through voids in the covering
layer of larger stones.
(c) Quarry-run or quarry-waste materials are often used for cores of rubble-mound
breakwaters and jetties. Generally the material should be sound and reasonably well-graded with
no more than 10 percent fines. Smaller median sizes and wider distributions produce less porous
structures.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(d) Riprap is comprised of heavy irregular stone fragments having a fairly wide size
distribution. Riprap is used to protect slopes from erosion in less severe wave conditions. Riprap
is also used in emergency repairs because sufficient quantities are usually readily available.
(e) Bedding and filter layer stones are typically smaller stones with narrow gradations.
These layers prevent piping loss of underlying soils.
The above stone classifications are general. Specific guidance on median sizes and allowable
size distributions for stone used in coastal structures is given in Part VI-5-2, “Wave/Structure
Interactions” and Part VI-7, “Design of Specific Project Elements.”
(4) Stone shape. Stone shape is an important factor in stability of armor stones. Angular,
blocky stones are preferred for armor layers because they wedge and interlock well with adjacent
stones when placed randomly, they can be placed on steeper slopes, and they provide a more
porous armor layer that more effectively dissipates wave energy. Well-rounded armor stones are
less stable, cannot be placed on steep slopes, and are more difficult to handle than angular
stones. In addition, dislodged round stones will tend to roll downslope to the structure toe,
whereas angular stones are more likely to find a new resting place on the armor slope.
Quarry-produced stones are typically angular, whereas stones from glacial deposits and alluvial
sources are usually rounded. Stones mined from older coastal structures could have become
more rounded from years of service and weathering. Examples of stone shape and classification
are given in CIRIA/CUR (1991). Many examples exist of coastal structures constructed of
closely fitted blocky stones that resemble the work of stone masons. Gaps between stones can be
grouted to provide a more impervious structure; however, sufficient openings must be left in the
armor layer to relieve hydrostatic uplift pressures. Underlayers also should have sufficient
angularity to be stable on the slope during construction. Underlayer stone angularity helps lessen
the discontinuity between armor and underlayer. Highly angular stones placed directly on
geotextile fabric are more likely to puncture the fabric during placement or subsequent
movement.
(5) Durability. Stone durability is a qualitative measure of the stone’s ability to retain its
physical and mechanical properties throughout its service in an engineering project. Stone
durability is related to properties of the basic rock from which the stones were produced (texture,
structure, mineral composition, etc.), method of quarrying (blasting or cutting), handling of the
stone prior to final placement, environmental conditions to which the stone is exposed, and loads
applied to the stone (Magoon and Baird 1991). Generally, stone that is dense or fine-textured,
hard, and tough is the most durable. Durability of stone placed in a coastal structure is a very
important design consideration. However, stone durability is not well understood, and best
durability estimates for stones from a particular quarry may come from past performance of
stone from the same quarry that was placed in similar environments. Stone degradation by
cracking or chipping reduces the average weight and angularity of armor stone resulting in a less
stable armor layer. Stones that are expected to degrade rapidly lead to higher maintenance costs
and may necessitate initial overdesign of armor stone size and placement on milder slopes.
Economics may dictate using higher-quality stone from a distant site if local stone is not
sufficiently durable. Useful information on stone durability experience in the United States was
presented at the specialty conference Durability of Stone for Rubble Mound Breakwaters
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(Magoon and Baird 1991). Papers in this conference covered theoretical and laboratory analysis
of stone durability, engineering and design practices, quarry and construction topics, and case
histories of stone durability. In one of the conference papers, Lutton (1991) gave the relative
stone durability rankings shown on Table VI-4-4 for use in preliminary planning. Lutton also
presented “approximate” criteria for evaluating stone durability shown on Table VI-4-5 (also
given in Department of the Army (1990)). Descriptions of various tests used to quantify
durability characteristics of stone are beyond the scope of the manual. See CIRIA/CUR (1991),
Department of the Army (1990), Latham (1991), and Lienhart (1991) for information on these
testing procedures. These sources also cite applicable testing standards of the American Society
for Testing and Materials.
TableVI-4-4
Durability Ranking for Common Stone
Most Durable to Least Durable
1. Granite
2. Quartzite
3. Basalt
4. Limestone and Dolomite
5. Rhyolite and Dacite
6. Andesite
7. Sandstone
8. Breccia and Conglomerate
(6) Strength. Stone used in coastal projects is usually selected according to its specific
weight, durability, and shape properties. Seldom are there any tensile or compressive strength
requirements. Generally, stones must be sufficiently strong in compression to support the load of
any overlying stone or structure without crushing. Table VI-4-3 gives compressive strength
ranges for the listed stone. Generally, high density stone is also very strong in compression.
Fittings such as ringbolts can be epoxied into holes drilled into stone, and usually the tensile
stone strength is sufficient to withstand substantial loads on the fitting.
(7) Porosity and water absorption. Stone porosity is the volume of voids contained in a
unit volume of stone. This term should not be confused with bulk porosity of a stone armor
layer (which is related to the volume of voids between stones). Water absorption is the mass of
water absorbed per unit of dry stone mass at atmospheric pressure, and it will be less than the
absorption that would occur if all the voids of the stone were saturated. Values of stone porosity
and water absorption are listed in Table VI-4-3. Stone water absorption is the single most
important indicator of stone durability, particularly in applications where the stones undergo
cyclic stresses caused by freeze/thaw cycles. Primary armor layer stones should have low values
of water absorption to help ensure good weathering characteristics and less stone breakage. A
limit of 1 percent absorption is considered reasonable (Department of the Army 1990).
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Table VI-4-5
Approximate Criteria1 for Evaluating Stone
Test Approximate Criterion for Suitability
Petrography Fresh, interlocking crystalline, with few pores, no clay
minerals, and no soluble minerals
Bulk specific gravity (saturated, Greater than 2.60
surface dry)
Absorption Less than 1.2 percent2
MgSO4 soundness Less than 2 percent loss in five cycles1
Glycol soundness No deterioration except minor crumbs from surface
Abrasion Less than 25 percent loss in 1,000 revolutions2
Freezing-thawing Largely unaffected in 20 cycles
Wetting-drying No major progressive cracking in 35 cycles
Field visual Distinctions based on color, massiveness, and other visual
characteristics
Field index Distinctions based on scratch, ring, and other physical
characteristics
Field drop test No breakage or cracking
Field set-aside No loss or cracking in 12-month exposure
1
Criteria are broad generalizations useful for preliminary judgment only rather than being
reflective of any official standard.
2
Coarse aggregate sizes.
(8) Abrasion and soundness. Resistance to abrasion is an important stone property for
materials handled in bulk such as core material, riprap, filter stone, etc. Weaker stones will break
into smaller pieces as the materials are loaded into trucks, dumped, and rehandled onsite. This
could result in changed size distributions by the time the stone is placed. Waterborne sand and
cobbles can slowly wear away at weak armor stone, but this is not an overriding design concern.
Dynamic armor layers that are reshaped by wave action should be constructed using abrasion-
resistant stone. Stone soundness depends on the amount of fissures, fractures, laminations, and
other discontinuities in the stone. Some stone fissures may be the result of blasting in the quarry,
other weaknesses may develop with multiple handling and stockpiling of larger stones.
c. Quarrystone procurement and inspection guidelines. The following are suggested

general guidelines for specifying and inspecting quarrystone for coastal projects. It will be
necessary to supplement these guidelines on a case-by-case basis. Additional guidance is
provided in EM 1110-2-2301 (Department of the Army 1994), CIRIA/CUR (1991), and Moffatt
and Nichol (1983).
(1) Contractor bids should be reviewed to ensure bid items are not underpriced in
anticipation of potential claims for extra payments.
(2) Any environmental, historic preservation, and biologic constraints on quarrying must
be resolved by obtaining all relevant Federal, state, and local permits.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(3) Inspection visits to the quarry during production are needed to ensure adequate stone
quality and gradation.
(4) Over-blasting, which may lead to unacceptable fracturing of armor stones, should be
avoided.
(5) Well-trained inspectors familiar with blasting procedures, stone quality, and stone
inspection techniques should be employed.
(6) A record of stone quality from known quarries should be maintained for reference.
Quarries with records of producing unsatisfactory stone should be disqualified up front.
(7) Qualified personnel (e.g., a geologist) should identify specific areas of unacceptable
in situ stone within the quarry and make the inspector aware of its location. This prevents the
manufacture of potentially unsuitable stone.
(8) Stones representing the approved rock type in several different weights should be set
aside and clearly marked for visual reference by the inspector and contractor.
(9) Stones should be spread out in the quarry for inspection prior to loading for transport.
Armor stones should be rotated to inspect all sides.
(10) Weights of delivered stone should be checked periodically to ensure contract

compliance, and an adequate supply of stone across the specified gradation should be maintained
at the construction site.
d. Placement considerations for stone. The success of any coastal project built using
stone depends critically on careful stone placement conforming to design specifications.
Structures in which stones are carelessly placed will inevitably suffer damage at loads below
design levels. The following stone placement guidelines (condensed from Moffatt and Nichol
(1983)) are based on Corps of Engineers’ experience in building rubble structures. These
guidelines are intended to be general in nature with the recognition that Corps Districts and other
entities may prefer their own specifications based on past experience and local knowledge.
(1) General placement considerations. On slopes, stone placement should begin at the toe
and proceed upslope to produce a layer with maximum interlocking of stones and minimum
voids. Larger stones that are individually placed should be oriented so the longest axis is
approximately perpendicular to the structure slope. Armor stones should be “seated” on the
underlayer stones to avoid slipping, rocking, or displacement under wave action or weight of
overlying stones. Some settlement of the armor layer is expected, but ideally this will be a
tightening of the matrix without significant lateral stone movements. Controlled stone placement
provides improved armor layer stability, but it depends on skilled and experienced equipment
operators and personnel. Typical extreme tolerances for rubble slopes are 30 cm (12 in.) from
the design finished surface for underwater placement, and 15 cm (6 in.) for above-water
portions. Underlayer and bedding layer tolerances may be as tight as 8 cm (3 in.), whereas up
to 45 cm (18 in.) may be allowed for large armor stones. Rubble-mound structures exposed to
wave action during construction should be completed and armored in short sections to minimize
VI-4-23
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
damage risk from storms. Structures built through the surf zone may require stone blankets
placed in advance of construction to reduce scour effects. Toe protection armor should be evenly
distributed over the area with a minimum percentage of voids.
(2) Filters, bedding, and core materials. Stone used for rubble-mound cores, filter layers,
and bedding layers should be handled and placed in a manner that minimizes segregation of the
material size distribution. Material placed by clamshell, dragline, or similar equipment should
not be dropped distances greater than 0.6 m (2 ft) above the bottom or previously placed stone.
Self-unloading vessels like bottom dump scows (when permitted) should proceed along lines
directly over the final dumping location and parallel to the structure center line. Placing bedding
material over soft and organic bottom materials should force the soft material outward toward
the edges of the bedding layer. When finished, filter and bedding layers should be free of
mounds and windrows and coverage should be complete.
(3) Underlayer stone. Underlayer stone should be placed to full underlayer thickness in a
manner that does not displace underlying materials or soil as construction progresses from the
toe up the slope. The goal is to achieve an even distribution of the graded material with
minimum voids in the underlayer. For smaller structures like revetments, unsegregated stone
may be lowered in buckets and placed directly on the underlying material. Placing stone in any
manner that results in stone segregation is not permitted. Drop heights for underlayer stone
generally cannot exceed 0.6 m (2 ft).
(4) Armor layer stone. Armor layer stone can be placed uniformly, randomly, and by a
special placement method.
(a) Uniform placement is used only for cut or dressed stones that are uniform in size
and shape. Uniform stones are placed in an orderly pattern or arrangement in which the stones
are closely spaced. Such arrangements make it more difficult for individual stones to be
dislodged, but it also provides a less permeable structure with more runup and overtopping. This
is the most expensive method of armor placement. Figure VI-4-1 illustrates uniform placement.
(b) Random placement covers a range of placement techniques from careful placement
of individual angular quarrystones in a random pattern to underwater dumping of stones from
barges. In the case of armor stones, significant variations in stability are likely to occur between
underwater and above-water placement even when placement is by crane. Furthermore, the
degree of armor interlocking achieved varies between crane operators, and even between
structures constructed by the same crane operator. Figure VI-4-2 illustrates random placement.
Placing individual armor stones should not displace underlayer stones and should not result in
any armor damage other than minor chipping. Stone armor layers are at least two stones in
thickness, and the layer should be constructed to this thickness as armoring progresses up the
slope from the toe. This provides better interlocking than placing first one layer of stone and then
covering it with a second layer. Placed armor stone should be stable, keyed, and interlocked with
neighboring stones. “Floater” stones having minimal contact or not wedged against adjacent
stones are more likely to be dislodged during storms. During construction, the crane operator
should be able to select the best sized stone for a particular position from a number of armor
stones stockpiled nearby. Smaller stones in the allowed size distribution should be used to fill
VI-4-24
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Figure VI-4-1. Uniform placement
Figure VI-4-2. Random placement
gaps between larger stones. In this way skilled operators are able to build “tight” armor layers.
Equipment used for placing armor stones should be capable of positioning the stones to their
final position before release (even at the toe), and the crane should be able to pick up and
reposition stones after initial placement. Dropping stones more than 30 cm (1 ft) or pushing
stones downslope should not be permitted. Final shaping of the armor layer slope to design grade
should be achieved during stone placement.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(c) Selective placement is used by some Corps of Engineer field offices to increase
structure stability. Selective placement is the careful selection and placement of individual armor
stones to achieve a higher degree of interlocking. Although careful selective placement increases
armor layer stability, the variation expected between projects does not warrant increasing the
values of stability coefficients. In some respects selective placement is simply carefully
constructed random placement. Figure VI-4-3 illustrates selective placement.
Figure VI-4-3. Selective placement
(d) Special placement applies only to parallelepiped-shaped stones, and this method of
placement requires special efforts to align the longest axis of parallelepiped-shaped stones
perpendicular to the structure slope. Special placement also requires careful supervision during
construction with clear communication to the contractor about proper placement procedures. If
feasible, construction supervisors with previous special placement experience should be
employed. Special placement requires more time for selection, handling, and placement of the
armor, along with increased costs of construction. Figure VI-4-4 illustrates special placement.
Construction techniques for special placement have been suggested to supplement the
recommendations given above for random placement. The lowest tier of armor stones should be
keyed into the seafloor or bedding layer. Subsequent tiers should be placed in the saddle points
of the next lower tier. Construction should proceed upslope and diagonally toward the crane
operator. Spotters should be used to help direct placement and ensure grade line is maintained.
Each stone should be oriented so the heavier end of the parallelepiped-shaped stone is closer to
the underlayer, and stones should be keyed and fitted so there are at least three points of contact
with adjacent stones. All capstone should be placed closely together. The top tier of armor stones
on the seaward side should extend slightly above the level of the capstone to protect the cap from
wave forces, whereas on the lee side the top tier should be slightly lower than the capstone. No
stone should protrude out of the armor face more than one fifth of its major dimension. This is
VI-4-26
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
particularly important for single layer construction. Armor gradation should be fairly uniform,
and stone on the landward face of breakwaters should not be reduced in size because wave
transmission through permeable structures may dislodge leeside armor stones. In general, turbid
water conditions do not allow special placement below the water level. Stones placed on
underwater portions of the structure must be placed by “feel,” and this results in a more random
placement. Stones must be carefully fitted at the transition between random and special
placement (around the low water level). In addition, care must be taken with special placement
around the waterline because damage by breaking waves is more likely to occur in this region.
Figure VI-4-4. Special placement
(5) Riprap. Placement of riprap is less precise than armor stone, but the basic objectives
are similar. Placement should not disturb underlying materials or damage geotextile fabric, and
dumping should not segregate the riprap distribution. Dumping into chutes is likely to produce
unacceptable segregation, and this practice should not be allowed. Riprap placement should be to
full layer thickness in one operation; placing in multiple layers should not be permitted. After
placement the riprap gradation should be similar throughout the structure with no obvious weak
spots, with even distribution of larger stones, and with a minimum of voids. Rearrangement of
individual stones with equipment or by hand may be needed to provide a reasonable gradation of
stone sizes or to reinforce layer weaknesses. Pushing riprap up or down the slope is not allowed
because it segregates the material and may damage the underlayer. Chink stones should be
forced into voids in the riprap layer by rodding, spading, or similar methods.
e. Environmental effects on stone. Stone selected for use in coastal structures is very
durable and is little affected by the natural environment.
(1) Wave action. Hydrodynamic forces caused by wave action on stone structures
generally do not damage individual stones. However, waves which cause stone movement and
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
impacts between stones can lead to chipping and breakage. Waves also carry abrasive particles
that can deteriorate weak stone over long time periods.
(2) Temperature and fire. Stone expands and contracts with temperature change, but most
stone has reasonable tolerance to normal environmental temperature changes. Stone will be
damaged to some degree by high temperatures caused by fire, and granite is particularly
vulnerable to cracking and spalling caused by unequal expansion of differentially heated stone.
This is due to its irregular crystalline structure and mineral composition. At temperatures greater
than 100C limestones start to decompose. Sandstones and other sedimentary stone will tend to
crack along lamination planes after an extreme heating and cooling cycle.
(3) Freezing and thawing. Water that freezes in stone cracks produces stresses that may
lead to stone breakage or spalling after a number of cycles. This problem increases with the
porosity of the stone.
(4) Chemical attack. Calcareous stones are subject to decomposition by acids that may be
formed by the combination of moisture and naturally occurring gases such as sulfur dioxide. This
may cause disintegration of sandstones, which are cemented by calcium carbonate (Moffatt and
Nichol 1983).
VI-4-4. Portland Cement Concrete and Bituminous Concrete. The sections below are intended to
give a brief overview of portland cement concrete, and to a much lesser extent bituminous
concrete, with emphasis on those characteristics important to coastal projects. Following
common usage, the term “concrete” will be used to denote portland cement concrete, and
“asphalt” will be used to denote bituminous concrete. Additional information is available in any
of the literally hundreds of textbooks and design manuals that cover nearly all aspects of
concrete and asphalt and their use as a construction material.
a. Use of concrete and asphalt in coastal construction.
(1) Concrete. Concrete is one of the most common and adaptable materials used in
coastal construction. Suitable aggregates and sand for mixing concrete are usually available near
coastal project sites, and the widespread use of concrete in conventional land-based construction
usually assures a nearby source for cement and steel reinforcement. Concrete components of
coastal projects can consist of: (a) huge cast-in-place gravity structures, such as re-curved
seawalls and roadways; (b) large components that are cast and then moved into position, such as
caissons that are floated into position and sunk; (c) smaller components that are assembled into a
larger coastal structure, such as armor layers constructed of concrete armor units or revetment
blocks; and (e) prestressed beams, columns, and piles. Some of the more important coastal
applications of concrete include the following:
(a) Seawalls, Revetments, Bulkheads. Massive cast-in-place concrete seawalls have

survived many decades with need of only minor repair. Solid vertical-faced, recurved, or stepped
concrete seawalls provide excellent protection of upland property from severe wave action.
Specially shaped concrete blocks can be placed as an armor layer on sloping revetments. The
interlocking block layer can tolerate minor movement without damage. Poured concrete cover
layers can only be used for above-water revetments or when the slope has been dewatered.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Bulkheads can be constructed in numerous configurations using poured concrete or concrete
sheet-piles.
(b) Jetties and Breakwaters. Concrete can be used as a grout in rubble-mound structures
to reduce permeability or as a binder to hold stones together. Concrete is often used to construct
rib caps for jetties. In milder wave climates, cellular jetties and breakwaters can be constructed
of concrete, filled with earth or rocks, and capped with concrete. Weir sections in jetties can be
constructed of prestressed concrete sheet piles.
(c) Groins. Groins can be constructed using prestressed concrete sheet piles or keyed
kingpiles supporting concrete panels. A cast-in-place concrete cap ties the prestressed
components together. Concrete-filled bags are also used as groins in low-wave climates.
(d) Caissons. In deeper water, concrete caissons are used as breakwaters and jetties. The
caissons are placed either directly on the seafloor foundation or atop a rubble-mound base
structure. Concrete is used to cap the filled caissons and to build additional structural features
such as parapet walls or mooring and port facilities.
(e) Concrete Armor Units. Concrete is used to fabricate reinforced and unreinforced
armor units of various sizes and shapes. Concrete armor units are used when suitably sized stone
is unavailable or when the higher stability offered by many concrete armor units is needed to
resist high wave loads.
(f) Piles. Reinforced or prestressed concrete piles are used for piers and wharfs and to
support the foundations of other coastal structures such as concrete seawalls placed on soil with
low bearing capacity. Concrete piles exceed 36 m (118 ft) in length, and typically the piles have
round, square, octagonal, or hollow cross sections (Moffatt and Nichol 1983).
(g) Floating Structures. Concrete pontoons are used for floating pontoon bridges, floating
breakwaters in short-wave environments, wharfs, boat slips, and floating dry docks. In these
applications, the individual units often are linked together to form the structure.
(h) Other Applications. Concrete is used extensively in construction of conventional

land-based facilities that may be part of a coastal project. This may include roadways, bridges,
foundations, drainage ponds, pipelines, ocean outfalls, and discharge structures. Concrete is also
used to encase wooden or steel structural components to provide protection against biological
and corrosive agents in seawater.
(2) Asphalt. Bituminous concrete (referred to as “asphalt” because asphalt is a primary

ingredient) can be used in coastal construction as a binder or filler to stabilize rubble mounds or
soils, as a sealer to reduce or prevent water flow, or as a wearing surface that can be repaired
easily. Asphalt is also used as a preservative treatment or coating to protect wood and metal.
Typical project elements that may use asphalt include the following:
(a) Dikes. Although asphalt is not widely used in the United States for coastal protection
structures, the Dutch have made good use of asphalt to protect the slopes of earthen dikes.
VI-4-29
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(b) Jetties and Breakwaters. In the United States asphalt is used only as a binder or
filler for rubble-mound structures, or as part of the crest roadway.
(c) Revetments. Asphalt can be used to bind revetment riprap together to form a
stronger, impermeable armor layer. When wave action is slight, an asphalt layer alone is
adequate to protect the revetment slope.
(d) Roadways and Slope Protection. Bituminous concrete is used extensively for road
construction and surfaces supporting vehicular traffic, such as surfaces on wharfs and quays.
Asphalt may be suitable for protecting eroding mild slopes against erosion or for lining drainage
ponds and ditches.
b. Physical and mechanical properties of concrete. Portland cement concrete exists in a

semi-liquid state while being mixed, transported, and placed into forms. The concrete then
undergoes irreversible hardening into a durable form having excellent compressive strength
properties and resistance to the harsh coastal environment. The materials used to manufacture
concrete are reasonably inexpensive and exist in relative abundance throughout the world.
Concrete has two main ingredients: aggregates, which comprise between 60 and 80 percent of
the concrete volume; and paste, which makes up most of the remaining volume. Coarse
aggregates (e.g., gravel) have diameters greater than 6 mm, whereas fine aggregates (e.g., sand)
have diameters usually much less than 6 mm. The relative proportions of fine and coarse
aggregates help determine concrete properties. Cement paste is portland cement and water mixed
in proportions that relate directly to strength. Entrained air or special additives may occupy up to
8 percent of the volume of a concrete mixture. Aggregates should be hard, nonporous materials;
and the water used in mixing should be reasonably clean and nearly free of silts or harmful
chemicals, such as sulfates and alkalies. Seawater can be used if no freshwater source is
available and no steel reinforcement is used in the concrete. However, concrete made with
seawater has less strength than equivalent concrete made with fresh water. Several important
concrete properties are listed below. Generally, the design engineer will not specify concrete
mixture proportions, additives, etc.; but instead will request certain properties and minimum
strengths, and the contractor will provide an appropriate concrete. Field tests and tests on sample
cylinders are used to verify concrete compliance with specifications.
(1) Strength. Concrete strength is based on its capability to withstand compressive

stresses. Concrete has only minor resistance to tensile stress (ranging between 7 and 10 percent
of the compressive strength), and any structural member subjected to bending moments must
contain steel reinforcement to resist tensile stresses. Usually the steel reinforcement is designed
with the assumption that the concrete will not carry any of the applied tensile load. What little
tensile strength concrete has is useful in reducing cracks that form due to shrinkage. For a
particular type of portland cement, concrete strength is largely determined by the ratio of water
to cement (by weight) used in mixing. Generally, concrete strength increases as water content
decreases. Variations in strength for a given water-to-cement mixture are caused by aggregate
properties such as maximum size, grading, shape, and strength; by entrained air content; and by
types of concrete additives (called admixtures). Compressive strength is best determined by
testing sample cylinders of the proposed concrete mixture, and most experienced concrete
suppliers can provide accurate test results for their standard concrete mixtures. Five types of
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Portland cement are available for use in coastal projects. They have the following general
characteristics, as specified by ASTM Standard C-150 (ASTM C-150 1994). Other, more exotic
types of concrete are available for specialized purposes.
(a) Type I. Cement used for ordinary structural concrete for foundations, roads, and
foundations not subject to freezing/thawing conditions or marine exposure. Type IA concrete
specifies air entrainment for freezing conditions.
(b) Type II. Mild sulphate-resisting cement that can be used in nonfreezing marine
environments. Not as durable as Type V cement in seawater. Air entrainment in Type IIA
concrete helps it tolerate freezing conditions.
(c) Type III. This cement provides high strength earlier in the curing process. After 7
days, Type III concrete reaches the same strength as Type I after 28 days. Type III should NOT
be used for marine construction.
(d) Type IV. Provides low heat of hydration for use in structures such as dams or where
heat buildup is undesirable.
(e) Type V. This cement has the greatest resistance to sulfates and should be used in all
marine environments. Air entrainment is essential in freezing environments.
Typical compressive strengths of the above five types of concrete are shown on Table VI-4-6.
Use of the tabulated values should be limited to preliminary design calculations, because actual
strengths will vary greatly with materials, proportions, and curing conditions.
Table VI-4-6
Typical Compressive Strengths of Concrete (from CRC (1976))
Compressive Strength in MPa (lb/in.2)
ASTM Type 7 days 28 days 3 months 1 year 5 years
I 20.7 29.6 35.2 37.9 39.3
1
(3000) (4300) (5100) (5500) (5700)
II 17.9 29.0 35.8 40.7 44.1
(2600) (4200) (5200) (5900) (6400)
III 26.2 32.4 35.2 37.2 37.9
(3800) (4700) (5100) (5400) (5500)
IV 10.3 24.1 35.8 41.4 44.8
(1500) (3500) (5200) (6000) (6500)
V 17.2 28.3 36.5 42.1 46.2
(2500) (4100) (5300) (6100) (6700)
1 2
Note that values in parentheses are of lb/in.
As mentioned, water content in concrete mixtures is an important factor in concrete compressive

strength. Table VI-4-7 presents the American Concrete Institute’s (ACI 1986) suggested
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maximum permissible water-to-cement ratios for concrete when strength data from field
experience or trial mixes are unavailable.
Table VI-4-7
Concrete Compressive Strength for Different Water-Cement Ratios (from Mehta (1991))
Compressive Strength
(at 28 days) Water-Cement Ratio (by weight)
2
(MPa) (lb/in. ) Non-Air-Entrained Concrete Air-Entrained Concrete
41.4 6,000 0.41 ------
34.5 5,000 0.48 0.40
27.6 4,000 0.57 0.48
20.7 3,000 0.68 0.59
13.8 2,000 0.82 0.74
Concrete modulus of elasticity Ec, used in calculating compressive stresses due to bending, can
be estimated by the following empirical formula (ACI 1986)
E c  33 ( wc )
3/ 2
( f c)1/ 2 English Units (VI-4-5)
where
wc = specific weight of concrete in lb/ft3 (must be in the range 90-150 lb/ft3)

fc = compressive strength of concrete in lb/in.2
Ec = modulus of elasticity in lb/in.2
A metric equivalent of this nonhomogeneous equation is
E cm  1392 ( wcm)
3/ 2
( f cm)1/ 2 SI Units (VI-4-6)
where
wcm = specific weight of concrete (must be in the range 14-24 kN/m3)

fcm = compressive strength of concrete in kPa
Ecm = modulus of elasticity in kPa
The modulus of elasticity for non-prestressed steel reinforcement is generally equal to

200,000 MPa (29,000,000 lb/sq in.). In addition to portland cement, there are compounds known
as blended hydraulic cements that are covered by the Standard Specification for Blended
Hydraulic Cements (ASTM C-595, 1997). Blended cements in commercial production in the
United States are Type IS, which contains 30 to 65 percent rapidly cooled, finely pulverized,
blast-furnace slag, and Type IP, which contains 15 to 30 percent fine pozzolan (Mehta 1991).
Blended cements have lower heat of hydration (resistance to thermal cracking), lower rate of
strength development, and better chemical resistance than ordinary portland cement. However,
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Mehta (1991) noted that these characteristics can be obtained by using ground granulated blast-
furnace slag or pozzolan as a mineral admixture into portland cement mixtures. Another
attraction of blended cements is lower cost.
(2) Durability. Durability is the capability of concrete to withstand the deteriorating

effects of the environment without loss of functionality. The primary factors causing
deterioration of concrete are weathering, chemical action, and wear.
(a) Damage by weathering is caused mainly by freeze/thaw cycles and by restrained

expansion and contraction due to wetting and drying and temperature changes. Weathering
resistance is better for air-entrained concrete because the air pockets relieve pressures developed
by expanding water. High-density concrete with low permeability also has better weathering
resistance.
(b) Chemical reactions between alkalies in cement and mineral constituents of concrete
aggregates can cause large-scale random cracking, excessive expansion, and formation of large
cracks. Concrete is also affected by acids, sulfates, chlorides, salt brine at high temperatures, and
hot distilled water. Steel reinforcement will rust if cracks in the covering concrete allow water
and oxygen to reach the steel. Steel corrosion is particularly problematic if exposed to salt water,
often causing spalling of the concrete and exposure of the reinforcement.
(c) Wearing away of concrete is caused primarily by flow cavitation, abrasion by

particles in flowing water, traffic, wind blasting, and floating ice impacts (Department of the
Interior 1975). Low pressure areas can develop on concrete exposed to high-velocity flows,
leading to cavitation erosion of the concrete surface. Even the highest strength concretes can
succumb to cavitation, and the only solution is to avoid abrupt transitions adjacent to rapid
flows.
Portions of concrete structures in proximity to active sand transport are susceptible to wear by
abrasion. Wind-blown sand can also erode concrete, but this process occurs slowly. Impacts by
floating ice, vessels, debris, or even waves can chip concrete surfaces, possibly weakening the
structure or exposing steel reinforcement. Wear resistance against abrasion and impacts increases
proportionally with compressive strength. Also, wear resistance increases with curing age up to
28 days, and special precautions may be needed to protect concrete while it is curing. Some
special situations might require protecting the concrete surface with a layer of a less erosive
material or a material more capable of absorbing impacts. Wear resistance is not appreciably
affected by hydrated lime or inert powdered admixtures up to 20 percent of the concrete volume
(La Londe and Janes 1961). Mehta (1991) provides a thorough overview of factors causing
deterioration of concrete in the marine environment.
(3) Consistency. Water content in wet concrete is a key factor in how well the concrete
flows when being poured into formwork. Other factors include aggregate angularity, size, and
texture. Increasing water content produces concrete that flows easier and is less likely to leave
voids in the concrete. However, the ease of handling is offset by reduced compressive strength
and the potential for aggregate segregation during placement. Concrete consistency is judged by
its “slump.” Wet concrete is placed in a special container which is then upturned and removed,
leaving a free-standing mass of concrete. Slump is the vertical distance between the original
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height of the container and the final resting height of the concrete pile. Large slump values corre-
spond to wetter concrete mixtures and larger aggregates. The American Concrete Association
recommends the minimum and maximum slump values shown in Table VI-4-8.
Table VI-4-8
Recommended Concrete Slump for Various Types of Construction (from Mehta (1991))
Slump
Maximum Minimum
Types of Construction (cm) (in.) (cm) (in.)
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 7.6 3 2.5 1
Plain footings, caissons, and substructure walls 7.6 3 2.5 1
Beams and reinforced walls 10.2 4 2.5 1
Building columns 10.2 4 2.5 1
Pavements and slabs 7.6 3 2.5 1
Mass concrete 5.1 2 2.5 1
(4) Workability. Concrete “workability” is a qualitative term used to describe a mixture’s

capability to be handled, transported, placed, and properly finished without any harmful
segregation of the aggregates. Concrete plasticity and uniformity have much influence on the
functionality and appearance of the finished structural component. The type of structure and
concrete placement requirements determine to some extent what workability is needed. Heavily
reinforced structures require a mixture that will totally encase the reinforcement when worked
using conventional techniques (e.g., vibrated). Workability is influenced by properties of the
aggregate (grading, shape, proportions), amount of cement, entrained air, admixtures, and
consistency (Moffatt and Nichol 1983). Practical field experience is paramount in judging
concrete workability.
(5) Watertightness. As concrete cures, small voids are created by water evaporation and
by shrinkage of the cement paste. Additional cavities are present in air-entrained concretes.
These tiny voids may be sufficiently interlinked to allow water to pass through under capillary
action or hydrostatic pressure. Concrete can be made to be virtually impervious by exercising
care in mixing and placement. Aggregates must be nonporous and surrounded by impervious
cement paste, and the mixture must have a low water-to-cement ratio and have no purposely
entrained air. During placement, the concrete should be worked thoroughly to eliminate any
pockets of entrapped air. Care should be taken to avoid contaminating the concrete with foreign
matter such as dirt clods, dry leaves, or discarded trash. Concrete becomes more impervious if it
cures at a slow rate. Normal concrete should be kept moist for at least 7 days, and
high-early-strength concrete should be wetted for at least 3 days to assure watertightness
(La Londe and Janes 1961). Admixtures are available to enhance structure watertightness.
(6) Specific weight. The specific weight of typical concrete mixtures varies between
22-25 kN/m3 (140-160 lb/ft3). Reinforced concrete has a nominal specific weight of 23.6 kN/m3
(150 lb/ft3), stone concrete is 22 kN/m3 (140 lb/ft3), and cinder concrete is about 15.7 kN/m3
(100 lb/ft3). Specific weights of concretes made with lightweight aggregates depend on the
weight and proportion of lightweight aggregate. Table VI-4-9 (Department of the Interior 1975)
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
shows average specific weights of normal fresh concrete for given water content and aggregate
size and specific gravity. English units are provided in the top table, and metric equivalents
(direct conversion of English unit values) are provided on the lower table.
Table VI-4-9
Average Unit Weight of Fresh Concrete (from Department of the Interior (1975))
Aggregate Specific Gravity Unit
Average Values Weight
Air
Maximum Content Water Cement
Aggregate Size (%) Content Content 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75
3
Unit Weight in lb/ft
0.75 (in.) 6.0 283 (lb/yd3) 566 (lb/yd3) 137 139 141 143 145
3 3
1.5 (in.) 4.5 245 (lb/yd ) 490 (lb/yd ) 141 143 146 148 150
3 3
3.0 (in.) 3.5 204 (lb/yd ) 408 (lb/yd ) 144 147 149 152 154
3 3
6.0 (in.) 3.0 164 (lb/yd ) 282 (lb/yd ) 147 149 152 154 157
3
Unit Weight in kN/m
20 (mm) 6.0 1.65 (kN/m3) 3.29 (kN/m3) 21.5 21.8 22.2 22.5 22.8
40 (mm) 4.5 1.43 (kN/m3) 2.85 (kN/m3) 22.2 22.5 22.9 23.3 23.6
75 (mm) 3.5 1.19 (kN/m3) 2.37 (kN/m3) 22.6 23.1 23.4 23.9 24.2
150 (mm) 3.0 0.95 (kN/m3) 1.64 (kN/m3) 23.1 23.4 23.9 24.2 24.7
(7) Volume change. Concrete shrinks as it cures and hardens, and it also expands and
contracts with temperature and moisture content. Generally, expansion is not too serious a
problem because it induces compressive stresses. However, overall expansion must be
considered for structural components like constrained slender beams and slabs, which could
buckle unless some allowance is made for excessive expansion. Contraction of concrete is a
more serious problem because of the material’s low tolerance of tensile stresses. Contraction
cracks form in the surface, allowing water to penetrate the concrete. If water between the cracks
freezes, the cracks are enlarged and damage occurs. Steel reinforcement helps distribute the
concrete contraction more uniformly, resulting in smaller cracks. Most shrinkage occurs as new
concrete cures because of the large amount of water in the paste. Shrinkage increases with
increases in initial water content and entrained air and with compressibility of the aggregates. A
1-percent increase in water quantity increases shrinkage by 2 percent (La Londe and Janes
1961). Shrinkage that occurs in average concrete while curing to complete dryness is about
equivalent to the shrinkage that would occur due to a temperature drop of 56C (100F).
c. Physical and mechanical properties of asphalt. Combining asphalt cement with

various types of aggregates in different proportions can produce a wide range of bituminous
concretes exhibiting different characteristics. This versatility makes Aasphalt@ a useful
construction material for coastal projects. Usually, the aggregates used in bituminous concrete
are durable, so the physical properties of the mixture stem largely from the properties of the
asphalt cement. Asphalt is not affected by most chemicals, with the notable exception of other
VI-4-35
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
petroleum-based products that can act as solvents. The flexibility of asphalt allows bituminous
concrete to conform to uneven surfaces and to adjust to differential movements. Asphalt
mixtures can be made to be porous or impervious when placed. Impervious mixtures are often
used to line drainage ditches or to waterproof structures. Asphalt mixtures have both plastic and
elastic properties that are mainly a function of temperature. Asphalt mixes must be designed to
achieve project objectives at an economical cost. Some of the factors considered when blending
asphalt and aggregates include the following:
(1) There must be sufficient quantities of asphalt cement to ensure mixture durability
under design load conditions.
(2) Proper type and size distribution of aggregates is needed to ensure a bituminous
concrete that can tolerate loads without excessive deformation.
(3) Sufficient voids in the mixture are necessary to allow for a slight amount of
additional compaction without loss of stability and without loss of impermeability.
(4) Good workability of the initial heated mixture allows easy placement of the asphalt
compound without segregation of the aggregates.
Moffatt and Nichol (1983) provide additional descriptions of bituminous concrete and asphaltic
compounds. Specific design guidance for various types of asphalt mixtures can be found in
publications from the Asphalt Institute or from local asphalt contractors.
d. Concrete construction practices. An important and essential reference for the design
and construction of concrete structures is the American Concrete Institute’s Manual of Concrete
Practice (ACI 1986), which is revised annually. Standard ACI 318 in the ACI manual provides
building code requirements, along with a detailed commentary on code provisions.
(1) Transport and placement. Concrete can be mixed onsite or batched offsite and
transported to the site by a number of different means including revolving drum trucks, barges,
rail cars, conveyor belts, and pipelines. In all cases the objective is deliver the mix to the site
without significantly altering the concrete’s water-cement ratio, slump, air content, and
distribution of aggregates.
(a) Concrete placement should strive to achieve the same objectives as stated above for
transportation, and handling equipment should be chosen accordingly. Transport and placing
capacity must allow the concrete to be kept plastic and free of cold joints while it is being placed
in forms. Horizontal layers should not exceed 0.6 m (2 ft) in depth; and for monolithic structures,
successive layers should be placed while the underlayer can still be vibrated to join the layers
together, thus avoiding cold joints. When possible, concrete should be placed directly into the
forms with minimum lateral movement, as the lateral movement tends to segregate the
aggregates. Placement on sloping surfaces should begin at the toe and proceed upslope.
(b) Placement techniques should avoid high-velocity discharge or long drops, both of
which contribute to aggregate segregation. Requests for addition of water to assist concrete flow
down the chute should not be routinely granted without an assessment of how the concrete
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
strength will be affected. Water should not be added to concrete that retains good workability
and can be properly consolidated in place. Concrete with slump in excess of specifications
should be rejected by the supervising engineer. Contractors should provide handling equipment
sufficient to place concrete of specified consistency.
(c) Consolidation by screeding and vibrating removes air bubbles that are entrapped
during placement. Vibrating also provides a more uniform distribution of solids and water in the
concrete. (However, it is possible to over-vibrate concrete, which could result in a less
homogeneous mixture.)
(d) Floor surfaces are more durable if steel troweling machines are used to finish the
concrete as it sets. Troweling produces a low-maintenance, dense surface layer free of surface
voids. Good vibrating adjacent to forms helps assure reasonably smooth surface finishes for
nonhorizontal surfaces.
(2) Curing and formwork removal.
(a) Proper curing is essential for concrete to reach its design strength. Rapid loss of
moisture must be prevented because water is needed for cement hydration, and the temperature
should be controlled to assure the concrete attains its mature strength. In above-freezing
conditions, water can be ponded on horizontal surfaces, and structural members such as columns
can be covered with wet burlap or kept under constant “misting” with water. Where ambient
temperatures are below freezing, fresh concrete must be protected from freezing with insulating
blankets and cured with steam or electrically heated forms or infrared lamps (Mehta 1991). An
alternate method is to raise the temperature of the mixture by heating the water and aggregates.
Seawater should not be used to cure reinforced concrete; however, high-strength concrete can be
exposed to seawater after 3 days of curing because by this time it is considered impermeable.
(b) Formwork should not be removed until the concrete has cured sufficiently to support
the dead load and any live load that may be imposed during subsequent construction. To prevent
damage to the surface, formwork should have been properly oiled or treated, and the concrete
should be hard before forms are removed. Form removal may expose warm concrete to chilly
winds that may cause cracks to form as contraction occurs.
(3) Reinforcement cover thickness. The Manual of Concrete Practice (ACI 1986)
specifies minimum cover thicknesses for conventional and prestressed concrete structural
elements. For coastal and offshore structures, steel reinforcing bars should have a minimum
concrete cover of 50 mm (2 in.) for portions submerged or exposed to the atmosphere. The cover
should be increased to 65 mm (2.5 in.) for portions of the structure in the splash zone or exposed
to salt spray. Submerged prestressed members should have 75 mm (3 in.) of minimum cover, and
90 mm (3.5 in.) of cover in the splash zone. Stirrups may have 13 mm (0.5 in.) less cover than
the minimums for reinforcement.
(4) Joints and sealants. Most concrete structural elements contain construction joints to
compensate for volume changes, to allow for construction sequence, or to serve some other
design purpose.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(a) Contraction Joints are control joints used to control the amount of cracking that
occurs during contraction of the concrete. They are most commonly used to subdivide large, thin
members like slabs into smaller units. The intent is for cracking to occur at the joint which can
later be sealed with a flexible sealant.
(b) Expansion Joints are placed between concrete members to allow for expansion, thus
avoiding crushing, buckling, or warping of slender members. Expansion joints also serve to
isolate adjacent members so loads are not transferred between structural components, allowing
differential movement between members. The joint is typically a clear space between member
cross sections with keyways or dowels sometimes used to prevent lateral displacements of
components. The joint can be sealed with a flexible sealant.
(c) Construction Joints are predetermined discontinuities in concrete to facilitate

construction sequence. They can resemble either expansion or contraction joints. When
continuous structural integrity is required, reinforcement is carried through the joint and efforts
are made to bond adjacent components at the joint. Sealing of joints, particularly contraction
joints, may be necessary to prevent water from entering the concrete and causing deterioration.
In other cases, joint sealing is necessary to help retain backfill soil, contain a liquid, or prevent
ice from forming in the joint. A variety of sealants are available for use in joints and cracks.
These include sand grout, epoxies, oil-based mastics, bituminous compounds, metallic materials,
thermoplastics, and others. Moffatt and Nichol (1983) give an overview of common sealants and
their properties.
(5) Repairs. Post-construction repairs may be needed to seal curing cracks that are
excessively wide or to repair damage incurred during form removal. Cracks can be filled with an
appropriate epoxy, and surface voids left by entrapped air can be filled using concrete grout or
mortar. Repair of deteriorating concrete structures is covered in Part VI-8, “Monitoring,
Maintenance, and Repair of Coastal Projects.”
e. Concrete for armor units. A unique application of concrete in coastal structures is

artificial armor units placed as protection on rubble-mound structures in lieu of stone. Concrete
armor units are cast in a variety of sizes and shapes (see Part VI-2-3, “Main Types of Armor
Units.” Because concrete armor units are usually unreinforced, they become vulnerable to
tension breakage above a certain size, depending on type of unit (slender versus bulky) and other
parameters. Steel reinforcement has been used in the past, but the cost of reinforcement is high.
Large, slender, unreinforced concrete armor units have low reserve strength in tension beyond
simply supporting their own self-weight, and any movement of placed units could cause
breakage. Consequently, engineers strive to design the armor unit layer for no movement of the
units after placement. High-strength concrete helps lower the risk of breakage, and methods are
now available to access stress probabilities in terms of concrete strength (see Part VI-5-3-c,
“Structural Integrity of Concrete Armor Units.” Special precautions should be followed to ensure
uniform, high-quality concrete is used in casting concrete armor units. The concrete should be
properly vibrated to remove all voids which could substantially weaken the armor unit. Units
must be cured properly before placing them on the armor layer. In particular, it is important to
avoid formation of thermal cracks due to rapid curing. Any means to reduce high temperature
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
gradients in the curing concrete will help reduce crack formation. Special equipment will be
needed to handle, transport, and place the armor units.
f. Environmental effects on concrete and asphalt.
(1) Pollutants. Some pollutants may contain chemicals (sulfates and acids) in sufficient
quantities to damage concrete. The chemicals must be in solution form to do harm. Naturally
occurring sulfates may be present in soil or dissolved in groundwater adjacent to concrete
structures. In general, concrete is not significantly affected by most pollutants found in the
coastal zone. Bituminous asphalt is resistant to most chemicals with the exception of petroleum
solvents, which can cause deterioration of the asphalt.
(2) Water penetration. Water itself is not harmful to concrete, but it may carry sulfates or
acids in solution that can have a detrimental effect. Salt water that penetrates to steel
reinforcement causes the steel to corrode, weakening the structure. Also, the products of
corrosion can expand and cause spalling. Periodic wetting and drying may cause cracks to form.
Asphalt is usually considered to be impermeable and resistant to water penetration.
(3) Waves and currents. Concrete structures designed under correct loading assumptions
will not be affected by waves and currents. High flow velocities at abrupt transitions may cause
flow cavitation, which can lead to deterioration of the concrete surface. Asphalt is not affected
by waves and currents unless the waves are large enough to damage the asphalt layer directly or
carry floating bodies that impact the asphalt.
(4) Ice and temperature changes. Ice can damage concrete structures in two ways. Water
that freezes in cracks will enlarge the cracks and eventually damage the concrete through
spalling or outright fracturing. Impacts by floating ice or stresses induced by ice riding up on a
structure can also damage concrete. Temperature changes cause expansion and contraction, but
these effects are countered by proper design. Temperature control is a critical aspect of the
curing process in order to obtain specified strength. Exposure of asphalt to temperatures above
163C causes solvents to dissipate, resulting in deterioration. Ice does not cause problems with
asphalt other than damage caused by floating ice. However, cold temperatures cause asphalt to
become brittle.
(5) Marine organisms. Concrete is one of the toughest materials used in coastal
construction and has no food value for marine organisms. Neither marine organisms nor larger
land animals have any effect on good concrete made with strong aggregates. Barnacles and
marine plants can attach to concrete surfaces, but they have little effect outside of causing
additional drag resistance to flows. The softness of bituminous asphalt makes it susceptible to
damage from crustaceous organisms; but because asphalt is petroleum-based, it has no attraction
for other animals.
(6) Abrasion. Hard particles carried by wind and water can wear down concrete surfaces
over time, but this process is so slow that it usually is inconsequential over the life of the
structure. Bituminous asphalt resists wearing by small waterborne particles quite well; however,
impacts by larger particles can cause damage.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(7) Seismic activity. Accelerations from earthquakes can be detrimental to concrete
structures through direct inducement of stresses in the structure or through differential settlement
caused by foundation damage. The Manual of Concrete Practice (ACI 1986) describes special
provisions for the design of earthquake- resistant structures. The plasticity of asphalt allows it to
flex and deform with earthquake motions rather than resisting through a rigid structure. This
flexibility helps reduce damage to the asphalt project elements.
(8) Other effects. Concrete is not affected by sunlight, and it has good resistance to fire
or extremely high temperatures. Human activity has little effect on the performance of concrete
structures, and concrete is difficult to damage through vandalism. However, coastal structures
provide ample canvas for graffiti artists, which may cause noticeable visual pollution. Fire is a
real hazard for bituminous asphalt because it is petroleum-based. Usually there is not enough
solvent in the asphalt binder to sustain fire; but in the presence of other combustible materials,
asphalt will burn.
VI-4-5. Steel and Other Metals.
a. Use of metal in coastal construction. Many components of coastal projects are well-
suited for fabrication using common metals. Construction requirements such as strength,
availability, ease of construction, durability, and adaptability can often be met with metals such
as steel, aluminum, copper, or various metal alloys. Consideration should be given to the
economic benefits of yard fabrication of structural components as opposed to site fabrication.
(1) Steel.
(a) Steel has been used in marine construction since the late 1800s. Perhaps the most
common use of steel is as concrete reinforcement in such structures as caissons, seawalls and
bulkheads, paved working surfaces and roadways, and pretensioned piles. Steel reinforcement
should be placed to provide adequate concrete coverage to protect it from the corrosive effects of
water. (see Part VI-4-4-d-(3), “Reinforcement Cover Thickness”).
(b) Another important marine application of steel is pilings. Pipe piles and H-piles are
used to support foundations or as supports for coastal structures or fendering systems. Steel
H-piles can be driven into hard strata or through soils containing obstructions such as rocks.
Site-welding steel H-piles end to end allows deep penetration through soft soils down to
bedrock. Pilings are sometimes encased in concrete to prevent corrosion. Steel sheet piles are
used extensively in port and harbor facilities to construct seawalls and wharfs.
(c) Conventional steel framing is used for building construction in the marine
environment in the same manner as inland; however, more attention is given to preventing
corrosion. Steel is also used for fabricating specialty components such as fendering and mooring
system components, structural framework, supports for navigation aids, chains, flow control
gates, and storm surge barriers. Steel wire is used to construct wire cages for gabions and
chain-link fencing. Steel bolts, plates, and fasteners are used to connect structure components of
similar or different materials. Steel rods are used as bracing and as vertical retaining wall
tiebacks. Steel wire rope is used to lash batter piles and for other purposes.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(d) In special applications, high-strength steel may be specified; but the cost will be
greater, and there may be restrictions regarding onsite modification with cutting torches, which
could weaken the steel. Drilling holes will also be more difficult. Stainless steel is not used in
great quantities, but it is an important material for components that are openly exposed to salt
water and must remain free of corrosion. Cast iron is used to fabricate special shapes such as
mooring bollards.
(2) Aluminum alloys. Many aluminum alloys are resistant to corrosion, which makes
them ideally suited for low-maintenance applications in exposed coastal regions. These
applications include door and window frames in buildings, building roofing and siding, tread
plates, decking, catwalks, railings, support framework, and architectural trim such as gutters and
downpipes, facia, etc. Aluminum fasteners can be used in corrosive environments, but
consideration must be given to aluminum’s reduced strength capacity and fatigue characteristics
when compared to steel. Aluminum alloys are also used as electrical conductors and in
constructing specialty components, where light weight is an important criterion.
(3) Other metals and metal alloys. Other metals and alloys are used to a much lesser
extent in coastal construction. Copper is used in electrical wiring and buses and for piping and
sheathing. Because of its relatively noncorrosive nature, brass (copper and zinc) is used for
hardware fittings and fasteners and often as survey monument marker plates. More exotic metals
and alloys, such as monel (nickel-copper) and titanium are found only in project components that
require the unique capabilities offered by these materials.
b. Physical and mechanical properties of metals. Much of the versatility of metals stems
from their strength, durability, “workability,” and competitive cost. Metals have a crystalline
structure that results in a very homogeneous material with consistent strength properties
throughout. During manufacture, metal can be formed into a variety of shapes and sizes, and a
wide assortment of metal “stock” is available for design. Depending on the metal, its
manufacture, and its shape, metal properties vary from rigid to flexible, ductile to brittle, soft to
hard, and weak to strong. Undoubtedly, metals offer numerous options as design materials.
(1) Steel. Steel is the most commonly used metal, and it is available in a wide assortment
of grades and sizes. Steel is an ideal material for construction because is can be easily joined, has
high tensile strength, good ductility, and good toughness. Physical and mechanical properties of
steel are well-documented in material handbooks, standards from the ASTM, and the Manual of
Steel Construction (AISC 1980). Table VI-4-10, is an abbreviated list of steel specifications used
in the United States along with typical applications for each grade of steel. Each ASTM
specification sets out manufacturing guidelines such as steel ingredients and quantities,
manufacturing processes, quality control, etc. Other countries may have similar steel
specifications or have adopted those of the ASTM.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Table VI-4-10
Specifications and Applications for Steel Suitable for Marine Service (from Moffatt and Nichol
(1983))
ASTM
Title of Standard Application
Designation
A36-93a Standard specification for structural Bridges, bulkheads, general structures.
steel.
A252-93 Standard specification for welded and Structures, forms for cast-in-place
seamless steel pipe piles. concrete piles.
A328-93 Standard specification for steel Sheetpiling, dock walls, and
sheetpiling. cofferdams.
A573-93 Standard specification for structural Steel plates and sheetpiling.
carbon steel plates of improved
toughness.
A690-93 Standard specification for high- Dock walls, seawalls, bulkheads;
strength, low-alloy steel H-piles and providing 2 to 3 times greater resistance
sheetpiling for use in marine to seawater splash zone than ordinary
environments. carbon steel.
A709-93a Standard specification for structural Carbon and high-strength, low-alloy
steel for bridges. steel plates and sheets.
(2) Aluminum alloys. Pure aluminum is soft and ductile and does not have sufficient
strength for most commercial applications. Other metal elements are added to aluminum to
create alloys having a variety of physical properties. Many alloys of aluminum have high
corrosion resistance to marine atmosphere as well as good strength-to-weight ratios. Aluminum
alloys are identified by numbers that are grouped together according to alloy components and
manufacturing process.
(a) 1000 Series. This series contains alloys that contain at least 99 percent aluminum.
These alloys have high thermal and electrical conductivity, excellent corrosion resistance and
workability, but they have the lowest structural strength. These alloys can only be hardened by
cold working. Aluminum alloy 1350 is used for electrical wiring.
(b) 2000 Series. This group contains alloys in which copper is the major alloying
element. These alloys have less corrosion resistance than most other aluminum alloys.
(c) 3000 Series. Alloys in which manganese is the major alloying element are in this
series. These alloys generally cannot be heat-treated, but they can be hardened by cold working.
Roofing and siding are usually 3004 aluminum.
(d) 4000 Series. This group contains alloys in which silicon is the major alloying
element. These alloys have a lower melting point, and thus they are used in welding and brazing
wire to weld other aluminum alloys.
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(e) 5000 Series. This series contains alloys in which magnesium is the major alloying
element. These alloys have moderate to high strength, good corrosion resistance in marine
environments, and good welding characteristics.
(f) 6000 Series. Aluminum alloys containing silicon and magnesium in about equal
proportion comprise this group. These alloys are heat-treatable, have medium strength, and have
good corrosion resistance. Windows, door frames, and lampposts are usually 6063 aluminum.
Tread plate is usually heat-treated 6061 aluminum.
(g) 7000 Series. This group contains alloys in which zinc is the major alloying element.
These are heat-treatable alloys that have very high strength.
Aluminum alloys 5083, 5086, 5052, and 6061 are commonly used in marine environments.
Although the 5000 series has best corrosion resistance, alloys from the 1000, 3000, and 6000
series are also used in coastal applications. Aluminum alloys can be used in the splash zone, but
they are not recommended for continuous immersion. In addition to the numerical series
specification, aluminum alloy designations also have a letter indicating the method of tempering.
(3) Other metals and metal alloys. Copper has high electrical and thermal conductivity,
excellent corrosion resistance under normal atmospheric conditions, and it has good workability.
Copper can be alloyed with other metals to improve strength, and to provide better corrosion and
creep resistance. Well- known copper alloys include brass and monel. Best corrosion resistance
in seawater comes from copper alloys that form thin corrosion films that protect the metal from
further corrosion, even in flowing water. Metals and metal alloys other than those mentioned
above are not commonly used in coastal engineering projects, but may appear in special
applications.
(4) Galvanic reactions. When two dissimilar metals in electrical contact are placed in salt
water, an electric potential is established and a process occurs that is referred to as “galvanic
corrosion.” The more galvanically active metal (anode) will corrode at a faster rate than it would
by itself. The more noble metal of the pair (cathode) is protected from corrosion by the galvanic
coupling. Table VI-4-11 lists common metals and alloys in a “galvanic series” for flowing
seawater at ambient temperature. In the table, the most active metal is at the top and the entries
are in decreasing order to the least active metal at the bottom. If two dissimilar metals must come
in contract, several steps can be taken to reduce galvanic corrosion: (a) choose metals close
together in Table VI-4-11; (b) electrically insulate the two metals at the point of contact; (c) coat
the anode metal (higher in the galvanic series); and (d) place a more active third metal in
electrical contact with the other two metals to provide cathodic protection via a sacrificial anode.
Zinc is commonly used for sacrificial anodes. Periodically inspecting and replacing sacrificial
anodes will extend the working life of components that have potential for galvanic corrosion.
c. Design values for structural metals. Industry adherence to uniform quality standards
in the manufacture of metals and metal alloys has led to reliable design values. Table VI-4-12
presents recommended allowable tensile strengths and yield strengths for some grades of steel,
aluminum, and other metals. Values for metals not listed in the table can usually be found in the
ASTM Standards or in design manuals prepared by industry associations. Most designs utilize
metal fabricated into standard cross sections, such as I-beams, H-beams, box sections, angles,
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pipe sections, etc. These “standard sections” have allowable design loads associated with
particular loading conditions. For example, unbraced slender columns will fail in buckling before
allowable compressive strength is exceeded. Design handbooks are available covering most of
the standard structural cross sections. For structural steel, the Manual of Steel Construction,
produced by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC (1980 or more recent edition))
is widely used by engineers in the United States.
Table VI-4-11
Galvanic Series in Flowing Seawater (2.4 TO 4.0 m/s) at Ambient Temperature (from Moffatt
and Nichol (1983))
Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminum alloys
Calcium
Carbon steel
Cast iron
Austenitic nickel cast iron
Copper - nickel alloys
Ferritin and mortensitic stainless steel (passive)
Nickel copper alloys, 400, K-500
Austenitic stainless steels (passive)
Alloy 20
Ni - Cr - Mo alloy C
Titanium
Graphite
Platinum
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Table VI-4-12
Tensile Stress Limits for Selected Metals and Alloys
Min. Yield Stress Tensile Strength
Name or ASTM Code Grade MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi)
Steel
A36 250 (36) 400-550 (58-80)
A252 1 205 (30) 345 (50)
2 240 (35) 414 (60)
3 310 (45) 455 (66)
A328 270 (39) 485 (70)
A573 58 220 (32) 400-490 (58-71)
65 240 (35) 450-530 (65-77)
70 290 (42) 485-620 (70-90)
A690 345 (50) 485 (70)
A709 36 250 (36) 400-550 (58-80)
50 345 (50) 450 (65)
50W 345 (50) 485 (70)
70W 485 (70) 620-760 (90-110)
100-100W 620-690 (90-100) 690-895 (100-130)
Aluminum Alloys
B209 3004-0 55 (8) 145-193 (21-28)
5052-0 65.5 (9.5) 172-214 (25-31)
5083-0 124 (18) 276-352 (40-51)
5086-0 97 (14) 241-304 (35-44)
6061-0 83 (12) 138 (20)
B241 6063-0 (18) (19)
Copper Alloys
Copper, B152, B124, B133 Annealed 69 (10) 221 (32)
Cold-drawn 276 (40) 310 (45)
Yellow Brass, B36, B134, B135 Annealed 124 (18) 331 (48)
Cold-drawn 379 (55) 483 (70)
Naval Brass, B21 Annealed 152 (22) 386 (56)
Cold-drawn 276 (40) 448 (65)
Alum. Bronze, B169, B124, B150 Annealed 172 (25) 483 (70)
Hard 448 (65) 724 (105)
Nickel Alloys
Cast Nickel As cast 172 (25) 393 (57)
A Nickel, B160, B161, B162 Annealed 138 (20) 483 (70)
Cold-drawn 483 (70) 655 (95)
K Monel Annealed 310 (45) 690 (100)
Spring 965 (140) 1034 (150)
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d. Metal protective treatments. Corrosion is the primary cause of steel deterioration in
the coastal zone. Other metals suffer corrosion to a lesser extent. If steel corrosion is allowed to
continue, structural steel will eventually weaken to a point where allowable stresses will be
exceeded and the structure may fail. Exposed steel must be covered with a protective coating;
and as the Navy is well aware, painting (and regular repainting) will help fight steel corrosion by
seawater and salt air. In extreme cases, a thick coating of tar may provide adequate protection.
Other protection methods include encasing the steel in concrete, such as in pier pilings;
protecting the steel with a plastic coating, such as used for chain-link fencing; and applying a
protective layer such as galvanizing or chrome plating. Abrasion by sand particles or vessel
contact will strip away protective metal coatings with time, necessitating field maintenance
where feasible or replacement in situations where the protective coating is factory-applied and
cannot be mended in the field. Aluminum alloys can be “anodized” to provide greater corrosion
resistance and some degree of galvanic protection when placed in contact with other metals.
Copper, brass, and some other metals and metal alloys provide their own corrosion protection by
forming a thin layer of corroded material. For example, brass will tarnish to a dull finish without
losing any structural functionality.
e. Metal fasteners and connections. Metal structural components are usually fitted
together in the factory or at the project site using a variety of methods including machine screws,
bolts and bolted connector plates, electric arc welding, and brazing.
(1) Rivets and Bolts.
(a) Advances in welding and high-strength bolts have lessened the use of riveting in steel
structure connections during the construction phase. However, riveting is an important option
during the manufacturing of structural components. The ASTM Standards (ASTM A-502
(1994)) provide guidelines for the use of steel structural rivets in fabrication. Riveting is more
common for joining aluminum structural components, particularly for heat-treated alloys, which
could be weakened by welding. Aluminum riveting requires less skill than welding and it is a
relatively fast method for making connections. Rivets are particularly useful for connecting
dissimilar metals.
(b) Bolts are typically used in construction when welding is impractical or when the
connections may need to be disassembled for maintenance or replacement. Less skill is needed to
make bolted connections than for welding. Common practice is to oversize bolts exposed to
corrosive marine environments to compensate for excessive corrosion. Bolts are made of carbon
structural steel or high strength steel. Resistance of high- strength bolts to atmospheric corrosion
is about twice that of carbon structural steel, which is an advantage in coastal construction.
Allowable stresses for standard and high-strength bolts are given in the Manual of Steel
Construction (AISC 1980) or other appropriate design manuals.
(2) Welding. Factory and onsite welding of metals is usually accomplished using either
gas welding or arc welding. Oxyacetylene is suitable for welding carbon and alloy steel, cast
iron, copper, nickel, aluminum, and zinc alloys. Hydrogen, methane, or propane gases are used
to weld metal with lower melting temperatures such as aluminum, magnesium, zinc, and lead.
Welding flux is needed for oxyacetylene welding of stainless steel, cast iron, and most
nonferrous metals. Arc welding provides strong connections for structural carbon steel; and for
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critical connections, welding quality can be checked using x-ray techniques. Underwater arc
welding is feasible, but not recommended except in emergency situations or for temporary
repairs. Underwater welds in mild steel develop about 80 percent of the strength of comparable
dry welds, but they are only half as ductile. Underwater welding surfaces must be free of marine
growth, rust, mill scale, and paint to assure high-quality welds.
f. Environmental effects on metal. Metals and metal alloys are very durable and stand
up reasonably well to the coastal environment. Most metals are unaffected by ultraviolet
radiation; however, sunlight may contribute to stress corrosion cracking in stainless steel.
Toughness of carbon steel and some steel alloys decreases as temperature decreases; and in
regions of extreme temperature change, design allowances for expansion and contraction must be
made. Although metal is fire-resistant, yield strength is reduced as temperature rises, which may
result in structure collapse.
(1) Abrasion. Metals can suffer abrasion by sand particles carried by water or wind.
Although loss of metal through abrasion will be minor, a more critical problem is stripping of
protective coatings or corrosion films down to bare metal, which then leads to rapid corrosion.
(2) Corrosion. Metal corrosion due to freshwater and saltwater exposure is a primary
concern in coastal designs. Corrosiveness of water is dependent on water acidity, electrical
conductivity, and most importantly, oxygen content. Fresh water polluted with acidic compounds
may be more corrosive to carbon steel than seawater. Salt ions in seawater cause localized
destruction of the protective oxide films (e.g., rust), thus reducing the corrosion resistance of the
metal. Corrosion rates for carbon steel exposed to the air at the shoreline are 10 times greater
than rates at locations 500 m inland from the shoreline. Pilings located in the splash zone can
achieve two to three times the corrosion resistance of carbon steel if they are fabricated of
high-copper-bearing, high-strength, low-alloy steel conforming to ASTM Standards (ASTM A-
690 (1994)).
(3) Marine fouling. Fouling of immersed metal by marine plants and animals increases
corrosion rates in some metals, such as carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. In addition,
marine growth may increase flow resistance, which induces greater loads on the structure.
Copper and copper-nickel alloys have the best resistance to biofouling, and brass and bronze
have good resistance. Biofouling can be decreased by application of antifouling paints. Metal
placed in contact with soil can suffer corrosion due to either anaerobic or aerobic bacteria in the
soil.
(4) Seismic effects. Properly designed metal structures can withstand seismic
accelerations with little damage. Structural steel is well-suited for seismic designs because of its
high tensile strength, good ductility, and consistent yield stress properties when loaded in
tension, shear, and compression.
VI-4-6. Wood.
a. Use of wood in coastal construction. Wood can be used in coastal projects such as
seawalls, revetments, bulkheads, piers, wharfs, sand fences, and floating platforms. Wood is also
used for temporary constructions such as formwork, bracing, blocking, etc.
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(1) Untreated lumber. Stock untreated lumber is typically used only during project
construction or when the wooden components are expected to survive for only a few months.
Typical short-term applications include concrete formwork, temporary bracing, machinery
supports, and dunnage. Untreated lumber can be used as a permanent part of a project provided it
is protected by a covering (e.g., interior framework) or painted and maintained for the life of the
project. However, untreated wood will rapidly decay if it comes into direct contact with soil or
seawater.
(2) Treated lumber. Stock treated lumber is used in situations where the wood comes into
direct contact with the ground or water. Contact with soil leads to rot, fungus, or insect attack. A
typical wood pressure treatment consists of chromated copper arsenate, but local project
conditions and intended application may dictate a different treatment to prolong project life.
Lumber submerged or periodically immersed in seawater should be pressure-treated with
coal-tar creosote or a similar protective treatment.
(3) Piles and poles. Wood piles are frequently used in coastal construction in applications
such as pile dolphins (clusters of wood piles lashed together), guide piles for floating structures,
piles for channel markers, pile-supported seawalls and bulkheads, building foundations, piers,
wharfs, fendering systems, trestles, jetties, and groins. Practically all wood piles are pressure-
treated with coal-tar creosote to resist insects, marine borers, limnoria, rot, and fungus. Untreated
wood piles are used only as temporary supports or to carry electric power and communication
lines to the project site.
(4) Beams and stringers. Treated lumber beams and stringers are used to build load-
bearing structures such as groins, bulkheads, jetties, pier decks, wharfs, bracing, and other
structures related to shipborne commerce. Untreated beams are used only as support members
within protected areas (e.g., buildings), when protected by paint, or as temporary support
members.
(5) Plywood and laminated wood.
(a) Practically all plywood used in coastal projects is designed to withstand the effects of
humidity and water immersion. Wet-use plywood can be used as building flooring and sheathing,
wood-frame gusset plates, concrete forms, and sign boards. Special plywood treatment is needed
in extreme conditions like saltwater immersion.
(b) Glued laminated wood provides stronger load-bearing structural members because of
better quality control and ability to size members to a specific need. Laminated structural
members may be suitable as columns, beams, and trusses, particularly in larger sizes and lengths
that are difficult to find in stock lumber. Laminating glue must be waterproof and the wood must
be treated with preservatives except in protected or sheltered applications.
b. Physical and mechanical properties of wood. Trees are classified either as hardwoods
or softwoods. Hardwoods are typically broad-leafed trees which shed their leaves in the fall;
whereas most softwoods are evergreens, which have needles or scale-like leaves. The physical
and mechanical properties of wood vary significantly between different tree species. Solid wood
substance has a specific gravity of about 1.5 regardless of species. However, part of the volume
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of dry wood consists of air-filled cavities, giving variation to the density of wood construction
materials. In general, wood strength increases with density. The Timber Construction Manual
(AITC 1985) provides tables listing unit weight and specific gravity for commercial lumber
species at different moisture contents.
(1) Directional strength characteristics. Mechanical properties of wood are specified

according to three principal axes: (a) longitudinal axis (parallel to the grain), (b) tangential axis
(perpendicular to the grain and tangential to the growth rings), and (c) radial axis (perpendicular
to the grain and growth rings). For design purposes, stresses are usually determined parallel to
and perpendicular to the grain because there is little difference between tangential and radial
stress properties.
(2) Loading configurations. Because wood strength differs along each of its three
principal axes, structural design of load-bearing members must consider grain orientation when
determining appropriate member dimensions necessary to resist the applied loads. Wood has the
greatest strength when loaded so as to produce tension or compression parallel to the grain. The
following stress conditions are likely to occur in wood structures:
(a) Tension and compression parallel to grain. Wood structures are commonly designed
so the primary force loadings produce tension or compression parallel to the wood grain in
structural members. Columns, piles, struts, and beams typically have the grain parallel to the
longest dimension. The strength capacity will be reduced if the load is applied at an angle to the
grain or if knots are present in the wood.
(b) Tension and compression perpendicular to grain. Wood has the least strength in
resisting loads that induce tension stresses perpendicular to the wood grain. This type of loading
should be avoided for all load-bearing members. Compression forces perpendicular to the wood
grain tend to compress the wood at the surface, but generally this can be tolerated provided the
displacement of adjoining members does not cause difficulties.
(c) Shear parallel to grain. Wood has the capacity to resist shearing forces parallel to the
wood grain, but this capacity is greatly reduced by shakes, checks, and splits that may occur in
wood members as they dry. Consequently, allowable shear stress design limits are reduced to
compensate for the likelihood of imperfections in the wood.
(d) Shear perpendicular to grain. Solid wood components can withstand substantial shear
stresses when loads are applied perpendicular to the grain. In most loading configurations, safe
stress limits will be exceeded by compression perpendicular to the grain well before shear
perpendicular to the grain becomes critical.
(3) Temperature and moisture effects. Wood does expand and contract with changes in
temperature, but in most cases this expansion is not sufficient to create significant stresses.
Wood shrinks as it dries and swells as moisture content increases. The amount of shrinkage or
swelling is different in the radial, tangential, and longitudinal directions relative to the wood
grain, with the most shrinkage occurring in the tangential direction. Generally, dimensional
changes due to moisture content are greater for hardwoods than for softwoods. Allowances for
swelling should be made when using kiln-dried lumber for project components that will usually
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be saturated with water. Average shrinkage in the three principal axes for various wood species
when kiln-dried is given in the Timber Construction Manual (AITC 1985).
c. Design values for structural lumber. Structural lumber is classified according to wood
species, size, and intended use. Dimension lumber refers to rectangular-shaped pieces of smaller
dimensions typically used as framing materials, joists, planks, etc. Dimension lumber is usually
graded for strength in bending edgewise or flatwise, but it is also used in applications requiring
tensile or compressive strength. Beams and stringers are larger rectangular cross-section pieces
used primarily in construction that is more robust than simple house framing. Nominal cross-
section dimensions are greater than 150 mm, and the members are graded for strength in bending
in the widest dimension. Posts and timbers have square or nearly square cross sections with
dimensions greater than 150 by 150 mm. Grading is based on the intended use as columns and
posts with compression as the primary loading condition. Structural lumber design parameters
are based on the natural strength of the wood species along with reductions to account for factors
such as knots and their location, grain slope, location of checks and splits, and seasoning. Most
lumber is visually graded according to specifications set forth by the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM D-2555 (1994) and ASTM D-245 (1994)). The National Design
Specification for Wood Construction (National Forest Products Association 1991) is the
principal reference for determining lumber engineering parameters for use in design. The Timber
Construction Manual (AITC 1985) provides comprehensive guidance for designing wooden
structures and structural components. Allowable working stresses for timber in coastal projects
should be those for wood that is continuously wet or damp. Table VI-4-13 lists some general
engineering characteristics for the more common softwoods and hardwoods found in the United
States.
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Table VI-4-13
General Characteristics of Common Wood (from Moffat and Nichol (1983))
Softwoods
Southern
General Characteristics Douglas Fir Redwood Cedar Spruce
Pine
Shrinkage in volume from 10.9 11.5 11.2 10.4 12.4
green to ovendry (pct)
Modulus of rupture (MPa) 43.7 (green) 51.4 (green) 41.6 (green) 31.4 (green) 44.1
(green)
Modulus of elasticity 7.798 7.591 (green) 5.199 5.971 7.860
(GPa) (green) (green) (green) (green)
Hardwoods
General Characteristics Oak Maple Ash Birch Greenheart
Shrinkage in volume from 12.7 to 17.7 12.0 to 14.5 11.7 15.0 to 16.8 3
green to ovendry (pct)
Modulus of rupture (MPa) 49.5 to 73.8 40.1 to 62.5 41.4 to 68.9 59.2 (green) 123.4
(green) (green) (green) (green)
54.2 to 77.3 105.2 (dry) 108.0 (dry) 133.8 (dry) 206.8 (dry)
(dry)
Modulus of elasticity 6.047 to 6.502 to 7.102 to 10.27 to 20.00
(GPa) 11.63 10.16 (green) 10.20 10.64 (green)
(green) (green) (green)
9.108 to 12.14 to 9.618 to 16.52 (dry)
14.36 (dry) 12.95 (dry) 12.26 (dry)
d. Wood preservatives and treatment. Wood that has been correctly treated with
preservative can increase the service life of the wood member by a factor of four to five over
untreated wood. Wood treatment is practical and highly recommended for coastal projects,
particularly in regions populated by marine borers and other natural enemies of wood. The most
effective injected wood preservative for timber exposed to seawater or in direct contact with the
ground appears to be creosote oil with a high phenolic content. Piles subject to marine-borer
attack need a maximum creosote penetration and retention, and coal-tar solutions are
recommended. If the borer infestation is severe, it may also be necessary to treat the pile with a
waterborne salt preservative. Thorough descriptions of wood preservative treatments and
standards are given in the Wood Preservers’ Book of Standards (American Wood Preservers’
Association 1984) and in Moffatt and Nichol (1983). Untreated timber piles should not be used
unless the piles are protected from exposure to marine-borer attack. In some applications,
untreated piles can be encased in a protective armor such as gunite. Field boring and cutting of
treated lumber or piles should be avoided if possible. When unavoidable, cut surfaces should
receive a careful field treatment of similar preservative to prevent (or at least retard) the onset of
dry rot.
e. Wood fasteners and connectors. Except in rare occasions, wood structures in the
coastal zone are held together by either metal fasteners and connectors or by adhesives.
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(1) The most common metal connectors are nails, spikes, and bolts which are often used
in conjunction with metal plates and brackets. Metal is also used for spike grids and split ring
connectors to increase shear capacity at joints, and for miscellaneous components like bearing
plates and straps. Chain, wire rope, and metal rods are sometimes used to secure and brace wood
construction or to anchor wood portions to other parts of the structure. Metal connectors and
fasteners are subject to rapid corrosion by water and damp air. Some metals will experience
galvanic corrosion if placed in seawater. Protecting metal fasteners used in wood construction
requires the same precautionary steps as detailed in Part VI-4-5, “Steel and Other Metals.”
Abrasion by sand particles or floating debris and chafing by objects such as mooring lines can
quickly strip away protective coatings applied to corrodible metals. The process of selecting a
protection system must consider these factors and recognize that any metal protection has a
limited life in the marine environment. Periodic inspection and maintenance of metal fasteners
and connectors is recommended, particularly for critical connections.
(2) Field use of adhesives in coastal wood construction is limited primarily to framework
and sheathing for house-like structures in which the adhesive is protected from the harsh
environment. Field application of adhesives to exposed wood construction should be limited to
secondary joints where failure would not be catastrophic. Wooden components, such as plywood
and laminated beams, use adhesives which are applied during manufacture in controlled factory
settings. This assures well-mated surfaces, uniform adhesive application, and proper curing of
the glued surfaces. Factory-fabricated wood components should use waterproof glue if the piece
is expected to be immersed in water. Additional information on application and use of wood
adhesives is given in Moffatt and Nichol (1983) and in several standards from the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D-2559 (1994)).
f. Environmental effects on wood. Wood reacts to a number of environmental

conditions encountered in the coastal zone.
(1) Water will penetrate wood and cause swelling with a corresponding strength
reduction, and extended immersion will soften the wood fibers. Periodic wetting and drying
causes uneven drying and may lead to development of cracks or provide conditions favorable to
fungi that cause dry rot. Strong acids will hydrolyze wood and severely impact strength, but
exposure to strong acids is rare and limited to accidental spills in places such as cargo handling
areas.
(2) Water pollution may help preserve wood structures by reducing the oxygen that
supports wood-attacking marine biota.
(3) Marine organisms are the principal cause of wood destruction for immersed timbers
and piles, and the concentration of damaging biota will vary with location. Application of proper
preservatives is essential for longer service life in these conditions. Marine plants also grow on
immersed wood, but flora growth does not seem to harm the strength characteristics of the wood.
However, slippery marine growth on wood decking may be hazardous to pedestrians.
(4) Dry wood can catch fire, but larger structural wood members will retain a substantial
portion of their strength for a period of time as fire slowly chars the wood inward from the
surface.
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(5) Abrasion of wood by wind and sand can eventually lead to a reduction in strength due
to a decrease in cross section; however, this process takes a long time to occur. Rubbing of wood
surfaces by a harder material, such as a steel vessel, will also wear down the wood. Although
such wear eventually damages the wood, the relative softness of wood compared to other
materials is a beneficial design feature in some applications.
(6) The resilience of wood allows wood structures and structural members to absorb
impact energy and rebound better than more rigid structures. This flexibility helps wood
structures withstand wave and vessel impact loads and seismic accelerations.
(7) Many wood structures are constructed to serve human activities such as harbor
facilities, wharfs, piers, etc. Eventually wood will begin to show wear from human and vehicular
traffic, accidental impacts, vandalism, and other causes. Periodic monitoring is needed to assure
that normal wear from human activities does not weaken a structure beyond a safe level.
Immediate inspection is needed after any accident that may have caused structural damage.
VI-4-7. Geotextiles and Plastics.
a. Use of plastics in coastal construction. The term “plastic” is a generic label for a large
number of synthetic materials composed of chainlike molecules called polymers. Plastics can be
easily molded into shapes during manufacture. The most common use for plastic in coastal
construction is in the form of geotechnical fabrics, which are the main focus of this section.
(1) Geotextile fabrics. Plastic filaments or fibers can be woven or needlepunched into
strong fabrics called “geotextiles” that are often used as filter cloth beneath hard armor systems.
Other names for these types of fabrics include filter fabrics, construction fabrics, plastic filter
cloth, engineering fabrics, and geotechnical fabrics. The most frequent use of geotextiles in
coastal construction is as a filter between fine granular sands or soils and overlying gravel or
small stone that forms the first underlayer of a coastal structure such as a revetment. The purpose
of the geotextile is to retain the soil while permitting flow of water through the fabric.
Figure VI-4-5 illustrates typical usage of a geotextile fabric in coastal construction. Geotextile
filters have several general advantages over conventional gravel filters (Barrett 1966):
(a) Filtering characteristics are uniform and factory controlled.
(b) Geotextile filter fabrics can withstand tensile stresses.
(c) Geotextile placement is more easily controlled, and underwater placement is likely to
be more successful than comparable gravel filters.
(d) Inspection and quality control are quick and accurate.
(e) Local availability of filter materials is not a cost consideration, and often substantial
savings can be realized.
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Figure VI-4-5. Typical use of geotextile fabric in coastal revetment (from

Moffatt and Nichol (1983))
(2) Some potential disadvantages of geotextile filter fabrics are the following: (1) it is
difficult to repair damaged fabric that underlays several layers of stone, (2) if improperly
designed, some fabrics can be relatively impervious to rapid hydraulic transients, which could
lead to uplift pressures over the fabric surface, and (3) the fabric is susceptible to undermining at
the structure toe if not properly anchored. Coastal application of woven geotextile fabric began
in the mid-1950s. In the United States geotextiles were first used as a filter for an ocean-front
concrete block revetment in 1958. Dutch coastal engineers first used geotextiles in 1956, and
they continued development of geotextiles as work began on the massive Delta Works Scheme
(John 1987). During the 1960s, geotextiles became well-established as replacements for granular
filters due in part to extensive use in the Delta Works Scheme. It is estimated that over
10 million cu m of geotextile were used in the Dutch flood protection project. Initially, use of
geotextiles was not cost-effective, and applications were limited to sites that lacked local sources
of good granular fill material. Presently, the use of geosynthetics has become more widespread.
Although the most common geotextile application is to serve as a filter, these fabrics can also
serve the following functions:
(a) Separate different soil layers.
(b) Reinforce soil banks against lateral movement.
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(c) Control erosion of banks.
(d) Provide drainage.
(e) Cap and/or contain contaminated dredged material.
Generally, geotextile filter fabrics should allow water to flow through while retaining the soil.
Other coastal applications, such as bank reinforcement, rely on high fabric tensile strength.
Examples of geotextile use in coastal construction can be found in Barrett (1966), Dunham and
Barrett (1974), Koerner and Welsh (1980), and John (1987).
(3) Other forms of plastic. High-strength plastic fabric such as nylon has been used
successfully as flexible forms for concrete. Two layers of cloth are injection-filled with concrete
or grout to form a mattress-like structure for slope protection. Similarly, grout-filled plastic tubes
have been used in various shore protection schemes. Examples of the above applications are
given by Koerner and Welsh (1980) and by Moffatt and Nichol (1983). Impervious plastic sheets
made of polyethylene, vinyl, or rubber compounds are used as liners and covers to control water
seepage or to contain pollutants. During construction, plastic sheets can be used to shield
unprotected metal components from corrosive effects of salt air and rainwater or to keep lumber
(or other construction materials) dry. Highly porous plastic mesh can be used as dune fencing to
trap windblown sediment. High-strength plastics can be molded into almost any shape for
specialized applications. For example, high- density polyethylene is often used for mooring
fenders and guards because it has low surface friction, good toughness, and it resists abrasion
and impact damage. Plastic is also used to line and protect pilings from corrosion and from
attack by marine borers. Special fiber-reinforced polyester pipe can replace steel pipe in some
applications, but at a greater cost. Standard polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe up to 25 cm in
diameter can be used for applications such as electrical conduit, water supply, and drainage.
Finally, epoxy resins can be used to affix bolts in concrete or stone, or the resin can be mixed
with sand to produce a chemical grout for patching concrete.
b. Physical and mechanical properties of plastics.
(1) General characteristics. Most plastics are synthetic, carbon-based products of a

chemical reaction that alters the characteristics of the original component materials. The
resulting plastics are high polymers composed of monomer atoms joined together in molecular
aggregations. During some stage of production, plastics are soft and can be formed into shapes
by application of heat, pressure, or both.
(a) Thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened (up to melting) and hardened again by
heating and cooling without changing the plastic properties. At low temperatures the material
becomes brittle. Included in the thermoplastics group are polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride,
acrylics, nylon, and polystyrene.
(b) Thermosets are plastics that go through a soft, pliable stage only once before
irreversibly transforming to a permanently hardened material. Heating thermosets breaks down
the plastic. Polyesters, epoxies, silicones, phenol-formaldehydes, and melamine-formaldehydes
are examples of thermosetting plastics.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Physical characteristics of some plastics can be modified by combining various additives such as
plasticizers and stabilizers with the plastic during manufacture. Plasticizers make plastics that are
rigid or brittle at normal temperatures softer and more pliable. Stabilizers help to decrease the
deteriorating effects of weather and ultraviolet light on plastics. Different plastics can be
combined during manufacture to form copolymers that exhibit some of the beneficial properties
of both components. Most structural plastic components are copolymers. Plastics can also be
reinforced with high-strength fibers to attain greater yield strength. Plastic is a good construction
material because it can be shaped into practically any form. In addition, there are several other
characteristics that make plastic a good construction material. These are its corrosion, wear, and
impact resistance; its light weight; its flexibility and energy absorption capability; and its
electrical and thermal insulating qualities. Some properties vary greatly over the range of
commonly available plastics.
(2) Geotextiles. Most geotextiles are made from one of the four main polymer families:
polyester, polyamide, polypropylene, or polyethylene. Polyethylene has one of the simplest
molecular structures, and its main attractions include low cost and chemical resistance.
Polyamides (e.g., nylon) are roughly three times more expensive than polyethylene, and they
exhibit moderate strength and chemical resistance characteristics. Polypropylenes are low cost
and currently comprise the most widely used group of geotextiles (John 1987). Polyesters have
the best tensile strength characteristics, the least long-term creep and high inherent ultraviolet
light resistance, but these attributes come at a high cost. The relative differences between the
four polymer families in terms of important physical properties are shown Table VI-4-14. Within
each main group there are many subgroups that can have significantly different characteristics
than those attributed to the group as a whole. In particular, strength properties vary with
manufacturing method.
Table VI-4-14
Comparative Properties of Geotextile Materials (from John (1987))
Characteristic Polyester Polyamide Polypropylene Polyethylene
Comparative Properties
Tensile strength High Medium Low Low
Elastic modulus High Medium Low Low
Strain at failure Medium Medium High High
Creep Low Medium High High
Unit weight High Medium Low Low
Cost High Medium Low Low
Resistance Properties
Stabilized High Medium High High
U-V Light:
Unstabilized High Medium Medium Low
Alkalis Low High High High
Fungus, vermin, insects Medium Medium Medium High
Petroleum products Medium Medium Low Low
Detergents High High High High
VI-4-56
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Engineering properties and overall suitability of geotextiles for specific applications depend as
much on the fabric manufacture as the properties of the polymer. Fabrics are either woven,
nonwoven, or a combination of the two. Several weaving methods are used in the manufacture of
geotextiles, and each method achieves different results in the fabric. Fabrics made of
monofilament yarns have relatively regular and uniform pore sizes and are more reliable for
critical filtration applications where the higher cost is justified. Nonwoven geotextiles are made
of discrete fibers bonded together by some method that often allows for a somewhat thicker
porous fabric. Porosity may be achieved by punching holes in the fabric with needles to attain a
more uniform filtering capability. Both woven and nonwoven fabrics have been used in coastal
applications, but woven monofilament geotextiles are overwhelmingly preferred for coastal
structures.
c. Design requirements for geotextile fabrics.
(1) General design requirements. Use of a geotextile as a filter cloth requires that the
fabric be permeable to water without allowing passage of retained soil particles or clogging.
Flow of water through the geotextile must be at a rate that prevents excessive head loss or
buildup of hydrostatic pressure. An effective filter requires a geotextile suited to the retained soil
grain size and slope, groundwater, wave and water level loading, and particulars of the overlying
stone layers. Selection of a geotextile may be difficult because of the wide range of fabrics
available from a number of manufacturers; however, the specification should be based on
properties such as transmissivity, porosity, etc. It may help to examine past performance of
particular geotextiles in similar projects. Some combination of the factors listed below may
influence the selection of a suitable geotextile fabric (Moffatt and Nichol 1983).
(a) Tensile strength. Fabric tensile strength is needed to resist tearing when subjected to
dynamic loads from waves, currents, and constant movement of structure underlayers. For rubble
structures, strong fabrics allow placement of larger stones directly on the geotextile, thus
reducing the overall structure thickness. However, if large voids occur in the overlying structure
layers, soil pressure and/or hydrostatic pressure may rupture the fabric. Fabrics that have
sufficient Aburst strength@ will continue to retain the soil, thus reducing rehabilitation costs.
(b) Elongation at failure. Excessive elongation will distort and enlarge the pores,
changing the filtering characteristics and perhaps resulting in soil loss.
(c) Puncture resistance. Geotextiles need good puncture resistance to survive placement
of materials over the fabric during construction. The fabric also needs to resist puncturing due to
movement of armor stone and underlayer stone as the structure settles or as it responds
dynamically to wave action.
(d) Abrasion resistance. Constant wave action on a coastal structure causes movement of
materials adjacent to the geotextile, and the fabric must withstand this abrasion over the life of
the structure. Special care must be taken during construction to avoid fabric abrasion as materials
are placed on the geotextile.
(e) Durability. Geotextiles must perform consistently over the life of the structure.
Durability depends on the chemical composition and construction of the fabric, physical
VI-4-57
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
properties of the finished fabric, exposure to deteriorating environmental conditions, and
physical abuse experienced during service.
(f) Site-specific factors. Some coastal applications may subject geotextile fabrics to
freeze/thaw conditions or to high or low temperatures. It may be necessary to test the geotextile
for survivability under these conditions. Also, fabric selection should account for any anticipated
exposure to chemicals, acids, alkalis, or fuels.
(g) Construction factors. Placement of geotextiles in severe wave environments may be

difficult, and fabric may be damaged or severely abraded during placement attempts. Excessive
movement of underlayer materials by waves may severely damage the fabric before more stable
armor layers can be placed. Construction methods may need to be modified to minimize adverse
wave exposure.
(2) Recommended minimum geotextile physical properties. Moffatt and Nichol (1983)
presented recommended minimum values for various geotextile engineering parameters under
three different loading conditions for coastal projects. These recommendations are reproduced in
Table VI-4-15. “Severe dynamic loading” refers to continued abrasive movement of materials
adjacent to the fabric due to wave action. “Dynamic and static loading” results from more
restrictive placement procedures that limit abrasion. “Stringent placement and drainage” refers to
applications where placement and service life are nearly free of any abrasive movement of
adjacent materials. Design values for specific candidate geotextiles should be determined
according to test procedures given in the referenced ASTM standards in Table VI-4-15 (also
summarized in Moffatt and Nichol (1983)).
(3) Design properties of commercial geotextile fabrics. There are numerous commercial
manufacturers of geotextiles, and each manufacturer produces a variety of fabrics having
differing engineering properties. The best listing of currently available geotechnical fabrics and
their associated design properties is the annual Specifier’s Guide of the Geotechnical Fabrics
Report published by the Industrial Fabrics Association International. The annual Specifier’s
Guide details property specifications of over 500 geosynthetic products from more than 50
international producers. Some textbooks and manuals also list commercial products. For
example, Koerner (1986) provides tables from the 1985 Geotechnical Fabrics Report, and
Ingold and Miller (1988) provide addresses, distributors, product lines, and design parameters
for European-based producers of geotechnical fabric.
(4) Geotextile filtering and clogging criteria. Geotextile filters in coastal structures may
be exposed to rapid flow fluctuations including turbulent flows, high hydrodynamic pressure
differentials, and sudden or periodic runup and rundown. The selected geotextile must be able to
retain the soil, yet have openings large enough to permit rapid drainage without clogging.
Calhoun (1972) conducted extensive tests to develop engineering criteria for geotextile fabrics,
and these criteria have been verified through numerous field applications. The capability of a
geotextile to retain soil while allowing water to pass is termed the “piping resistance.” Calhoun
developed a procedure for determining the piping resistance based on the size of the retained soil
and the equivalent opening size (EOS) of the geotextile. He also developed clogging criteria
based on the fabric “percent of open area” (POA). Values of EOS and POA are determined
using the procedures described in Table VI-4-16.
VI-4-58
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Table VI-4-15
Minimum Geotextile Fabric Physical Property Requirements (from Moffatt & Nichol (1983))
Category
A B C
Severe Stringent
Dynamic Dynamic & Placement &
Property Test Method Loading Static Loadings Drainage
1
SPD ASTM D-4632 1.56 kN 0.89 kN
Tensile 2
BPD 0.89 kN
strength4 3
WPD 0.98 kN 0.44 kN
Elongation at failure ASTM D-4632 <36 percent 36 percent 36 percent
4
Seam strength ASTM D-4884 0.87 kN 0.80 kN 0.36 kN
Puncture resistance ASTM D-4883 0.53 kN 0.53 kN 0.29 kN
Burst strength ASTM D-3786 3450 kPa 3790 kPa 1650 kPa
SPD ASTM D-4886 0.44 kN 0.27 kN
Abrasion
BPD 0.29 kN
resistance4
WPD 0.29 kN 0.15 kN
Optional Requirements
Freeze-thaw resistance ASTM D-5034 90 percent of required strength
High temperature ASTM D-5034 80 percent of required strength
survivability
Low temperature ASTM D-5034 85 percent of required strength
survivability
Effects of acids ASTM D-5034 90 percent of required strength
Effects of alkalies ASTM D-5034 90 percent of required strength
Effects of JP-4 fuel ASTM D-5034 85 percent of required strength
1
SPD = Stronger principal direction.
2
BPD = Both principal directions.
3
WPD = Weaker principal direction.
4
In accordance with the specifications for the tests for these properties, these forces are applied
over a width of 25.4 mm (1 in.).
VI-4-59
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Table VI-4-16
Determination of EOS and POA for Geotextiles (from Moffatt and Nichol (1983))
Equivalent Opening Size (EOS)
Based on the Calhoun (1972) method, five unaged samples shall be tested. Obtain about 150
gm of each of the following fractions of a sand composed of sound, rounded-to-subrounded
particles:
U.S. Standard Sieve Numbers
Sample 1. Passing #10 and Retained on #20

The cloth shall be affixed to a standard sieve having openings larger than the coarsest sand
used, in such a manner that no sand can pass between the cloth and the sieve wall. The sand
shall be oven-dried. Shaking of the sample will continue for 20 min. Determine by sieving
(using successively coarser fractions) that fraction of sand of which 5 percent or less by weight
passes the cloth. The equivalent opening size of the cloth sample is the Aretained on@ U.S.
Standard Sieve number of this fraction.
Percent of Open Area (POA)
Each of five unaged samples should be placed separately in a 50- x 50-mm (2- x 2-in.) glass
slide holder and the image projected with a slide projector on a screen. Select a block of 25
openings near the center of the image and measure to the nearest 25.4 microns (0.001 in.) the
length and width of each of the 25 openings and the widths of two fibers adjacent to each
opening. The percent open area is determined by dividing the sum of the open areas of the 25
openings by the sum of the total area of the 25 openings and their adjacent fibers.
For retention of coarse-grained soils containing 50 percent or less by weight of particles passing
U.S. No. 200 sieve (0.074 mm diameter), the piping resistance (PR) for woven geotextile fabric
is given by
of protected soil
PR = D 85 (VI-4-7)
EOS
where D85 is the effective grain size (in mm) for which 85 percent of the soil (by weight) has
smaller grain size. (Note EOS is expressed in millimeters.) Ideally, the value of the piping
resistance should be unity or slightly greater to promote drainage and prevent clogging. As
values of PR increase, flow resistance through the fabric also increases. Adequate clogging
resistance is provided by geotextiles having an effective POA equal to or greater than 4 percent.
If a percentage of the geotextile’s surface is covered by flat smooth materials (e.g., patio-type
blocks) without an intervening gravel layer, the necessary fabric POA must be increased
VI-4-60
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
proportionately. For example if one third of the fabric is to be covered by flat blocks, then the
necessary geotextile POA must be increased by a factor of 3 to 12 percent to give an effective
POA of 4 percent. Geotextiles adjacent to finer soils in which more than 50 percent of the grains
(by weight) pass through the U.S. No. 200 sieve should have an EOS no larger than a U.S. No.
70 sieve (0.210 mm). Geotextiles with an EOS smaller than a U.S. No. 100 sieve (0.149 mm)
should not be used as filter in coastal projects.
d. Geotextile installation considerations. Practical experience with geotextile filters in

coastal projects has provided general guidelines for geotextile installation and maintenance.
However, unique site conditions may dictate alternate techniques.
(1) Geotextile placement. Successful use of geotextiles in coastal projects depends

critically on initial placement of the fabric. The sequence of geotextile placement is determined
somewhat by the specific project and application, but in general the following guidelines should
be followed.
(a) Geotextiles should be laid loosely, free of wrinkles, creases, and folds. This allows
the fabric to conform to irregularities in the soil when heavier materials are placed on the fabric.
Placing the geotextile in a stretched condition under tensile stress should be avoided.
(b) Fabric placement on slopes subjected to wave action should begin at the slope toe and
proceed upslope with the upslope panel overlapping the downslope panel. For slopes subjected
to along-structure currents, upstream panels should overlap downstream panels.
(c) When the slope continues beyond the protective armor layers, the filter should be
keyed into a trench at the upper portion of the structure. Similar termination of the filter can be
used at the structure toe as illustrated in Figure VI-4-5.
(d) Horizontal underwater fabric placement should start at the shoreward end and
proceed seaward. For scour protection the placement should start adjacent to the protected
structure and proceed to the outer limit of the protection.
(e) Any overlying gravel layers must have sufficient permeability so as not to reduce
flow through the geotextile.
(f) Steel securing pins (when needed) should be 5 mm (3/16 in.) in diameter and have a
head capable of retaining a steel washer having a 3.8-cm outside diameter. Pin length should be a
minimum of 45 cm (1.5 ft) for medium to high density soil, and longer for looser soils. Pins
should be placed at the overlap mid-point. Pin spacing along the overlap should be a maximum
of 0.6 m (2 ft) for slopes steeper than 1-on-3, 1.0 m (3 ft) for slopes between 1-on-3 and 1-on-4,
and 1.5 m (5 ft) for slopes flatter than 1-on-4. Additional pins should be used as necessary to
prevent geotextile slippage.
(g) Placement of overlying stones should begin at the toe and proceed upslope. Some
projects may require stone placement in conjunction with geotextile placement to hold the fabric
against wave or current action.
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EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(h) Care must be exercised in placing the overlying stone layers to avoid puncturing the
geotextile. Tables VI-4-17 and VI-4-18 provide construction drop height limitations for
quarrystone revetments, block revetments, and subaqueous applications. Loading conditions are
the same as described for Table VI-4-15. No stones over 440 N (100 lb) should be rolled
downslope over the fabric.
Table VI-4-17
Construction Limitations: Quarrystone Revetment1 (from Moffatt and Nichol (1983))
Category
Parameter A B C
Steepest slope 1V on 2H 1V on 2.5H 1V on 3H
Min. gravel thickness above filter None None 20 cm
Stone Adjacent to Geotextile
3
Max. stone weight 1.1 kN 0.78 kN Gravel
Max. drop height 1m 1m 1.5 m
Max. stone weight 1.8 kN 1.3 kN
Riprap weight range4 0.89 - 3.3 kN 0.22 - 2.2 kN 0.61 m NA2
Max. drop height 0.61 m
Max. stone weight 1.8 - 8.9 kN 1.3 - 8.9 kN
Max. drop height placed placed NA
Subsequent Stone Layer
Max. stone weight NA NA 0.67 kN
Max. drop height 1.2 m
Max. stone weight NA NA 1.3 kN
Max. drop height NA NA 1m
Max. stone weight 44 kN 44 kN 4.4 kN
Max. drop height 3m 2.5 placed
Max. stone weight > 44 kN > 44 kN > 4.4 kN
Max. drop height placed placed placed
NOTE:
a. Stronger principal direction (SPD) and seams of the geotextile should be perpendicular to the
shoreline.
b. There is no limit to the number of underlayers between the armor and the geotextile.
1
This table may also be used for sand core breakwaters (a jetty, groin, or breakwater in which
the core material consists of sand rather than stone).
2
Not applicable.
3
Weight of quarrystone armor units of nearly uniform size.
4
Weight limits of riprap, quarrystone well-graded within wide size limits.
VI-4-62
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Table VI-4-18
Construction Limitations: Block Revetments and Subaqueous Applications
(from Moffatt and Nichol (1983))
Category
Block Revetment1
A B C
2
Precast Cellular Block
Steepest slope
Individual blocks 1V on 2H 1V on 3H NA3
4
Cabled blocks 1V on 1.5H 1V on 2H NA
Max. block weight >3.1 kPa 3.1 kPa NA
2
Interlocking Concrete Block
Steepest slope NA 1V on 2H 1V on 2.5H
Min. gravel thickness above filter NA 15.2 cm 15.2 cm
Max. block weight NA >3.1 kPa 3.1 kPa
5
Subaqueous Applications
Steepest slope 1V on 15H 1V on 15H 1V on 15H
Stone adjacent to geotextile:
Max. stone weight 8.9 kN 8.9 kN 3.3 kN
Min. drop through water 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m
Max. stone weight >13.3 kN >13.3 kN >3.3 kN
Max. drop height placed placed placed
Subsequent stone layer (s)
Max. stone weight No limit No limit No limit
6
Max. drop height NCP NCP NCP
1
Stronger principal direction (SPD) and seams of the geotextile should be perpendicular to the
shoreline.
2
With flat base.
3
Not applicable.
4
Precast cellular blocks cabled together in a horizontal plane.
5
No limit to the number of underlayers between the armor and the geotextile.
6
As in normal construction practice: the geotextile does not require special limitations in these
layers.
(2) Geotextile seams and joins. Geotextiles can be obtained in fairly long lengths, but
width is limited by practical considerations related to manufacture and transportation. Wider
panels reduce the number of fabric overlaps (which is the most probable cause of error during
placement). Overlaps that are not subjected to tensile loading should be at least 45 cm (1.5 ft)
and staggered in above water applications where placement can be well-controlled. Underwater
geotextile overlaps should be at least 1 m (3 ft). Geotextile panels can be joined before or during
placement by either sewing or cementing the panels together at the seams. Generally, sewing is
preferred for onsite joins. The most appropriate guidance on field joining of specific geotextile
fabrics should be available from the manufacturer. More general guidance is given in various
geotextile textbooks (e.g., Ingold and Miller (1988), John (1987)).
VI-4-63
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
(3) Geotextile repairs. Construction damage to geotextile filters is easily repaired by
trimming out the damaged section and replacing it with a section of fabric that provides a
minimum of 0.6 m (2 ft) overlap in all directions. The edges of the replacement fabric should be
placed under the undamaged geotextile. If damage occurs to geotextile panels in which the fabric
tensile strength is needed to reinforce soil slopes, the entire fabric panel should be replaced.
Repairing damaged fabric underlying a rubble-mound structure is more difficult because the
overlying stone layers must first be removed to expose the damaged filter cloth.
e. Environmental effects on geotextiles and plastics.
(1) Chemical and biological effects. Plastics are generally considered not biodegradable,
and they are relatively unaffected by chemicals found in normal concentrations in the coastal
zone. However, some chemicals, such as alkalis and fuel products, can rapidly destroy some
plastic compounds. Although plastics are impervious to biological attack, marine growth on
plastic structure components may induce additional drag forces or hinder smooth operation of
moving parts. Bacterial activity in the interstices of geotextiles can clog the fabric and increase
its piping resistance.
(2) Ultraviolet radiation. Unless stabilizers have been added during manufacture, plastics
will deteriorate when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. For most coastal structure filtering
applications, geotextiles are exposed to sunlight for only a short period during construction
before placement of overlayers, and the effects of UV radiation are minor. In some cases, it may
be prudent to sequence construction to minimize exposure of geotextile fabric to sunlight.
Geotextiles can be exposed to UV radiation if the armor layer is relatively thin, allowing sunlight
to penetrate through voids in the armor layer. Similarly, precast armoring blocks may have holes
that allow light penetration. Storm damage to structure armor layers can expose geotextile filters
to sunlight for extended periods before repairs can be initiated. In the above situations, UV
radiation will ultimately destroy the geotextile unless the fabric has been stabilized. The relative
ultraviolet radiation resistance of untreated polymer types is shown in Table VI-4-14.
(3) Fire. Plastics will burn or disintegrate if exposed to fire or high temperatures, often
releasing very poisonous gases. Some plastics will burn easily, some slowly, and others with
great difficulty. Flame-retardant chemicals can be combined into the molecular structure of the
plastic materials. Temperatures above the polymer’s melting point will alter the filtering
characteristics of geotextile fabrics.
(4) Other factors. Abrasion by overlying material (or debris in the case of exposed fabric)
can tear fibers in geotextiles, weakening the fabric. Impact loading by waves, vessels, or other
objects may puncture geotextile fabric, and ice formation may induce tensile stresses exceeding
the material yield strength. Excessive ground motion accelerations due to seismic events may
cause differential shifting of the armor layer or soil slope, resulting in tension failure of the
geotextile filter. Finally, exposed geotextile or high- strength fabrics may be damaged by
vandalism.
VI-4-64
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
VI-4-8. References.
EM 1110-2-1204
Environmental Engineering for Coastal Shore Protection
EM 1110-2-1601
Hydraulic Design of Flood Control Channels
EM 1110-2-1612
Ice Engineering
EM 1110-2-1906
Laboratory Soils Testing
EM 1110-2-2301
Test Quarries and Test Fills
EM 1110-2-2302
Construction with Large Stone
EM 1110-2-5025
Dredging & Dredged Material Disposal
ACI 1986
American Concrete Institute. 1986 (revised annually). Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 3,
Detroit, MI.
AISC 1980
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. 1980. Manual of Steel Construction, 8th ed.,
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AITC 1985
American Institute of Timber Construction. 1985. Timber Construction Manual, John Wiley and
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American Society for Testing and Materials. 1994. “Standard Specification for Portland
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American Society for Testing and Materials. 1997. “Standard Specification for Blended
Hydraulic Cement,” ASTM C-595, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Philadelphia, PA,
Vol. 04.01, pp 301-306.
VI-4-65
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
ASTM D-245
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1994. “Practice for Establishing Structural Grades
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ASTM Standards, Philadelphia, PA, Vol. 04.10, pp 88-105.
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Barrett, R. J. 1966. “Use of Plastic Filters in Coastal Structures,” Proceedings of the 10th
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VI-4-66
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
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Chemical Rubber Company. 1976. Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Science, 2nd ed.,
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Department of the Interior 1975

Bureau of Reclamation. 1975. Concrete Manual, A Manual for the Control of Concrete
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Dunham, J. W, and Barrett, R. J. 1974. “Woven Plastic Cloth Filters for Stone Seawalls,”
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VI-4-67
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
Lutton 1991
Lutton, R. J. 1991. “U.S. Experience with Armor-Stone Quality and Performance,” Durability of
Stone for Rubble Mound Breakwaters, O. T. Magoon and W. F. Baird, eds., American Society of
Civil Engineers, pp 40-55.
Magoon and Baird 1991

Magoon, O. T., and Baird, W. F. 1991. “Durability of Armor Stone for Rubble Mound Coastal
Structures,” Durability of Stone for Rubble Mound Breakwaters, O. T. Magoon and W. F. Baird,
eds., American Society of Civil Engineers, pp 3-4.
Mehta 1991
Mehta, P. K. 1991. Concrete in the Marine Environment, Elsevier Science Publishers, Ltd.,
London, England.
Moffatt and Nichol 1983

Moffatt and Nichol, Engineers. 1983. “Construction Materials for Coastal Structures,” Special
Report SR-10, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Coastal Engineering
National Forest Products Association 1991

National Forest Products Association. 1991. National Design Specification for Wood
Construction: Structural Lumber, Glued Laminated Timber, Timber Piles, Connections;
Recommended Practice, Washington, DC.
Thomas and Hall 1992

Thomas, R. S., and Hall, B. 1992. Seawall Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, Ltd., Oxford.
Woodhouse 1978
Woodhouse, W. W., Jr. 1978. “Dune Building and Stabilization with Vegetation,” Special
Report SR-3, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Coastal Engineering
VI-4-9. Acknowledgments.
Author: Dr. Steven A. Hughes, Coastal and hydraulics Laboratory (CHL), U.S. Army Engineer
Research and development Center, Vicksburg, MS.
Reviewers: Dr. Hans F. Burcharth, Department of Civil Engineering, Aalborg University,

Aalborg, Denmark; Douglas A. Gaffney, private consultant; Han Ligteringen, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands; John H. Lockhart, Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Washington, DC (retired); and Charlie Johnson, U.S. Army Engineer District, Chicago, Chicago,
IL (retired).
VI-4-68
EM 1110-2-1100 (Part VI)
VI-4-10. Symbols.
γd Unit dry weight of an in situ material (force/length3)

γs Specific weight of stone (force/length3)
A Cross-sectional area (length2)
D85 Effective grain size for which 85 percent of the soil (by weight) has a smaller
grain size (length)
Dr Relative density of noncohesive sands (Equation VI-4-1)
Ds Diameter of an equivalent-volume sphere (Equation VI-4-4)
e Void ratio of a cohesionless soil
Ec Concrete modulus of elasticity (force/length2)
fc Compressive strength of concrete (force/length)
Δh Head difference over the flow length (length)
K Empirical coefficient of permeability (length/time)
L Length of flow path (length)
PR Piping resistance (Equation VI-4-7)
Q Discharge through a uniform soil (Equation IV-4-3) (length3/time)
Rc Relative soil compaction (Equation VI-4-2)
wc Specific weight of concrete, (force/length3)
Ws Stone weight (force)
VI-4-69

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EM 1110-2-1100

Materials and Construction Aspects

VI-4-1. Material Requirements ..........................................................................................VI-4-1

a. Material properties and strength .......................................................................VI-4-1

VI-4-2. Earth and Sand ......................................................................................................VI-4-9

a. Uses of earth and sand in coastal construction .................................................VI-4-9

VI-4-3. Stone ...................................................................................................................VI-4-16

a. Use of stone in coastal construction ................................................................VI-4-16

VI-4-4. Portland Cement Concrete and Bituminous Concrete ........................................VI-4-28

a. Use of concrete and asphalt in coastal construction .......................................VI-4-28

VI-4-5. Steel and Other Metals ........................................................................................VI-4-40

a. Use of metal in coastal construction ...............................................................VI-4-40

VI-4-6. Wood ...................................................................................................................VI-4-47

a. Use of wood in coastal construction ...............................................................VI-4-47

VI-4-7. Geotextiles and Plastics ......................................................................................VI-4-53

a. Use of plastics in coastal construction ............................................................VI-4-53

VI-4-8. References ...........................................................................................................VI-4-65

VI-4-9. Acknowledgements .............................................................................................VI-4-68

Figure VI-4-1. Uniform placement .................................................................................VI-4-25

Figure VI-4-2. Random placement..................................................................................VI-4-25

Figure VI-4-3 Selective placement ................................................................................VI-4-26

Figure VI-4-4 Special placement ...................................................................................VI-4-27

Figure VI-4-5 Typical use of geotextile fabric in coastal revetment .............................VI-4-54

Table VI-4-1. Soil Density Parameters ..........................................................................VI-4-11

Table VI-4-2. Typical Soil Permeability Coefficients ..................................................VI-4-14

Table VI-4-3. Engineering Characteristics of Unweathered Common Rocks...............VI-4-18

Table VI-4-4. Durability Ranking for Common Stone ..................................................VI-4-21

Table VI-4-5. Approximate Criteria for Evaluating Stone ............................................VI-4-22

Table VI-4-6. Typical Compressive Strengths of Concrete ..........................................VI-4-31

Table VI-4-7. Concrete Compressive Strength for Different Water-Cement

Table VI-4-8. Recommended Concrete Slump for Various Types of

Table VI-4-9. Average Unit Weight of Fresh Concrete ................................................VI-4-35

Table VI-4-11. Galvanic Series in Flowing Seawater at Ambient Temperature .............VI-4-44

Table VI-4-13. General Characteristics of Common Wood ............................................VI-4-51

Table VI-4-14. Comparative Properties of Geotextile Materials ....................................VI-4-56

Table VI-4-15. Minimum Geotextile Fabric Physical Property Requirements ...............VI-4-59

Table VI-4-16. Determination of EOS and POA for Geotextiles ....................................VI-4-60

Table VI-4-17. Construction Limitations: Quarrystone Revetment ................................VI-4-62

Table VI-4-18. Construction Limitations: Block Revetments and Subaqueous

Materials and Construction Aspects

(5) Compatibility. Many projects combine different materials, and compatibility

b. Material durability. Durability is a relative term describing how well a material

e. Material availability. Availability of suitable materials for coastal project

(5) Wood. Typical wooden structural components present no difficulty in transporting

g. Material maintenance requirements. Project maintenance requirements depend in part

(6) Geotextiles and plastics. Maintenance requirements of synthetic materials vary

VI-4-2. Earth and Sand.

d. Environmental effects on earth and sand.

a. Use of stone in coastal construction. In the context of coastal engineering, “stone”

b. Physical and mechanical properties of rock. The paragraphs below provide an

c. Quarrystone procurement and inspection guidelines. The following are suggested

(10) Weights of delivered stone should be checked periodically to ensure contract

Figure VI-4-1. Uniform placement

Figure VI-4-2. Random placement

Figure VI-4-3. Selective placement

Figure VI-4-4. Special placement

a. Use of concrete and asphalt in coastal construction.

(a) Seawalls, Revetments, Bulkheads. Massive cast-in-place concrete seawalls have

(h) Other Applications. Concrete is used extensively in construction of conventional