Lecture: 08

System and it’s Classification

By
Afrin Ahmed
 Representation of a System
➢ A system is a mathematical model of a physical process that transforms
an input (or excitation) signal into an output (or response) signal with
properties different from those of the input signal.
➢ The signals may be of the continuous-time or discrete-time variety, or a
mixture of both.
➢ The interaction between a system and its associated signals is
illustrated in the figure below.

Input signal Output signal

System
Figure: Block diagram of a system

➢ Let x and y be the input and output signals, respectively, of a system.

Then the system is viewed as a transformation (or mapping) of x into y.
This transformation is represented by the mathematical notation y=Tx,
where T is the operator representing some well-defined rule by which x
is transformed into y.

4.2
 Representation of a System
A system is a defined by the type of input and output it deals with. Since we are dealing with signals,
so in our case, our system would be a mathematical model, a piece of code/software, or a physical
device, or a black box whose input is a signal and it performs some processing on that signal, and the
output is a signal. The input is known as excitation and the output is known as response.

Example: In the figure a system has been shown whose input and output both are signals but the
input is an analog signal. And the output is an digital signal. It means our system is actually a
conversion system that converts analog signals to digital signals.
 Representation of a System

Why do we need to convert an analog signal to digital signal.

• The first and obvious reason is that digital image processing deals with digital images, that are digital
signals. So when ever the image is captured, it is converted into digital format and then it is processed.

• The second and important reason is, that in order to perform operations on an analog signal with a
digital computer, you have to store that analog signal in the computer. Computers "talk" and "think" in
terms of binary digital data. While a microprocessor can analyze analog data, it must be converted into
digital form for the computer to make sense of it. And in order to store an analog signal, infinite memory
is required to store it. So we convert that signal into digital format and then store it in digital computer
and then performs operations on it.

• Digital signals propagate more efficiently than analog signals, largely because digital impulses are well
defined and orderly. They're also easier for electronic circuits to distinguish from noise, which is chaotic.
That is the chief advantage of digital communication modes.

• A typical telephone modem makes use of ADC to convert the incoming audio from a twisted-pair line
into signals the computer can understand. In a digital signal processing system, an analog-to-digital
converter is required if the input signal is analog.
 Classification of Systems
➢ Based on different features, several methods of classifying
systems are:
1. Continuous-time and Discrete-time systems
2. Invertible vs Non-Invertible System
3. Systems with Memory and without Memory
4. Casual and Noncasual Systems
5. Linear and Nonlinear Systems
6. Time-invariant and Time-varying Systems
7. Linear Time-invariant Systems
8. Stable Systems
9. Feedback Systems

4.5
 Continuous-Time Vs. Discrete-Time Systems
Continuous-time System: Discrete-time System:

➢ If the input signal x and ❖ If the input signal x and

output signal y of a system output signal y of a system
are continuous-time signals, are discrete-time signals or
then the system is called a sequences, then the system is
continuous-time system. called a discrete-time system.
➢ Figure-1 shows the ❖ Figure-2 shows the graphical
graphical representation of representation of a discrete-
a continuous-time system. time system.

Figure-1: Continuous-time system Figure-2: Discrete-time system

4.6
 Continuous-Time Vs. Discrete-Time Systems
Example:
➢ Consider a discrete-time system whose output signal y[n] is
the average of the three most recent values of the input signal
x[n]; that is
y[n] = 1/3(x[n]+x[n-1]+x[n-2])
➢ Formulate the overall system operator H for this system;
hence, develop a block diagram representation for it.
Solution:
➢ Let the discrete-time shift operator Sk denote a system that
shifts the input signal x[n] by k time units to produce an
output equal to x[n-k], as depicted in figure below.
x[n] x[n-k]
Sk

Figure: Discrete-time shift operator

➢ Accordingly, we may define the overall operator H for the

4.7 given system as: H=1/3(1+S+S2).
 Continuous-Time Vs. Discrete-Time Systems
➢ Two different but equivalent implementations of the system
are shown in figures below.
1. Cascade form of implementation: It uses two identical
time shifters, namely S1=S.
2. Parallel form of implementation: It uses two different
time shifters, S and S2, connected in parallel.
➢ In both cases, the system is made up of an interconnection of
three functional blocks: two time shifters, an adder and a
scalar multiplication.
x[n-1]
x[n] x[n-2]
S S
x[n]
S + 1/3 y[n]

+ S2

1/3

y[n] Figure: Parallel form

4.8
Figure: Cascade form
Invertible vs Non-Invertible System
 Invertible vs Non-Invertible System
Numerical Example: Find whether the given systems are invertible or non-invertible −
•𝑦(𝑡) = 5𝑥(𝑡)
•𝑦(𝑡) = 3 + 𝑥(𝑡)
•𝑦(𝑡) = 5𝑥2(𝑡)

Solution (1)
The given system is, 𝑦(𝑡) = 5𝑥(𝑡)
Let, 𝑥(𝑡) = 3, then the output of the system is, 𝑦(𝑡) = 5 × 3 = 15
Let, 𝑥(𝑡) = −3, then the output of the system is, 𝑦(𝑡) = 5 × (−3) = −15
Hence, for different inputs, there is different outputs. Therefore, the system is invertible system.

Solution (2)
The expression describing the system is, 𝑦(𝑡) = 3 + 𝑥(𝑡)
For 𝑥(𝑡) = 10, the output of the system is, 𝑦(𝑡) = 3 + 10 = 13
And for 𝑥(𝑡) = −10, the output of the system is, 𝑦(𝑡) = 3 + (−10) = −7
Since, for the given system, different inputs lead to a different output. Therefore, the system is an invertible system.

Solution (3)
The given system is, 𝑦(𝑡) = 5𝑥2(𝑡)
Let 𝑥(𝑡) = 5, the output of the system is, 𝑦(𝑡) = 5 × 52 = 125
Let 𝑥(𝑡) = −5, then the output of the system is, 𝑦(𝑡) = 5 × (−5)2 = 125
Since, for the given system, different inputs generate same output. Hence, the given system is a non-invertible system.
 Systems With Memory Vs. Without Memory
➢ A system is said to have memory if its output signal depends on past
or future values of the input signal.
➢ A system is said to be memoryless if its output signal at any time
depends only on the present value of the input signal. Otherwise, the
system is said to have memory.
➢ An example of a memoryless system is a resistor R, since the current
i(t) flowing through it in response to the applied voltage v(t) is
defined by-

➢ The input-output relationship (Ohm's law) of a resistor is

➢ An example of a system with memory is an inductor L, since the
current i(t) flowing through it in response to the applied voltage v(t)
is defined by-

➢ That is, unlike the current through a resistor, that through an inductor
at time t depends on all past values of the voltage v(t); the memory
4.11 of an inductor extends into the infinite past.
 Systems With Memory Vs. Without Memory
Example:
➢ In a discrete-time system, the output signal y[n] is the
average of the three most recent values of the input signal
x[n]; that is, y[n] = 1/3(x[n]+x[n-1]+x[n-2]). Is the system
memoryless?
Solution:
➢ Since the value of the output signal y[n] at time n depends on
the present and two past values of the input signal x[n], the
system is not memoryless, it has memory.

Example:
➢ A system is described by the input-output relation as
y[n]=x2[n]. Does the system have memory?
Solution:
➢ Since the value of the output signal y[n] at time n depends
only on the present value of the input signal x[n], the system
4.12 is memoryless.
 Casual Vs. Noncasual Systems
Casual System: Noncasual System:
➢ A system is called causal if its output y(t) ❖A system is said to be noncausal its
at an arbitrary time t=t0 depends only on output signal depends on one or more
the input x(t) for t<=t0. That is, in a future values of the input signal.
casual system, the present value of the
output signal depends only on the present
or past values of the input signal, not on ❖The moving average system described
its future values. by y[n]=1/3(x[n+1]+x[n]+x[n-1]) is
noncasual, since the value of the
output signal y[n] depends one future
➢ Thus, in a causal system, it is not value, one present value and one past
possible to obtain an output before an value of the input signal x[n].
input is applied to the system.
❖Examples of other noncausal systems
➢ The moving average system described by are:
y[n]=1/3(x[n]+x[n-1]+x[n-2]) is casual,
since the value of the output signal y[n]
depends only on the present and two past
values of the input signal x[n].

4.13
 Linear Vs. Nonlinear Systems
➢ A system is said to be linear in terms of the system input x(t) and the
system output y(t) if it satisfies the following two properties:
1. Additivity (or Superposition):
❖ Consider a system that is initially at rest. Let the system be subjected to an
input x(t)=x1(t), producing an output y(t)=y1(t).
❖ Suppose next that the same system is subjected to a different input
x(t)=x2(t), producing a corresponding output y(t)=y2(t).
❖ Then for the system to be linear, it is necessary that the composite input
x(t)=x1(t)+x2(t) produce the corresponding output y(t)=y1(t)+y2(t).

x (t ) = x1 (t ) y (t ) = y1 (t ) x (t ) = x1 ( t ) + x2 ( t )
x ( t ) = x2 ( t ) y (t ) = y2 (t ) y (t ) = y1 ( t ) + y2 ( t )

2. Homogeneity (or Scaling):

❖ Consider a system that is initially at rest. Suppose that an input x(t) results
in an output y(t).
❖ Then the system is said to exhibit the property of homogeneity if, whenever
the input x(t) is scaled by a constant factor a, the output y(t) is scaled by
exactly the same constant factor a.
a = constant
x(t ) y (t ) ax(t ) ay (t ) factor
4.16
 Linear Vs. Nonlinear Systems

4.18
 Linear Vs. Nonlinear Systems

4.19
 Time-Invariant Vs. Time-varying Systems
➢ A system is called time-invariant if a time shift (delay or
advance) in the input signal causes the same time shift in the
output signal. That is, the characteristics of a time-invariant
system do not change with time.
➢ Consider a continuous-time system whose input-output
relation is described by y1(t)=H{x1(t)}, where H is the system
operator, x1(t) is the input and y1(t) is the output signal of the
system.
➢ Suppose that the input signal x1(t) is shifted in time by t0
seconds, resulting in the new input x1(t-t0). This operation
may be described by writing x2(t)=x1(t-t0)=St0{x1(t)}, where
the operator St0 represents a time shift equal to t0 seconds for
the situation at hand.

4.20
 Time-Invariant Vs. Time-varying Systems

4.21
 Stable Systems
➢ A system is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable if
and only if every bounded input results in a bounded output. The output
of such a system does not diverge if the input does not diverge.

➢ To put the condition for BIBO stability on a formal basis, consider a

continuous-time system whose input-output relation is y(t)=H{x(t)}. The
operator H is BIBO stable if the output signal y(t) satisfies the condition:

Whenever the input signals x(t) satisfy the condition

Both Mx and My represent some finite positive numbers.

Note:
❖ From an engineering perspective, it is important that a system of interest remain stable
under all possible operating conditions. Only then is the system guaranteed to produce a
bounded output for a bounded input. Unstable systems are usually to be avoided, unless
some mechanism can be found to stabilize them.
4.22
 Feedback Systems
➢ In a feedback system, the output signal is fed back and added
to the input to the system as shown in the figure below.
➢ This is a special class of systems with great importance.

Figure-: Feedback system

4.23
 Noise
➢ The term noise is used customarily to designate unwanted
signals that tend to disturb the operation of a system and over
which we have incomplete control. The sources of noise that
may arise in practice depend on the system of interest.
➢ For example, in a communication system, there are many
potential sources of noise affecting the operation of the
system.
➢ In particular, we have the following two broadly defined
categories of noise.
1. External sources of noise
2. Internal sources of noise

4.24
 Noise
External sources of noise:
➢ This type of noise includes atmospheric noise, galactic noise,
and human-made noise.

Internal sources of noise:

➢ This type of noise arises from spontaneous fluctuations of the
current or voltage signal in electrical circuits. For this reason,
this type of noise is commonly referred to as electrical noise.
➢ The omnipresence and inevitability of electrical noise in all
kinds of electronic systems impose a basic limitation on the
transmission or direction of signals.

4.25
 Noise
➢ Figure below shows a sample waveform of electrical noise
generated by a thermionic diode noise generator.

Figure:
Sample
waveform of
electrical noise

4.26
Thermal Noise
➢ Thermal noise arises from the random motion of electrons in a
conductor.
➢ It is a ubiquitous form of electrical noise.
➢ Let v(t) denote the thermal noise voltage appearing across the
terminals of a resistor. Then the thermal noise so generated
has the following two characteristics:
1. Time-averaged value: 2T = total observation interval of noise
1 T
v = lim
T → 2T 
−T
v(t )dt (1.94) As T → , v → 0 Refer to Fig. 1.60.

2. Time-average-squared value:
1 T
v = lim 
2
v 2 (t )dt (1.95)
T → 2T −T
 Thank You

4.28