Chapter 3 Probability

Chapter 3: Probability
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We see probabilities almost every day in our real lives. Most times you pick up the
newspaper or read the news on the internet, you encounter probability. There is a 65%
chance of rain today, or a pre-election poll shows that 52% of voters approve of a ballot
of the ideas students think they know about probability are incorrect. This is one area of
item, are examples of probabilities. Did you ever wonder why a flush beats a full house in
poker? It’s because the probability of getting a flush is smaller than the probability of
getting a full house. Probabilities can also be used to make business decisions, figure out
insurance premiums, and determine the price of raffle tickets.
If an experiment has only three possible outcomes, does this mean that each outcome has
a 1/3 chance of occurring? Many students who have not studied probability would answer
yes. Unfortunately, they could be wrong. The answer depends on the experiment. Many
math where their intuition is sometimes misleading. Students need to use experiments or
mathematical formulas to calculate probabilities correctly.
Section 3.1: Basic Probabilities and Probability Distributions; Three

Ways to Define Probabilities
Toss a thumb tack one time. Do you think the tack will land with the point up or the point
down?
Figure 3.1.1: Which Way Will a Tack Fall?
(Thumbtack, n.d.)
We cannot predict which way the tack will land before we toss it. Sometimes it will land
with the point up and other times it will land with the point down. Tossing a tack is a
random experiment since we cannot predict what the outcome will be. We do know that
there are only two possible outcomes for each trial of the experiment: lands points up or
lands point down. If we repeat the experiment of tossing the tack many times we might
be able to guess how likely it is that the tack will land point up.
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A random experiment is an activity or an observation whose outcome cannot be
predicted ahead of time
A trial is one repetition of a random experiment.
The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes for a random experiment.
An event is a subset of the sample space.
Do you think chances of the tack landing point up and the tack landing point down are
the same? This is an example where your intuition may be wrong. Having only two
possible outcomes does not mean each outcome has a 50/50 chance of happening. In fact
we are going to see that the probability of the tack landing point up is about 66%.
To begin to answer this question, toss a tack 10 times. For each toss record whether the
tack lands point up or point down.
Table 3.1.2: Toss a Tack Ten Times
Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Up/Down Up Down Up Up Down Up Up Down Up Down
The random experiment here is tossing the tack one time. The possible outcomes for the
experiment are that the tack lands point up or the tack lands point down so the sample
space is S = {point up, point down}. We are interested in the event E that the tack lands
point up, E = {point up}.
Based on our data we would say that the tack landed point up six out of 10 times. The
fraction, 106 , is called the relative frequency. Since 106 = 0.60 we would guess that
probability of the tack landing point up is about 60%.
Let’s repeat the experiment by tossing the tack ten more times.
Table 3.1.3: Toss a Tack Ten More Times
Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Up/Down Up Up Up Down Down Up Up Down Up Up
This time the tack landed point up seven out of 10 times or 70% of the time. If we tossed
the tack another 10 times we might get a different result again. The probability of the tack
landing point up refers to what happens when we toss the tack many, many times. Let’s
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toss the tack 150 times and count the number of times it lands point up. Along the way
we will look at the proportion of landing point up.
Table 3.1.4: Toss a Tack Many Times
Number Total Number Total Number

Trials Up Of Up Of Trials Proportion
0-10 6 6 10 6/10=0.60
11-20 7 13 20 13/20=0.65
21-30 8 21 30 21/30=0.70
31-40 6 27 40 27/40=0.68
41-50 8 35 50 35/50=0.70
51-60 8 43 60 43/60=0.72
61-70 4 47 70 47/70=0.67
71-80 7 54 80 54/80=0.68
81-90 5 59 90 59/90=0.66
91-100 6 65 100 65/100=0.65
101-110 10 75 110 75/110=0.68
111-120 5 80 120 80/120=0.67
121-130 8 88 130 88/130=0.68
131-140 4 92 140 92/140=0.66
141-150 7 99 150 99/150=0.66
When we have a small number of trials the proportion varies quite a bit. As we start to
have more trials the proportion still varies but not by as much. It appears that the
proportion is around 0.66 or 66%. We would have to do about 100,000 trials to get a
better approximation of the actual probability of the tack landing point up.
The tack landed point up 99 out of 150 trials. The probability P of event E is written as:
# of trials with point up 99

P (=
E) = ≈ 0.66
total number of trials 150
We would say the probability that the tack lands point up is about 66%.
Equally Likely Outcomes:
In some experiments all the outcomes have the same chance of happening. If we roll a
fair die the chances are the same for rolling a two or rolling a five. If we draw a single
card from a well shuffled deck of cards, each card has the same chance of being selected.
We call outcomes like these equally likely. Drawing names from a hat or drawing straws
are other examples of equally likely outcomes. The tack tossing example did not have
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equally likely outcomes since the probability of the tack landing point up is different than
the probability of the tack landing point down.
An experiment has equally likely outcomes if every outcome has the same probability
of occurring.
For equally likely outcomes, the probability of outcome A, P(A), is:

number of ways for A to occur
P ( A) = .
total number of outcomes
Round Off Rule: Give probabilities as a fraction or as a decimal number rounded to

three decimal places.
Figure 3.1.5: Deck of Cards
(Pine, 2007)
Example 3.1.1: Simple Probabilities with Cards
Draw a single card from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. Each card has the same
chance of being drawn so we have equally likely outcomes. Find the following
probabilities:
a. P(card is red)
number of red cards 26 1

P(card is red) = = =
total number of cards 52 2
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1
The probability that the card is red is .
2
b. P(card is a heart)
number of hearts 13 1
P(card is a heart) = = =
1
The probability that the card is a heart is .
4
c. P(card is a red 5)
number of red fives 2 1

P(card is a red 5) = = =
1
The probability that the card is a red five is .
26
Example 3.1.2: Simple Probabilities with a Fair Die
Roll a fair die one time. The sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Find the
following probabilities.
a. P(roll a four)
number of ways to roll a four 1

P(roll a four) = =
total number of ways to roll a die 6
1
The probability of rolling a four is .
6
b. P(roll an odd number)
The event roll an odd number is E = {1, 3, 5}.
number of ways to roll an odd number 3 1

P(roll an odd number) = = =
total number of ways to roll a die 6 2
1
The probability of rolling an odd number is .
2
c. P(roll a number less than five)
The event roll a number less than five is F = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
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number of ways to roll number less than five 4 2
)
P ( roll a number less than five = = =
total number of ways to roll a die 6 3
2
The probability of rolling a number less than five is .
3
Example 3.1.3: Simple Probability with Books
Figure 3.1.6: Books on a Shelf
(Bookshelf, 2011)
A small bookcase contains five math, three English and seven science books. A
book is chosen at random. What is the probability that a math book is chosen.
Since the book is chosen at random each book has the same chance of being
chosen and we have equally likely events.
number of ways to choose a math book 5 1

P ( math book=
) = =
total number of books 15 3
1
The probability a math book was chosen is .
3
Three Ways of Finding Probabilities:
There are three ways to find probabilities. In the tack tossing example we calculated the
probability of the tack landing point up by doing an experiment and recording the
outcomes. This was an example of an empirical probability. The probability of getting a
red jack in a card game or rolling a five with a fair die can be calculated from
mathematical formulas. These are examples of theoretical probabilities. The third type of
probability is a subjective probability. Saying that there is an 80% chance that you will
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go to the beach this weekend is a subjective probability. It is based on experience or
guessing.
A theoretical probability is based on a mathematical model where all outcomes are

equally likely to occur.
An empirical probability is based on an experiment or observation and is the relative

frequency of the event occurring.
A subjective probability is an estimate (a guess) based on experience or intuition.
Complements:
If there is a 75% chance of rain today, what are the chances it will not rain? We know
that there are only two possibilities. It will either rain or it will not rain. Because the sum
of the probabilities for all the outcomes in the sample space must be 100% or 1.00, we
know that
P(will rain) + P(will not rain) = 100%.
Rearranging this we see that
P(will not rain) = 100% - P(will rain) = 100% - 75% = 25%.
The events E = {will rain} and F = {will not rain} are called complements.
The complement of event E, denoted by E , is the set of outcomes in the sample space
that are not in the event E. The probability of E is given by P ( E ) = 1 − P ( E ) .
Example 3.1.4: Complements with Cards
Draw a single card from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards.
a. Look at the suit of the card. Here the sample space S = {spades, clubs, hearts,
diamonds}. If event E = {spades} the complement E = {clubs, hearts,
diamonds}.
b. Look at the value of the cards. Here the sample space is S = {A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, J, Q, K}. If the event E = {the number is less than 7} = {A, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6} the complement E = {7, 8, 9, 10, J, Q, K}.
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Example 3.1.5: Complements with Trains
A train arrives on time at a particular station 85% of the time. Does this mean that
the train is late 15% of the time? The answer is no. The complement of E = {on
time} is not E = {late}. There is a third possibility. The train could be early. The
sample space is S = {on time, early, late} so the complement of E = {on time} is
E = {early or late}. Based on the given information we cannot find P(late) but
we can find P(early or late) = 15%.
Impossible Events and Certain Events:

Recall that P ( A) = . What does it mean if we say the
=
probability of the event is zero? P ( A) = 0 . The only
way for a fraction to equal zero is when the numerator is zero. This means there is no
way for event A to occur. A probability of zero means that the event is impossible.
What does it mean if we say the probability of an event is one?

P ( A) = 1 . The only way for a fraction to equal one is if
the numerator and denominator are the same. The number of ways for A to occur is the
same as the number of outcomes. There are no outcomes where A does not occur. A
probability of 1 means that the event always happens.
P ( A ) = 0 means that A is impossible

P ( A ) = 1 means that A is certain
Probability Distributions:
A probability distribution (probability space) is a sample space paired with the

probabilities for each outcome in the sample space. If we toss a fair coin and see which
side lands up, there are two outcomes, heads and tails. Since the coin is fair these are
equally likely outcomes and have the same probabilities. The probability distribution
would be P(heads) = 1/2 and P(tails) = 1/2. This is often written in table form:
Table 3.1.7: Probability Distribution for a Fair Coin
Outcome Heads Tails

Probability 1/2 1/2
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A probability distribution for an experiment is a list of all the possible outcomes and
their corresponding probabilities.
Example 3.1.6: Probabilities for the Sum of Two Fair Dice
In probability problems when we roll two dice, it is helpful to think of the dice as
being different colors. Let’s assume that one die is red and the other die is green.
We consider getting a three on the red die and a five on the green die different
than getting a five on the red die and a three on the green die. In other words,
when we list the outcomes the order matters. The possible outcomes of rolling
two dice and looking at the sum are given in Table 3.1.8.
Table 3.1.8: All Possible Sums of Two Dice
1+1 = 2 1+2 = 3 1+3 = 4 1+4 = 5 1+5 = 6 1+6 = 7

2+1 = 3 2+2 = 4 2+3 = 5 2+4 = 6 2+5 = 7 2+6 = 8
3+1 = 4 3+2 = 5 3+3 = 6 3+4 = 7 3+5 = 8 3+6 = 9
4+1 = 5 4+2 = 6 4+3 = 7 4+4 = 8 4+5 = 9 4+6 = 10
5+1 = 6 5+2 = 7 5+3 = 8 5+4 = 9 5+5 = 10 5+6 = 11
6+1 = 7 6+2 = 8 6+3 = 9 6+4 = 10 6+5 = 11 6+6 = 12
Table 3.1.9: Probability Distribution for the Sum of Two Fair Dice
Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Probability 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
Reduced 1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 1
Probability 36 18 12 9 36 6 36 9 12 18 36
Example 3.1.7: Valid and Invalid Probability Distributions
Are the following valid probability distributions?
a. Table 3.1.10:
Outcome A B C D E
Probability 1 1 1 1 1
2 8 8 8 8
This is a valid probability distribution. All the probabilities are between zero and
one inclusive and the sum of the probabilities is 1.00.
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b. Table 3.1.11:
Outcome A B C D E F
Probability 0.45 0.80 -0.20 -0.35 0.10 0.20
This is not a valid probability distribution. The sum of the probabilities is 1.00,
but some of the probabilities are not between zero and one, inclusive.
c. Table 3.1.12:
Outcome A B C D
Probability 0.30 0.20 0.40 0.25
This is not a valid probability distribution. All of the probabilities are between
zero and one, inclusive, but the sum of the probabilities is 1.15 not 1.00.
Odds:
Probabilities are always numbers between zero and one. Many people are not
comfortable working with such small values. Another way of describing the likelihood of
an event happening is to use the ratio of how often it happens to how often it does not
happen. The ratio is called the odds of the event happening. There are two types of odds,
odds for and odds against. Casinos, race tracks and other types of gambling usually state
the odds against an event happening.
If the probability of an event E is P(E), then the odds for event E, O(E), are given by:
P(E) number of ways for E to occur
O (E) = OR O(E) =
P(E) number of ways for E to not occur
Also, the odds against event E, are given by:
P(E)
O (E) =
number of ways for E to not occur
OR O(E) =
P(E) number of ways for E to occur
Example 3.1.8: Odds in Drawing a Card
A single card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the odds that
the card is a red eight.
There are two red eights in the deck.
2 1
P ( red eight=
) =
52 26
50 25
P ( not a red eight=
) = .
52 26
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1
P ( red eight ) 1 26 1
O ( red eight ) = = 26 = ⋅ = .
P ( not a red eight ) 25 26 25 25
26
The odds of drawing a red eight are 1 to 25. This can also be written as 1:25.
Note: Do not write odds as a decimal or a percent.
Example 3.1.9: Odds in Roulette
Many roulette wheels have slots numbered 0, 00, and 1 through 36. The slots
numbered 0 and 00 are green. The even numbered slots are red and the odd
numbered slots are black. The game is played by spinning the wheel one direction
and rolling a marble around the outer edge the other direction. Players bet on
which slot the marble will fall into. What are the odds the marble will land in a
red slot?
There are 38 slots in all. The slots 2, 4, 6, …, 36 are red so there are 18 red slots.
The other 20 slots are not red.
18 9
P ( red=
) =
38 19
9 19 9 10
P ( not red ) =−
1 = − =
19 19 19 19
9
P ( red ) 9 19 9
O ( red ) = = 19 = ⋅ =
P ( not red ) 10 19 10 10
19
The odds of the marble landing in a red slot are 9 to 10. This can also be written
as 9:10.
Example 3.1.10: Odds Against an Event
Two fair dice are tossed and the sum is recorded. Find the odds against rolling a
sum of nine.
The event E, roll a sum of nine is: E = {(3, 6), (4, 5), (5, 4), (6, 3)}
There are 36 ways to roll two dice and four ways to roll a sum of nine. That
means there are 32 ways to roll a sum that is not nine.
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4 1
P ( sum is nine=
) =
36 9
32 8
P ( sum is not nine=
) =
36 9
8
P ( sum is not nine ) 9 8 9 8
O ( against sum is nine ) = = = ⋅ =
P ( sum is nine ) 1 9 1 1
9
The odds against rolling a sum of nine are 8 to 1 or 8:1.
We can also find the probability of an event happening based on the odds for the event.
Saying that the odds of an event are 3 to 5 means that the event happens three times for
every five times it does not happen. If we add up the possibilities of both we get a sum of
eight. So the event happens about three out of every eight times. We would say the
probability is 3/8.
If the odds favoring event E are a to b, then:
and P ( E ) =
a b
P(E) = .
a+b a+b
Example 3.1.11: Finding the Probability from the Odds
A local little league baseball team is going to a tournament. The odds of the team
winning the tournament are 3 to 7. Find the probability of the team winning the
tournament.
3 3
P ( winning=
) = = 0.3
3 + 7 10
Section 3.2: Combining Probabilities with “And” and “Or”

Many probabilities in real life involve more than one outcome. If we draw a single card
from a deck we might want to know the probability that it is either red or a jack. If we
look at a group of students, we might want to know the probability that a single student
has brown hair and blue eyes. When we combine two outcomes to make a single event
we connect the outcomes with the word “and” or the word “or.” It is very important in
probability to pay attention to the words “and” and “or” if they appear in a problem. The
word “and” restricts the field of possible outcomes to only those outcomes that
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simultaneously satisfy more than one event. The word “or” broadens the field of possible
outcomes to those that satisfy one or more events.
Example 3.2.1: Counting Students
Figure 3.2.1: College Classroom
(Colwell, 2013)
Suppose a teacher wants to know the probability that a single student in her class
of 30 students is taking either Art or English. She asks the class to raise their
hands if they are taking Art and counts 13 hands. Then she asks the class to raise
their hands if they are taking English and counts 21 hands. The teacher then
calculates
13 + 21 33
P ( Art or English
= ) = .
30 30
The teacher knows that this is wrong because probabilities must be between zero
and one, inclusive. After thinking about it she remembers that nine students are
taking both Art and English. These students raised their hands each time she
counted, so the teacher counted them twice. When we calculate probabilities we
have to be careful to count each outcome only once.
Mutually Exclusive Events:
An experiment consists of drawing one card from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards.
Consider the events E: the card is red, F: the card is a five, and G: the card is a spade. It is
possible for a card to be both red and a five at the same time but it is not possible for a
card to be both red and a spade at the same time. It would be easy to accidentally count a
red five twice by mistake. It is not possible to count a red spade twice.
Two events are mutually exclusive if they have no outcomes in common.
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Example 3.2.2: Mutually Exclusive with Dice
Two fair dice are tossed and different events are recorded. Let the events E, F and
G be as follows:
E = {the sum is five} = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 1)}
F = {both numbers are even} = {(2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (4, 2), (4, 4), (4, 6), (6, 2),
(6, 4), (6, 6)}
G = {both numbers are less than five} = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2),
(2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4,1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4,4)}
a. Are events E and F mutually exclusive?
Yes. E and F are mutually exclusive because they have no outcomes in

common. It is not possible to add two even numbers to get a sum of five.
b. Are events E and G mutually exclusive?
No. E and G are not mutually exclusive because they have some outcomes in
common. The pairs (1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2) and (4, 1) all have sums of 5 and both
numbers are less than five.
c. Are events F and G mutually exclusive?
No. F and G are not mutually exclusive because they have some outcomes in
common. The pairs (2, 2), (2, 4), (4, 2) and (4, 4) all have two even numbers
that are less than five.
Addition Rule for “Or” Probabilities:
The addition rule for probabilities is used when the events are connected by the word
“or”. Remember our teacher in Example 3.2.1 at the beginning of the section? She
wanted to know the probability that her students were taking either art or English. Her
problem was that she counted some students twice. She needed to add the number of
students taking art to the number of students taking English and then subtract the number
of students she counted twice. After dividing the result by the total number of students
she will find the desired probability. The calculation is as follows:
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# taking art + # taking English - # taking both
P ( art or English ) =
total number of students
13 + 21 − 9
=
30
25
= ≈ 0.833
30
The probability that a student is taking art or English is 0.833 or 83.3%.
When we calculate the probability for compound events connected by the word “or” we
need to be careful not to count the same thing twice. If we want the probability of
drawing a red card or a five we cannot count the red fives twice. If we want the
probability a person is blonde-haired or blue-eyed we cannot count the blue-eyed blondes
twice. The addition rule for probabilities adds the number of blonde-haired people to the
number of blue-eyed people then subtracts the number of people we counted twice.
Addition Rule for “Or” Probabilities

If A and B are any events then, P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B).
If A and B are mutually exclusive events then P(A and B) = 0, so then
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B).
Example 3.2.3: Additional Rule for Drawing Cards
A single card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the probability
that the card is a club or a face card.
There are 13 cards that are clubs, 12 face cards (J, Q, K in each suit) and 3 face
cards that are clubs.
P ( club or face card ) =

P ( club ) + P ( face card ) − P ( club and face card )
13 12 3
=+ −
52 52 52
22 11
= = ≈ 0.423
52 26
The probability that the card is a club or a face card is approximately 0.423 or
42.3%.
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Example 3.2.4: Addition Rule for Tossing a Coin and Rolling a Die
An experiment consists of tossing a coin then rolling a die. Find the probability
that the coin lands heads up or the number is five.
Let H represent heads up and T represent tails up. The sample space for this
experiment is S = {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}.
There are six ways the coin can land heads up, {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6}.
There are two ways the die can land on five, {H5, T5}.
There is one way for the coin to land heads up and the die to land on five, {H5}.
P ( heads or five )= P ( heads ) + P ( five ) − P ( both heads and five )

6 2 1
= + −
12 12 12
7
= ≈ 0.583
12
The probability that the coin lands heads up or the number is five is
approximately 0.583 or 58.3%.
Example 3.2.5: Addition Rule for Satisfaction of Car Buyers
Two hundred fifty people who recently purchased a car were questioned and the
results are summarized in the following table.
Table 3.2.2: Satisfaction of Car Buyers
Satisfied Not Satisfied Total

New Car 92 28 120
Used Car 83 47 130
Total 175 75 250
Find the probability that a person bought a new car or was not satisfied.
P ( new car or not satisfied ) =

P ( new car ) + P ( not satisfied ) − P ( new car and not satisfied )
120 75 28 167
+= − = ≈ 0.668
250 250 250 250
The probability that a person bought a new car or was not satisfied is
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Independent Events:
Sometimes we need to calculate probabilities for compound events that are connected by
the word “and.” We have two methods to choose from, independent events or
conditional probabilities (Section 3.3). Tossing a coin multiple times or rolling dice are
independent events. Each time you toss a fair coin the probability of getting heads is ½. It
does not matter what happened the last time you tossed the coin. It’s similar for dice. If
you rolled double sixes last time that does not change the probability that you will roll
double sixes this time. Drawing two cards without replacement is not an independent
event. When you draw the first card and set it aside, the probability for the second card is
now out of 51 cards not 52 cards.
Two events are independent events if the occurrence of one event has no effect on the
probability of the occurrence of the other event.
Multiplication Rule for “And” Probabilities: Independent Events

If events A and B are independent events, then P ( A and
= B ) P ( A) ⋅ P ( B ) .
Example 3.2.6: Independent Events for Tossing Coins
Suppose a fair coin is tossed four times. What is the probability that all four tosses
land heads up?
The tosses of the coins are independent events. Knowing a head was tossed on the
first trial does not change the probability of tossing a head on the second trial.
P ( four heads in a row ) = P (1st heads and 2nd heads and 3rd heads and 4th heads )
= P (1st heads ) ⋅ P ( 2nd heads ) ⋅ P ( 3rd heads ) ⋅ P ( 4th heads )
1 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
2 2 2 2
1
=
16
1
The probability that all four tosses land heads up is .
16
Example 3.2.7: Independent Events for Drawing Marbles
A bag contains five red and four white marbles. A marble is drawn from the bag,
its color recorded and the marble is returned to the bag. A second marble is then
drawn. What is the probability that the first marble is red and the second marble is
white?
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Since the first marble is put back in the bag before the second marble is drawn
these are independent events.
P (1st red and 2nd

= white ) P (1st red ) ⋅ P ( 2nd white )
5 4 20
= ⋅ =
9 9 81
20
The probability that the first marble is red and the second marble is white is .
81
Example 3.2.8: Independent Events for Faulty Alarm Clocks
Abby has an important meeting in the morning. She sets three battery-powered
alarm clocks just to be safe. If each alarm clock has a 0.03 probability of
malfunctioning, what is the probability that all three alarm clocks fail at the same
time?
Since the clocks are battery powered we can assume that one failing will have no
effect on the operation of the other two clocks. The functioning of the clocks is
independent.
P ( all three fail ) =P ( first fails ) ⋅ P ( second fails ) ⋅ P ( third fails )

= ( 0.03)( 0.03)( 0.03)
= 2.7 x10−5
The probability that all three clocks will fail is approximately 0.000027 or
0.0027%. It is very unlikely that all three alarm clocks will fail.
At Least Once Rule for Independent Events:
Many times we need to calculate the probability that an event will happen at least once in
many trials. The calculation can get quite complicated if there are more than a couple of
trials. Using the complement to calculate the probability can simplify the problem
considerably. The following example will help you understand the formula.
Example 3.2.9: At Least Once Rule
The probability that a child forgets her homework on a given day is 0.15. What is
the probability that she will forget her homework at least once in the next five
days?
Assume that whether she forgets or not one day has no effect on whether she
forgets or not the second day.
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If P(forgets) = 0.15, then P(not forgets) = 0.85.
P ( forgets at least once in 5 tries )

= P ( forgets 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 times in 5 tries )
= 1 − P ( forgets 0 times in 5 tries )
1 − P ( not forget ) ⋅ P ( not forget ) ⋅ P ( not forget ) ⋅ P ( not forget ) ⋅ P ( not forget )
=
= 1 − ( 0.85 )( 0.85 )( 0.85 )( 0.85 )( 0.85 )
1 − ( 0.85 ) =
=
5
0.556
The probability that the child will forget her homework at least one day in the next five
days is 0.556 or 55.6%
The idea in Example 3.2.9 can be generalized to get the At Least Once Rule.
At Least Once Rule

If an experiment is repeated n times, the n trials are independent and the probability of
event A occurring one time is P(A) then the probability that A occurs at least one time
is: P ( A occurs at least once in n trials ) = 1 − P ( A )
n
Example 3.2.10: At Least Once Rule for Bird Watching
The probability of seeing a falcon near the lake during a day of bird watching is
0.21. What is the probability that a birdwatcher will see a falcon at least once in
eight trips to the lake?
Let A be the event that he sees a falcon so P(A) = 0.21. Then,

P ( A) =
1 − 0.21 =
0.79 .
P ( at least once in eight tries ) = 1 − P ( A )

8
= 1 − ( 0.79 )
8
=
1 − 0.152 =
0.848
The probability of seeing a falcon at least once in eight trips to the lake is
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Example 3.2.11: At Least Once Rule for Guessing on Multiple Choice Tests
A multiple choice test consists of six questions. Each question has four choices
for answers, only one of which is correct. A student guesses on all six questions.
What is the probability that he gets at least one answer correct?
Let A be the event that the answer to a question is correct. Since each question
1
has four choices and only one correct choice, P ( correct ) = .
4
1 3
That means P ( not correct ) =1 − = .
4 4
P ( at least one correct in six trials ) = 1 − P ( not correct )

6
6
3
= 1−  
4
=1 − 0.178 =
0.822
The probability that he gets at least one answer correct is 0.822 or 82.2%.
“And” Probabilities from Two-Way Tables:
“And” probabilities are usually done by one of two methods. If you know the events are
independent you can use the rule P ( A and
= B ) P ( A ) ⋅ P ( B ) . If the events are not
independent you can use the conditional probabilities in Section 3.3. There is an
exception when we have data given in a two-way table. We can calculate “and”
probabilities without knowing if the events are independent or not.
Example 3.2.12: “And” Probability from a Two-Way Table
Continuation of Example 3.2.5:
results are summarized in the following table.

New Car 92 28 120
Used Car 83 47 130
Total 175 75 250
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A person is chosen at random. Find the probability that the person:
a. bought a new car and was satisfied.
number of new car and satisfied 92

P ( new car and satisfied
= ) = = 0.368
= 36.8%
number of people 250
b. bought a used car and was not satisfied.
number of used and not satisfied 47

P ( used car and not satisfied
= ) = = 0.188
= 18.8%
number of people 250
Section 3.3: Conditional Probabilities

What do you think the probability is that a man is over six feet tall? If you knew that both
his parents were tall would you change your estimate of the probability? A conditional
probability is a probability that is based on some prior knowledge.
A conditional probability is the probability that an event will occur if some other
condition has already occurred. This is denoted by P ( A | B ) , which is read “the
probability of A given B.”
Example 3.3.1: Conditional Probability for Drawing Cards without Replacement
Two cards are drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards without replacement.
Find the following probabilities.
a. The probability that the second card is a heart given that the first card is a
spade.
Without replacement means that the first card is set aside before the second
card is drawn and we assume the first card is a spade. There are only 51 cards
to choose from for the second card. Thirteen of those cards are hearts.
It’s important to notice that the question only asks about the second card.
13
P ( 2nd heart | 1st spade ) =
51
The probability that the second card is a heart given that the first card is a
13
spade is .
51
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b. The probability that the first card is a face card and the second card an ace.
Notice that this time the question asks about both of the cards.
There are 12 face cards out of 52 cards when we draw the first card. We set
the first card aside and assume that it is a face card. Then there are four aces
out of the 51 remaining cards. We want to draw a face card and an ace so use
multiplication.
12 4 48
P (1st face card and 2nd ace ) = ⋅ = ≈ 0.018
52 51 2652
The probability that the first card is a face card and the second card an ace is
c. The probability that one card is a heart and the other a club.
There are two ways for this to happen. We could get a heart first and a club
second or we could get the club first and the heart second.
P ( heart and club ) = P ( heart 1st and club 2nd or club 1st and heart 2nd )
= P ( heart 1st and club 2nd ) + P ( club 1st and heart 2nd )
13 13 13 13
= ⋅ + ⋅
52 51 52 51
≈ 0.127
The probability that one card is a heart and the other a club is approximately
0.127 or 12.7%.
Example 3.3.2: Conditional Probability for Rolling Dice
Two fair dice are rolled and the sum of the numbers is observed. What is the
probability that the sum is at least nine if it is known that one of the dice shows a
five?
Since we are given that one of the dice shows a five this is a conditional
probability. List the pairs of dice with one die showing a five. Be careful not to
count (5,5) twice.
{(1,5), (2,5), (3,5), (4,5), (5,5), (6,5), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,6)}
List the pairs from above that have a sum of at least nine.
{(4,5), (5,5), (6,5), (5,4), (5,6)}
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There are 11 ways for one die to show a five and five of these ways have a sum of
at least nine.
5
P ( sum at least 9 | one die is a 5) =
11
The probability that the sum is at least nine if it is known that one of the dice
5
shows a five is .
11
Multiplication Rule for “And” Probabilities: Any Events

For events A and B, P ( A and
= B ) P ( A) ⋅ P ( B | A)
Conditional Probability
P ( A and B )
For events A and B, P ( B | A ) =
P ( A)
Example 3.3.3: Conditional Probability for Satisfaction of Car Buyers
results are summarized in the following table from Section 3.2.

New Car 92 28 120
Used Car 83 47 130
Total 175 75 250
What is the probability that a person is satisfied if it is known that the person
bought a used car?
This is a conditional probability because we already know that the person bought
a used car.
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P ( satisfied and used )

P ( satisfied | used car ) =
P ( used )
83
83 250 83
= 250
=  = ≈ 0.638
130 250 130 130
250
The probability that a person is satisfied if it is known that the person bought a
used car is approximately 0.638 or 63.8%.
Example 3.3.4: Conditional Probability for Residence and Class Standing
A survey of 350 students at a university revealed the following data about class
standing and place of residence.
Table 3.3.1: Housing by Class
Residence\Class Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Row

Totals
Dormitory 89 34 46 15 184
Apartment 32 17 22 48 119
With Parents 13 31 3 0 47
Column Totals 134 82 71 63 350
What is the probability that a student is a sophomore if that student lives in an

apartment?
This is a conditional probability because we are given that the student lives in an
apartment.
P ( sophomore and apartment )

P ( sophomore | apartment ) =
P ( apartment )
17
17 350 17
= 350
=  = ≈ 0.143
119 350 119 119
350
The probability that a student is a sophomore given that the student lives in an
apartment is approximately 0.143 or 14.3%.
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Section 3.4: Expected Value and Law of Large Numbers

Would you buy a lottery ticket with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5? Do you think that a
winning ticket with five consecutive numbers is less likely than a winning ticket with the
numbers 2, 14, 18, 23 and 32? If you are playing a slot machine in Las Vegas and you
have lost the last 10 times, do you keep playing the same machine because you are “due
for a win?” Have you ever wondered how a casino can afford to offer meals and rooms
at such cheap rates? Should you play a game of chance at a carnival? How much should
an organization charge for raffle tickets for their next fund raiser? All of these questions
can be answered using probabilities.
Suppose the random variable x can take on the n values x1 , x2 , x3 ,  , xn . If the

probability that each of these values occurs is p1 , p2 , p3 ,  , pn , respectively, then the
expected value of the random variable is E ( x )= x1 p1 + x2 p2 + x3 p3 + ... + xn pn .
Example 3.4.1: Expected Value for Raffle Tickets
Valley View Elementary is trying to raise money to buy tablets for their
classrooms. The PTA sells 2000 raffle tickets at $3 each. First prize is a flat-
screen TV worth $500. Second prize is an android tablet worth $375. Third prize
is an e-reader worth $200. Five $25 gift certificates will also be awarded. What
are the expected winnings for a person who buys one ticket?
We need to write out the probability distribution before we find the expected
value.
A total of eight tickets are winners and the other 1992 tickets are losers.
Table 3.4.1: Probability Distribution for the Valley View Raffle
Outcome Win Win Win Win $25 Win $0

$500 $375 $200
Probability 1 1 1 5 1 1992 249
= =
2000 2000 2000 2000 400 2000 250
Now use the formula for the expected value.
 1   1   1   1   249 
E= 500   + 375   + 200   + 25   + 0 
 2000   2000   2000   400   250 
= 0.60
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It costs $3 to buy a ticket but we only win an average of $0.60 per ticket. That
means the expected winnings per ticket are $0.60 - $3 = -$2.40.
We would expect to lose an average of $2.40 for each ticket bought. This means
that the school will earn an average of $2.40 for each ticket bought for a profit of
$2.40 • 2000 = $4800.
Example 3.4.2: Expected Value for Profit from a Purchase
A real estate investor buys a parcel of land for $150,000. He estimates the
probability that he can sell it for $200,000 to be 0.40, the probability that he can
sell it for $160,000 to be 0.45 and the probability that he can sell it for $125,000
to be 0.15. What is the expected profit for this purchase?
Find the profit for each situation first. $200,000 – $150,000 = $50,000 profit,
$160,000 - $150,000 = $10,000 profit, and $125,000 - $150,000 = -$25,000 profit
(loss).
The probability distribution is
Table 3.4.2: Probability Distribution for a Real Estate Purchase
Outcome $50,000 $10,000 -$25,000

Probability 0.40 0.45 0.15
=E 50,000 ( 0.40 ) + 10,000 ( 0.45) + ( −25,000 )( 0.15)

= $20,750
The expected profit from the purchase is $20,750.
Example 3.4.3: Expected Value for Life Insurance
The cost of a $50,000 life insurance policy is $150 per year for a person who is
21-years old. Assume the probability that a person will die at age 21 is 0.001.
What is the company’s expected profit if the company sells 10,000 policies to 21-
year olds?
There are two outcomes. If the person lives the insurance company makes a profit
of $150. The probability that the person lives is 1-0.001=0.999. If the person dies
the company takes in $150 and pays out $50,000 for a loss of $49,850.
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Table 3.4.3: Probability Distribution for Life Insurance
Outcome $150 -$49,850

Probability 0.999 0.001
The expected value for one policy is:
E ( x ) $150 ( 0.999 ) + ( −$49,850

= = )( 0.001) $149.80
If the company sells 10,000 policies at a profit of $149.80 each, the total expected
profit is $149.80 (10,000 ) = $1, 498,000 .
A game that has an expected value of zero is called a fair game.
Example 3.4.4: Expected Value for a Carnival Game
A carnival game consists of drawing two balls without replacement from a bag
containing five red and eight white balls. If both balls are red you win $6.00. If
both balls are white you lose $1.50. Otherwise you lose $1.00. Is this a fair game?
What would you expect would happen if you played the game many times?
First we need to find the probability distribution. These are conditional

probabilities since the balls are drawn without replacement.
5 4 20 5 8 7 56 14
P ( both red ) = ⋅ = = , P ( both white ) = ⋅ = =
13 12 156 39 13 12 156 39
P (1 red and 1 white ) = P ({red then white} or {white then red})

= P ( red then white ) + P ( white then red )
5 8 8 5
= ⋅ + ⋅
13 12 13 12
80 20
= =
156 39
5 14 20 39
Check that the sum of the probabilities is 1.00. + + = = 1.00
39 39 39 39
Thus, the probability distribution is valid and is shown below:
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Table 3.4.4: Probability Distribution for a Carnival Game
Outcome Win $6.00 Lose $1.50 Lose $1.00

Probability 5 14 20
39 39 39
5 14 20
=
Now find the expected value: E ( 6.00 ) + ( −1.50 ) + ( −1.00 ) ≈ −0.28
39 39 39
Since the expected value is not zero this is not a fair game. Drawing two balls out
of the bag is a random experiment so we cannot predict what will happen if we
play the game once. We can predict what will happen if we play the game many
times. We would expect to lose an average of $0.28 for every game we play. That
means that the carnival will make an average of $0.28 for every game played. In
this example we would refer to the carnival as the “house.”
Have you ever wondered how casinos make money when they advertise a 99% payback
on their slot machines? The games in a casino are not fair games since the expected value
is not zero. The expected value of the game for a gambler is a small negative number like
-$0.01. For a particular game the gambler may win or the gambler may lose. It’s a
random experiment and we cannot predict the outcome. What we can predict is what will
happen if the gambler continues to play the game many times. If the expected value is -
$0.01, the gambler will expect to lose an average of $0.01 for every game played. If
he/she plays 100 games, he/she will expect to lose 100(0.01) = $1.00. Every penny the
gambler loses the casino keeps. If hundreds of gamblers play hundreds of games each,
every day of the year all those pennies add up to millions of dollars. The casino is
referred to as the “house” and the $0.01 that the house expects to win for each game
played is called the “house edge.”
The house edge is the amount that the house can expect to earn for each dollar bet.
Figure 3.4.5: Roulette Wheel
(Ogle, 2009)
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Example 3.4.5: House Edge in Roulette
A roulette wheel consists of 38 slots numbered 0, 00, and 1 through 36, evenly
spaced around a wheel. The wheel is spun one direction and a ball is rolled around
the wheel in the opposite direction. Eventually the ball will drop into one of the
numbered slots. A player bets $1 on a single number. If the ball lands in the slot
for that number, the player wins $35, otherwise the player loses the $1. Find the
house edge for this type of bet.
The house edge is the expected value so we need to find the probability
distribution and then the expected value.
There are 38 slots. One slot wins and the other 37 slots lose so
1 37
P ( win ) = and P ( lose ) = .
38 38
The probability distribution is
Table 3.4.6: Probability Distribution for a Roulette Wheel
Outcome Win $35 Lose $1

Probability 1 37
38 38
The expected value is:
 1   37 
=E $35   + ( −1)   ≈ −$0.0526
 38   38 
The expected value of the game is -$0.0526. This means that the player would
expect to lose an average of 5.26 cents for each game played. The house would
win an average of 5.26 cents for each game played.
The house edge is 5.26 cents.
Gamblers’ Fallacy and Streaks:
Often times a gambler on a losing streak will keep betting in the belief that his/her luck
must soon change. Consider flipping a fair coin. Each toss of the coin is independent of
all the other tosses. Assume the coin has landed heads up the last eight times. Some
people erroneously believe that the coin is more likely to land tails up on the next toss. In
reality, the coin still has a 50% chance of landing tails up. It does not matter what
happened the last eight tosses.
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The gambler’s fallacy is the mistaken belief that a streak of bad luck makes a person
due for a streak of good luck.
Example 3.4.6: Streaks
Toss a fair coin seven times and record which side lands up. For example
HHTHTTT would represent getting a head on the first, second, and fourth tosses
and a tail on the other tosses. Is a streak of all heads less likely than the other
possible outcomes?
As we will see in Section 3.5, there are 128 possible ways to toss a coin seven
times. Some of the possibilities are HHTTHHT, HTHTHTH, HHHHTTT, and
HTTHTTH. Because tossing coins are independent events and the coin is fair
each of these 128 possibilities has the same probability.
1 1
P ( HHTTHHT ) = , P ( HTHTHTH ) = , etc… This also means that the
128 128
1
probability of getting all heads is P ( HHHHHHH ) = . Getting a streak of all
128
heads has exactly the same probability as any other possible outcome.
Law of Large Numbers:
When studying probabilities, many times the law of large numbers will apply. If you
want to observe what the probability is of getting tails up when flipping a coin, you could
do an experiment. Suppose you flip a coin 20 times and the coin comes up tails nine
times. Then, using an empirical probability, the probability of getting tails is 9/20 = 45%.
However, we know that the theoretical probability for getting tails should be 1/2 = 50%.
Why is this different? It is because there is error inherent to sampling methods. However,
if you flip the coin 100 times or 1000 times, and use the information to calculate an
empirical probability for getting tails up, then the probabilities you will observe will
become closer to the theoretical probability of 50%. This is the law of large numbers.
The law of large numbers means that with larger numbers of trials of an experiment
the observed empirical probability of an event will approach the calculated theoretical
probability of the same event.
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Section 3.5: Counting Methods

Recall that P ( A ) = for theoretical probabilities. So far
the problems we have looked at had rather small total number of outcomes. We could
easily count the number of elements in the sample space. If there are a large number of
elements in the sample space we can use counting techniques such as permutations or
combinations to count them.
Multiplication Principle and Tree Diagrams:
The simplest of the counting techniques is the multiplication principle. A tree diagram is
a useful tool for visualizing the multiplication principle.
Example 3.5.1: Multiplication Principle for a Three Course Dinner
Let’s say that a person walks into a restaurant for a three course dinner. There are
four different salads, three different entrees, and two different desserts to choose
from. Assuming the person wants to eat a salad, an entrée and a desert, how many
different meals are possible?
Figure 3.5.1: Tree Diagram for Three-Course Dinner
Looking at the tree diagram we can see that the total number of meals is 4 x 3 x 2
= 24 meals.
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Multiplication Principle: If there are n1 ways to of choosing the first item, n2 ways of
choosing the second item after the first item is chosen, n3 ways of choosing the third
item after the first two have been chosen, and so on until there are nk ways of choosing
the last item after the earlier choices, then the total number of choices overall is given
by n1 n2 n3 nk .
Example 3.5.2: Multiplication Principle for Lining up People
Let’s look at the number of ways that four people can line up. We can choose any
of the four people to be first. Then there are three people who can be second and
two people who can be third. At this point there is only one person left to be last.
Using the multiplication principle there are 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24 ways for four
people to line up.
This type of calculation occurs frequently in counting problems so we have some

notation to simplify the problem.
The factorial of n, read “n factorial” is n ! = n ( n − 1)( n − 2 ) ... ( 2 )(1) .

By definition, 0! = 1.
Example 3.5.3: Factorials
5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120
8! = 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 40,320
Factorials get very large very fast. 20! = 2.43 x 1018 and 40! = 8.16 x 1047. 70! is
larger than most calculators can handle.
The multiplication principle may seem like a very simple idea but it is very powerful.
Many complex counting problems can be solved using the multiplication principle.
Example 3.5.4: Multiplication Principle for License Plates
Some license plates in Arizona consist of three digits followed by three letters.
How many license plates of this type are possible if:
a. both digits and letters can be repeated?
There are 10 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, …, 9) and 26 letters.
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(10 ⋅10 ⋅10 ) ⋅ ( 26 ⋅ 26 ⋅ 26 ) =

17,576, 000 license plates
digits letters
b. letters can be repeated but digits cannot?
(10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8) ⋅ ( 26 ⋅ 26 ⋅ 26 ) =
12, 654, 720 license plates
digits letters
c. the first digit cannot be zero and both digits and letters can be repeated?
( 9 ⋅10 ⋅10 ) ⋅ ( 26 ⋅ 26 ⋅ 26 ) =
15,818, 400 license plates
digits letters
d. neither digits nor numbers can be repeated.
(10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8) ⋅ ( 26 ⋅ 25 ⋅ 24 ) =
11, 232, 000 license plates
digits letters
Permutations:
Consider the following counting problems. 1) In how many ways can three runners finish
a race? 2) In how many ways can a group of three people be chosen to work on a project?
What is the difference between these two problems? In the first problem the order that the
runners finish the race matters. In the second problem the order in which the three people
are chosen is not important, only which three people are chosen matters.
A permutation is an arrangement of a set of items.

The number of permutations of n items taking r at a time is given by:
n!
P ( n, r ) =
( n − r )!
Note: Many calculators can calculate permutations directly. Look for a function that
looks like n Pr or P ( n, r ) .
Example 3.5.5: Permutation for Race Cars
Let’s look at a simple example to understand the formula for the number of
permutations of a set of objects. Assume that 10 cars are in a race. In how many
ways can three cars finish in first, second and third place? The order in which the
cars finish is important. Use the multiplication principle. There are 10 possible
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cars to finish first. Once a car has finished first, there are nine cars to finish
second. After the second car is finished, any of the eight remaining cars can finish
third. 10 x 9 x 8 = 720. This is a permutation of 10 items taking three at a time.
Using the permutation formula:
10! 10! 1098 7  6  5  4  3  2  1

P (10,3
= ) = = = 109=
8 720
(10 − 3)! 7! 7  6  5  4  3  2 1
Using the multiplication principle:
10 • 9 • 8 = 720
There are 720 different ways for cars to finish in the top three places.
Example 3.5.6: Permutation for Orchestra Programs
The school orchestra is planning to play six pieces of music at their next concert.
How many different programs are possible?
This is a permutation because they are arranging the songs in order to make the
program.
6! 6! 720
P ( 6,6=
) = = = 720
( 6 − 6) ! 0! 1
6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 =720
There are 720 different ways of arranging the songs to make the program.
Example 3.5.7: Permutation for Club Officers
The Volunteer Club has 18 members. An election is held to choose a president,

vice-president and secretary. In how many ways can the three officers be chosen?
The order in which the officers are chosen matters so this is a permutation.
18! 18!
P (18,3
= ) = = 181716
= 4896
(18 − 3)! 15!
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Note: All digits in 18! in the numerator from 15 down to one will cancel with the
15! in the denominator.
18 ⋅ 17 ⋅ 16 =
4896
Pres. V.P. Sec.
There are 4896 different ways the three officers can be chosen.
Another notation for permutations is nPr. So, P(18,3) can also be written as 18P3. Most
scientific calculators have an nPr button or function.
Combinations:
Example 3.5.8: Formula for Combinations
Choose a committee of two people from persons A, B, C, D and E. By the

multiplication principle there are 5 ⋅ 4 =20 ways to arrange the two people.
AB AC AD AE BA BC BD BE CA CB
CD CE DA DB DC DE EA EB EC ED
Committees AB and BA are the same committee. Similarly for committees CD

20
and DC. Every committee is counted twice. = 10 so there are 10 possible
2
different committees.
Now choose a committee of three people from persons A, B, C, D and E. There

are 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 =60 ways to pick three people in order. Think about the committees
with persons A, B and C. There are 3! = 6 of them.
ABC ACB BAC BCA CAB CBA
Each of these is counted as one of the 60 possibilities but they are the same
60
committee. Each committee is counted six times so there are = 10 different
6
committees.
In both cases we divided the number of permutations by the number of ways to

rearrange the people chosen.
The number of permutations of n people taking r at a time is P(n,r) and the

number of ways to rearrange the people chosen is r!. Putting these together we get
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n!
# permutations of n items taking r at a time P ( n, r ) ( n − r ) !
= =
# ways to arrange r items r! r!
1
n! 1
= ⋅
( n − r )! r !
n!
=
( n − r )! r !
A combination is a selection of objects in which the order of selection does not matter.
n!
The number of combinations of n items taking r at a time is: C ( n, r ) =
r !( n − r )!
Note: Many calculators can calculate combinations directly. Look for a function that
looks like n Cr or C ( n, r ) .
Example 3.5.9: Combination for Picking Books
A student has a summer reading list of eight books. The student must read five of
the books before the end of the summer. In how many ways can the student read
five of the eight books?
The order of the books is not important, only which books are read. This is a
combination of eight items taking five at a time.
8! 8! 876 5  4  3  2  1 87 6
C ( 8,5
= ) = = = = 8=7 56
5!( 8 − 5 ) ! 5!3! 5  4  3  2  1 321 3  2 1
There are 56 ways to choose five of the books to read.
Example 3.5.10: Combination for Halloween Candy
A child wants to pick three pieces of Halloween candy to take in her school lunch
box. If there are 13 pieces of candy to choose from, how many ways can she pick
the three pieces?
This is a combination because it does not matter in what order the candy is
chosen.
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13! 13! 131211 10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1
C (13,3
= ) = =
3!(13 − 3) ! 3!10! 321 10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1
131211 1716
= = = 286
321 6
There are 286 ways to choose the three pieces of candy to pack in her lunch.
Note: The difference between a combination and a permutation is whether order matters
or not. If the order of the items is important, use a permutation. If the order of the items is
not important, use a combination.
Example 3.5.11: Permutation or Combination for Bicycle Serial Numbers
A serial number for a particular model of bicycle consists of a letter followed by

four digits and ends with two letters. Neither letters nor numbers can be repeated.
How many different serial numbers are possible?
This is a permutation because the order matters.
Use the multiplication principle to solve this. There are 26 letters and 10 digits
possible.
26 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 25 ⋅ 24 =78,624,000
There are 78,624,000 different serial numbers of this form.
Example 3.5.12: Permutation or Combination for Choosing Men and Women
A class consists of 15 men and 12 women. In how many ways can two men and
two women be chosen to participate in an in-class activity?
This is a combination since the order in which the people is chosen is not
important.
15! 15!
Choose two men: C (15,
= 2) = = 105
2! (15 − 2 ) ! 2!13!
12! 12!
Choose two women: C (12,
= 2) = = 66
2! (12 − 2 ) ! 2!10!
We want 2 men and 2 women so multiply these results.
105 ( 66 ) = 6930
There are 6930 ways to choose two men and two women to participate.
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Probabilities Involving Permutations and Combinations:
Now that we can calculate the number of permutations or combinations, we can use that
information to calculate probabilities.
Example 3.5.13: Probability with a Combination for Choosing Students
There are 20 students in a class. Twelve of the students are women. The names of
the students are put into a hat and five names are drawn. What is the probability
that all of the chosen students are women?
This is a combination because the order of choosing the students is not important.
# ways to pick 5 women

P ( all females ) =
# ways to pick 5 students
The number of way to choose 5 women is
C (12,5) = 792
The number of ways to choose 5 students is
C ( 20,5) = 15,504
# ways to pick 5 women 792

P ( all females
= ) = = 0.051
# ways to pick 5 students 15,504
The probability that all the chosen students are women is 0.051 or 5.1%.
Example 3.5.14: Probability with a Permutation for a Duck Race
The local Boys and Girls Club holds a duck race to raise money. Community
members buy a rubber duck marked with a numeral between 1 and 30, inclusive.
The box of 30 ducks is emptied into a creek and allowed to float downstream to
the finish line. What is the probability that ducks numbered 5, 18 and 21 finish in
first, second and third, respectively?
This is a permutation since the order of finish is important.
# ways 5, 18 & 21 finish 1st, 2nd & 3rd

P ( 5, 18 & 21 finish 1st, 2nd & 3rd ) =
# ways any ducks can finish 1st, 2nd & 3rd
There is only one way that the ducks can finish with #5 in first, #18 in second and
#21 in third.
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The number of ways any ducks can finish in first, second and third is
P ( 30,3) = 24,360
# ways 5, 18 & 21 finish 1st, 2nd & 3rd

P ( 5, 18 & 21 finish 1st, 2nd & 3rd ) =
# ways any ducks can finish 1st, 2nd & 3rd
1
= ≈ 4.10 x10−5
24,360
The probability that ducks numbered 5, 18 and 21 finish in first, second and third,
respectively, is approximately 0.000041 or 0.0041%.
Example 3.5.15: Probability with a Permutation for Two-Card Poker Hands
A poker hand consists of two cards. What is the probability that the poker hand
consists of two jacks or two fives?
It’s not possible to get two jacks and two fives at the same time so these are
mutually exclusive events.
The number of ways to get two jacks is
C (4, 2) = 6 .
The number of ways to get two fives is
C (4, 2) = 6
The number of ways to get two jacks or two fives is
6 + 6 = 12.
The total number of ways to get a 2-card poker hand is
C ( 52, 2 ) = 1326
number of ways to get 2 jacks or 2 fives 12

P ( 2 jacks or 2 fives
= ) = ≈ 0.009
number of ways to choose 2 cards 1326
The probability of getting two jacks or two fives is approximately 0.009 or 0.9%.
Example 3.5.16: Probability with a Combination for Rotten Apples
A basket contains 10 good apples and two bad apples. If a distracted shopper
reaches into the basket and picks three apples without looking, what is the
probability he gets one bad apple?
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This is a combination since the order in which the apples were picked is not
important. He picks three apples total. If one apple is bad the other two must be
good. Find the probability of one bad apple and two good apples.
# ways to get one bad and two good apples

P ( one bad and two good apples ) =
# ways to get three apples
The number of ways to get one bad and two good apples is
C ( 2,1) ⋅ C (10, 2 ) =2 ⋅ 45 =90
The number of ways to get three apples is
C (10,3) = 120
# ways to get one bad and two good apples

P ( one bad and two good apples ) =
# ways to get three apples
90
= = 0.75
120
The probability of getting one bad apple out of three apples is 0.75 or 75%.
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Chapter 3 Homework
1. A random experiment consists of drawing a single card from a well-shuffled deck

and recording the suit. Write the sample space for this experiment.
2. A random experiment consists of drawing a single card from a well-shuffled deck

and recording the number. Write the sample space for this experiment.
3. A random experiment consists of tossing a fair coin five times and recording the
number of tails. Write the sample space for this experiment.
4. A random experiment consists of tossing a fair coin four times and recording the
number of heads. Write the sample space for this experiment.
5. A random experiment consists of tossing three fair coins and recording whether
each coin lands heads up or tails up. Write the sample space for this experiment.
6. A random experiment consists of tossing four fair coins and recording whether
each coin lands heads up or tails up. Write the sample space for this experiment.
7. A random experiment consists of tossing a fair die and then tossing a fair coin.
The number showing on top of the die and whether the coin lands heads up or
tails up is recorded. Write the sample space for this experiment.
8. A spinner in the following figure is spun and a coin is tossed. The color of the
spinner and whether the coin is heads up or tails up is recorded. Write the sample
space for this experiment.
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9. A single card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the probability
that:
a. the card is a seven.
b. the card is a face card.
c. the card is a number between 2 and 5, inclusive.
10. A single card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the probability
that:
a. the card is a jack.
b. the card is a club.
c. the card is a number less than 4, including aces.
11. Two fair dice are tossed. What is the probability that the sum of the numbers is 5?
12. Two fair dice are tossed. What is the probability that the sum of the numbers is
10?
13. The spinner is spun once. What is the probability that it lands on green?
14. The spinner is spun once. What is the probability that it lands on blue?
15. An urn contains 10 red balls, 15 white balls, and 20 black balls. A single ball is
selected at random. What is the probability that the ball is:
a. red?
b. white?
c. not black?
d. black or white?
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16. A candy dish contains 12 chocolate candies, 18 butterscotch candies, eight
caramels, and 15 peppermints. A single candy is selected at random. What is the
probability that the candy is:
a. a butterscotch candy?
b. not a caramel candy?
c. a chocolate or a peppermint candy?
17. Three fair coins are tossed at the same time. What is the probability of getting
exactly two heads? Hint: use problem #5.
18. Four fair coins are tossed at the same time. What is the probability of getting
exactly one head? Hint: use problem #6.
19. An instructor collected the following data from the students in her classes.
Class / Year Freshman Sophomore Total

MAT 121 43 15 58
MAT 142 35 28 63
MAT 187 27 32 59
Total 105 75 180
If a student is selected at random, what is the probability that:

a. The student is a freshman?
b. The student is taking MAT 142?
20. A real estate agent has kept records of the number of bedrooms in the houses he
has sold for the last five years. The data is listed in the following table.
Year/ Number of one or three four five or Total

Bedrooms two more
2009 5 12 25 3 45
2010 7 15 22 3 47
2011 6 18 28 6 58
2012 6 16 30 2 54
2013 5 17 28 4 54
Total 29 78 133 18 258
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a. Find the probability that a randomly selected house sold by the agent had
four bedrooms.
b. Find the probability that a randomly selected house sold by the agent was
sold in 2010.
c. Find the probability that a randomly selected house sold by the agent had
less than four bedrooms.
d. Find the probability that a randomly selected house sold by the agent was
sold after 2011.
21. A student believes he has an 80% chance of passing his English class. What is the
probability he will not pass the class?
22. There is a 45% chance that it will snow today. What is the probability that it will
not snow today?
23. A single die is rolled. What is the probability of not rolling a five?
24. A student is randomly chosen from a class of 30 students. If seven of the students
are majoring in business, what is the probability that the randomly chosen student
is not majoring in business?
25. There is a 35% chance that a bus will arrive early at a bus stop. Explain why you
cannot assume that there is a 65% probability that the bus will be late at the same
bus stop.
26. Are each of the following valid probability distributions or not? For each one,
explain why or why not.
a.
Outcome A B C D E
Probability 0.2 0.4 -0.2 0.4 0.2
b.
Outcome A B C D E
Probability 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.2
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c.
Outcome A B C D E
Probability 0.20 0.30 0.10 0.15 0.25
27. Three fair coins are tossed and the number of heads recorded. Write the
probability distribution for this random experiment. Hint: use problem #5.
28. Four fair coins are tossed and the number of heads recorded. Write the probability
distribution for this experiment. Hint: use problem #6.
29. The spinner in the following figure is spun once and the color recorded. Write the
probability distribution for this random experiment.
30. An urn contains three red balls, four blue balls, and five green balls. A ball is
selected at random and its color recorded. Write out the probability distribution
for this experiment.
31. A single card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. The card is either an
even number, an odd number or a face card. If we consider aces to be ones, write
the probability distribution for this random experiment.
32. Two fair dice are rolled. Find the odds for rolling a sum of five.
33. Two fair dice are rolled. Find the odds for rolling a sum of 10.
34. Two fair dice are rolled. Find the odds against rolling a sum of six.
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35. Two fair dice are rolled. Find the odds against rolling a sum of eight.
36. A single card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the odds that
the card is a nine.
37. A single card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the odds
against the card being a face card.
38. A candy dish contains 12 chocolate candies, 18 butterscotch candies, 8 caramels,

and 15 peppermints. A single candy is selected at random. What are the odds that
the candy is a chocolate candy?
39. An urn contains 10 red balls, 15 white balls, and 20 black balls. A single ball is
selected at random. Find the odds against drawing a white ball.
has sold for the last year. The data is listed in the following table.
Number of 1 or 2 3 4 5 or more
Bedrooms
Number of 5 12 25 3
Houses
If a house sold by the agent is selected at random, find:

a. the odds for the house having four bedrooms.
b. the odds for the house having less than three bedrooms.
c. the odds against the house having five or more bedrooms.
d. the odds against the house having more than three bedrooms.
41. Suppose the odds that Josh will win a tennis match against Jesse are 2 to 1. What
is the probability that Josh will win?
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42. The odds of winning a particular carnival game are 27 to 5. Find the probability of
winning the game.
43. The odds of winning a particular carnival game are 15 to 28. Find the probability
of losing the game.
44. The odds that a randomly selected student is a male are 21 to 25. Find the
probability that a randomly selected student is a male.
45. A single card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Are the events E =
the card is an even number and F = the card is a heart mutually exclusive? Explain
why or why not.
46. A single card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Are the events E =
the card is a face card and F = the card is a seven mutually exclusive? Explain
why or why not.
47. An instructor randomly selects a student from his class. Are the events E = the
student is taking History and F = the student is a freshman mutually exclusive?
Explain why or why not?
48. A campus security officer randomly selects a car in the parking lot. Are the event
E = the car is a Toyota and F = the car is red mutually exclusive? Explain why or
why not.
49. Suppose you roll a single fair die. What is the probability of getting a four or a
five?
50. Suppose you roll a single fair die. What is the probability of getting a two or an
even?
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51. Suppose you draw one card from a standard deck of cards. What is the probability
that the card is an ace or a diamond?
52. Suppose you draw one card from a standard deck of cards. What is the probability
that the card is an ace or the king of diamonds?
53. A teacher asks a class of 40 students about the classes they are taking. 17 of the
students are taking math, 31 are taking English and 15 are taking both math and
English. What is the probability that a randomly selected student is taking either
math or English?
54. A teachers looks over her class and notices a few trends. Out of the 60 students in
the class, 23 have brown hair, seven have green eyes, and three have both brown
hair and green eyes. What is the probability that a randomly selected student has
either brown hair or green eyes?
55. A student observes 46 vehicles in the CCC parking lot. He notices that 12 of the
vehicles are red and that 19 of the vehicles are 4-wheel drive. If the probability
that a randomly chosen vehicle is red or has 4-wheel drive is 0.609, what is the
probability that the car is red and has 4-wheel drive?
56. Are drawing a card from a deck and tossing a coin independent events? Explain
why or why not.
57. A single card is drawn from a deck. Are drawing a red card and drawing a heart
independent events? Explain why or why not.
58. A jar contains three red, four blue, and five white marbles. A marble is drawn and
its color is recorded. The marble is put back in the jar and a second marble is
drawn. Is drawing two marbles in this manner independent events or not? Explain
why or why not.
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59. A jar contains three red, four blue, and five white marbles. A marble is drawn and
its color is recorded. The marble is not put back in the jar before a second marble
is drawn. Is drawing two marbles in this manner independent events or not?
Explain why or why not.
60. A fair coin is tossed ten times. What is the probability of getting ten heads?
61. A fair coin is tossed then a fair die is rolled. What is the probability of getting a
head and a number less than three?
62. A card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck, its number recorded, and the card
returned to the deck. A second card is then drawn.
a. What is the probability of getting a jack first and a spade second?
b. What is the probability of getting a jack and a spade in any order?
63. The spinner shown in the following figure is spun three times. What is the
probability that the spinner lands on red first, blue second, and yellow third?
64. The spinner shown in the following figure is spun four times. What is the
probability that the spinner lands on red the first three times and blue the fourth
time?
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65. A mother figures that her son will forget his homework about 20% of the time.
What is the probability that he will forget his homework at least once in the next
10 school days?
66. A bird watcher expects to see a falcon about 35% of the times he visits a nearby
park. If he visits the park 12 times in the next month, what is the probability that
he will see a falcon at least once?
67. A police officer watching a particular stretch of highway in Montana finds that
about one out of every five drivers is speeding. What is the probability that at
least one of the next eight cars he sees is speeding?
68. An instructor expects 10% of the class to earn an A on the final exam. If there are
23 students in the class, what is the probability that at least one student earns an A
on the final exam?
69. A researcher surveys 150 young athletes asking about the last sport the athlete
played and whether or not the athlete was injured playing that sport. The data is
summarized in the following table.
Sport Injured Not Injured Total

Gymnastics 16 34 50
Soccer 5 30 35
Football 27 18 45
Skiing 7 13 20
Total 55 95 150
If an athlete is selected at random, what is the probability that the athlete:

a. played soccer and was not injured?
b. did gymnastics and was injured?
c. played football or was injured?
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MAT 121 43 15 58
MAT 142 35 28 63
MAT 187 27 32 59
Total 105 75 180
If a student is selected at random, what is the probability that:

a. the student is a freshman and taking MAT 121?
b. the student is a sophomore and taking MAT 187?
c. the student is a freshman or taking MAT 142?
71. Suppose you draw two cards from a standard deck of cards without replacement.
What is the probability that:
a. both cards are Kings?
b. both cards are face cards?
c. the first card is a five and the second card is a Jack?
d. the first card is a Queen and the second card is a number less than five
(count Aces as ones)?
72. Suppose you draw two cards from a standard deck of cards without replacement.
What is the probability that:
a. you draw an Ace on the first card and a seven on the second card?
b. you draw a heart on the first card and a spade on the second card?
c. you draw an eight on the first card and a face card on the second card?
d. you draw two hearts in a row?
73. Suppose you pick two candies randomly from a box of candies and eat them.
There are four chocolates, four caramels, and four mints. What is the probability
that both candies will be chocolates?
74. A kindergarten class has 15 boys and 13 girls. The teacher calls on three students,
one at a time, to line up at the board. What is the probability that the teacher calls
up a boy followed by two girls?
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75. A small parking lot has five black cars, seven white cars, three red cars, and four
blue cars. If two cars leave in random order, what is the probability that a red car
will leave first, followed by a black car?
76. A cooler contains six colas, eight root beers, and four ginger ales. Three kids grab
a drink at random, one at a time.
a. What is the probability that the first kid grabs a cola, the second kid grabs
a ginger ale, and the third kid grabs a cola?
b. What is the probability that the third kid grabs a root beer given that the
first two grabbed colas?
MAT 121 43 15 58
MAT 142 35 28 63
MAT 187 27 32 59
Total 105 75 180
If a student is selected at random, find:
a. the probability that the student is a freshman given the student is taking
MAT 121.
b. the probability that the student is taking MAT 142 given that the student is
a sophomore.
c. the probability that the student is a freshman and taking MAT 187.
has sold for the last five years. The data is listed in the table.
Year/ Number of one or three four five or Total
Bedrooms two more
2009 5 12 25 3 45
2010 7 15 22 3 47
2011 6 18 28 6 58
2012 6 16 30 2 54
2013 5 17 28 4 54
Total 29 78 133 18 258
If a house sold by the agent is randomly selected, find:
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a. the probability that the house has three bedrooms given it was sold in
2012.
b. the probability that the house has five or more bedrooms and was sold in
2009.
c. the probability that the house has four bedrooms and was sold in 2013.
d. the probability that the house was sold in 2011 given that is has four
bedrooms.
79. A single card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. If the card is an ace,
you win $12; otherwise, you lose $1.50.
a. What is the expected value of this game?
b. Explain what the expected value means in terms of the game.
c. Is this a fair game or not?
80. Four thousand tickets are sold at $1 each for a charity raffle. Tickets are drawn at
random without replacement. There is one $800 first prize, two $300 second
prizes and eight $50 third prizes.
a. What is the expected value of this raffle if you buy one ticket?
b. Explain what the expected value means in terms of the raffle.
c. Is this a fair game or not?
81. You and a friend are playing some of the games at the county fair. A particular
game consists of drawing a single card from a standard deck. You win $5 if you
draw an ace, $2 if you draw a face card, and $0.25 if any other card is drawn. It
costs $1 to draw a card. Your friend thinks it is a great idea to play this game.
a. Calculate the expected value for this game.
b. Should your friend play the game or not?
c. Using simple English explain to your friend why he should or should not
play the game.
82. A casino game has an expected value of -$0.15. Explain what this means in a
complete sentence. Do not use the words “expected value” in your explanation.
83. Two coins are flipped. You win $3 if either two heads or two tails turns up; you
lose $4 if a head and a tail turn up. What is the expected value of the game?
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84. Two dice are tossed at the same time. If the sum of the numbers is less than eight
you win $5.50; if the sum is exactly eight you win $8; and if the sum is greater
than eight you win $3. It costs $5.00 to play the game. Use the expected value to
determine if you should play this game or not. Explain why or why not.
85. A lottery game consists of picking five numbers between 1 and 36, inclusive. You
want to buy a ticket with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Your friend laughs at you
and says that those five numbers are really unlikely. What should you say to your
friend to explain why he is wrong?
86. You and your friend are playing some slot machines in a casino. Your friend has
lost the last 15 times he played. He asks to borrow some money because he feels
his luck is about to change, that he is due to win after all those loses. What should
you say to your friend to explain why he is wrong?
87. Suppose you want to create a computer password that has to be 10 digits long
with each digit being chosen from the numbers 0 through 9. How many different
passwords are available?
88. Jack wants to buy a new set of yard furniture. If there are three choices of tables,
five choices of gliders, six choices of cushions, and two choices of umbrellas,
how many different sets of yard furniture are possible?
89. The chess club is having a Sundae Night to raise money. There are three flavors
of ice cream and six different toppings. A sundae consists of two scoops of ice
cream and one topping. The ice cream scoops do not have to be the same flavor.
How many different sundaes are possible?
90. The new iPhone comes in five different colors. There are three different sizes of
memory available. The store has a selection of ten different cases to fit it.
Assuming a person wants to buy an iPhone and a case, how many different
phone/case combinations are possible?
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91. How many ways can you line up 5 people?
92. Ten runners participate in the 100 meter hurdles. In how many ways can the
medals for the top three finishers be awarded?
93. The Science club has 25 members. In how many ways can a President, Vice
President, Secretary, and Treasurer be chosen?
94. Five friends are taking a road trip in a car that seats five. The car has a standard
transmission so only two of the friends can drive it. How many seating
arrangements are possible?
95. A night club owner is trying to arrange nine acts for a show. There are five
musical numbers and four comedians. In how many ways can the show be
arranged if:
a. the acts can be in any order?
b. the acts must alternate between musical numbers and comedians, starting
with a musical number?
c. the show must open and close with musical numbers but the remaining
acts may be in any order?
96. Stanley wants to rearrange six science books and four history books on his shelf.
How many arrangements are possible if:
a. the books can be in any order?
b. the science books are on the left and the history books are on the right?
c. the four history books are in the middle with three science books on each
end?
97. In how many ways can a five-card poker hand be drawn from a standard deck of
cards?
98. In how many way can a two-card poker hand be drawn from a standard deck of
cards?
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99. The science club consists of 18 men and 12 women. Five members are chosen to
staff the club’s booth at the Science in the Park Festival. In how many ways can
the five members be chosen if:
a. any of the members can be chosen?
b. all five members are women?
c. exactly three men are chosen?
100. There are 28 graduate students in the department of Math and Statistics.
Eighteen of the students are majoring in math and the other 10 are majoring in
statistics. The department wants to send four of the graduate students to a
conference. How many ways can the four students be chosen if:
a. any of the students can be chosen?
b. two students from each major must be chosen?
c. at least two must be majoring in math.
101. A barrel contains 20 good peaches and four rotten peaches. A person
selects three peaches at random. In how many ways can the person select:
a. three rotten peaches?
b. three good peaches?
c. two good and one rotten peach?
102. A toddler is playing with some magnetic letters on the refrigerator. He has
the letters l, t, a, b, and e. If he arranges the letters in a line to make a word, what
is the probability that he makes the word “table”?
103. The theatre club has 14 female and nine male members. Two members are
selected at random to do an acting exercise. What is the probability that both
members are males?
104. Three friends, Al, Ted, and Bert run a foot race with five other boys. What
is the probability that:
a. Ted finishes first, Bert finishes second and Al finishes third?
b. the three friends all finish in the top three places?
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105. A night club owner is trying to arrange nine acts for a show. There are five
musical numbers and four comedians. If the owner randomly arranges the acts,
what is the probability that:
a. the acts alternate between musical numbers and comedians, starting with a
musical number?
b. the show opens and closes with musical numbers?
106. The science club consists of 18 men and 12 women. Five members are
chosen to staff the club’s booth at the Science in the Park Festival. What is the
probability that:
a. all five members are women?
b. exactly three men are chosen?
107. There are 28 graduate students in the department of Math and Statistics.
Eighteen of the students are majoring in math and the other ten are majoring in
statistics. The department wants to send four of the graduate students to a
conference. What is the probability that:
a. two students from each major are chosen to attend the conference?
b. at least two who are majoring in math are chosen to attend the conference?
108. A barrel contains 20 good peaches and four bad peaches. A person selects
three peaches at random. what is the probability of getting:
a. three bad peaches?
b. three good peaches?
c. two good and one bad peach?
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Chapter 3 Probability

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Chapter 3 Probability

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Chapter 3: Probability

Section 3.1: Basic Probabilities and Probability Distributions; Three

Figure 3.1.1: Which Way Will a Tack Fall?

A trial is one repetition of a random experiment.

An event is a subset of the sample space.

Table 3.1.2: Toss a Tack Ten Times

Table 3.1.3: Toss a Tack Ten More Times

Table 3.1.4: Toss a Tack Many Times

Number Total Number Total Number

# of trials with point up 99

Equally Likely Outcomes:

For equally likely outcomes, the probability of outcome A, P(A), is:

Round Off Rule: Give probabilities as a fraction or as a decimal number rounded to

Figure 3.1.5: Deck of Cards

Example 3.1.1: Simple Probabilities with Cards

number of red cards 26 1

number of red fives 2 1

Example 3.1.2: Simple Probabilities with a Fair Die

number of ways to roll a four 1

b. P(roll an odd number)

The event roll an odd number is E = {1, 3, 5}.

number of ways to roll an odd number 3 1

c. P(roll a number less than five)

The event roll a number less than five is F = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Example 3.1.3: Simple Probability with Books

Figure 3.1.6: Books on a Shelf

number of ways to choose a math book 5 1

Three Ways of Finding Probabilities:

A theoretical probability is based on a mathematical model where all outcomes are

An empirical probability is based on an experiment or observation and is the relative

A subjective probability is an estimate (a guess) based on experience or intuition.

P(will rain) + P(will not rain) = 100%.

Rearranging this we see that

P(will not rain) = 100% - P(will rain) = 100% - 75% = 25%.

Example 3.1.4: Complements with Cards

Draw a single card from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards.

Impossible Events and Certain Events:

number of ways for A to occur

What does it mean if we say the probability of an event is one?

P ( A ) = 0 means that A is impossible

A probability distribution (probability space) is a sample space paired with the

Table 3.1.7: Probability Distribution for a Fair Coin

Outcome Heads Tails

Example 3.1.6: Probabilities for the Sum of Two Fair Dice

Table 3.1.8: All Possible Sums of Two Dice

1+1 = 2 1+2 = 3 1+3 = 4 1+4 = 5 1+5 = 6 1+6 = 7

Example 3.1.7: Valid and Invalid Probability Distributions

Are the following valid probability distributions?

Example 3.1.8: Odds in Drawing a Card

There are two red eights in the deck.

Note: Do not write odds as a decimal or a percent.

Example 3.1.9: Odds in Roulette

Example 3.1.10: Odds Against an Event

The odds against rolling a sum of nine are 8 to 1 or 8:1.

If the odds favoring event E are a to b, then:

Example 3.1.11: Finding the Probability from the Odds

Section 3.2: Combining Probabilities with “And” and “Or”

Example 3.2.1: Counting Students

Figure 3.2.1: College Classroom

Mutually Exclusive Events: