INST242 Sec2

INST 242 (Analytical Measurement), section 2
Lab
Analytical measurement loop: Questions 91 and 92, completed objectives due by the end of day 5,
section 3
Exam
Day 6 of section 3
Capstone Assessment takes the place of a mastery exam (see question 93)
Recommended daily schedule

Day 1
Theory session topic: Conductivity measurement
Questions 1 through 20; answer questions 1-10 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice)
Discuss the upcoming Capstone Assessment due by the end of the course (Question 93)
Day 2
Theory session topic: pH and pH measurement
Day 3
Theory session topic: Potentiometric pH measurement
Day 4
Theory session topic: Chromatography
Feedback questions (81 through 90) are optional and may be submitted for review at the end of the day
1
How To . . .
Access the worksheets and textbook: go to the Socratic Instrumentation website located at
http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/socratic/sinst to find worksheets for every 2nd-year course section
organized by quarter, as well as both the latest “stable” and “development” versions of the Lessons In
Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Download and save these documents to your computer.
Maximize your learning: come to school prepared each and every day – this means completing all your
homework before class starts. Use every minute of class and lab time productively. Follow all the tips
outlined in “Question 0” (in every course worksheet) as well as your instructor’s advice. Don’t ask anyone
to help you solve a problem until you have made every reasonable effort to solve it on your own.
Identify upcoming assignments and deadlines: read the first page of each course worksheet.
Relate course days to calendar dates: reference the calendar spreadsheet file (calendar.xlsx), found
on the BTC campus Y: network drive. A printed copy is posted in the Instrumentation classroom.
Locate industry documents assigned for reading: use the Instrumentation Reference provided by
your instructor (on CD-ROM and on the BTC campus Y: network drive). There you will find a file named
00 index OPEN THIS FILE.html readable with any internet browser. Click on the “Quick-Start Links” to
access assigned reading documents, organized per course, in the order they are assigned.
Study for the exams: Mastery exams assess specific skills critically important to your success, listed near
the top of the front page of each course worksheet for your review. Familiarize yourself with this list and pay
close attention when those topics appear in homework and practice problems. Proportional exams feature
problems you haven’t seen before that are solvable using general principles learned throughout the current and
previous courses, for which the only adequate preparation is independent problem-solving practice every day.
Answer the “feedback questions” (practice exams) in each course section to hone your problem-solving skills,
as these are similar in scope and complexity to proportional exams. Answer these feedback independently
(i.e. no help from classmates) in order to most accurately assess your readiness.
Calculate course grades: download the “Course Grading Spreadsheet” (grades template.xlsx) from
the Socratic Instrumentation website, or from the BTC campus Y: network drive. Enter your quiz scores,
test scores, lab scores, and attendance data into this Excel spreadsheet and it will calculate your course
grade. You may compare your calculated grades against your instructors’ records at any time.
Identify courses to register for: read the “Sequence” page found in each worksheet.
Identify scholarship opportunities: check your BTC email in-box daily.
Identify job openings: regularly monitor job-search websites. Set up informational interviews at
workplaces you are interested in. Participate in jobshadows and internships. Apply to jobs long before
graduation, as some employers take months to respond! Check your BTC email account daily, because your
instructor broadcast-emails job postings to all students as employers submit them to BTC.
Impress employers: sign the FERPA release form granting your instructors permission to share academic
records, then make sure your performance is worth sharing. Document your project and problem-solving
experiences for reference during interviews. Honor all your commitments.
Begin your career: participate in jobshadows and internships while in school to gain experience and
references. Take the first Instrumentation job that pays the bills, and give that employer at least two years
of good work to pay them back for the investment they have made in you. Employers look at delayed
employment, as well as short employment spans, very negatively. Failure to pass a drug test is an immediate
disqualifier, as is falsifying any information. Criminal records may also be a problem.
file howto
2
General Values and Expectations
Success in this career requires: professional integrity, resourcefulness, persistence, close attention to
detail, and intellectual curiosity. Poor judgment spells disaster in this career, which is why employer
background checks (including social media and criminal records) and drug testing are common. The good
news is that character and clear thinking are malleable traits: unlike intelligence, these qualities can be
acquired and improved with effort. This is what you are in school to do – increase your “human capital”
which is the sum of all knowledge, skills, and traits valuable in the marketplace.
Mastery: You must master the fundamentals of your chosen profession. “Mastery” assessments challenge
you to demonstrate 100% competence (with multiple opportunities to re-try). Failure to complete any
mastery objective(s) by the deadline date caps your grade at a C−. Failure to complete by the end of the
next school day results in a failing (F) grade.
Punctuality and Attendance: You are expected to arrive on time and be “on-task” all day just as you
would for a job. Each student has 12 hours of “sick time” per quarter applicable to absences not verifiably
employment-related, school-related, weather-related, or required by law. Each student must confer with the
instructor to apply these hours to any missed time – this is not done automatically. Students may donate
unused “sick time” to whomever they specifically choose. You must contact your instructor and lab team
members immediately if you know you will be late or absent or must leave early. Absence on an exam day
will result in a zero score for that exam, unless due to a documented emergency.
Time Management: You are expected to budget and prioritize your time, just as you will be on the job.
You will need to reserve enough time outside of school to complete homework, and strategically apply your
time during school hours toward limited resources (e.g. lab equipment). Frivolous activities (e.g. games,
social networking, internet surfing) are unacceptable when work is unfinished. Trips to the cafeteria for food
or coffee, smoke breaks, etc. must not interfere with team participation.
Independent Study: Successful instrument technicians are able to learn on their own, because the
knowledge base of this field is broad, challenging, and ever-evolving. To build this skill, students learn
in an “inverted” model where independent study replaces lecture, and the instructor challenges students
during class time to explain what they have learned. Most students require a minimum of 3 hours daily
study time outside of school. Arriving unprepared (e.g. homework incomplete) is unprofessional and counter-
productive. Question 0 of every worksheet lists practical study tips.
Independent Problem-Solving: The best instrument technicians are versatile problem-solvers. General
problem-solving is arguably the most valuable skill you can possess for this career, and it can only be built
through persistent effort. This is why you must take every reasonable measure to solve problems on your own
before seeking help. It is okay to be perplexed by an assignment, but you are expected to apply problem-
solving strategies given to you (see Question 0) and to precisely identify where you are confused so your
instructor will be able to offer targeted help. Asking classmates to solve problems for you is folly – this
includes having others break the problem down into simple steps. The point is to learn how to think on your
own. When troubleshooting systems in lab you are expected to run diagnostic tests (e.g. using a multimeter
instead of visually seeking circuit faults), as well as consult the equipment manual(s) before seeking help.
Initiative: No single habit predicts your success or failure in this career better than personal initiative, which
is why your instructor will demand you do for yourself rather than rely on others to do for you. Examples
include setting up and using your BTC email account to communicate with your instructor(s), consulting
manuals for technical information before asking for help, regularly checking the course calendar and
assignment deadlines, avoiding procrastination, fixing small problems before they become larger problems,
etc. If you find your performance compromised by poor understanding of prior course subjects, re-read those
textbook sections and use the practice materials made available to you on the Socratic Instrumentation
website – don’t wait for anyone else to diagnose your need and offer help.
3
General Values and Expectations (continued)
Safety: You are expected to work safely in the lab just as you will be on the job. This includes wearing
proper attire (safety glasses and closed-toed shoes in the lab at all times), implementing lock-out/tag-out
procedures when working on circuits with exposed conductors over 30 volts, using ladders to access elevated
locations, and correctly using all tools. If you need to use an unfamiliar tool, see the instructor for directions.
Orderliness: You are expected to keep your work area clean and orderly just as you will be on the job.
This includes discarding trash and returning tools at the end of every lab session, and participating in all
scheduled lab clean-up sessions. If you identify failed equipment in the lab, label that equipment with a
detailed description of its symptoms.
Teamwork: You will work in instructor-assigned teams to complete lab assignments, just as you will work
in teams to complete complex assignments on the job. As part of a team, you must keep your teammates
informed of your whereabouts in the event you must step away from the lab or will be absent for any reason.
Any student regularly compromising team performance through lack of participation, absence, tardiness,
disrespect, or other disruptive behavior(s) will be removed from the team and required to complete all
labwork individually for the remainder of the quarter. The same is true for students found relying on
teammates to do their work for them.
Cooperation: The structure of these courses naturally lends itself to cooperation between students. Working
together, students significantly impact each others’ learning. You are expected to take this role seriously,
offering real help when needed and not absolving classmates of their responsibility to think for themselves or
to do their own work. Solving problems for classmates and/or explaining to them what they can easily read
on their own is unacceptable because these actions circumvent learning. The best form of help you can give
to your struggling classmates is to share with them your tips on independent learning and problem-solving,
for example asking questions leading to solutions rather than simply providing solutions for them.
Grades: Employers prize trustworthy, hard working, knowledgeable, resourceful problem-solvers. The grade
you receive in any course is but a partial measure of these traits. What matters most are the traits
themselves, which is why your instructor maintains detailed student records (including individual exam
scores, attendance, tardiness, and behavioral comments) and will share these records with employers if
you have signed the FERPA release form. You are welcome to see your records at any time, and to
compare calculated grades with your own records (i.e. the grade spreadsheet available to all students).
You should expect employers to scrutinize your records on attendance and character, and also challenge you
with technical questions when considering you for employment.
Representation: You are an ambassador for this program. Your actions, whether on tours, during a
jobshadow or internship, or while employed, can open or shut doors of opportunity for other students. Most
of the job opportunities open to you as a BTC graduate were earned by the good work of previous graduates,
and as such you owe them a debt of gratitude. Future graduates depend on you to do the same.
Responsibility For Actions: If you lose or damage college property (e.g. lab equipment), you must find,
repair, or help replace it. If you represent BTC poorly to employers (e.g. during a tour or an internship),
you must make amends. The general rule here is this: “If you break it, you fix it!”
Non-negotiable terms: disciplinary action, up to and including immediate failure of a course, will
result from academic dishonesty (e.g. cheating, plagiarism), willful safety violations, theft, harassment,
intoxication, destruction of property, or willful disruption of the learning (work) environment. Such offenses
are grounds for immediate termination in this career, and as such will not be tolerated here.
file expectations
4
Course Syllabus
INSTRUCTOR CONTACT INFORMATION:

Tony Kuphaldt
(360)-752-8477 [office phone]
(360)-752-7277 [fax]
[email protected]
DEPT/COURSE #: INST 242
CREDITS: 5 Lecture Hours: 24 Lab Hours: 60 Work-based Hours: 0
COURSE TITLE: Analytical Measurement
COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course teaches the basic principles of process analysis including
pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, and chemical constituency. Pre/Corequisite course: INST 241
(Temperature and Flow Measurement) Prerequisite course: MATH&141 (Precalculus 1) with a minimum
grade of “C”
COURSE OUTCOMES: Construct, calibrate, and document instrumented systems measuring chemical
composition. Also, independently build and document a complete control loop, including calibration of the
transmitter to specified accuracy.
COURSE OUTCOME ASSESSMENT: Analytical system commissioning, analysis, and diagnosis

outcomes are ensured by measuring student performance against mastery standards, as documented in
the Student Performance Objectives. Control loop construction is also measured against a mastery standard
as documented in the Student Performance Objectives. Failure to meet all mastery standards by the last
day of the course will result in a failing grade for the course.
5
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
• Using only manufacturer’s documentation, independently construct and demonstrate the operation
of a complete instrument loop (transmitter, controller, and final control element) meeting instructor
specifications, within a limited time and with 100% accuracy (mastery). Multiple re-tries are allowed,
each with a different set of specifications. Measured objectives vary with the courses completed – the
Capstone Assessment question documented in the course worksheets details all objectives.
• Without references or notes, within a limited time (3 hours total for the exam session), independently
perform the following tasks:
→ Predict the response of automatic analytical (pH, optical, chromatograph) control systems to
component faults and changes in process conditions, given pictorial and/or schematic illustrations
→ Sketch proper power and signal connections between individual instruments to fulfill specified control
system functions, given pictorial and/or schematic illustrations of those instruments
• In a team environment and with full access to references, notes, and instructor assistance, perform the
following tasks:
→ Demonstrate proper use of safety equipment and application of safe procedures while using power
tools, and working on live systems
→ Communicate effectively with teammates to plan work, arrange for absences, and share responsibilities
in completing all labwork
→ Construct and commission a working analytical “loop” consisting of a chemical analyzer, signal
wiring, and indicator
→ Generate an accurate loop diagram compliant with ISA standards documenting your team’s analytical
measurement system
• Independently perform the following tasks on a functioning analytical measurement system with 100%
accuracy (mastery). Multiple re-tries are allowed with different specifications/conditions each time:
→ Calibrate analyzer to specified accuracy using industry-standard calibration equipment
→ Diagnose a random fault placed in another team’s analytical measurement system by the instructor
within a limited time using no test equipment except a multimeter, logically justifying your steps in the
instructor’s direct presence
COURSE OUTLINE: A course calendar in electronic format (Excel spreadsheet) resides on the Y:
network drive, and also in printed paper format in classroom DMC130, for convenient student access. This
calendar is updated to reflect schedule changes resulting from employer recruiting visits, interviews, and
other impromptu events. Course worksheets provide comprehensive lists of all course assignments and
activities, with the first page outlining the schedule and sequencing of topics and assignment due dates.
These worksheets are available in PDF format at http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/socratic/sinst
• INST242 Section 1 (Basic Chemistry): 4 days theory and labwork
• INST242 Section 2 (Conductivity, pH, and basic chromatography): 4 days theory and labwork
• INST242 Section 3 (Optical analysis technologies): 3 days theory and labwork + 1 day for tour + 1 day
for Certification prep exam + 1 day for proportional Exam
6
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION: Course structure and methods are intentionally designed to develop
critical-thinking and life-long learning abilities, continually placing the student in an active rather than a
passive role.
• Independent study: daily worksheet questions specify reading assignments, problems to solve, and
experiments to perform in preparation (before) classroom theory sessions. Open-note quizzes and work
inspections ensure accountability for this essential preparatory work. The purpose of this is to convey
information and basic concepts, so valuable class time isn’t wasted transmitting bare facts, and also to
foster the independent research ability necessary for self-directed learning in your career.
• Classroom sessions: a combination of Socratic discussion, short lectures, small-group problem-solving,
and hands-on demonstrations/experiments review and illuminate concepts covered in the preparatory
questions. The purpose of this is to develop problem-solving skills, strengthen conceptual understanding,
and practice both quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques.
• Lab activities: an emphasis on constructing and documenting working projects (real instrumentation
and control systems) to illuminate theoretical knowledge with practical contexts. Special projects
off-campus or in different areas of campus (e.g. BTC’s Fish Hatchery) are encouraged. Hands-on
troubleshooting exercises build diagnostic skills.
• Feedback questions: sets of practice problems at the end of each course section challenge your
knowledge and problem-solving ability in current as as well as first year (Electronics) subjects. These
are optional assignments, counting neither for nor against your grade. Their purpose is to provide you
and your instructor with direct feedback on what you have learned.
• Tours and guest speakers: quarterly tours of local industry and guest speakers on technical topics
add breadth and additional context to the learning experience.
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS/REQUIREMENTS: All assignments for this course are thoroughly

documented in the following course worksheets located at:
http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/socratic/sinst/index.html
• INST242 sec1.pdf
7
EVALUATION AND GRADING STANDARDS: (out of 100% for the course grade)
• Completion of all mastery objectives including capstone = 50%
• Proportional exam score = 40%
• Lab questions = 10%
• Quiz penalty = -1% per failed quiz
• Tardiness penalty = -1% per incident (1 “free” tardy per course)
• Attendance penalty = -1% per hour (12 hours “sick time” per quarter)
• Extra credit = +5% per project (assigned by instructor based on individual learning needs)
All grades are criterion-referenced (i.e. no grading on a “curve”)

100% ≥ A ≥ 95% 95% > A- ≥ 90%
90% > B+ ≥ 86% 86% > B ≥ 83% 83% > B- ≥ 80%
80% > C+ ≥ 76% 76% > C ≥ 73% 73% > C- ≥ 70% (minimum passing course grade)
70% > D+ ≥ 66% 66% > D ≥ 63% 63% > D- ≥ 60% 60% > F
A graded “preparatory” quiz at the start of each classroom session gauges your independent learning
prior to the session. A graded “summary” quiz at the conclusion of each classroom session gauges your
comprehension of important concepts covered during that session. If absent during part or all of a classroom
session, you may receive credit by passing comparable quizzes afterward or by having your preparatory work
(reading outlines, work done answering questions) thoroughly reviewed prior to the absence.
Absence on a scheduled exam day will result in a 0% score for the proportional exam unless you provide
documented evidence of an unavoidable emergency.
If any “mastery” objectives are not completed by their specified deadlines, your overall grade for the
course will be capped at 70% (C- grade), and you will have one more school day to complete the unfinished
objectives. Failure to complete those mastery objectives by the end of that extra day (except in the case of
documented, unavoidable emergencies) will result in a failing grade (F) for the course.
“Lab questions” are assessed by individual questioning, at any date after the respective lab objective
(mastery) has been completed by your team. These questions serve to guide your completion of each lab
exercise and confirm participation of each individual student. Grading is as follows: full credit for thorough,
correct answers; half credit for partially correct answers; and zero credit for major conceptual errors. All
lab questions must be answered by the due date of the lab exercise.
Extra credit opportunities exist for each course, and may be assigned to students upon request. The
student and the instructor will first review the student’s performance on feedback questions, homework,
exams, and any other relevant indicators in order to identify areas of conceptual or practical weakness. Then,
both will work together to select an appropriate extra credit activity focusing on those identified weaknesses,
for the purpose of strengthening the student’s competence. A due date will be assigned (typically two weeks
following the request), which must be honored in order for any credit to be earned from the activity. Extra
credit may be denied at the instructor’s discretion if the student has not invested the necessary preparatory
effort to perform well (e.g. lack of preparation for daily class sessions, poor attendance, no feedback questions
submitted, etc.).
8
REQUIRED STUDENT SUPPLIES AND MATERIALS:
• Course worksheets available for download in PDF format
• Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation textbook, available for download in PDF format
→ Access worksheets and book at: http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/socratic/sinst
• Spiral-bound notebook for reading annotation, homework documentation, and note-taking.
• Instrumentation reference CD-ROM (free, from instructor). This disk contains many tutorials and
datasheets in PDF format to supplement your textbook(s).
• Tool kit (see detailed list)
• Simple scientific calculator (non-programmable, non-graphing, no unit conversions, no numeration
system conversions), TI-30Xa or TI-30XIIS recommended
• Portable personal computer with Ethernet port and wireless. Windows OS strongly preferred, tablets
discouraged.
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES:

• The BTC Library hosts a substantial collection of textbooks and references on the subject of
Instrumentation, as well as links in its online catalog to free Instrumentation e-book resources available
on the Internet.
• “BTCInstrumentation” channel on YouTube (http://www.youtube.com/BTCInstrumentation), hosts
a variety of short video tutorials and demonstrations on instrumentation.
• Instrumentation student club meets regularly to set up industry tours, raise funds for scholarships, and
serve as a general resource for Instrumentation students.
• ISA website (http://www.isa.org) provides all of its standards in electronic format, many of which
are freely available to ISA members.
• Instrument Engineer’s Handbook, Volume 1: Process Measurement and Analysis, edited by Béla Lipták,
published by CRC Press. 4th edition ISBN-10: 0849310830 ; ISBN-13: 978-0849310836.
• Purdy’s Instrument Handbook, by Ralph Dewey. ISBN-10: 1-880215-26-8. A pocket-sized field reference
on basic measurement and control.
• Cad Standard (CadStd) or similar AutoCAD-like drafting software (useful for sketching loop and
wiring diagrams). Cad Standard is a simplified clone of AutoCAD, and is freely available at:
http://www.cadstd.com
CAMPUS EMERGENCIES: If an emergency arises, your instructor may inform you of actions to
follow. You are responsible for knowing emergency evacuation routes from your classroom. If police or
university officials order you to evacuate, do so calmly and assist those needing help. You may receive
emergency information alerts via the building enunciation system, text message, email, or BTC’s webpage
(http://www.btc.ctc.edu), Facebook or Twitter. Refer to the emergency flipchart in the lab room (located
on the main control panel) for more information on specific types of emergencies.
ACCOMMODATIONS: If you think you could benefit from classroom accommodations for a disability
(physical, mental, emotional, or learning), please contact our Accessibility Resources office. Call (360)-752-
8345, email [email protected], or stop by the AR Office in the Admissions and Student Resource Center
(ASRC), Room 106, College Services Building
file INST242syllabus
9
Sequence of second-year Instrumentation courses
Core Electronics -- 3 qtrs

including MATH 141 (Precalculus 1)
(Only if 4th quarter was Summer: INST23x)
INST 200 -- 1 wk Offered 1st week of

Prerequisite for all INST24x,
Fall, Winter, and
INST25x, and INST26x courses Intro. to Instrumentation Spring quarters
Summer quarter Fall quarter Winter quarter Spring quarter
INST 230 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr INST 250 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr

Motor Controls Pressure/Level Measurement Final Control Elements Data Acquisition Systems

PLC Programming Temp./Flow Measurement PID Control DCS and Fieldbus

PLC Systems Analytical Measurement Loop Tuning Control Strategies
INST 233 -- 3 cr CHEM&161 -- 5 cr ENGT 134 -- 5 cr

Protective Relays (elective) Chemistry CAD 1: Basics
Prerequisite for INST206
INST 205 -- 1 cr
All courses
Job Prep I
Offered 1st week of
completed?
No Fall, Winter, and
Yes INST 206 -- 1 cr
Spring quarters
Job Prep II
Graduate!!!
10
The particular sequence of courses you take during the second year depends on when you complete all
first-year courses and enter the second year. Since students enter the second year of Instrumentation at four
different times (beginnings of Summer, Fall, Winter, and Spring quarters), the particular course sequence
for any student will likely be different from the course sequence of classmates.
Some second-year courses are only offered in particular quarters with those quarters not having to be
in sequence, while others are offered three out of the four quarters and must be taken in sequence. The
following layout shows four typical course sequences for second-year Instrumentation students, depending on
when they first enter the second year of the program:
Possible course schedules depending on date of entry into 2nd year

Beginning in Summer Beginning in Fall Beginning in Winter Beginning in Spring
July Summer quarter Sept. Fall quarter Jan. Winter quarter April Spring quarter
INST 230 -- 3 cr INST 200 -- 1 wk INST 200 -- 1 wk INST 200 -- 1 wk
Motor Controls Intro. to Instrumentation Intro. to Instrumentation Intro. to Instrumentation

PLC Programming Pressure/Level Measurement Final Control Elements Data Acquisition Systems

PLC Systems Temp./Flow Measurement PID Control DCS and Fieldbus

Protective Relays (elective) Analytical Measurement Loop Tuning Control Strategies
Aug. Dec.
CHEM&161 -- 5 cr ENGT 134 -- 5 cr
Sept. Fall quarter Jan. Winter quarter Chemistry CAD 1: Basics
Mar. June
INST 200 -- 1 wk INST 205 -- 1 cr
Intro. to Instrumentation Job Prep I April Spring quarter July Summer quarter
Pressure/Level Measurement Final Control Elements Job Prep I Motor Controls

Temp./Flow Measurement PID Control Data Acquisition Systems PLC Programming

Analytical Measurement Loop Tuning DCS and Fieldbus PLC Systems
Dec.
CHEM&161 -- 5 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr INST 233 -- 3 cr
Jan. Winter quarter Chemistry Control Strategies Protective Relays (elective)
Mar. Aug.
INST 205 -- 1 cr
Job Prep I ENGT 134 -- 5 cr
April Spring quarter CAD 1: Basics Sept. Fall quarter
June
INST 250 -- 5 cr INST 206 -- 1 cr INST 205 -- 1 cr
Final Control Elements Job Prep II July Summer quarter Job Prep I

PID Control Data Acquisition Systems Motor Controls Pressure/Level Measurement

Loop Tuning DCS and Fieldbus PLC Programming Temp./Flow Measurement
CHEM&161 -- 5 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr

Chemistry Control Strategies PLC Systems Analytical Measurement
Mar. Dec.
ENGT 134 -- 5 cr INST 233 -- 3 cr
April Spring quarter CAD 1: Basics Protective Relays (elective) Jan. Winter quarter
June Aug.
INST 206 -- 1 cr INST 206 -- 1 cr
Job Prep II July Summer quarter Sept. Fall quarter Job Prep II
Data Acquisition Systems Motor Controls Job Prep II Final Control Elements

DCS and Fieldbus PLC Programming Pressure/Level Measurement PID Control

Control Strategies PLC Systems Temp./Flow Measurement Loop Tuning
ENGT 134 -- 5 cr INST 233 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr CHEM&161 -- 5 cr

CAD 1: Basics Protective Relays (elective) Analytical Measurement Chemistry
June Aug. Dec. Mar.
Graduation! Graduation! Graduation! Graduation!
file sequence
11
General tool and supply list
Wrenches
• Combination (box- and open-end) wrench set, 1/4” to 3/4” – the most important wrench sizes are 7/16”,
1/2”, 9/16”, and 5/8”; get these immediately!
• Adjustable wrench, 6” handle (sometimes called “Crescent” wrench)
• Hex wrench (“Allen” wrench) set, fractional – 1/16” to 3/8”
• Optional: Hex wrench (“Allen” wrench) set, metric – 1.5 mm to 10 mm
• Optional: Miniature combination wrench set, 3/32” to 1/4” (sometimes called an “ignition wrench” set)
Note: when turning any threaded fastener, one should choose a tool engaging the maximum amount of
surface area on the fastener’s head in order to reduce stress on that fastener. (e.g. Using box-end wrenches
instead of adjustable wrenches; using the proper size and type of screwdriver; never using any tool that mars
the fastener such as pliers or vise-grips unless absolutely necessary.)
Pliers
• Needle-nose pliers
• Tongue-and-groove pliers (sometimes called “Channel-lock” pliers)
• Diagonal wire cutters (sometimes called “dikes”)
Screwdrivers
• Slotted, 1/8” and 1/4” shaft
• Phillips, #1 and #2
• Jeweler’s screwdriver set
• Optional: Magnetic multi-bit screwdriver (e.g. Klein Tools model 70035)
Electrical
• Multimeter, Fluke model 87-IV or better
• Alligator-clip jumper wires
• Soldering iron (10 to 40 watt) and rosin-core solder
• Resistor, potentiometer, diode assortments (from first-year lab kits)
• Package of insulated compression-style fork terminals (14 to 18 AWG wire size, #10 stud size)
• Wire strippers/terminal crimpers for 10 AWG to 18 AWG wire and insulated terminals
• Optional: ratcheting terminal crimp tool (e.g. Paladin 1305, Ferrules Direct FDT10011, or equivalent)
Safety
• Safety glasses or goggles (available at BTC bookstore)
• Earplugs (available at BTC bookstore)
Miscellaneous
• Simple scientific calculator (non-programmable, non-graphing, no conversions), TI-30Xa or TI-30XIIS
recommended. Required for some exams!
• Portable personal computer with Ethernet port and wireless. Windows OS strongly preferred, tablets
discouraged.
• Masking tape (for making temporary labels)
• Permanent marker pen
• Teflon pipe tape
• Utility knife
• Tape measure, 12 feet minimum
• Flashlight
An inexpensive source of tools is your local pawn shop. Look for tools with unlimited lifetime guarantees
(e.g. Sears “Craftsman” brand). Check for BTC student discounts as well!
file tools
12
Methods of instruction
This course develops self-instructional and diagnostic skills by placing students in situations where they
are required to research and think independently. In all portions of the curriculum, the goal is to avoid a
passive learning environment, favoring instead active engagement of the learner through reading, reflection,
problem-solving, and experimental activities. The curriculum may be roughly divided into two portions:
theory and practical.
Theory
In the theory portion of each course, students independently research subjects prior to entering the
classroom for discussion. This means working through all the day’s assigned questions as completely as
possible. This usually requires a fair amount of technical reading, and may also require setting up and
running simple experiments. At the start of the classroom session, the instructor will check each student’s
preparation with a quiz. Students then spend the rest of the classroom time working in groups and directly
with the instructor to thoroughly answer all questions assigned for that day, articulate problem-solving
strategies, and to approach the questions from multiple perspectives. To put it simply: fact-gathering
happens outside of class and is the individual responsibility of each student, so that class time may be
devoted to the more complex tasks of critical thinking and problem solving where the instructor’s attention
is best applied.
Classroom theory sessions usually begin with either a brief Q&A discussion or with a “Virtual
Troubleshooting” session where the instructor shows one of the day’s diagnostic question diagrams while
students propose diagnostic tests and the instructor tells those students what the test results would be
given some imagined (“virtual”) fault scenario, writing the test results on the board where all can see. The
students then attempt to identify the nature and location of the fault, based on the test results.
Each student is free to leave the classroom when they have completely worked through all problems and
have answered a “summary” quiz designed to gauge their learning during the theory session. If a student
finishes ahead of time, they are free to leave, or may help tutor classmates who need extra help.
The express goal of this “inverted classroom” teaching methodology is to help each student cultivate
critical-thinking and problem-solving skills, and to sharpen their abilities as independent learners. While
this approach may be very new to you, it is more realistic and beneficial to the type of work done in
instrumentation, where critical thinking, problem-solving, and independent learning are “must-have” skills.
13
Lab
In the lab portion of each course, students work in teams to install, configure, document, calibrate, and
troubleshoot working instrument loop systems. Each lab exercise focuses on a different type of instrument,
with a eight-day period typically allotted for completion. An ordinary lab session might look like this:
(1) Start of practical (lab) session: announcements and planning
(a) The instructor makes general announcements to all students
(b) The instructor works with team to plan that day’s goals, making sure each team member has a
clear idea of what they should accomplish
(2) Teams work on lab unit completion according to recommended schedule:
(First day) Select and bench-test instrument(s)
(One day) Connect instrument(s) into a complete loop
(One day) Each team member drafts their own loop documentation, inspection done as a team (with
instructor)
(One or two days) Each team member calibrates/configures the instrument(s)
(Remaining days, up to last) Each team member troubleshoots the instrument loop
(3) End of practical (lab) session: debriefing where each team reports on their work to the whole class
Troubleshooting assessments must meet the following guidelines:

• Troubleshooting must be performed on a system the student did not build themselves. This forces
students to rely on another team’s documentation rather than their own memory of how the system was
built.
• Each student must individually demonstrate proper troubleshooting technique.
• Simply finding the fault is not good enough. Each student must consistently demonstrate sound
reasoning while troubleshooting.
• If a student fails to properly diagnose the system fault, they must attempt (as many times as necessary)
with different scenarios until they do, reviewing any mistakes with the instructor after each failed
attempt.
file instructional
14
Distance delivery methods
Sometimes the demands of life prevent students from attending college 6 hours per day. In such cases,
there exist alternatives to the normal 8:00 AM to 3:00 PM class/lab schedule, allowing students to complete
coursework in non-traditional ways, at a “distance” from the college campus proper.
For such “distance” students, the same worksheets, lab activities, exams, and academic standards still
apply. Instead of working in small groups and in teams to complete theory and lab sections, though, students
participating in an alternative fashion must do all the work themselves. Participation via teleconferencing,
video- or audio-recorded small-group sessions, and such is encouraged and supported.
There is no recording of hours attended or tardiness for students participating in this manner. The pace
of the course is likewise determined by the “distance” student. Experience has shown that it is a benefit for
“distance” students to maintain the same pace as their on-campus classmates whenever possible.
In lieu of small-group activities and class discussions, comprehension of the theory portion of each course
will be ensured by completing and submitting detailed answers for all worksheet questions, not just passing
daily quizzes as is the standard for conventional students. The instructor will discuss any incomplete and/or
incorrect worksheet answers with the student, and ask that those questions be re-answered by the student
to correct any misunderstandings before moving on.
Labwork is perhaps the most difficult portion of the curriculum for a “distance” student to complete,
since the equipment used in Instrumentation is typically too large and expensive to leave the school lab
facility. “Distance” students must find a way to complete the required lab activities, either by arranging
time in the school lab facility and/or completing activities on equivalent equipment outside of school (e.g.
at their place of employment, if applicable). Labwork completed outside of school must be validated by a
supervisor and/or documented via photograph or videorecording.
Conventional students may opt to switch to “distance” mode at any time. This has proven to be a
benefit to students whose lives are disrupted by catastrophic events. Likewise, “distance” students may
switch back to conventional mode if and when their schedules permit. Although the existence of alternative
modes of student participation is a great benefit for students with challenging schedules, it requires a greater
investment of time and a greater level of self-discipline than the traditional mode where the student attends
school for 6 hours every day. No student should consider the “distance” mode of learning a way to have
more free time to themselves, because they will actually spend more time engaged in the coursework than
if they attend school on a regular schedule. It exists merely for the sake of those who cannot attend during
regular school hours, as an alternative to course withdrawal.
file distance
15
Metric prefixes and conversion constants
• Metric prefixes
• Yotta = 1024 Symbol: Y
• Zeta = 1021 Symbol: Z
• Exa = 1018 Symbol: E
• Peta = 1015 Symbol: P
• Tera = 1012 Symbol: T
• Giga = 109 Symbol: G
• Mega = 106 Symbol: M
• Kilo = 103 Symbol: k
• Hecto = 102 Symbol: h
• Deca = 101 Symbol: da
• Deci = 10−1 Symbol: d
• Centi = 10−2 Symbol: c
• Milli = 10−3 Symbol: m
• Micro = 10−6 Symbol: µ
• Nano = 10−9 Symbol: n
• Pico = 10−12 Symbol: p
• Femto = 10−15 Symbol: f
• Atto = 10−18 Symbol: a
• Zepto = 10−21 Symbol: z
• Yocto = 10−24 Symbol: y
METRIC PREFIX SCALE

T G M k m µ n p
tera giga mega kilo (none) milli micro nano pico
1012 109 106 103 100 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12
102 101 10-1 10-2

hecto deca deci centi
h da d c
• Conversion formulae for temperature

o
• F = (o C)(9/5) + 32
o
• C = (o F - 32)(5/9)
o
• R = o F + 459.67
• K = o C + 273.15
Conversion equivalencies for distance

1 inch (in) = 2.540000 centimeter (cm)
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft)
16
Conversion equivalencies for volume
1 gallon (gal) = 231.0 cubic inches (in3 ) = 4 quarts (qt) = 8 pints (pt) = 128 fluid ounces (fl. oz.)
= 3.7854 liters (l)
1 milliliter (ml) = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3 )
Conversion equivalencies for velocity

1 mile per hour (mi/h) = 88 feet per minute (ft/m) = 1.46667 feet per second (ft/s) = 1.60934
kilometer per hour (km/h) = 0.44704 meter per second (m/s) = 0.868976 knot (knot – international)
Conversion equivalencies for mass

1 pound (lbm) = 0.45359 kilogram (kg) = 0.031081 slugs
Conversion equivalencies for force

1 pound-force (lbf) = 4.44822 newton (N)
Conversion equivalencies for area

1 acre = 43560 square feet (ft2 ) = 4840 square yards (yd2 ) = 4046.86 square meters (m2 )
Conversion equivalencies for common pressure units (either all gauge or all absolute)
1 pound per square inch (PSI) = 2.03602 inches of mercury (in. Hg) = 27.6799 inches of water (in.
W.C.) = 6.894757 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 0.06894757 bar
1 bar = 100 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 14.504 pounds per square inch (PSI)
Conversion equivalencies for absolute pressure units (only)

1 atmosphere (Atm) = 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute (PSIA) = 101.325 kilo-pascals absolute
(kPaA) = 1.01325 bar (bar) = 760 millimeters of mercury absolute (mmHgA) = 760 torr (torr)
Conversion equivalencies for energy or work

1 british thermal unit (Btu – “International Table”) = 251.996 calories (cal – “International Table”)
= 1055.06 joules (J) = 1055.06 watt-seconds (W-s) = 0.293071 watt-hour (W-hr) = 1.05506 x 1010
ergs (erg) = 778.169 foot-pound-force (ft-lbf)
Conversion equivalencies for power

1 horsepower (hp – 550 ft-lbf/s) = 745.7 watts (W) = 2544.43 british thermal units per hour
(Btu/hr) = 0.0760181 boiler horsepower (hp – boiler)
Acceleration of gravity (free fall), Earth standard

9.806650 meters per second per second (m/s2 ) = 32.1740 feet per second per second (ft/s2 )
17
Physical constants
Speed of light in a vacuum (c) = 2.9979 × 108 meters per second (m/s) = 186,281 miles per second
(mi/s)
Avogadro’s number (NA ) = 6.022 × 1023 per mole (mol−1 )
Electronic charge (e) = 1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb (C)
Boltzmann’s constant (k) = 1.38 × 10−23 Joules per Kelvin (J/K)
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ) = 5.67 × 10−8 Watts per square meter-Kelvin4 (W/m2 ·K4 )
Molar gas constant (R) = 8.314 Joules per mole-Kelvin (J/mol-K)
Properties of Water
Freezing point at sea level = 32o F = 0o C
Boiling point at sea level = 212o F = 100o C
Density of water at 4o C = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3 = 1 kg/liter = 62.428 lb/ft3 = 1.94 slugs/ft3
Specific heat of water at 14o C = 1.00002 calories/g·o C = 1 BTU/lb·o F = 4.1869 Joules/g·o C
Specific heat of ice ≈ 0.5 calories/g·o C
Specific heat of steam ≈ 0.48 calories/g·o C
Absolute viscosity of water at 20o C = 1.0019 centipoise (cp) = 0.0010019 Pascal-seconds (Pa·s)
Surface tension of water (in contact with air) at 18o C = 73.05 dynes/cm
pH of pure water at 25o C = 7.0 (pH scale = 0 to 14)
Properties of Dry Air at sea level

Density of dry air at 20o C and 760 torr = 1.204 mg/cm3 = 1.204 kg/m3 = 0.075 lb/ft3 = 0.00235
slugs/ft3
Absolute viscosity of dry air at 20o C and 760 torr = 0.018 centipoise (cp) = 1.8 × 10−5 Pascal-
seconds (Pa·s)
file conversion constants
18
Question 0
How to get the most out of academic reading:

• Articulate your thoughts as you read (i.e. “have a conversation” with the author). This will develop
metacognition: active supervision of your own thoughts. Write your thoughts as you read, noting
points of agreement, disagreement, confusion, epiphanies, and connections between different concepts
or applications. These notes should also document important math formulae, explaining in your own
words what each formula means and the proper units of measurement used.
• Outline, don’t highlight! Writing your own summary or outline is a far more effective way to comprehend
a text than simply underlining and highlighting key words. A suggested ratio is one sentence of your
own thoughts per paragraph of text read. Note points of disagreement or confusion to explore later.
• Work through all mathematical exercises shown within the text, to ensure you understand all the steps.
• Imagine explaining concepts you’ve just learned to someone else. Teaching forces you to distill concepts
to their essence, thereby clarifying those concepts, revealing assumptions, and exposing misconceptions.
Your goal is to create the simplest explanation that is still technically accurate.
• Write your own questions based on what you read, as though you are a teacher preparing to test
students’ comprehension of the subject matter.
How to effectively problem-solve and troubleshoot:

• Study principles, not procedures. Don’t be satisfied with merely knowing how to compute solutions –
learn why those solutions work. In mathematical problem-solving this means being able to identify the
practical meaning (and units of measurement) of every intermediate calculation. In other words, every
step of your solution should make logical sense.
• Sketch a diagram to help visualize the problem. When building a real system, always prototype it on
paper and analyze its function before constructing it.
• Identify what it is you need to solve, identify all relevant data, identify all units of measurement, identify
any general principles or formulae linking the given information to the solution, and then identify any
“missing pieces” to a solution. Annotate all diagrams with this data.
• Perform “thought experiments” to explore the effects of different conditions for theoretical problems.
When troubleshooting real systems, perform diagnostic tests rather than visually inspecting for faults.
• Simplify the problem and solve that simplified problem to identify strategies applicable to the original
problem (e.g. change quantitative to qualitative, or visa-versa; substitute easier numerical values;
eliminate confusing details; add details to eliminate unknowns; consider simple limiting cases; apply an
analogy). Often you can add or remove components in a malfunctioning system to simplify it as well
and better identify the nature and location of the problem.
• Work “backward” from a hypothetical solution to a new set of given conditions.
How to create more time for study:

• Kill your television and video games. Seriously – these are incredible wastes of time. Eliminate
distractions (e.g. cell phone, internet, socializing) in your place and time of study.
• Use your “in between” time productively. Don’t leave campus for lunch. Arrive to school early. If you
finish your assigned work early, begin studying the next day’s material.
Above all, cultivate persistence. Persistent effort is necessary to master anything non-trivial. The keys
to persistence are (1) having the desire to achieve that mastery, and (2) realizing challenges are normal and
not an indication of something gone wrong. A common error is to equate easy with effective: students often
believe learning should be easy if everything is done right. The truth is that mastery never comes easy!
file question0
19
Creative Commons License
This worksheet is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, version 1.0. To view
a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/ or send a letter to Creative
Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, California 94305, USA. The terms and conditions of this
license allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modification of all licensed works by the general public.
Simple explanation of Attribution License:

The licensor (Tony Kuphaldt) permits others to copy, distribute, display, and otherwise use this
work. In return, licensees must give the original author(s) credit. For the full license text, please visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/ on the internet.
More detailed explanation of Attribution License:

Under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License, you may make freely
use, make copies, and even modify these worksheets (and the individual “source” files comprising them)
without having to ask me (the author and licensor) for permission. The one thing you must do is properly
credit my original authorship. Basically, this protects my efforts against plagiarism without hindering the
end-user as would normally be the case under full copyright protection. This gives educators a great deal
of freedom in how they might adapt my learning materials to their unique needs, removing all financial and
legal barriers which would normally hinder if not prevent creative use.
Nothing in the License prohibits the sale of original or adapted materials by others. You are free to
copy what I have created, modify them if you please (or not), and then sell them at any price. Once again,
the only catch is that you must give proper credit to myself as the original author and licensor. Given that
these worksheets will be continually made available on the internet for free download, though, few people
will pay for what you are selling unless you have somehow added value.
Nothing in the License prohibits the application of a more restrictive license (or no license at all) to
derivative works. This means you can add your own content to that which I have made, and then exercise
full copyright restriction over the new (derivative) work, choosing not to release your additions under the
same free and open terms. An example of where you might wish to do this is if you are a teacher who desires
to add a detailed “answer key” for your own benefit but not to make this answer key available to anyone
else (e.g. students).
Note: the text on this page is not a license. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the Legal
Code (the full license) - it is a human-readable expression of some of its key terms. Think of it as the
user-friendly interface to the Legal Code beneath. This simple explanation itself has no legal value, and its
contents do not appear in the actual license.
file license
20
Questions
Question 1
Read and outline the “Terms and Definitions” section of the “Chemistry” chapter in your Lessons In
Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs,
equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor
and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading.
file i04121
21
Question 2
Each element on the periodic table has its own preferred state of ionization in liquid solutions. Hydrogen,
Sodium, and Potassium atoms, for instance, “want” to ionize with a single positive charge (H+ , Na+ , and
K+ , respectively). Magnesium, Calcium, and Barium atoms “want” to ionize with a double positive charge
(Mg2+ , Ca2+ , and Ba2+ , respectively). Oxygen atoms “prefer” to ionize with a double negative charge
(O2− ). The “halogen” elements (Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, etc.) tend to ionize with a single
negative charge (F− , Cl− , Br− , I− , respectively). Nitrogen atoms readily take on a triple negative charge
(N3− ).
Just as the individual elements have their own ionization preferences, certain molecular combinations
of elements also have preferred ionization states.
Shown here is a list of some common polyatomic ions:
• Ammonium = NH+
4
• Hydroxide = OH−
• Hydronium = H3 O+
• Cyanide = CN−
• Nitrite = NO−
2
• Nitrate = NO−
3
• Phosphate = PO3−
4
• Hydrogen phosphate = HPO2−

4
• Sulphite = SO2−
3
• Sulphate = SO2−
4
• Hydrogen sulphide = HS−

• Hydrogen sulphite = HSO−
3
• Hydrogen sulphate = HSO−

4
• Carbonate = CO2−
3
• Hypochlorite = ClO−
• Chlorate = ClO−
3
• Borate = BO3−
3
Identify which of these ions are cations and which are anions, and then explain the meanings of the
subscript and superscript numbers.
Suggestions for Socratic discussion
• Note that the hydrogenated versions of sulphur ions have one less negative charge (one more positive
charge) than the unhydrogenated versions. Explain this pattern!
• Compare all the ions whose names end in “-ide” versus “-ite” versus “-ate”. Do you see any pattern to
the naming of ions?
file i03078
22
Question 3
Read and outline the “Ions In Liquid Solutions” section of the “Chemistry” chapter in your Lessons In
Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs,
equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor
and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading.
file i04122
Question 4
Read and outline the introduction, the “Dissociation and Ionization in Aqueous Solutions” subsection,
and the “Two-Electrode Conductivity Probes” subsection of the “Conductivity Measurement” section of
the “Continuous Analytical Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook.
Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant
details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and
examples explored in this reading.
file i04124
23
Question 5
Bring the following materials to class to perform an experiment demonstrating conductivity and
electrolysis in water. You may partner with one or two classmates to bring these materials, and perform the
experiment together. You are also free to perform the experiment before class to get an advance-start on
understanding the principles involved:
• Two paper clips
• Small drinking cup (to fill with water)
• At least two “alligator clip” jumper wires
• One 6-volt or 9-volt battery
• One or more packets of table salt (from the cafeteria)
• Stir-stick (or pencil) to mix salt into the water
• Multimeter capable of measuring current in the milliamp range
Bend the paperclips so they form two electrodes which will dip into water you put in the cup. Place
each paperclip on opposite sides of the cup, maximizing the distance between them. Fill the cup with water,
and connect the paper-clip electrodes to the battery and to your multimeter (forming a series circuit so the
meter measures current) using the “alligator clip” jumper wires. Take one measurement of the battery’s
voltage for reference later (you will need to know the voltage so you can calculate conductance: G = VI ).
Document the meter’s current measurement indication. Add approximately one-quarter of the salt to
the water and stir it until it completely dissolves, then document the meter’s indication and calculate the
conductance (G). Repeat this process over and over until you have added all the salt to the water. Be careful
to maintain the same amount of separation between the two paper-clip electrodes when taking measurements,
and make absolutely sure they never touch each other! Maintaining a constant separation is important for
measurement accuracy, and avoiding contact prevents you from blowing a fuse in your meter.
Battery voltage volts
I
Salt content Measured current (I) Calculated conductance (G = V )
No salt in the water
≈ 25% of the salt added
100% of the salt added
Devise a method of determining when the water has become saturated with salt, and describe your
procedure. Note: you may require more salt than used in your initial test in order to achieve saturation.
After running this experiment for a short while, you will probably notice a lot of bubbles collecting on
the two electrodes. At least one of these gases will have a very distinctive odor. Identify which gas this is,
and explain why it is being generated based on your knowledge of chemistry.
file i04123
24
Question 6
Read and outline the “Four-Electrode Conductivity Probes” subsection of the “Conductivity
Measurement” section of the “Continuous Analytical Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial
Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations,
tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and
classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading.
file i04125
25
Question 7
Bring the following materials to class to build your own four-wire conductivity probe. Partner with
several classmates ahead of time to bring these materials, and to perform the experiment together in class
as a team:
• Four large paperclips
• Masking tape
• Small drinking cup (to fill with water)
• One pencil or plastic (non-metal) pen
• At least five “alligator clip” jumper wires (only three if multimeter has test clips)
• One 6-volt or 9-volt battery
• Resistor between 10 kΩ and 100 kΩ in value
• One or more packets of table salt (from the cafeteria)
• Multimeter capable of measuring DC millivolts
Bend the paperclips so they are straight, then wrap them around the pencil or pen to form a four-
electrode conductivity probe, with the electrode spacing narrow enough for all four electrodes to easily fit
into the opening of the cup. Fold a length of masking tape over the four wires to hold them in position,
ensuring consistent spacing between the wires as the prove is used. Do not get the masking tape wet with the
sample water, or else all subsequent conductivity measurements will be affected by electrical conductance
within the wet tape. Be sure to use steel paperclips rather than copper wires, as steel is much less chemically
reactive with saltwater than copper.
mV
Voltmeter
V A
+ -
V A
OFF
A COM
Battery
Paperclips
(wrapped
around shaft) 10 kΩ to 100 kΩ
Pen or pencil
Masking tape
Don’t get the tape wet!
Saltwater
solution
The large resistor in series with the battery forms a crude current source: current output by the battery
will be relatively constant despite changes in water conductivity because the large series resistor value
“swamps out” the relatively small amount of resistance presented by the saltwater. Your results will not be
nearly as good without the resistor in series!
26
The instructor will take several cups and prepare random concentrations of saltwater, identifying each
cup with a number written on the side. Your team’s job is to use your conductivity probe to rank each
solution in order from greatest conductivity to least conductivity. In order to minimize the “traffic congestion”
of students at the cups, it is recommended that members from each team quickly insert their probe into each
solution and gather the raw data (voltage measurements) for each numbered cup, then return to their seats
to analyze the data and rank the solutions. When your team has agreed on a ranking, write your ranked
results (from greatest to least) on a piece of paper and prepare to present your findings to the class.
• Explain how this 4-wire conductivity probe design is similar to the design of a 4-wire RTD temperature
sensor. What is the purpose of using 4 wires instead of 2 wires in an RTD circuit, and how is this
purpose similar to that in a 4-wire conductivity probe?
• Explain how your conductivity instrument’s response will be affected by increasing the spacing between
all four electrodes.
• Suppose we actually wished to calibrate a student-built conductivity probe so it measured solution
conductivity in Siemens per centimeter. How would we go about calibrating it to ensure it read
conductivity accurately?
file i04126
Question 8
Read and outline the “Electrodeless Conductivity Probes” subsection of the “Conductivity
Measurement” section of the “Continuous Analytical Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial
file i04127
27
Question 9
Compare the behaviors of these three conductivity probes to a steadily increasing liquid conductivity
over time, noting whether the meter indication increases, decreases, or remains the same as the liquid’s
conductivity steadily increases:
Two-electrode Two-electrode
(ammeter) (voltmeter) Four-electrode Electrodeless
+
− A V V V
Probe design Meter indication

Two-electrode (ammeter)
Two-electrode (voltmeter)
Four-electrode
Electrodeless
Be prepared to explain why each meter’s indication changes as it does!
Now, determine how the meter’s indication will be affected by a steady accumulation of residue
(“plating”) on the probes over time, identifying whether the meter indication will increase, decrease, or
remain the same:
Probe design Meter indication

Two-electrode (ammeter)
Two-electrode (voltmeter)
Four-electrode
Electrodeless
• Explain why we use a voltage source in the “ammeter” style of two-electrode cell, and a current source
in the “voltmeter” style of two-electrode cell. What would happen if we mixed up the meter and source
styles (e.g. ammeter with a current source; voltmeter with a voltage source)?
• Is it possible to use an AC excitation source rather than a DC source in either the 2-electrode or
4-electrode cell designs? Explain why or why not.
• Is it possible to use a DC excitation source rather than an AC source in the electrodeless cell design?
Explain why or why not.
• Identify something we could do to the liquid solution to increase its conductivity.
• Identify something we could do to the liquid solution to decrease its conductivity.
file i04128
28
Question 10
The following PFD shows the “loop” for steam and water in a power boiler system, where fuel is burnt
to produce electricity. This particular power plant is located near the ocean, where saltwater is used to cool
the steam turbine’s exhaust back into water:
Turbine
Generator
Exhaust stack
Saturated
Economizer steam out
Superheated steam out
Steam drum
Cooling
pump
Superheater
Water
tubes
Ho
tg To/from the
as
es ocean
Hot gases Flame Air
Cond
"Mud" drum Fuel
AAH
Deaerator
Condensate pump
Feedwater pump
To control system
The purpose of the “AAH” instrument is to detect any leaks that might develop inside the condensor
(heat exchanger). What exactly is this analytical instrument measuring and what purpose does it serve in
the context of the larger system? What would be bad about having a small leak in the heat exchanger,
anyway?
• Describe the difference between saturated steam and superheated steam.

• Would it be useful to place a conductivity sensor in either the saturated or superheated steam line?
Explain why or why not.
• Would it be useful to place a conductivity sensor in the mud drum? Explain why or why not.
• One way to help avoid contamination due to leakage is to situate the heat exchanger with the proper
pressure differential between the cooled and cooling fluids. Describe how this “pressure differential”
approach might be applied to this process, so that a heat exchanger leak would not be so disruptive
to power plant operations. Furthermore, identify where a differential pressure transmitter could be
connected in this system to monitor the pressure difference.
• Identify how the piping arrangement could be altered from what is shown in this diagram to help
maintain a pressure differential between the tube and shell sides of the heat exchanger.
29
• Examining this diagram, identify the purpose of the “economizer” in a boiler feedwater system.
• Examining this diagram, describe the difference between “saturated” and “superheated” steam, and
explain how both types of steam are produced.
• Identify suitable level transmitter technologies for installation in the steam drum.
• Identify suitable flowmeter technologies for installation in the feedwater line, and also the most desirable
location(s). Assume we need to know the mass flow rate for boiler feedwater, in units of pounds per
minute.
• Identify suitable flowmeter technologies for installation in the saturated steam line, and also the most
desirable location(s). Assume we need to know the mass flow rate for boiler steam output, in units of
pounds per minute.
• Identify suitable flowmeter technologies for installation in the burner’s air line.
• Identify suitable flowmeter technologies for installation in the burner’s fuel line, assuming a liquid fuel.
• Identify suitable flowmeter technologies for installation in the burner’s fuel line, assuming a gaseous
fuel.
file i03727
30
Question 11
Electrical conductivity in metals is a function of free electrons. That is to say, free electrons are the
charge carriers for electricity in metallic substances.
Electrical conductivity in semiconductors is a function of either conduction-band electrons or valence-
band holes. Pentavalent dopants add electrons at an energy level just beneath the conduction band of a
semiconductor crystal, allowing ambient thermal energy to boost those electrons into the conduction band
and serve as charge carriers like free electrons in metals. This makes an N-type semiconductor:
Energy diagram of a semiconductor

doped with a "pentavalent" impurity
Conduction band
"Donor" electrons
Valence band
Trivalent dopants add “vacancies,” or “holes,” for valence-band electrons to leap in to with the help of
ambient thermal energy. This makes room for motion of electrons within the valence band, and we call the
resulting substance a P-type semiconductor:
Energy diagram of a semiconductor

doped with a "trivalent" impurity
Conduction band
"Acceptor" holes
Valence band
To differentiate the valence-band electron motion in P-type semiconductors from the conduction-band
electron motion in N-type semiconductors, we commonly refer to the valence-band electrons’ motion in terms
of the “holes” they leave behind, and treat these holes as positive charge carriers.
Conduction within liquids is another thing entirely. Since the molecules are free to move about within
liquids (and not within solids), entire molecules may act as electrical charge carriers if they are ionized.
Explain what “ionization” is, and distinguish between anions and cations.
file i00603
31
Question 12
Any substance that enhances electrical conductivity when dissolved in water is called an electrolyte.
When “table” salt is mixed with water to become a solution, an interesting thing happens called dissociation.
A similar process called ionization occurs when hydrogen chloride (HCl) enters a solution. Explain what
these processes are.
Then, identify how the following electrolytes will separate into cations and anions when dissolved in
water. In other words, identify which part of each electrolyte molecule will become an anion, and which part
will become a cation:
• Sodium Chloride (NaCl) →
• Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) →
• Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) →
• Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4 ) →
• Potassium Sulfate (K2 SO4 ) →
• Sulfuric Acid (H2 SO4 ) →
Hint: you might find a Periodic Table of the Ions helpful in determining how these compounds dissociate.
file i00604
Question 13
Calculate all listed values for this transformer circuit:
Rload 3.7 VAC

13000 turns 4000 turns
1.5 kΩ 50 Hz
• Vprimary =
• Vsecondary =
• Iprimary =
• Isecondary =
Explain whether this is a step-up, step-down, or isolation transformer, and also explain what distinguishes
the “primary” winding from the “secondary” winding in any transformer.
file i00611
32
Question 14
Conductance of an aqueous (water-based) solution is usually expressed in units of Siemens per centimeter
(S/cm). The unit of Siemens, of course, is nothing more than the reciprocal of Ohms, given that conductance
(G) and resistance (R) are inverse quantities:
1
G=
R
We may measure the conductivity of a liquid by immersing two electrodes of known area into that
liquid, separating them by a known distance, and then measuring the electrical conductance between the
electrodes. We call such a device a conductivity cell:
Voltage
source Ammeter I
G=
A
−
+
V
V I
Distance = d
Sample
liquid
Area = A
Assuming the conductivity of the liquid does not change, how will the conductance measurement be
affected by changes in electrode area and distance? The following equation may be helpful in answering this
question:
A
G=k
d
Where,
G = Conductance, in Siemens (S)
k = Specific conductivity of liquid, in Siemens per centimeter (S/cm)
A = Electrode area (each), in square centimeters (cm2 )
d = Electrode separation distance, in centimeters (cm)
Also, show how the unit of “Siemens per centimeter” comes directly from this equation.
file i00606
33
Question 15
Conductivity cells are rated in terms of a cell constant, often denoted by the Greek letter θ (“theta”)
in conductivity equations. The proper unit of measurement for this cell constant is inverse centimeters, or
cm−1 .
Take the following two equations and combine them using algebraic substitution to form a new equation
solving for the specific conductivity of a liquid (k) given raw conductance (G) and the cell constant (θ):
A d
G=k θ=
d A
Where,
θ = Conductivity cell constant, inverse centimeters (cm−1 )
A = Electrode area, in square centimeters (cm2 )
file i00607
Question 16
A conductivity probe is used to measure the conductivity of a water sample. Supposing the drive
(excitation) current to the probe is 150 µA, the sensed (output) voltage is 1.64 volts, and the cell constant
(θ) is 1.2, calculate the specific conductivity (k) of the water sample.
Relevant formulae:
A d
G=k θ= k = Gθ
d A
Where,
A = Electrode area (each), in square centimeters (cm2 )
θ = cell constant
file i03074
34
Question 17
Imagine a situation where two different conductivity probes are immersed in the same container of
water. One probe is toroidal, while the other is a 4-electrode “contact” style:
Ext. Ext.
Sense Sense
Water
In both cases, the excitation signal (Ext.) is alternating current (an AC voltage source for the toroidal
probe and an AC current source for the contact probe). In both cases, the probe has a pair of wires outputting
the “Sense” signal (normally going to an electronic amplifying circuit for conditioning and conversion into a
4-20 mA DC instrument signal).
As table salt (NaCl) is added to the water, one probe’s “sense” signal will grow stronger while the other
probe’s “sense” signal will diminish. Identify which is which, and explain why in each case.
file i03073
Question 18
A toroidal conductivity sensor may suffer from calibration error if located too close to the wall of a
metal pipe. Explain why.
file i03075
35
Question 19
Examine the following toroidal conductivity analyzer circuit, then answer the questions that follow:
Millivoltmeter
Vexcitation
Sample
liquid
• If Vexcitation were to increase, would the millivoltmeter’s reading increase, decrease, or stay the same?
• If the conductivity of the liquid were to increase, would the millivoltmeter’s reading increase, decrease,
or stay the same?
• If the liquid were to completely drain out of the sample holder, would the millivoltmeter’s reading
increase, decrease, or stay the same?
• If the sampled liquid is tap water, identify something you could do to the water to increase its
conductivity.
file i04305
36
Question 20
An ohmmeter registers a resistance of 5.8 kΩ when connected between two metal plates immersed in
a sample of water. The metal plates each measure 3 centimeters by 3 centimeters, and are separated by a
distance of 10 centimeters:
5.8 kΩ
Ω
3 cm
3 cm
10 cm
Calculate the specific conductivity of this water, expressed in units of microsiemens per centimeter
(µS/cm):
Specific conductivity = µS/cm

file i00923
Question 21
Read and outline the “pH” section of the “Chemistry” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial
file i04129
37
Question 22
What is the difference between an acid, a base, and a salt?
Determine whether the following compounds are acids, bases, or salts, based on their formulae:
• NaOH
• KCl
• H2 SO4
• HNO3
• KOH
• HCN
• NaCl
• ZnSO4
• A helpful reference to consult is a periodic table of the ions, showing the “preferred” ionic states of
elements and common compounds.
• Explain why the addition of O2− ions to a solution increases pH just as the addition of OH− ions will.
• All other factors being equal, does the electrical conductivity of any electrolyte vary depending on if it
is an acid, a base, or a salt?
file i00612
Question 23
Suppose two chemistry students decide to engage in a “pH battle,” where one tries to make a bucket
of water more acidic by adding hydrochloric acid (HCl), while the other tries to make the same water more
alkaline by adding sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
Identify the reaction products resulting from the mixing of these two substances in water, and why you
would be wise to stay clear of this experiment.
• What conditions would make this neutralization safer to execute? What conditions would make it more
dangerous?
• Would you expect a pH neutralization process to be endothermic or exothermic? Explain your reasoning.
• Identify the reaction products from mixing calcium hydroxide with sulfuric acid in a similar “pH battle”.
• Identify the reaction products from mixing hydrofluoric acid with magnesium hydroxide in a similar
“pH battle”.
file i04131
Question 24
Read and outline the “Colorimetric pH Measurement” subsection of the “pH Measurement” section of
file i04134
38
Question 25
Research how to use litmus paper to measure pH, and prepare to measure the pH values of several
different solutions in class. Plan with some of your classmates to bring some of these substances to class:
• Small drinking cup (no more than one per person necessary)
• Carbonated beverage
• Milk
• Orange juice
• Cranberry juice
• Bottled water
• Water from home
• Water from a public drinking fountain at school
• Antacid pills
• Drain cleaner powder (do not let the powder contact your skin!)
• Vinegar
The instructor will take several cups and partially fill them with the liquid samples you bring to class.
Your team’s job is to use strips of litmus paper (also supplied by the instructor) to rank each sample in
order from highest pH to lowest pH. In order to minimize the “traffic congestion” of students at the cups,
it is recommended that each team member quickly dip one litmus paper strip into one solution (each of
their teammates dipping their strips into different solution cups) and return to their desks for analysis of the
paper and to rank the solutions. When your team has agreed on a ranking, write your ranked results (from
greatest to least) on a piece of paper and prepare to present your findings to the class.
• Identify some of the disadvantages of measuring pH with litmus paper.

• Devise a way in which this colorimetric method of pH sensing could be automated, to provide a 4-20
mA electronic signal representing pH based on the color change of a litmus strip.
file i04133
39
Question 26
Calculate the pH values of the following solutions, given the hydrogen ion concentrations shown. Based
on the pH values you obtain, determine whether each solution is acidic, alkaline, or neutral:
• [H+ ] = 0.0007 M ; pH =
• [H+ ] = 0.0000032 M ; pH =
• [H+ ] = 0.000000085 M ; pH =
• [H+ ] = 0.00000000012 M ; pH =
• Which of these solutions has the greatest concentration of hydrogen ions, and which of these solutions
has the least?
• Demonstrate how to estimate numerical answers for this problem without using a calculator.
• As hydrogen ion concentration increases in a solution, does the solution become more acidic or more
alkaline?
• Does a sample of water become more acidic, more alkaline, or does its pH value remain stable as it is
electrolyzed to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases?
• Explain why we cannot calculate the ionization constant (Kw ) of the solution from just this information
given.
file i04135
Question 27
Calculate the hydrogen ion molarities of the following solutions, given the pH values shown:
• 8.15 pH ; [H+ ] = M
+
• 2.71 pH ; [H ] = M
• 6.08 pH ; [H+ ] = M
• 10.62 pH ; [H+ ] = M
• Which of these solutions has the greatest concentration of hydrogen ions, and which of these solutions
has the least?
• Demonstrate how to display all possible non-zero digits on your calculator when you are presented with
a number such as 0.0000000007 (i.e. when significant figures are hidden from view owing to limitations
in the calculator’s display width).
• How much must the hydrogen ion molarity of a solution change in order to experience a pH increase of
1?
• How much must the hydrogen ion molarity of a solution change in order to experience a pH decrease of
1?
file i04136
40
Question 28
Read the “Sodium hydroxide” (caustic soda) entry in the NIOSH Pocket Guide To Chemical Hazards
(DHHS publication number 2005-149) and answer the following questions:
Write the chemical formula for sodium hydroxide, and identify its constituent elements. Is this considered
an acid, a base, or a salt?
Calculate the molecular weight for this compound, and also the mass that 13 moles of pure sodium
hydroxide will have.
Interpret the respirator recommendations given for sodium hydroxide in the NIOSH guide. Is a filter-
style respirator sufficient, or must a person work with a “supplied air” apparatus to ensure they do not inhale
sodium hydroxide?
• Explain why a filter-style respirator is or is not sufficient protection against inhalation of this chemical
substance, based on what you know about its physical properties.
• Identify why sodium hydroxide powder might be added to drinking water in a water purification process.
file i04138
41
Question 29
A process used in the oil refining industry to make high-octane gasoline feedstock is called alkylation.
So-called “alky” units employ a concentrated acid as the catalyst for the alkylation reaction, usually sulfuric
acid:
Alkylation process flow diagram

Feed
Caustic
Reactor scrubber Deisobutanizer
Acid settler
Alkylate
Reject acid
Fresh acid
The “acid settler” vessel is a separator, allowing the reaction products and acid catalyst to separate
according to their respective densities (concentrated sulfuric acid being denser than any hydrocarbon). The
interface level between hydrocarbon liquid and acid must be tightly controlled for the process to work well.
It is bad for acid to “carry over” to the caustic scrubber (if the interface rises too high), and it is also bad
for hydrocarbon liquids to leave the system through the “reject acid” line (if the interface falls too low).
The major problem here is that the sulfuric acid is highly corrosive, creating a challenge for interface
level measurement. Identify a few different level-measurement technologies that might be appropriate for
sensing the settler’s interface level.
• By contrast, can you think of some level-measurement technologies that would not be appropriate for
highly corrosive solutions?
• Identify some of the different flowmeter technologies appropriate to various process lines shown for this
alkylation unit.
• What types of personal protective equipment (PPE) do you think an instrument technician might need
to wear before working on a instrument contacting this highly concentrated acid?
• How much fresh acid needs to be sent to the reactor, compared to the hydrocarbon feed rate? Explain
your answer based on what a catalyst does in a chemical reaction.
• Older alkylation units used hydrofluoric acid instead of sulfuric acid because HF is a more effective
catalyst for the alkylation reaction than H2 SO4 . Unfortunately, while sulfuric acid at this concentration
is quite dangerous, hydrofluoric acid is far worse. HF tends to penetrate skin easier than many other
acids, and when inside the body it dissolves bones! Explain why the first-aid for topical HF exposure is
to apply (or sometimes inject) a calcium gluconate (C12 H22 CaO14 ) solution.
42
file i04139
Question 30
When the sugar glucose (C6 H12 O6 ) ferments, the result is the production of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and
ethanol (C2 H5 OH). This is the chemical reaction on which all alcohol beverage industries are founded: the
conversion of sugar into ethanol. The following chemical equation shows the conversion of glucose into carbon
dioxide and ethanol:
C6 H12 O6 → CO2 + C2 H5 OH
Unfortunately, this equation is incomplete. Although it does indicate the identities of the reaction
products (carbon dioxide and ethanol), it does not indicate their relative quantities. Re-write this chemical
equation so that it is balanced.
• Fermentation is a process strongly influenced by pH. Is this evident from the balanced equation, or not?
• Is fermentation an endothermic or exothermic process? How may we tell by this chemical equation?
file i00572
Question 31
Calculate the sodium ion molarity of a solution made from 0.05 moles of table salt (NaCl) completely
dissolved in 30 cups of water.
Calculate the chlorine ion molarity of a solution made from 0.05 moles of table salt (NaCl) completely
dissolved in 30 cups of water.
file i04130
Question 32
Many liquid substances undergo a process whereby their constituent molecules split into positively and
negatively charged ion pairs. Liquid ionic compounds split into ions completely or nearly completely, while
only a small percentage of the molecules in a liquid covalent compound split into ions. The process of neutral
molecules separating into ion pairs is called dissociation when it happens in ionic compounds, and ionization
when it happens to covalent compounds.
Molten salt (NaCl) is an example of the former, while pure water is an example of the latter. The large
presence of ions in molten salt explains why it is a good conductor of electricity, while the comparative lack
of ions in pure water explains why it is often considered an insulator.
However, while the ionization process in water is very slight, it is not zero. Research the molarity (how
many moles per liter of volume – M ) for both anions and cations in pure water at 25o C.
Hint: the best sources to research for this question may be found in tutorials on pH and pH measurement.
file i00613
43
Question 33
Dilute (or pure) water at 25o C has an ionization constant of 1.00 × 10−14 , meaning that the product
of the hydrogen ion molarity and the hydroxyl ion molarity is constantly equal to this value:
KW = [H+ ][OH− ] = 1.00 × 10−14

The pH value of an aqueous (water-based) solution is a way to express the molarity of hydrogen ions
[H+ ] in solution. Specifically, it is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion molarity:
pH = − log[H+ ]
Given this definition of pH, calculate the pH value of absolutely pure water, where the number of
hydrogen ions [H+ ] exactly equals the number of hydroxyl ions [OH− ].
Challenge question: while pH is often defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion activity (nearly
equal to the negative log of hydrogen ion molarity − log[H+ ] in dilute solutions), it is more properly defined
as the negative log of hydronium ion activity. Explain what this distinction means.
file i00614
44
Question 34
When an acid substance is added to water, some of the acid molecules dissociate into positive hydrogen
ions (H+ ) and negative ions (the type of negative ions depending on what type of acid it is). This increases
the molarity of hydrogen ions (the number of moles of H+ ions per liter of solution). The addition of hydrogen
ions to the solution also decreases the molarity of hydroxyl ions (the number of moles of OH− ions per liter
of solution) because some of the water’s OH− ions combine with the acid’s H+ ions to form deionized water
molecules (H2 O).
If an alkaline substance (otherwise known as a caustic, or a base) is added to water, some of the alkaline
molecules dissociate into negative hydroxyl ions (OH− ) and positive ions (the type of positive ions depending
on what type of alkaline it is). This increases the molarity of OH− ions in the solution, as well as decreases
the molarity of hydrogen ions (again, because some of the caustic’s OH− ions combine with the water’s H+
ions to form deionized water molecules, H2 O).
One way to envision these processes is to think of a laboratory balance scale, balancing the number of
hydrogen ions in a solution against the number of hydroxyl ions in the same solution:
[ H+ ] [ OH- ]
When the solution is pure water, this imaginary scale is balanced, with [H+ ] = [OH− ]. Adding an acid
to the solution tips the scale one way, while adding a caustic to the solution tips it the other way.
Interestingly, the product of these two molarities is roughly constant for any dilute water solution at a
constant temperature. This is called the ionization constant of water, symbolized as KW :
KW = [H+ ][OH− ] = 1.00 × 10−14 at 25o C
Suppose we add an acid substance to a sample of pure water until the molarity of hydrogen ions in
solution is [H+ ] = 0.00027 M . Calculate the pH value for this solution, assuming a temperature of 25o C.
Suppose we add an alkaline substance to a sample of pure water until the molarity of hydroxyl ions in
solution is [OH− ] = 0.0081 M . Calculate the pH value for this solution, assuming a temperature of 25o C.
As a general rule, how do the pH values of acidic solutions, alkaline solutions, and pure water relate to
45
one another? In other words, what are the numerical ranges for each type of solution?
file i00615
Question 35
It is commonly said that the pH value of pure, or “neutral” water is always 7.0. This is not completely
true. While the pH of pure water is indeed 7.0 at 25o C, it is not at other temperatures!
What follows is a table of ionization constants for pure water at different temperatures:
Temperature KW
0o C 1.139 × 10−15
5o C 1.846 × 10−15
10o C 2.920 × 10−15
15o C 4.505 × 10−15
20o C 6.809 × 10−15
25o C 1.008 × 10−14
30o C 1.469 × 10−14
35o C 2.089 × 10−14
40o C 2.919 × 10−14
45o C 4.018 × 10−14
50o C 5.474 × 10−14
55o C 7.296 × 10−14
60o C 9.614 × 10−14
Calculate the pH values of pure water at some of these temperatures, noting which direction pH changes
as temperature increases and as temperature decreases.
• High-accuracy pH probes often have temperature compensating sensors (RTDs) installed to measure the
temperature of the probe as it is immersed in the solution. Contrary to popular belief, this temperature
probe does not compensate for changes in the water’s pH value, but rather it compensates for something
else. Identify what this “something else” is, and why it needs to be compensated in high-accuracy
applications.
file i00616
Question 36
Why is pH measurement important in industry? Who cares what the pH value of a solution is, anyway?
Identify some applications where we absolutely do care, and explain why.
file i00617
Question 37
What does it mean if a particular sample of ethyl alcohol has a molarity of 0.1 M , or 0.1 molar?
file i03004
Question 38
If a 2 kilogram sample of pure water is mixed with 1 gram of pure H2 SO4 , what will the resulting sulfuric
acid’s molality be? Note: I am asking you to calculate molality (m), not molarity (M ), of the acid solution!
file i03005
46
Question 39
What is pH neutralization? In what types of processes is this procedure relevant to, and why is it
important (from an environmental perspective)?
Is there any chemical byproduct of the pH neutralization process?

file i03079
Question 40
Question 41
Read and outline the “Potentiometric pH Measurement” subsection of the “pH Measurement” section of
file i04140
47
Question 42
One of the technical challenges inherent to potentiometric pH measurement is how to measure a small
voltage when the measuring circuit contains an enormously large resistance (the glass bulb of the pH-sensing
electrode). To better understand this electrical principle, we may perform a simple experiment using a
voltmeter to measure the voltage of a battery through resistors of various size.
Bring the following materials to class:

• Assortment of resistors from 1 kΩ to 10 MΩ
• Multimeter
• At least two “alligator clip” jumper wires
• Small battery (any voltage)
Use your voltmeter to measure the battery’s voltage, inserting different amounts of resistance in series
with your meter as you do. Your first voltage measurement will be with no resistor, connecting the meter’s
test leads directly to the battery terminals. This is the “true” voltage measurement against which all the
others will be compared:
Resistor value Measured battery voltage

0 Ω (no resistor)
100 kΩ
10 MΩ
Identify the effect increased resistance has on the voltmeter’s indication.
Explain how the results of this experiment demonstrate the voltage-measurement problem inherent
to glass pH electrodes. Also, use your experimental data to determine how much larger than the circuit
impedance the voltmeter’s internal impedance must be in order to obtain a reasonably accurate voltage
measurement. Note: in order to calculate a ratio, you must know the approximate input impedance of
your voltmeter. Assuming a glass measurement electrode impedance of 300 MΩ, how high must the input
impedance of the pH transmitter be?
• How do modern pH measuring instruments reliably measure the millivoltage produced by pH probes,
given this problem of glass electrode resistance?
• Explain how the experimental results also confirm the fact that magnetic flowmeters are not greatly
affected by changes in liquid conductivity, so long as the liquid’s conductivity value does not fall below
a certain limit rated by the manufacturer.
• Explain how the traditional “null-balance” laboratory technique may be used to measure signal voltages
originating from extremely high-resistance sources with negligible error.
file i04144
48
Question 43
Read relevant portions of the “Rosemount Model 389 Combination pH/ORP Sensor” instruction manual
(publication PN 51-389, revision 1), and answer the following questions:
Identify whether this is a preamplified probe or a “passive” (unamplified) probe.
Based on the wiring diagrams showing how to connect this probe to various pH transmitter instruments,
identify which wire colors on the model 389 cable connect to which sensing elements:
• Measurement electrode:
• Reference electrode:
• RTD (2 wires): and
• Explain how we can tell the model 389-01 (“option 01”) probe has a built-in preamplifier circuit, just
by examining the screw terminal labels on the pH instruments it is designed to connect to.
• Discuss ideas for identifying “relevant portions” of a text so you do not have to read the whole thing.
file i04145
Question 44
Read relevant portions of the “Rosemount Model 389 Combination pH/ORP Sensor” instruction manual
(publication PN 51-389, revision 1), and answer the following questions:
Identify the page in this manual describing the buffer calibration procedure for the pH probe.
Identify the calibrated slope values indicating a pH probe in need of replacement.
This manual describes a “standardization” procedure in addition to a full “calibration” procedure.

Explain the difference between the two procedures.
• Explain the rationale for each step of the two-buffer calibration procedure.
• During a two-buffer calibration procedure, which calibration parameter(s) get adjusted within the pH
instrument: zero, span, or both?
• During a standardization procedure, which calibration parameter(s) get adjusted within the pH
instrument: zero, span, or both?
• When a technician performs a “standardization” on a pH instrument, as opposed to a full calibration,
is the technician adjusting the instrument’s zero, its span, its linearity, or its hysteresis?
• The instructions on page 19 of this manual tell you to “. . . check the pH buffer manufacturer
specifications for millivolt values at various temperatures since it may affect the actual value of the
buffer solution mV/pH value.” This warning is actually referring to two different phenomena: the effect
of temperature on the probe’s slope, and the effect of temperature on the buffer solution’s pH value.
If the pH probe being calibrated is equipped with an RTD temperature sensor, which of these two
phenomena is accounted for?
file i04146
49
Question 45
Suppose a pH probe is immersed in a solution of 98% water having a hydrogen ion activity of 0.0000032
M . Calculate the pH value of this solution, and also the (ideal) voltage generated by a pH probe assuming
a probe resistance of 125 MΩ and a solution temperature of 30 degrees Celsius.
• Identify factors influencing the voltage output by a glass electrode, other than the pH of the liquid it’s
immersed in.
• Explain why you chose the value you did for n in the Nernst equation.
file i04147
Question 46
Calculate the ideal “slope” values for a glass pH electrode at the following temperatures:
• T = 15 o C ; slope = mV/pH
• T = 33 o C ; slope = mV/pH
• T = 110 o F ; slope = mV/pH
o
• T = 40 F ; slope = mV/pH
• Do changes in a pH instrument’s slope represent a zero shift, a span shift, or a change in linearity?
file i04148
50
Question 47
Determine the proper control action (direct or reverse) for the controller in this pH neutralization system,
assuming direct action on the part of the transmitter (i.e. increasing pH = increasing mA signal) and an
air-to-open (ATO) control valve:
I
/P
H
AIR
AY L
pH FIC
AT
ATO
FI
Acid FT I
/P
FY
FRQ
FT
Motor
Incoming water
to be treated
pH
AIC AT
Mixer Treated effluent
• If the pH transmitter in this control system were mis-calibrated so that it always registered 0.5 pH units
too high, how would this affect the real pH value of the treated water?
• If the control valve in this control system were mis-calibrated so that it always opened up 7% more than
it was supposed to, how would this affect the real pH value of the treated water?
• If the controller were configured for the wrong action (e.g. direct instead of reverse, or vice-versa), what
would likely be the result in this process?
• If the neutralizing reagant were switched from acid to caustic, would this require a change in the
controller’s action? Why or why not?
• Will changes in acid density affect the accuracy of the acid flowmeter? Why or why not?
• If the water temperature happens to increase but there is no RTD in the pH probe to compensate for
temperature changes, will the pH transmitter register too high, too low, or will the change be impossible
to predict?
• Is the influent water acidic or alkaline, based on this neutralization system design?
file i04137
51
Question 48
Two instrument technicians are arguing over the suitability of a magnetic flowmeter (“magflow”) in a
process line carrying highly concentrated sodium hydroxide (caustic soda). One technician claims a magflow
meter will not work because it requires a lot of ions in the liquid for conductivity, and as we all know caustic
solutions have very low hydrogen ion concentrations. The other technician does not agree.
Which technician is correct, and why?
• If the pH value of an industrial flow stream is liable to change over time, will this affect the suitability
of a magflow meter?
• One of the challenges posed by the measurement of some caustic solution flow rates is clogging of the
flowmeter by crystals forming in the caustic solution. Identify specific flowmeter technologies that would
be affected more by plugging than others.
file i04143
52
Question 49
When sulfur-containing fuels are burned, one of the reaction products is sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), which is
an atmospheric pollutant. Fortunately, SO2 is relatively easy to “scrub” out of hot flue gases by spraying
water down on the rising gases and then chemically treating (regenerating) the resulting solution:
Exhaust gases out (low SO2 concentration)
Make-up Neutralizing
Scrubber water reagant
FT FT
Hot flue gas
from furnace
LG
LT pH
pH pH
Regeneration pH
process
Pump
To waste
The reaction product formed between water and SO2 gas has a strongly corrosive pH value. Identify
what this reaction product is, based on your knowledge of chemistry, and then explain what happens in the
“regenerating” process to remove this product so that the water may be returned to the scrubber for re-use.
Suppose the sulfur content of the fuel being burned were to increase. How would this change in fuel
chemistry affect the various pH measurements shown in the scrubber process, all other conditions being
unchanged?
Specifically, what kind of “neutralizing reagent” must be added to the solution to regenerate it, and
what kind of “waste” product is generated as a result?
• Rank the four pH transmitters in order of their expected pH measurements, from lowest (acid) to highest
(alkaline).
• Explain what would happen to the four pH transmitters’ indications if the regenerator process shut
down, merely passing water through it without neutralizing pH.
• Explain what would happen to the process if the control valve failed in the shut position.
• Explain what would happen to the process if the control valve failed in the full-open position.
• Identify what kind of pollution hazard is posed by SO2 stack emissions.
• Identify suitable flowmeter technologies for the flow measurement points shown in this diagram.
• Would it be worthwhile to install a pH analyzer on the flue gas line? Explain why or why not.
file i03042
53
Question 50
Calculate the voltage generated by a pH probe given the following solution pH and glass electrode
temperature values:
• pH = 5.82 ; T = 25 o C ; Nernst voltage = mV
o
• pH = 8.75 ; T = 43 C ; Nernst voltage = mV
• pH = 11.23 ; T = 95 o F ; Nernst voltage = mV
o
• pH = 3.29 ; T = 122 F ; Nernst voltage = mV
Calculate the pH of a solution given the following Nernst potential and glass electrode temperature
values:
• Nernst voltage = 105 mV ; T = 25 o C ; Solution = pH
• Nernst voltage = 233 mV ; T = 12 o C ; Solution = pH
o
• Nernst voltage = −40 mV ; T = 77 F ; Solution = pH
o
• Nernst voltage = −185 mV ; T = 131 F ; Solution = pH
file i04303
Question 51
Sketch a simple schematic diagram showing the essential components of a pH measurement system. Be
sure to include these elements:
• Measurement electrode
• Reference electrode
• Voltmeter (pH meter)
• Chemical solution (to be measured by the electrodes)
file i00619
54
Question 52
The Nernst equation is the primary formula used to predict voltage generated across any ion-selective
membrane, pH measurement electrodes included. The general form of the equation is as follows:
µ ¶
RT C1
V = ln
nF C2
Where,
V = Voltage produced across membrane due to ion exchange, in volts (V)
R = Universal gas constant (8.315 J/mol·K)
T = Absolute temperature, in Kelvin (K)
n = Number of electrons transferred per ion exchanged (unitless)
F = Faraday constant, in coulombs per mole (96,485 C/mol e− )
C1 = Concentration of ion in measured solution, in moles per liter of solution (M )
C2 = Concentration of ion in reference solution (on other side of membrane), in moles per liter of
solution (M )
We may also write the Nernst equation using of common logarithms instead of natural logarithms, which
is usually how we see it written in the context of pH measurement:
µ ¶
2.303RT C1
V = log
nF C2
Calculate the pH values for the following solution concentrations, assuming a temperature of 25o C,
and also use the Nernst equation to calculate the amount of voltage produced across the thickness of a glass
pH measurement electrode. Keep in mind that the measurement electrode’s internal potassium chloride
(KCl) reference solution is buffered to maintain a hydrogen ion molarity of [H+ ] = 1.00 × 10−7 M under all
conditions. The proper value for n is 1, because we are dealing with hydrogen ions:
[H+ ] in solution pH V
5.83 × 10−5 M
1 × 10−5 M
1 × 10−6 M
1 × 10−7 M
1 × 10−8 M
7.02 × 10−9 M
1 × 10−9 M
1 × 10−10 M
After calculating some voltage values, you will begin to notice a pattern. There is a proportionality
between voltage generated and the pH value of the measured solution. See if you can detect this pattern,
and express the relationship in simple terms.
file i00618
Question 53
Explain why the glass measurement electrode if a pH sensor must always be kept wet, ideally with a
potassium chloride (KCl) solution, when in storage.
file i00620
55
Question 54
Modern pH and temperature (thermocouple) transmitters are constructed with extremely high input
impedances (typically in the hundreds of megaohms). Explain why a high input impedance voltmeter is
important when measuring the voltage output by a source, when the voltage in question is very small.
In the days before the advent of solid-state digital multimeters with their operational amplifier (high
impedance) inputs, a technique called null-balance was used to accurately measure small voltages such as
those produced by thermocouple junctions and pH probes. This “potentiometric” technique allowed people
to use rather primitive voltmeter technology without incurring the errors that would be experienced if the
voltmeter were directly connected to the signal source.
Examine the circuits shown below, and explain how the two meters (one “galvanometer” and one
voltmeter) plus a power source and a potentiometer would be used to measure voltage from the signal source
(pH probe or thermocouple junction):
Null-balance measurement of pH probe voltage
Electrical model of
a pH electrode pair
400 MΩ
(typical)
Rmeas
Galvanometer
VNernst + G
−
Voltmeter V
Rref
3 kΩ
(typical)
Null-balance measurement of thermocouple voltage
Rwire Galvanometer
G
Measurement
junction Rwire Voltmeter V
file i00621
56
Question 55
Calculate the pH of the following aqueous solutions and the voltage (ideally) generated by a pH electrode
pair, given the hydrogen ion molarity of each solution. Assume a solution temperature of 25o C:
[H+ ] pH Vprobe
0.001995 M
6.309 × 10−7 M
7.943 × 10−13 M
3.881 × 10−5 M
1.452 × 10−11 M
• How does a pH instrument tell the difference between a pH value above 7 versus one below 7?
file i03006
Question 56
What should happen if you electrically short the input of a pH transmitter (i.e. short the two wires
normally connected to the pH sensing electrodes)? Why?
file i03085
57
Question 57
Suppose an operator tells you that the pH reads below 4.0 in this system, despite having checked the
actual pH of the process water as approximately 7.3 pH using a “grab sample” tested with a benchtop pH
meter. Identify possible faults which could account for this incorrect reading:
Loop Diagram: AT-310 pH measurement of Bank C egg trough water Date: December 9, 2013
Bank C water trough Field Panel FP-1
Red Red Blu Blu Blu

10 AT 16 21 10 800 mA
PS-1
Cable AT-310 24 VDC
Blk
7 310 15
1 amp
22 Blu 120 VAC
8 23 IN0+ L1 N
IN0- Blk Wht Grn
3 24
IN1+
AE 4 25 IN1-
310
5 26 IN2+
IN2-
27
IN3+
28 IN3- 1762-IF4
analog input card
Blu expansion slot 1
11 AY
L2/N
Blu
12 310
Blk Blu IN0+ L1
13 IN0-
Blu Ethernet
1A
1A
14 IN1+
Blu
15
IN1- AIR 1 2 3 4
Blu IN2+
16 310
IN2-
Blu Blk Wht Grn
17 IN3+
Blu IN3- 1762-IF4

ES 120 VAC
18 analog input card From field
expansion slot 2
panel disconnect
Tag number Description Manufacturer Model Calibration Notes
AE-310 Combination pH electrode
4-10 pH input Temp compension set for manual = 45 deg F
AT-310 pH transmitter Rosemount 3081 4-20 mA output
1762-IF4 input IP = 169.254.10.1 Scaled register F8:2

AY-310 PLC Allen-Bradley ML1100 4-20 mA Mask = 255.255.0.0
AIR-310 HMI touch-panel AutomationDirect C-More
file i03082
Question 58
The Nernst equation yields a “slope” figure of 59.17 millivolts per pH unit for a perfect pH electrode
probe pair. Explain where this numerical value comes from.
file i03071
58
Question 59
The ideal “slope” for a pH electrode pair at 25o C is 59.17 mV per pH unit. Calculate the ideal slope
for a pH electrode pair at the following temperatures:
Temperature Slope
(o C) (mV/pH)
5o C
20o C
60o C
100o C
file i03072
Question 60
Is it physically possible for a solution to have a pH of less than zero or greater than 14?
file i03076
Question 61
Read and outline the introduction to the “Chromatography” section as well as the “Automated
Chromatographs” subsection of that same section, found within the “Continuous Analytical Measurement”
chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important
illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully
discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading.
file i04149
Question 62
Read and outline the “Species Identification”, “Chromatograph Detectors”, and “Measuring Species
Concentration” subsections of the “Chromatography” section in the “Continuous Analytical Measurement”
chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important
illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully
discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading.
file i00230
59
Question 63
Examine this chromatogram showing several paraffinic hydrocarbon compounds (methane through
pentane), and determine which peaks most likely belong to which compounds:
Detector signal
Time
Use the label “C1” to refer to methane (CH4 ), “C2” to refer to ethane (C2 H6 ), “C3” to refer to propane
(C3 H8 ), etc.
Identify which compounds experience the greatest retention time, and explain why they do.
• Identify a practical application for using a chromatograph to separate hydrocarbon compounds in a

fluid stream.
• Explain the significance of the “flat-top” peak shown in this chromatogram.
• Assuming this chromatogram was generated by a GC column at constant temperature, describe how it
would change if temperature programming were included in the GC’s configuration.
file i04153
60
Question 64
Examine this chromatogram showing two peaks, and determine which peak represents the greatest
quantity of substance:
Peak 1
Detector signal
Peak 2
Time
Explain why you interpreted the peaks as you did.
Now suppose the concentration of substance causing peak 1 suddenly increases in the sample stream,
while the concentration of the other substance does not change. How would this change in the sample’s
composition affect the appearance of subsequent chromatograms?
• Explain how the calculus concept of integration applies to this question.

• Suppose you were informed this chromatogram was taken off the detector’s raw signal, unscaled by any
response factors. Would your interpretation of the chromatogram be any different with this knowledge?
file i04156
61
Question 65
Suppose we were to inject the same mobile phase into two different columns, each with a different density
of stationary phase material (“packing”):
Pump Loosely-packed column Detector
Mobile
phase
Pump Tightly-packed column Detector
Assuming all other factors being equal, which column will do a better job separating different components
of the mobile phase (i.e. different chemical substances mixed together in the same input sample)? Which
column will do a faster job separating the components?
• Chromatography is analogous to a marathon race, where groups of runners become further separated
over time by their relative speeds. By the end of the race, it is easy to identify who is fast, who is
slow, and how many of each type of runner there was in the starting group at the beginning of the
race. Relate this question of comparing two columns to the analogy of a marathon race: what does a
tightly-packed column represent, versus a loosely-packed column?
• An important variable affecting the retention time of a compound inside a chromatograph column is
temperature. Explain how an increase in column temperature would affect the propagation of a gaseous
compound. Then, explain how an increase in column temperature would affect the propagation of a
liquid compound.
• Identify other variables affecting the retention time of a compound inside a chromatograph column
besides packing density.
file i00667
Question 66
Read and outline the “Industrial Applications of Chromatographs” subsection of the “Chromatography”
section in the “Continuous Analytical Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation
textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other
relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts
and examples explored in this reading.
file i00777
Question 67
Read and outline the “Chromatograph Sample Valves” and “Improving Chromatograph Analysis Time”
subsections of the “Chromatography” section in the “Continuous Analytical Measurement” chapter in your
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations,
photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with
your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading.
file i00778
62
Question 68
Read the Emerson Gas Chromatograph application note “BTU Analysis Using a Gas Chromatograph”
(document EPMGC-AN-004 R0608) in its entirety and answer the following questions:
Explain in general terms what a gas chromatograph does to analyze the composition of natural gas fuel.
Identify some of the more prevalent compounds found in natural gas, as listed in this document,
interpreting the “shorthand” notation used in the industry (C2, IC5, etc.) used to represent different
substances.
• Explain the significance of the response factor described for each chromatogram peak, and how it is
calculated.
• Are there any components of natural gas that have zero heating value? If so, what are they?
• Natural gas pipeline stations employing gas chromatographs for online gas analysis usually also employ
AGA3 or similar custody-transfer flow metering technology for precision measurement of natural gas
flow. Explain how the data provided by the chromatograph might also be useful in maintaining optimum
accuracy for AGA3 gas flowmeters.
file i04154
Question 69
Read the Emerson Gas Chromatograph application note “BTU Analysis Using a Gas Chromatograph”
(document EPMGC-AN-004 R0608) in its entirety and answer the following questions:
One of the challenges of chromatography is to perform an analysis of a complex mixture swiftly. The gas
chromatograph (GC) schematic shown on page 2 of this document achieves fast analysis by using a complex
series of valves and columns. Study the analysis sequence described on this page, and then explain how these
multiple columns achieve a faster analysis than if a single column were used.
• The genius of using multiple columns in a chromatograph is the ability to accelerate the separation
and detection of certain component in the sample while giving other components the time needed to
adequately separate. Is there some other method we may alternatively use to achieve this end, rather
than adding complexity with additional columns and switching valves?
• How does the presence of multiple columns, switching valves, and sequencing affect the order that
components appear at the detector? How would this alter our interpretation of the analyzer’s
chromatogram?
• Explain why the C6+ “heavy” molecules all exit the chromatograph in one bunch, rather than being
separated (e.g. C6, C7, C8, etc.) like the lighter molecules. Hint: it has to do with the “backflush”
valve and how that routes the C6+ molecules through the columns.
• If we were to modify column 4 for finer separation of the heavy molecules (C6+), in what order would
those compounds exit? What specific modifications would we need to make to column 4 in order to
achieve better separation at the end? Would these alterations speed up or slow down the analysis?
file i04155
63
Question 70
It has been known for a long time that ions (electrically charged atoms or molecules) exist in most
flames. This means a flame can act as a weak conductor of electricity. Given a large enough voltage, we can
push a measurable current through the flame:
To AC power
source
Step-up AC millivolt
transformer meter
Rshunt
Flame
Fuel gas
Air
Gas burner
Not all fuels generate the same amount of ions when burned. Hydrogen, for instance, burns very clean
and generates negligible ionic activity. Carbon, on the other hand, easily ionizes in flame, and so hydrocarbon
fuels such as methane (CH4 ), ethane (C2 H6 ), and propane (C3 H8 ) generate ions in approximate proportion
to their carbon content.
Explain how the circuit shown above functions, and how it would respond to the combustion of different
fuel types.
Explain how this circuit would respond if the “fuel gas” happened to be the discharge of a chromatograph
column using hydrogen gas as the “carrier,” and the chromatograph were sampling a mixed-hydrocarbon
stream.
file i00656
Question 71
Chromatographs work by passing a fluid through a narrow length of tubing called a column and
measuring what comes out the other end. This fluid consists of a carrier mixed with the sample to be
analyzed.
Explain (in more detail) what happens inside the “column” of a chromatograph, and how this relates
to the analysis of chemicals in the sample stream.
file i00670
Question 72
In both gas chromatography and liquid chromatography, there must always be two “phases” at work: a
mobile phase and a stationary phase. Explain what each of these phases is, and give examples for both gas
and liquid chromatography.
file i00666
64
Question 73
The sample valve in a gas chromatograph plays an extremely important role: it must inject a precise
volume of sample gas to be analyzed, in a precise amount of time. The following diagram shows the
components of a basic gas chromatograph. Liquid chromatographs differ only slightly from this:
Sample in
Pressure regulator
Sample valve
Detector
Column
Vent
Shutoff valve
Carrier gas Sample out Programmable

supply controller
(for gas chromatographs only)
Given the importance of this function, the sample valve is constructed quite differently from ordinary
valves. Most chromatograph sample valves are rotary in nature, with slots cut into a metal rotor for directing
fluid flows along different paths. A common sample valve design uses six ports and three slots, like this:
Tube
Slot Port
Rotor
Fluid path
The following illustration shows a typical sample valve with a rotary valve element, in two different
positions. The loading position prepares the sample loop for injection while the column is flushed with
carrier gas. The sampling position injects a precise volume of sample into the column followed by carrier
gas.
65
Sample loop
Loading position
Sample in To column
To waste Carrier fluid
Sample loop
Sampling position
Sample in To column
To waste Carrier fluid
Explain how this valve and tubing arrangement provides a consistent, measured sample volume during
each injection cycle. Also, identify what would have to change in order to double the amount of injected
volume into the column for each injection cycle.
file i00675
66
Question 74
This chromatogram shows the separation of five different substances over time:
1
Detector signal
3
2 4
Time
Note how components 4 and 5 are not clearly differentiated in the chromatogram. Identify at least one
way the chromatograph could be altered to obtain clearer separation (better resolution) of these last two
components.
file i00672
67
Question 75
Analyze the following electronic thermal conductivity sensor, used to detect different chemical
components exiting the column of a chromatograph. Both the measurement and reference filaments are
heated by the electric current going through them, and a varying voltage will develop across each one as
each is cooled differently by the gases:
+V +V
Rshunt Rshunt
R R
+
−
U1 −
Current Q1 U2
adjust + Vout
R R
Carrier in Reference From column

filament
Measurement
Carrier out filament To vent
Explain the following things about this circuit:

• How does the rheostat adjust current equally through both filaments?
• How do opamp U1 and transistor Q1 work together to regulate current through the measurement
filament?
• How can we tell that opamp U1 is truly functioning in negative-feedback mode, since at first glance it
looks like positive feedback with the Rshunt voltage signal connecting to the noninverting (+) input?
• What is the function of opamp U2 and its four equal-value resistors?
• Where would an output voltage signal be measured in this circuit?
• Which direction does the output voltage signal go when the measurement filament heats up to a greater
temperature, assuming a positive temperature coefficient of resistance (α) for the filament metal?
file i00678
68
Question 76
This is an electronic thermal conductivity sensor, used to detect different chemical components exiting
the column of a chromatograph. Both the measurement and reference filaments are heated by the electric
current going through them, and a varying voltage will develop across each one as each is cooled differently
by the gases:
R1
R2 R3
150 mA Voltmeter
Reference Sample
gas Reference gas
filament
Measurement
(vent) filament (vent)
Suppose a technician is setting up this detector for the very first time, and notes the voltmeter registers
an abnormally large signal (in the polarity shown) even with the same test gas passed through each cell.
Identify the likelihood of each specified fault for this circuit. Consider each fault one at a time (i.e. no
coincidental faults), determining whether or not each fault could independently account for all measurements
and symptoms in this circuit.
Fault Possible Impossible

R1 resistance set too low
R1 resistance set too high
Reference filament burned open
Measurement filament burned open
Voltmeter failed open
Voltmeter failed shorted
file i00909
69
Question 77
Suppose we tried to build a very simple gas chromatograph, where the output voltage of the flame
ionization detector (FID) connects directly to an analog chart recorder:
Sample in
Pressure regulator Flame

Sample valve
ionization
detector
Column
FID Vent
Shutoff valve
Shutoff valve
Analog
Carrier gas Sample out chart
supply recorder
H2 Hydrogen gas
supply
This chart recorder will produce a chromatogram, but it will be a rather strange one: we will not be able
to accurately interpret it in its raw form. The height of the peaks on this chromatogram will not necessarily
indicate the flow rates of the separated components exiting the column.
Explain why this chromatogram will not be accurate as displayed, and explain what is required to
correct it (i.e. how modern process chromatographs solve this problem).
file i01356
70
Question 78
Process chromatographs are multi-variable instruments, and so analog versions are often equipped with
multiple 4-20 mA outputs to transmit concentration data for each measured component:
DCS
Gas chromatograph
1+ Card 1
Cable AIT-43a
In
AIT 1- Channel 1
2+
Cable AIT-43b
2-
C 43 3+ Card 1
Cable AIT-43c
3-
H Channel 2
N
G
Card 1
Channel 3
120 VAC
Breaker #28
AIR AIR AIR

He 43a 43b 43c
Inspecting this loop diagram, answer the following questions:

• What is the purpose of the vessel labeled “He”?
• Do the DCS input cards supply 24 VDC loop power or not?
• How would you connect a loop calibrator to simulate a 50% signal to AIR-43c?
• Can you think of any way we could reduce the number of cables needed to convey the data from the
chromatograph to the DCS?
file i00669
71
Question 79
Flame ionization detectors, often referred to as FIDs, exploit the principle of electrical conductivity in a
flame to detect the presence of trace substances in a hydrogen gas stream. FIDs are often used as detectors on
industrial gas chromatographs, especially in the petrochemical industries where most compounds of interest
contain carbon.
Hydrogen, when burned, does not create ions in the flame. However, quantities of hydrocarbon
compounds mixed with hydrogen gas will generate ions in the flame, which may then be detected electrically.
The strength of the electrical signal will be in proportion to the concentration of carbon atoms mixed in the
hydrogen gas stream.
A simplified FID is shown here, the “exhaust” gases from the burner passing through a hollow metal
ring acting as a “collector” for ions generated in the flame:
Exhaust
R
Collector −
Vout
+
Flame
Hydrogen gas
Air
High-voltage
DC source Gas burner
Gas sample
Explain how the operational amplifier in this circuit works to convert the small ionic current into an
output voltage. Also, determine whether the resistor in the feedback loop of the opamp circuit should be of
a large, small, or modest resistance value.
• Describe how an FID placed at the tail-end of a gas chromatograph column will respond as a complex
hydrocarbon sample passes through the column.
• Explain why a flame ionization detector may be classified as an amperometric sensor, as opposed to a
potentiometric sensor such as a pH glass electrode.
• Identify a fault in this system that could cause the output of this detector to always be zero (i.e. indicate
no ions when in fact there are ionizable species in the sample).
file i00657
Question 80
72
Question 81
One of the central processes in manufacturing ethyl alcohol from sugar is fermentation, where yeast
bacteria convert the sugar glucose (C6 H12 O6 ) into ethanol (C2 H5 OH) with carbon dioxide (CO2 ) as a gaseous
by-product. This reaction typically takes place in a vessel called a fermenter, with the carbon dioxide gas
captured for re-use in carbonation:
CO2 capture
M Fermenter
vessel
Yeast
M Sample loop
Mash DT FT
Sample pump
M
Waste
First, write a balanced equation for the fermentation process, showing glucose as the sole reactant, and
ethanol plus carbon dioxide as the two reaction products.
Next, calculate the mass flow rate of carbon dioxide gas produced when the fermentation reaction inside
a fermenter vessel is proceeding at a rate of 2.7 kilograms of ethanol per minute.
Next, identify which is easiest to heat from room temperature to 90 o F: a gallon of water or a gallon of
ethanol.
Finally, comment on the use of a combination density/flow transmitter to measure the alcohol content
of the fermenting batch. What type of instrument is ideally suited for this purpose, and explain how alcohol
content may be inferred from this instrument’s measurement(s).
file i00681
73
Question 82
Suppose a technician opens the door of a junction box and connects a DMM (digital multimeter) to
a pair of thermocouple wires landed to a terminal strip inside the box. The thermocouple junction at the
other end of this wire pair is installed in a hot process pipe about 50 feet away, measuring the temperature
of a process fluid. Noting the ambient temperature inside the junction box being 58 degrees Fahrenheit,
the technician measures a thermocouple signal of 29.34 millivolts. Calculate the temperature of this type E
thermocouple.
T = degrees Fahrenheit
Be sure to show your work in calculating this temperature!
Now, suppose the technician removes the temperature transmitter connected to this type E
thermocouple, taking the transmitter back to the calibration lab. Assuming a lab room temperature of
73 degrees F and “cold junction compensation” activated inside this transmitter, determine the number
of DC millivolts the technician would need to input to the transmitter’s terminals to simulate a process
(thermocouple) temperature of 925 degrees Fahrenheit.
Vin = mV
Next, calculate the necessary resistance in this voltage divider circuit to produce this required
millivoltage signal (to simulate a temperature of 925 degrees F):
1.250 volts +
−
Thermocouple
4.7 kΩ transmitter
R= ohms
file i00629
74
Question 83
Explain the purpose served by conductivity transmitters AIT-341 and AIT-342 in this sour water
stripping tower unit (where sulfide-laden water is “stripped” of sulfur compounds by the addition of hot
steam).:
V-10 P-201 P-101 P-102 P-103 C-7 E-2 E-9

SOUR WATER TANK SOUR WATER TANK EJECTOR COOLING WATER PUMP SOUR WATER PUMP STRIPPED WATER PUMP SOUR WATER STRIPPER SOUR WATER HEATER STRIPPED WATER COOLER
8’-0" Dia 12’-0" Sidewall 85 ACFM @ 1" H2O 20 GPM @ 80 oF 5 GPM @ 80 oF 8 GPM @ 150 oF 12" x 40’ SS Rated duty: 300 MBTU/HR Rated duty: 50 MBTU/HR
DP Atmosphere Rated head: 80 PSI Rated head: 75 PSI Rated head: 60 PSI DP 55 PSIG Shell design: 70 PSI @ 360oF Shell design: 150 PSI @ 350 oF
DT 190 oF DT 350 oF Tube design: 125 PSI @ 360 oF Tube design: 150 PSI @ 350 oF
Each bed 10’ of 1" pall rings
P-201
FI Slope
37
Slope To flare header
ST Dwg. 13320
PG PC
316 NC ST 115
PG
Set @ TT TIC 312
50 PSI
21 21 PG
PG 438
406
Set @ PV
PG PSV PSV TIR 115
75 PSI
315 PG TG 352 353 21 To incinerator
402 345
ST Dwg. 13319
TG
ST 344 TG
ST
26
PAH PSH H
FIC
202 202
27 PG LP cooling water
L I
/P 441 Dwg. 31995
ST
FQ
FY
TV Cond
27 27
C-7 21 AIT
FT FV
27 342
27
NC
Liquid dist.
ST
AAH
10’ packed bed
PG 342
Set @ Cond
401 100 PSI AIT AAH
341 341
FIC NC PG
From 50 PSI 28 TG 422
PSV
steam header I
/P 343
Dwg. 13301 FIR 351
FY 10’ packed bed
28 L 1/2"
ST
28
From nitrogen FT 2" thick
header FV insul
28 28 LAH LAL
Dwg. 13322 3/4"
1 1/2" 12 12
FT FIR TG TG
29 29 Steam dist. 477 480
Set @ PSV LAL LSH LSL
2" vac. 1"
355 TI 11 1"
FI 2" press. HLL 340 12 12
29 LG Set @ Mag
19 60 PSI
NC NLL LSL LG LT
From acid gas E-9
separator V-10 LSLL 11 11 12
Dwg. 25311 ST
LLL 1"
203
PCV
HLL 10 4’-1" 1" P
/I
From sour water 1 1/2" LY
flash drum PG PG PG
299 300 405 2’-6" TG
Dwg. 25309 ST
12
ST
478 TG
TG 1’-3" 479
3/4"
20 LIR LR
12a 12b
2" thick 10’-6"
insul 24" MH
E-2 M
ST
LLL
FI Set @
LT 97 100 PSI LV
1’-0" FT
18 30 12
LIC
PSV ST
NC
LIR 12
354 FIR H
18 Strainer
30 L
LI FI
18 98 ST
To water treatment
PAL Dwg. 45772
LSH LAH ST
201
18 18
ST
pH
AIT PG
M
LSL LAL PG 348 PG 463
18 TG PSL 459 461
18 pH
346 201 FT FIR
AIT AIR
LP cooling water I 347 347 31 31 L
AIR L
Dwg. 31995 ST ST
348 L
PSLL
204
P-101 P-102 P-103
Slope
ST ST
Also, calculate the heat exchange rate through exchanger E-9 given a flow indication of 18.5 GPM at
FI-98, a temperature indication of 63 degrees F at TG-478, and a temperature indication of 189 degrees F
at TG-477:
dQ
dt = BTU/hour
file i00683
75
Question 84
Hydrocracking is a petroleum refining process whereby heavy oils are converted into lighter oils for use as
jet fuel and feedstock for gasoline production. In a hydrocracker reactor, heavy oils such as octane (C8 H18 )
are mixed with hydrogen gas (H2 ) at high temperatures and pressures to form lighter compounds such as
propane (C3 H8 ) and pentane (C5 H12 ):
Octane molecule
H H H H H H H H
Hydrogen molecule
H C C C C C C C C H + H H
H H H H H H H H
Propane molecule Pentane molecule

H H H H H H H H
H C C C H + H C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H
Expressed in formula form, this reaction is as follows:
C8 H18 + H2 → C3 H8 + C5 H12
Overall, such reactions are exothermic. However, not every portion of the reaction is exothermic. Identify
the endothermic and exothermic processes at work in a typical hydrocracking reaction, and comment on their
relative energies given the knowledge that the overall reaction is exothermic.
Given the exothermic nature of hydrocracking reactions, some form of cooling is needed to prevent
a “runaway” condition. In modern hydrocracker reactors, excess hydrogen gas is injected at the catalyst
beds to “quench” the reaction and thereby control temperature. Based on what you know about hydrogen,
explain why it is an effective coolant for this process.
file i03418
76
Question 85
The Nernst equation finds application in many different chemical analyzer technologies, not just pH
measurement. One of these analytical technologies is oxygen concentration in mixed gas streams, such as
the exhaust from a combustion process where oxygen content is usually maintained at about 2% (instead
of the normal 20.9% oxygen concentration of Earth’s atmosphere). A common oxygen sensor is made of
a “sandwich” of platinum electrodes on either side of a solid zirconium oxide membrane. One side of this
electrochemical cell is exposed to the exhaust gas (process), while the other side is exposed to heated air
which serves as a reference:
Process gas
Platinum electrode
ZrO2 ceramic Vcell
Platinum electrode
Reference gas (air)
Voltage output by the cell is predicted by the Nernst equation:

µ ¶
RT C1
V = ln
nF C2
Explain why temperature must be precisely controlled at the zirconium oxide cell in order to maintain
accurate calibration of this instrument. Also, identify the relationship between measured oxygen content
and cell output voltage (i.e. is voltage directly or inversely related to oxygen content?) for applications such
as furnace exhaust oxygen measurement.
file i00685
77
Question 86
Examine the following pH measurement circuit, then answer the questions that follow:
Hi-Z opamp
−
Zinput = 1 × 10 Ω
14
Vout
+
Measurement
probe Reference
probe
Sample
liquid (25o C)
• Calculate the ideal output voltage of the two pH measurement probes if the solution’s hydrogen ion
molarity is 0.0065 M. Vprobe = volts
• Will the output voltage increase, decrease, or stay the same as what you just calculated if a very small
amount of acidic substance is added to the liquid?
• Will the output voltage increase, decrease, or stay the same if the resistance of the measurement probe
increases greatly due to coating?
• Calculate the actual output voltage of the opamp if the measurement electrode’s resistance is 9.5 × 1012
ohms and the probes are generating a voltage of 130 mV. Assume that the reference probe’s resistance
is low enough to be ignored. Voutput = volts
file i00925
78
Question 87
Suppose three chromatographs are used to measure the composition of feed and separated products in
and out of a simple distillation tower:
AT
2
Reflux
Distillate
AT
1
Feed
AT
3
Bottoms
Reboil
Based on the chromatogram shown for AT-1, sketch approximate chromatograms for the other two
(product) analyzers:
AT-1 AT-2 AT-3
Time Time Time
file i02327
79
Question 88
Suppose a voltmeter registers 0 volts between test points F and B in this series-parallel circuit:
12 mA
(24 volts
voltage-limited)
C
A E
1 kΩ R1 1 kΩ R2 500 Ω R4
R3
B F
D
500 Ω
Identify the likelihood of each specified fault for this circuit. Consider each fault one at a time (i.e. no
coincidental faults), determining whether or not each fault could independently account for all measurements
and symptoms in this circuit.

R1 failed open
R2 failed open
R3 failed open
R4 failed open
R1 failed shorted
R2 failed shorted
R3 failed shorted
R4 failed shorted
Current source dead
Now suppose a technician breaks the connection between test points B and D and measures voltage
again between test points F and B. Explain how this voltage measurement would help further identify the
location and/or nature of the fault.
file i02912
80
Question 89
Identify the state of the light bulb when the normally-open pressure switch contact closes:
To 480 volt AC source
H1 H3 H2 H4
480/120 volt
step-down transformer
Relay
X1 X2
Light bulb
Com NC NO
Pressure switch
To process impulse tube

connection
Assuming the light bulb functions as a pressure alarm to alert operators to an unsafe condition, determine
whether this is a low-pressure alarm or a high pressure alarm.
Hint: remember that the “normal” status of a switch is defined as the status of minimum stimulus:
when the switch is exposed to the lowest possible degree of process stimulation (in this particular case, to
the lowest possible pressure).
file i03203
81
Question 90
A technician connected a loop-powered pressure transmitter to a datalogger, but made a mistake in
doing so. Identify the mistake in this circuit, and re-draw it (complete with all polarity markings) so that it
will function correctly:
24 VDC
L H
250 Ω
Channel 1
0-5 VDC
Datalogger
file i02673
82
Question 91
Lab Exercise – introduction
Your task is to build, document, and troubleshoot an analytical measurement system consisting of
a digital electronic analytical transmitter connected to an electronic indicator or recorder (I recommend
something other than an indicating controller, just to make this system different). Process variable options
include pH measurement, conductivity measurement, or any other analyzer available in the lab’s collection.
The following table of objectives show what you and your team must complete within the scheduled
time for this lab exercise. Note how some of these objectives are individual, while others are for the team as
a whole:
Objective completion table:
Performance objective Grading 1 2 3 4 Team

Team meeting and prototype sketch (do first!) mastery – – – –
Final loop diagram and system inspection mastery ––––
Calibration (using chemical standard) mastery – – – –
Loop ranging (± 1% of span accuracy) mastery – – – –
Troubleshooting mastery – – – –
Lab question: Instrument connections proportional – – – –
Lab question: Commissioning proportional – – – –
Lab question: Mental math proportional – – – –
Lab question: Diagnostics proportional – – – –
Decommission and lab clean-up mastery – – – –
Team tool locker inspection mastery – – – –
The only “proportional” scoring in this activity are the lab questions, which are answered by each student
individually. A listing of potential lab questions are shown at the end of this worksheet question. The lab
questions are intended to guide your labwork as much as they are intended to measure your comprehension,
and as such the instructor may ask these questions of your team day by day, rather than all at once (on a
single day).
It is essential that your team plans ahead what to accomplish each day. A short (10
minute) team meeting at the beginning of each lab session is a good way to do this, reviewing
what’s already been done, what’s left to do, and what assessments you should be ready for.
There is a lot of work involved with building, documenting, and troubleshooting these working
instrument systems!
As you and your team work on this system, you will invariably encounter problems. You should always
attempt to solve these problems as a team before requesting instructor assistance. If you still require
instructor assistance, write your team’s color on the lab whiteboard with a brief description of what you
need help on. The instructor will meet with each team in order they appear on the whiteboard to address
these problems.
83
Lab Exercise – team meeting, prototype sketch, and instrument selection
An important first step in completing this lab exercise is to meet with your instructor as a team
to discuss safety concerns, team performance, and specific roles for team members. If you would like to
emphasize exposure to certain equipment (e.g. use a particular type of control system, certain power tools),
techniques (e.g. fabrication), or tasks to improve your skill set, this is the time to make requests of your
team so that your learning during this project will be maximized.
An absolutely essential step in completing this lab exercise is to work together as a team to sketch a
prototype diagram showing what you intend to build. This usually takes the form of a simple electrical
schematic and/or loop diagram showing all electrical connections between components, as well as any tubing
or piping for fluids. This prototype sketch need not be exhaustive in detail, but it does need to show enough
detail for the instructor to determine if all components will be correctly connected for their safe function.
For example, if you intend to connect field devices to a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller), your
prototype sketch must show how those devices will connect to typical input/output terminals on the PLC,
where electrical power will be supplied, etc. Prototype sketches need not show all intermediary connections
between components, such as terminal blocks in junction boxes between the field device and the controller.
You should practice good problem-solving techniques when creating your prototype sketch, such as
consulting equipment manuals for information on component functions and marking directions of electric
current, voltage polarities, and identifying electrical sources/loads. Use this task as an opportunity to
strengthen your analytical skills! Remember that you will be challenged in this program to do all of this
on your own (during “capstone” assessments), so do not make the mistake of relying on your teammates to
figure this out for you – instead, treat this as a problem you must solve and compare your results with those
of your teammates.
Your team’s prototype sketch is so important that the instructor will demand you provide this plan
before any construction on your team’s working system begins. Any team found constructing their system
without a verified plan will be ordered to cease construction and not resume until a prototype plan has
been drafted and approved! Similarly, you should not deviate from the prototype design without instructor
approval, to ensure nothing will be done to harm equipment by way of incorrect connections. Each member
on the team should have ready access to this plan (ideally possessing their own copy of the plan) throughout
the construction process. Prototype design sketching is a skill and a habit you should cultivate in school
and take with you in your new career.
When selecting field instruments for this lab exercise, choose a process analyzer (a pH analyzer is
recommended) with electronic (4-20 mA) signal output. Many analyzer types, pH included, use remotely-
mounted sensing elements along with the transmitter unit. Be sure to locate the appropriate sensing elements
for your analyzer. For a pH analyzer, this takes the form of a combination electrode stored with its glass
sensing bulb immersed in a liquid to prevent dehydration.
Consult documentation from the manufacturer’s website to identify how to properly wire, power, and
calibrate the transmitter. Your instructor will check to see you have located and are familiar with the
equipment manual(s).
After locating a suitable instrument and its associated documentation, you should qualitatively test it
prior to installing it in your system. For a pH transmitter, this entails inserting the sensing electrode in a
cup of tap water to see that it registers a pH value somewhere near 7.0 (it may be as low as 5.0 or as high
as 8.0, depending on the water quality and the condition of the sensing electrode). If the transmitter fails to
respond properly, consult the instructor for assistance before tagging it with a label explaining what it does
(or what it fails to do). Be sure not to let the pH electrode become dry, as dehydration will very quickly
ruin it!
Bear in mind that analyzers powered by their own (non-loop) power source typically behave as current
sources, and must be connected to the indicating instrument differently than a loop-powered device! Consult
the manufacturer’s documentation for wiring details.
Planning a functioning system should take no more than an hour if the team is working
efficiently, and will save you hours of frustration (and possible component destruction!).
84
Lab Exercise – building the system
The Instrumentation lab is set up to facilitate the construction of working instrument “loops,” with over
a dozen junction boxes, pre-pulled signal cables, and “racks” set up with 2-inch vertical pipes for mounting
instruments. The only wires you should need to install to build a working system are those connecting the
field instrument to the nearest junction box, and then small “jumper” cables connecting different pre-installed
cables together within intermediate junction boxes.
After getting your prototype sketch approved by the instructor, you are cleared to begin building your
system. Many analyzers are designed to be panel-mounted rather than field-mounted (attached to 2-inch
pipes using special brackets and U-bolts). Feel free to set your panel-mount analyzer on a table or shelf in
lieu of mounting it in an actual panel.
Select a specific loop controller or indicator to act as a display for the measured chemical concentration.
Your instructor may choose the indicator for your team.
Finally, your analyzer system needs to have a loop number, so all instruments may be properly labeled.
This loop number needs to be unique, so that another team does not label their instruments and cables the
same as yours. One way to make your loop number unique is to use the equivalent resistor color-code value
for your team’s color in the loop number. For example, if you are the “Red” team, your loop number could
be “2”.
Common mistakes:
• Neglecting to consult the manufacturer’s documentation for field instruments (e.g. how to wire them,
how to calibrate them).
• Mounting the field instrument(s) in awkward positions, making it difficult to reach connection terminals
or to remove covers when installed.
• Failing to tug on each and every wire where it terminates to ensure a mechanically sound connection.
• Students working on portions of the system in isolation, not sharing with their teammates what they
did and how. It is important that the whole team learns all aspects of their system!
Building a functioning system should take no more than one full lab session (3 hours) if
all components are readily available and the team is working efficiently!
85
Lab Exercise – documenting the system
Each student must sketch their own loop diagram for their team’s system, following proper ISA
conventions. Sample loop diagrams are shown in the next question in this worksheet. These loop diagrams
must be comprehensive and detailed, showing every wire connection, every cable, every terminal block, range
points, etc. The principle to keep in mind here is to make the loop diagram so complete and unambiguous that
anyone can follow it to see what connects to what, even someone unfamiliar with industrial instrumentation.
In industry, loops are often constructed by contract personnel with limited understanding of how the system
is supposed to function. The loop diagrams they follow must be so complete that they will be able to connect
everything properly without necessarily understanding how it is supposed to work.
Every instrument and every signal cable in your loop needs to be properly labeled with an ISA-standard
tag number. An easy way to do this is to wrap a short piece of masking tape around each cable (and placed
on each instrument) then writing on that masking tape with a permanent marker. Although no industry
standard exists for labeling signal cables, a good recommendation is to label each two-wire cable with the tag
number of the field instrument it goes to. Thus, every length of two-wire cable in an analytical transmitter
circuit should be labeled “AT-x” (where “x” is the loop number), every flow control valve should be labeled
“FV-x”, etc. Remember that the entire loop is defined by the process variable it measures: if the PV is
temperature then the transmitter with be a TT, the control valve will be a TV, the indicator with be a TI,
etc.
When your entire team is finished drafting your individual loop diagrams, call the instructor to do an
inspection of the loop. Here, the instructor will have students take turns going through the entire loop,
with the other students checking their diagrams for errors and omissions along the way. During this time
the instructor will also inspect the quality of the installation, identifying problems such as frayed wires,
improperly crimped terminals, poor cable routing, missing labels, lack of wire duct covers, etc. The team
must correct all identified errors in order to receive credit for their system.
After successfully passing the inspection, each team member needs to place their loop diagram in the
diagram holder located in the middle of the lab behind the main control panel. When it comes time to
troubleshoot another team’s system, this is where you will go to find a loop diagram for that system!
Common mistakes:
• Forgetting to label all signal wires (see example loop diagrams).
• Forgetting to label all field instruments with their own tag names (e.g. AT-83).
• Forgetting to note all wire colors.
• Forgetting to put your name on the loop diagram!
• Basing your diagram off of a team-mate’s diagram, rather than closely inspecting the system for yourself.
• Not placing loop sheet instruments in the correct orientation (field instruments on the left, control room
instruments on the right).
Creating and inspecting accurate loop diagrams should take no more than one full lab
session (3 hours) if the team is working efficiently!
86
Lab Exercise – instrument calibration
Each team must calibrate the transmitter to ensure it interprets chemical composition accurately and
outputs an accurate current. Then, each team member must configure the transmitter for a unique range
(set the LRV and URV parameters) and scale the indicator to register in the proper engineering units (e.g. a
pH analyzer ranged for 4 to 12 pH should actually register 4 to 12 pH back at the control room display). The
accuracy of this ranging will be checked by the instructor stimulating the analyzer with a random sample
while each student verifies the indicator display.
As in all cases where an instrument must be calibrated, you will need to check the instrument’s response
against one or more standards. In this case, the ideal standard to use for an analyzer is a chemical solution
of precisely known composition. For pH instruments, this takes the form of pH buffer solutions, easily mixed
from distilled water and pH buffer powder. For gas analyzers, this takes the form of either ambient air
(21% oxygen content) or more likely bottled calibration gases. Chemical calibration standards will be made
available by the instructor, and should be used sparingly as they tend to be expensive.
Document the accuracy of your transmitter’s measurement at two (minimum) different points
throughout its sensing range using these two tables:
As-Found calibration table
Applied concentration Output signal (actual) Output signal (ideal) Error (% of span)
As-Left calibration table
Applied concentration Output signal (actual) Output signal (ideal) Error (% of span)
When finished calibrating your team’s transmitter, be sure to place a calibration tag on it showing the
range and the date it was calibrated. A set of calibration tags are shown here which you may cut out and
tape to the transmitter after completing your calibration:
Cut out tag(s) with scissors, then affix to instrument(s) using transparent tape to show calibration:
CALIBRATED CALIBRATED CALIBRATED CALIBRATED

By: Date: By: Date: By: Date: By: Date:
Range: Range: Range: Range:
Each student, however, must individually re-range the transmitter and the receiving instrument
(indicator, controller, and/or recorder). Re-ranging an analyzer is usually done using a keypad and display
on the transmitter unit, following the manufacturer’s instructions. Each student’s ranging is confirmed by
the instructor by applying a random chemical concentration to the sensing element and verifying that the
indicating controller reads the same (to within ± 1% of span).
Common mistakes:
• Choosing a calibration (“trim”) range that is substantially less than the final range of measurement
when installed. As a general rule, you should trim the sensor of the transmitter to cover the broadest
range of measurement possible with your calibration equipment.
• Neglecting to place a calibration tag on the transmitter after “trimming” it.
Trimming and individually ranging your transmitter should take no more than one full lab
session (3 hours) if the team is working efficiently!
87
Lab Exercise – troubleshooting
The most challenging aspect of this lab exercise is troubleshooting, where you demonstrate your ability
to logically isolate a problem in the system. All troubleshooting is done on an individual basis (no team
credit!), and must be done on a system you did not help build, so that you must rely on loop diagrams to
find your way around the system instead of from your own memory of building it.
Each student is given 5 minutes to identify both the general location and nature of the fault, logically
justifying all diagnostic steps taken. All troubleshooting activities will take place under direct instructor
supervision to ensure students are working independently and efficiently.
Failure to correctly identify both the general location and nature of the fault within the allotted time,
and/or failing to demonstrate rational diagnostic procedure to the supervising instructor will disqualify the
effort, in which case the student must re-try with a different fault. Multiple re-tries are permitted with no
reduction in grade.
A standard multimeter is the only test equipment allowed during the time limit. No diagnostic circuit
breaks are allowed except by instructor permission, and then only after correctly explaining what trouble
this could cause in a real system.
The instructor will review each troubleshooting effort after completion, highlighting good and bad points
for the purpose of learning. Troubleshooting is a skill born of practice and failure, so do not be disappointed
in yourself if you must make multiple attempts to pass! One of the important life-lessons embedded in this
activity is how to deal with failure, because it will eventually happen to you on the job! There is no dishonor
in failing to properly diagnose a fault after doing your level best. The only dishonor is in taking shortcuts
or in giving up.
Common mistakes:
• Neglecting to take measurements with your multimeter.
• Incorrectly interpreting the loop diagram (e.g. thinking you’re at the wrong place in the system when
taking measurements).
• Confusion measuring current and voltage values in self-powered (rather than loop-powered) 4-20 mA
signal circuits.
• Incorrect multimeter usage (e.g. AC rather than DC, wrong range, wrong test lead placement). This is
especially true when a student comes to lab unprepared and must borrow someone else’s meter that is
different from theirs!
Remember that the purpose of the troubleshooting exercise is to foster and assess your
ability to intelligently diagnose a complex system. Finding the fault by luck, or by trial-
and-error inspection, is not a successful demonstration of skill. The only thing that counts as
competence is your demonstrated ability to logically analyze and isolate the problem, correctly
explaining all your steps!
Troubleshooting takes a lot of lab time, usually at least two 3-hour lab sessions for everyone
in a full class to successfully pass. Be sure your team budgets for this amount of time as you
plan your work, and also be sure to take advantage of your freedom to observe others as they
troubleshoot, to better learn this art.
88
Lab questions
• Instrument connections
• Determine correct wire connections between instruments to create a working 4-20 mA loop circuit, based
on diagrams of instruments with terminals labeled
• Correctly determine all electrical sources and loads, as well as all voltage polarities and current directions
in a 4-20 mA loop circuit, based on diagrams of instruments with terminals labeled
• Commissioning and Documentation

• Explain why the measurement (glass) electrode of a pH analyzer must be kept wet at all times
• Identify the numerical pH range of acidic and alkaline (caustic, or base) solutions
• Explain how the Nernst equation relates to multiple analyzer types
• Explain how pH buffer solutions differ from any other chemical solution of known pH value, and how
this quality especially qualifies the buffer to be used as a calibration standard
• Identify the portion(s) of the smart transmitter calibrated when performing a sensor trim
• Identify the portion(s) of the smart transmitter calibrated when performing an output trim
• Explain why simply setting the LRV and URV parameters of a smart transmitter is not truly calibrating
the transmitter
• Mental math (no calculator allowed!)

• Calculate the correct loop current value (mA) given a calibration range and an applied sample
concentration
• Calculate the chemical value (concentration) applied to an analyzer given a calibration range and the
measured loop current value
• Calculate the percentage of span error for a transmitter given a calibration range and an As-Found
calibration table
• Calculate the allowable pH error for a transmitter given an allowable percentage of span error and a
calibration range
• Convert between a percentage value and a “parts per million” (ppm) value
• Diagnostics
• Determine whether or not a given diagnostic test will provide useful information, given a set of symptoms
exhibited by a failed system
• Identify at least two plausible faults given the results of a diagnostic test and a set of symptoms exhibited
by a failed system
• Propose a diagnostic test for troubleshooting a failed system and then explain the meanings of two
different test results
89
Lab Exercise – decommissioning and clean-up
The final step of this lab exercise is to decommission your team’s entire system and re-stock certain
components back to their proper storage locations, the purpose of which being to prepare the lab for the
next lab exercise. Remove your system documentation (e.g. loop diagram) from the common holding area,
either discarding it or keeping it for your own records. Also, remove instrument tag labels (e.g. FT-101)
from instruments and from cables. Perform general clean-up of your lab space, disposing of all trash, placing
all tools back in their proper storage locations, sweeping up bits of wire off the floor and out of junction
boxes, etc.
Leave the following components in place, mounted on the racks:

• Large control valves and positioners
• I/P transducers
• Large electric motors
• Large variable-frequency drive (VFD) units
• Cables inside conduit interconnecting junction boxes together
• Pipe and tube fittings (do not unscrew pipe threads)
• Supply air pressure regulators
Return the following components to their proper storage locations:

• Sensing elements (e.g. thermocouples, pH probes, etc.)
• Process transmitters
• “Jumper” cables used to connect terminal blocks within a single junction box
• Plastic tubing and tube fittings (disconnect compression-style tube fittings)
• Power cables and extension cords
• Adjustment (loading station) air pressure regulators
Finally, you shall return any control system components to their original (factory default) configurations.
This includes controller PID settings, function block programs, input signal ranges, etc.
file i00626
Question 92
The Rules of Fault Club
(1) Don’t try to find the fault by looking for it – perform diagnostic tests instead
(2) Don’t try to find the fault by looking for it – perform diagnostic tests instead!
(3) The troubleshooting is over when you have correctly identified the nature and location of the fault
(4) It’s just you and the fault – don’t ask for help until you have exhausted your resources
(5) Assume one fault at a time, unless the data proves otherwise
(6) No new components allowed – replacing suspected bad components with new is a waste of time and
money
(7) We will practice as many times as we have to until you master this
(8) Troubleshooting is not a spectator sport: you have to troubleshoot!
These rules are guaranteed to help you become a better troubleshooter, and will be consistently
emphasized by your instructor.
90
Loop diagram template
91 Loop Diagram: Revised by: Date:
Tag # Description Manufacturer Model Input range Output range Notes

Loop diagram requirements
Perhaps the most important rule to follow when drafting a loop diagram is your diagram should be
complete and detailed enough that even someone who is not an instrument technician could understand
where every wire and tube should connect in the system!
• Instrument “bubbles”
• Proper symbols and designations used for all instruments.
• All instrument “bubbles” properly labeled (letter codes and loop numbers).
• All instrument “bubbles” marked with the proper lines (solid line, dashed line, single line, double lines,
no lines).
• Optional: Calibration ranges and action arrows written next to each bubble.
• Text descriptions
• Each instrument documented below (tag number, description, etc.).
• Calibration (input and output ranges) given for each instrument, as applicable.
• Connection points
• All terminals and tube junctions properly labeled.
• All terminal blocks properly labeled.
• All junction (“field”) boxes shown as distinct sections of the loop diagram, and properly labeled.
• All control panels shown as distinct sections of the loop diagram, and properly labeled.
• All wire colors shown next to each terminal.
• All terminals on instruments labeled as they appear on the instrument (so that anyone reading the
diagram will know which instrument terminal each wire goes to).
• Cables and tubes

• Single-pair cables or pneumatic tubes going to individual instruments should be labeled with the field
instrument tag number (e.g. “TT-8” or “TY-12”)
• Multi-pair cables or pneumatic tube bundles going between junction boxes and/or panels need to have
unique numbers (e.g. “Cable 10”) as well as numbers for each pair (e.g. “Pair 1,” “Pair 2,” etc.).
• Energy sources
• All power source intensities labeled (e.g. “24 VDC,” “120 VAC,” “20 PSI”)
• All shutoff points labeled (e.g. “Breaker #5,” “Valve #7”)
92
Sample Loop Diagram (using a single-loop controller)
Loop Diagram: Furnace temperature control Revised by: Mason Neilan Date: April 1, 2007
Field panel Control room panel
Process area JB-12 CP-1
0-1500oF 0-1500oF
TE TB-15 TB-11
205 Yel Red Red Wht/Blu Wht/Blu Red Red
1 TT 3 1 7
205
Cable TT-205 Cable 3, Pr 1 Cable TT-205 Blk
Red
2 Blk Blk
4 Blu Blu
2 Blk
22 TIC
21 205
TY Red
205a
19
Blk
I
TB-15 TB-11 18
/P
Red Red Wht/Org Wht/Org Red Blk
TY 5 3 H
Out Cable TY-205b Cable 3, Pr 2 Cable TY-205b Wht
Tube TV-205
205b 6 4 N
Blk Blk Org Org Blk
93
S
TV
205 ES 120 VAC
AS 20 PSI Breaker #4
Valve #15 Panel L2
Column #8

TE-205 Thermocouple Omega Type K Ungrounded tip
TT-205 Temperature transmitter Rosemount 444 0-1500o F 4-20 mA Upscale burnout
TY-205a Resistor Vishay 250 Ω
TIC-205 Controller Siemens PAC 353 1-5 V 0-1500o F Reverse-acting control
TY-205b I/P transducer Fisher 546 4-20 mA 3-15 PSI
TV-205 Control valve Fisher Easy-E 3-15 PSI 0-100% Fail-closed
Sample Loop Diagram (using DCS controller)
Loop Diagram: Blue team pressure loop Revised by: Duncan D.V. Date: April 1, 2009
Field process area Field panel JB-25 DCS cabinet
0-50 PSI
TB-52 TB-80 Card 4
Red Red Red Red Red Red Channel 6
H PT 1 11 11
Cable PT-6
PT-73 Cable 4, Pr 1 Cable PT-6
PT-73
Analog
L 73
6 2 12 12
Blk Blk Blk Blk Blk Blk input
Tube
Tube PV-73
PV-6 0-50 PSI
PIC
6
73
94
PV
73
6
I O TB-52 TB-80 Card 6
/P
Red Red Red Red Red Red Channel 6
PY 15 29 11
Cable PV-6
PV-73 Cable 4, Pr 8 Cable PV-73
PV-6
Analog
73
6 16 30 12
Blk Blk Blk Blk Blk Blk output
S
AS 20 PSI
PT-73
PT-6 Pressure transmitter Rosemount 3051CD 0-50 PSI 4-20 mA
HART-enabled input
PIC-73
PIC-6 Controller Emerson DeltaV 4-20 mA 4-20 mA Direct-acting control
PY-73
PY-6 I/P transducer Fisher 846 4-20 mA 3-15 PSI
PV-73
PV-6 Control valve Fisher Vee-ball 3-15 PSI 0-100% Fail-open
Sample Loop Diagram (using pneumatic controller)
Loop Diagram: Sludge tank level control Revised by: I. Leaky Date: April 1, 2008
Bulkhead panel
Process area Control panel CP-11
B-104
H Tube LT-24a Tube LT-24b

LT Out 14
L 24
(vent) In
C
Supply
LIC
A.S. 21 PSI
24
Tube LV-24 D
LV
A.S. 21 PSI
24
95
Tube LV-24 Tube LV-24

LT-24 Level transmitter Foxboro 13A 25-150 "H2O 3-15 PSI
LIC-24 Controller Foxboro 130 3-15 PSI 3-15 PSI
LV-24 Control valve Fisher Easy-E / 667 3-15 PSI 0-100% Fail closed
Sample Loop Diagram (using PLC, with electronic positioner installed on valve)
Loop Diagram: Unit feed flow control Revised by: A. Bradley Date: April 1, 2013
Process area Field panel FP-25
Red Red Blu Blu Blu

H FT 21 10 800 mA
PS-1
Cable FT-18 24 VDC
Blk Blk Blu 1 amp
L 18 22 Blu 120 VAC
Blu
0-75 GPM IN0+ L1 N
IN0- Blk Wht Grn
IN1+
IN1-
IN2+
IN2-
IN3+
IN3- 1762-IF4
A
analog input card
Red Red Blu expansion slot 1
Loop
11 FC
L2/N
P Cable FV-18
96
Blk Blk Blu

Loop
12 Blu V out 0 18
I out 0 L1
Supply
IAS 20 PSI V out 1
I out 1 Ethernet
1A
1A
V out 2
I out 2 FIR 1 2 3 4
FV I out 3
V out 3 18
(Located in main Blk Wht Grn
18 Blu control room)
Com
ES 120 VAC
1762-OF4
Com analog output
input card
card From field
expansion slot 2 panel disconnect
Tag number Description Manufacturer Model Calibration Notes
0-100" WC input
FT-18 Flow transmitter Rosemount 3051S 4-20 mA output
Square-root characterization
1762-IF4 input 4-20 mA IP = 169.254.10.9
FC-18 PLC Allen-Bradley ML1100 1762-OF4 output 4-20 mA Mask = 255.255.0.0
FIR-18 HMI touch-panel AutomationDirect C-More

ED / 667 4 mA = fully closed
FV-18 Flow valve with positioner Fisher DVC6010 20 mA = fully open Fail-closed
file i00654
Question 93
Capstone Assessment (end of quarter)
This performance assessment tests your mastery of many important instrumentation concepts. You are
to automate a pre-built process based on prototype diagrams you sketch of all instrument connections, and
demonstrate the automatic control of this process. All this must be done individually with no assistance from
anyone else, within one lab session (not to exceed three hours). You may refer to manufacturer documentation
and/or textbooks, but not to personal notes, while building your loop.
You are entirely responsible for figuring out how the process works and what you must do
to control it, based on your inspection of it after it has been selected for you. This includes identifying the
process variable, the final control element, any loads, instrument model numbers, and locating manufacturer’s
documentation for the instrumentation.
You may perform the assessment activity at any time in the quarter. Successful completion counts as
the “mastery” portion of the course exam(s). If you do not pass, the instructor will work with you to correct
the problem(s). There is no grade penalty for repeated attempts, however successful completion is required
to pass the course.
In addition to exhibiting a steady-state control in automatic mode (i.e. the process variable follows
changes made to the setpoint and settles at or near the setpoint value without oscillation after some time),
the process must also meet the following criteria based on courses you have completed:
• If you have passed the INST241 course, your transmitter and controller must be properly configured to
register the process variable (in engineering units, not percent) over a range specified by the instructor.
Note: if the transmitter is analog rather than “smart,” the instructor will have you determine its “As-
Found” range and direct you to range the loop controller to match the transmitter rather than calibrate
the analog transmitter to a specified range.
• If you have passed the INST252 course, the controller must be tuned for robust response to perturbations
(changes) in either setpoint or load as selected by the instructor at or near a setpoint value also specified
by the instructor. “Robust” control is defined here as the controller compensating for perturbations as
quickly as possible without creating any process variable oscillations (i.e. a critically damped response).
It will be your decision to use P, I, D, or any combination thereof in the controller’s tuning.
• If you have passed the INST260 course, you must connect a data acquisition unit (DAQ) to record a
variable in the process selected by the instructor and display a trend graph and/or a scaled representation
of the measured variable on a personal computer networked to the DAQ.
Given the time constraint of this assessment, you will not be required to cut and fit flexible conduit
to the field instruments. All other wiring must be neatly installed so as to avoid creating safety hazards
(tripping, etc.) and confusion for other students assembling their loops.
Limited availability of components and physical space in the lab means that only a few students will be
able to work on this assessment at once, so plan on attempting this well before the final due date!
97
Capstone project check-list (listed in sequential order) Name:
Remember that you must work independently once the instructor assigns you a vest to wear. Any
consultation with classmates, use of personal notes, or deviation from your approved diagram(s) will result in
immediate disqualification, which means you must take everything apart and re-try the capstone project on a
different process. Any damage done to the process or instrumentation will similarly result in disqualification,
and you must repair the damage prior to re-trying the capstone project. You are allowed to use manufacturer
documentation, as well as any documentation provided by the instructor (e.g. textbooks).
No teamwork is allowed while wearing the vest!
Selection (Instructor writes/checks)

Instructor assigns a vest for you to wear
Instructor selects a process for you to automate
Instructor selects process variable range (INST241 only)
Instructor selects setpoint/load & SP value (INST252 only) @ SP =
Instructor selects DAQ variable to measure (INST260 only)
Instructor selects controller – label with your name!
Instructor verifies no wiring connected to the process
The time clock starts now! Start time:
Criterion (Instructor verifies)

You sketch basic loop diagram – instructor verifies correctness
You sketch DAQ connection diagram – instructor verifies correctness
Now you may begin wiring and configuring the components

Steady-state control in automatic mode
Controller correctly registers the process variable (INST241 only)
Controller responds robustly to perturbations (INST252 only)
DAQ trend recording appears on a personal computer (INST260 only)
The time clock stops now! Stop time:

Instructor verifies all signal wires/tubes disconnected
Instructor verifies controller reset to original configuration
Instructor verifies DAQ is returned to team tool locker
Instructor collects your diagrams
Your mastery score will not be recorded until all steps are complete!
98
Notes on instrument ranging
An important criterion for the capstone project is that the loop instruments be properly ranged. For
students who have completed the INST241 course, this means both the transmitter and controller must be
set to a specified measurement range, with the controller indicating the process variable in real “engineering
units” (e.g. PSI or degrees F rather than just percent).
The reason this is an issue at all is because loop controllers operating on 4-20 mA analog signals don’t
“know” what those signals are supposed to represent unless someone configures the controller with the proper
range reflecting real-world conditions. For example, if a student is assigned a temperature transmitter with
a range of 300 to 800 degrees Fahrenheit, not only does the transmitter have to output 4 mA when sensing
300 o F and output 20 mA when sensing 800 o F, but the controller must display an indication of 300 o F when
it receives a 4 mA signal from the transmitter, and display an indication of 800 o F when it receives a 20 mA
signal from the transmitter. None of this happens on its own – the student must range the transmitter for
300-800 o F input (and 4-20 mA output) as well as range the controller to display 300-800 o F over its 4-20
mA input scale. A typical loop is shown here with all instrument ranges displayed:
Input range: Output range:

300 to 800 oF 4 to 20 mA Input (PV) signal range: Input (PV) display range:
4 to 20 mA 300 to 800 oF
TIC
TT PV
Output display range:
Output 0 to 100%
TE Input range: Output range: Output signal range:
4 to 20 mA 3 to 15 PSI 4 to 20 mA
Input range: Stem stroke:

3 to 15 PSI 0 to 100%
TY
P IAS
TV
Analog (non-“smart”) transmitters, I/P transducers, and valve positioners are ranged using “zero”
and “span” adjustments, typically screws or nuts. The ranging of analog instruments is discussed in the
“Instrument Calibration” chapter of the Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook.
Digital (“smart”) transmitters and valve positioners are ranged by setting LRV and URV parameters
using a “communicator” device or a personal computer equipped with the appropriate interface and software.
This too is discussed in the “Instrument Calibration” chapter of the Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation
textbook.
99
Digital electronic loop controllers similarly provide means to set the range values for interpreting any
4-20 mA signal input to them. Exactly what these parameters are called and how they are accessed varies
from one model and brand of loop controller to another. Here are some examples:
• Siemens/Moore 352 controller: process variable range parameters are located in the “Operator’s Display”
function block (FB15):
→ LRV = Process Lo
→ URV = Process Hi
• Siemens/Moore 352P and 353 controller: process variable range parameters are located in the “Analog
Input” function block (AIN):
→ LRV = Minscale
→ URV = Maxscale
• Emerson DeltaV DCS: process variable range parameters are located in the “Analog Input” function
block (AI) and “PID” function block (PID), both conforming to the FOUNDATION Fieldbus standard.
This standard for function block configuration is adhered to in the DeltaV system even if the loop in
question uses analog (4-20 mA) signals. Detailed information may be found in any FOUNDATION
Fieldbus function block reference manual:
→ (AI block) = the OUT SCALE parameter contains both high and low range limits, engineering
units (e.g. deg F), and decimal point position. The L Type parameter needs to be set to “indirect”
to allow scaling to occur (“direct” mode prevents any scaling), and the XD Scale parameter needs
to be ranged 0 to 100%.
→ (PID block) = the PV SCALE parameter contains both high and low range limits, engineering
units (e.g. deg F), and decimal point position.
• Honeywell UDC 2500 controller: process variable input #1 range parameters are located in the “Input
1” set-up group of parameters:
→ LRV = IN1 LO
→ URV = IN1 HI
• Automation Direct “SOLO” controller: process variable range parameters are located in the following
registers:
→ LRV = P3-4 Input Range Low
→ URV = P3-3 Input Range High
• Allen-Bradley PLC5, SLC500, and MicroLogix controllers: process variable scaling parameters are
typically located either in a “Scale” instruction (SCL) or a “Scale with Parameters” instruction (SCP).
In either case, the instruction takes the raw count value from the input channel’s analog-to-digital
converter and scales it into the desired process variable display range. A YouTube video on our
BTCInstrumentation channel shows how to do this for the networked MicroLogix PLCs in the lab
using the SCP instruction. Note: SCP instruction parameters may be edited online. For this reason,
downloading edits is not necessary for the MicroLogix PLCs in our lab. In fact, it is very important that
you not save or download the PLC program, because doing so may alter the PLC’s network address and
lead to communication problems. Just make the changes while the PLC is in “Run” mode and then exit
the program:
→ (SCL instruction) = Rate and Offset values scale the signal according to the slope-intercept formula
y = mx + b, where Rate is 10000m and Offset is b
→ (SCP instruction LRV) = Scaled Min.
→ (SCP instruction URV) = Scaled Max.
• Allen-Bradley Logix5000 controller: process variable scaling parameters are located in the “PID”
instruction (PID):
→ LRV = .MINS
→ URV = .MAXS
100
Notes on controller action
Another important criterion for the capstone project is that the loop controller execute the proper
direction and magnitude of action in order to stabilize the process variable at setpoint. For every student
completing the capstone, this means setting the direction correctly (direct vs. reverse action) appropriate
for the needs of the process, and configuring the tuning parameters (P, I, and D) to hold the process variable
steady in automatic mode. For students who have completed or are currently taking the INST252 course,
this means tuning the controller for robust response to either setpoint or load perturbations (i.e. bringing
the PV back to SP as quickly as possible without oscillation following sudden changes in either setpoint or
load).
If the controller happens to be programmed using function blocks, these important parameters will be
found in the “PID” function block. For other controller models, there will be a menu option with action
(direct/reverse) and tuning (P/I/D) parameters. Note that some controllers provide a quick-access feature
to edit the PID tuning parameters, but generally not for changing the direction of action. Here are some
examples:
• Siemens/Moore 352 controller: control action parameters are located in the “PID” function block
(FB13). Note that the P, I, and D tuning parameters may be quickly accessed by pressing the “Tune”
button rather than by entering the PID function block edit menu:
→ Direction (Direct/Reverse)= SA1
→ Proportional (P) = SPG1 as a unitless gain value
→ Integral (I) = STI1 in units of minutes per repeat
→ Derivative (D) = STD1 in units of minutes
• Siemens/Moore 352P and 353 controller: control action parameters are located in the “PID” function
block (PID). Note that the P, I, and D tuning parameters may be quickly accessed by pressing the
“Tune” button rather than by entering the PID function block edit menu:
→ Direction (Direct/Reverse)= DIR ACT
→ Proportional (P) = PG as a unitless gain value
→ Integral (I) = TI in units of minutes per repeat
→ Derivative (D) = TD in units of minutes
• Emerson DeltaV DCS: control action parameters are located in the “PID” function block (PID)
conforming to the FOUNDATION Fieldbus standard:
→ Direction (Direct/Reverse)= Found in the CONTROL OPTS set of parameters as a “check-box”
where a checked box sets direct action and an unchecked box sets reverse action.
→ Proportional (P) = GAIN as a unitless gain value
→ Integral (I) = RESET in units of seconds per repeat
→ Derivative (D) = RATE in units of seconds
• Allen-Bradley PLC5, SLC500, and MicroLogix controllers: control action parameters are located in the
“PID” instruction. A YouTube video on our BTCInstrumentation channel shows how to do this for the
networked MicroLogix PLCs in the lab:
→ Direction (Direct/Reverse)= Found in the Control Mode field where E=PV−SP represents direct
action and E=SP−PV represents reverse action.
→ Proportional (P) = Controller Gain Kc as a unitless gain value
→ Integral (I) = Reset Ti in units of minutes per repeat
→ Derivative (D) = Rate Td in units of minutes
101
• Allen-Bradley Logix5000 controller: control action parameters are located in the “PID” instruction
(PID):
→ Direction (Direct/Reverse)= E where PV−SP represents direct action and SP−PV represents
reverse action.
→ Proportional (P) = Kp or Kc as a unitless gain value
→ Integral (I) = Ki in units of seconds per repeat
→ Derivative (D) = Kd in units of minutes
file i00998
102
Answers
Answer 1
Answer 2
Answer 3
Answer 4
Answer 5
Answer 6
Answer 7
Answer 8
Answer 9
Answer 10
Answer 11
An ion is any atom or molecule that is electrically imbalanced; i.e., its total number of electrons do not
equal its total number of protons.
103
Answer 12
Both dissociation and ionization refer to the separation of formerly joined atoms upon entering a solution.
The difference between these terms is the type of substance that splits: “dissociation” refers to the division
of ionic compounds (such as table salt), while “ionization” refers to covalent-bonded (molecular) compounds
such as HCl which are not ionic in their pure state.
• Sodium Chloride (NaCl) → Na+ + Cl−
• Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) → H+ + Cl−
• Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) → Na+ + OH−
• Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4 ) → Ca2+ + SO2−
4
• Potassium Sulfate (K2 SO4 ) → 2K+ + SO2−

4
• Sulfuric Acid (H2 SO4 ) → 2H+ + SO2−

4
The distinguishing characteristic of an ionic compound is that it is a conductor of electricity in its pure,
liquid state. That is, it readily separates into anions and cations all by itself. Even in its solid form, an ionic
compound is already ionized, with its constituent atoms held together by an imbalance of electric charge.
Being in a liquid state simply gives those atoms the physical mobility needed to dissociate.
Molecular (covalent) compounds, in contrast, do not readily separate into anions and cations in their
pure, liquid states. Covalent bonds are formed by shared electrons, not electrostatic attraction between
ionized atoms. An electron must be exchanged from one atom to another in order for a covalent compound
to break into ionized parts, and so this process is called ionization. Water is an excellent example of a
covalent compound. Although some molecules in water do ionize with no impurities added, it is a very small
proportion and so we treat pure (deionized) water as an electrical insulator.
Other examples of covalently-bonded molecular compounds exist, such as hydrogen chloride. HCl ionizes
into hydrogen cations and chlorine anions when dissolved in water, making HCl an electrolyte even though
HCl is not conductive in its pure, liquid state.
In the electrolysis of saltwater, oxygen and chlorine gas will both be liberated at the anode (+), while
hydrogen gas will be liberated at the cathode (−). Sodium accumulates on the cathode. The proportion of
chlorine to oxygen liberated at the anode depends on the concentration of the saltwater. If you use enough
current, you will dissolve copper ions into the water, turning it bluish-green in color.
Answer 13
• Vprimary = 3.7 volts

• Vsecondary = 12.0 volts
• Iprimary = 26.1 mA
• Isecondary = 8.02 mA
This is a step-up transformer.
Answer 14
Here is a version of the conductivity cell equation showing units instead of variables:
S [cm2 ]
· ¸
[S] =
cm [cm]
Follow-up question: identify the unit of conductance popular before Siemens. Hint: it actually makes
sense as opposed to being someone’s (arbitrary) name!
104
Answer 15
k = Gθ
Answer 16
k = 110 µS/cm
Answer 17
With increasing conductivity, the toroidal probe generates an increasing AC current circulating through
the salty water. This increased electric current through the water passes through the center of both toroidal
coils, inducing a stronger voltage in the sensing coil.
With increasing conductivity, the water becomes less resistive. This results in less voltage drop between
the sensing electrodes for any given amount of current between the excitation electrodes.
Answer 18
The pipe provides a higher-conductance current path than the liquid, making it seem (from the probe’s
perspective) as though the liquid is more conductive than it really is.
In a sense, a metal pipe wall “shorts out” part of the normal current pathway through the liquid.
Electric current must still travel through the liquid as it goes through the center of the toroids, but the outer
(return) path of the electric current which normally flows through liquid as well may be shunted through a
metal pipe wall.
Solutions to the problem include use of non-metal pipes, plastic-lined metal pipes, and/or oversizing the
pipe so that the probe is far from the walls.
Answer 19
• If Vexcitation were to increase, the millivoltmeter’s reading would increase

• If the conductivity of the liquid were to increase, the millivoltmeter’s reading would increase
• If the liquid were to completely drain out of the sample holder, the millivoltmeter’s reading would
decrease (all the way to zero)
• You could add salt or some other ionic compound to the water to increase its conductivity. You could
also heat the water to a greater temperature.
Answer 20
Specific conductivity = 191.57 µS/cm
Answer 21
Answer 22
Partial answer:
An acid is a substance that produces positive hydrogen ions (hydrogen cations, H+ ) when mixed with
water. A base (often called a caustic or an alkaline) is a substance that produces negative hydroxyl ions
(hydroxyl anions, OH− ) when mixed with water. A salt is a substance that contains a cation other than H+
and an anion other than OH− or O2− .
Answer 23
105
Answer 24
Answer 25
Answer 26
Partial answer:
• [H+ ] = 0.0000032 M ; pH = 5.49 pH
• [H+ ] = 0.00000000012 M ; pH = 9.92 pH
Answer 27
Partial answer:
• 2.71 pH ; [H+ ] = 0.00195 M
• 6.08 pH ; [H+ ] = 0.000000832 M
Answer 28
Answer 29
Answer 30
Answer 31
Molarity of sodium ions in the saltwater solution = 0.05 mol / 7.098 liters = 0.007045 M
Molarity of chlorine ions in the saltwater solution = 0.05 mol / 7.098 liters = 0.007045 M
The molarities are equal because sodium chloride (NaCl) completely dissociates into Na+ and Cl− ions
in solution, with equal molecular quantities. For every mole of Na+ originating from the salt, there will be
one mole of Cl− in the solution as well.
Answer 32
In pure water at 25o C:
[H+ ] = 1.00 × 10−7 M
[OH− ] = 1.00 × 10−7 M
For pure water and also for dilute solutions of water at 25o C, the product of these two molarities is
always (very nearly) equal to 1.00 × 10−14 . This is known as the ionization constant of water, or KW :
KW = [H+ ][OH− ] = 1.00 × 10−14
Answer 33
Pure water at 25o C = 7.0 pH
Free hydrogen ions rarely exist in solution, but more commonly are found attached to water molecules
(H2 O) where they form the positive ion H3 O+ called hydronium.
106
Answer 34
For the first solution: − log 0.00027 = 3.57 pH
1×10−14
For the second solution: − log 0.0081 = 14 − (− log 0.0081) = 11.91 pH
Acids have pH values below 7, caustics (alkalines) have pH values above 7, and pure water has a pH of
7.0 (at least at 25o C).
In the laboratory balance scale analogy, a balanced condition (where the scale shows equal “weights,”
[H+ ] = [OH− ]) is analogous to a neutral pH solution. Incidentally, this does not necessarily mean a pH of
7.0 – all it means is that hydrogen and hydroxyl ion activities are balanced. Given the changing ionization
constant of water at different temperatures, it is entirely possible to have a neutral solution that does not
have a pH value of 7.
Answer 35
pH = 7.47 at 0o C and pH = 6.51 at 60o C, so pH decreases with increasing temperature.
The definition of “neutral” is worth exploring a bit. For all the different scenarios represented by the
table of KW values, the water is still neutral. The definition of a “neutral” solution in the context of pH
is that hydrogen and hydroxyl ion activity is exactly equal ([H+ ] = [OH− ]). Given the changing ionization
constant of water at different temperatures, it is entirely possible to have a neutral solution that does not
have a pH value of 7, as your calculations should show here!
This trend may be explained in terms of Conservation of Energy. Remember that it takes energy to
break a chemical bond. Ionization of a compound is an example of this, separating atoms that were formerly
joined by either covalent bonding or electrostatic attraction. As heat energy is added to a sample of water,
more water molecules are able to separate. A very cold sample of water has minimal energy, and so we find
the molecules in a low energy state (hydrogen bonded with oxygen, rather than separating into ions).
Answer 36
pH measurement and control is important for wastewater treatment, because extreme pH values (either
too acidic or too caustic) can adversely affect both flora and fauna in the water body that the treated
wastewater is discharged to.
In biopharmaceutical production, pH measurement and control is absolutely critical. Batches of cells

will not grow, or grow properly, if the pH is not kept within tight bounds.
Food production (especially brewing) is another process where pH measurement (and control) is critical.
Poor pH control leads to bad beer, and no one wants that.
Answer 37
For a solution of 0.1 molar (0.1 M ) concentration, there are 0.1 moles of solute (pure ethyl alcohol)
for every 1 liter of total solution volume. It should be noted that the molarity of a solution changes with
temperature, because a solution’s volume will change with temperature even though the quantity of solute
in moles does not!
107
Answer 38
Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilograms of solvent (not of the total solution!).
We were given the solvent mass in kilograms (2 kg) already. All we need to know is the molar quantity of
the pure acid and we can solve for molality.
First, let’s tally the number of grams per mole for H2 SO4 , based on the atomic mass units (amu) for
the constituent elements:
For H2 SO4 , each molecule contains:

• 2 atoms of H at 1.01 amu each
• 1 atom of S at 32.06 amu each
• 4 atoms of O at 16 amu each
This gives a total of 98.08 grams per mole of pure H2 SO4 .
This figure may be used as a unity fraction to convert moles into grams, or grams into moles. For our
application, we need to convert the given mass of 1 gram into moles:
(1 g)(1 mol / 98.08 g) = 0.0102 mol
Taking this quantity in moles and dividing by the mass of solvent (2 kg) gives us the molality of the
acid solution:
0.0102 mol / 2 kg = 0.0051 m
Answer 39
pH neutralization is the minimization of either excessive acidity or alkalinity of aqueous liquids, usually
prior to discharge into a natural body of water. In plain language, this means controlling the pH of process
water to a range usually between 6 and 9. A pH value equal to exactly 7 is considered “neutral.”
Wastewater treatment processes almost always involve some form of pH neutralization. It is important
for the pH of treated water to be within a range close to that of natural bodies of water, so as not to disturb
the habitat of flora and fauna there.
Answer 40
Answer 41
Answer 42
Answer 43
Answer 44
Answer 45
Partial answer:
V = 90.56 mV
Answer 46
Partial answer:
• T = 33 o C ; slope = 60.76 mV/pH
• T = 40 o F ; slope = 55.09 mV/pH
108
Answer 47
Answer 48
Answer 49
The reaction product of water and SO2 gas is H2 SO3 – sulfurous acid.
Answer 50
Partial answer:
• pH = 5.82 ; T = 25 o C ; Nernst voltage = 69.83 mV
• pH = 11.23 ; T = 95 o F ; Nernst voltage = −258.7 mV
• Nernst voltage = 233 mV ; T = 12 o C ; Solution = 2.88 pH

• Nernst voltage = −185 mV ; T = 131 o F ; Solution = 9.84 pH
Answer 51
pH (Voltmeter)
meter
Measurement Reference
electrode electrode
Solution
109
Answer 52
[H+ ] in solution pH V
5.83 × 10−5 M 4.23 163.6 mV
1 × 10−5 M 5 118.3 mV
1 × 10−6 M 6 59.16 mV
1 × 10−7 M 7 0 mV
1 × 10−8 M 8 −59.16 mV
7.02 × 10−9 M 8.15 −68.25 mV
1 × 10−9 M 9 −118.3 mV
1 × 10−10 M 10 −177.5 mV
Note that the difference in pH between the measured solution and the internal reference solution is
indicated by a simple DC voltage!
Slope = 59.17 mV per pH unit deviation from 7.0 pH
Temperature compensation is required for high-accuracy pH measurement, to compensate for the

temperature term in the Nernst equation. This temperature term strictly relates to the ion-permeable
membrane, and not the solution. In other words, using an RTD to sense and correct for temperature merely
compensates for changes in the pH/voltage proportionality of the measurement electrode, and does not
(indeed, it cannot) compensate for actual ion activity changes in the solution. In order to do the latter (i.e.
provide a temperature-corrected measurement of pH telling you what the pH of the solution would be at a
fixed reference temperature rather than what it actually is at the real temperature), one would have to know
the solution’s unique temperature/[H+ ] relationship, which will be unique for every different solution.
Incidentally, the true version of the Nernst equation is as follows:

µ ¶
RT a1
V = ln
nF a2
Where,
a1 = Activity of ion in measured solution
a2 = Activity of ion in reference solution (on other side of membrane)
In the absence of chemical reactions that “tie up” ions, activity (a) and concentration (C) are directly
proportional to one another (a = γC). However, the activity coefficient (γ) may be subject to change in
some situations, in which case the Nernst equation becomes even uglier.
Answer 53
The function of this electrode depends on the glass having internal and external hydrated layers. If the
electrode becomes dried on the outside, ions cannot permeate it, and it becomes useless.
The hydrated layers of a glass electrode slowly dissolve over time, exposing new layers of (dry) glass
underneath which hydrate and function anew. The maintenance of this hydrated layer is critical to proper
measurement probe operation.
This also explains why pH measurement probe life is finite, and why it shortens with elevated
temperature. As solution temperature increases, the speed of glass dissolution increases, eating away the
electrode at a faster rate.
110
Answer 54
The problem may be summarized using just one word: loading. All voltmeters draw some current from
the signal under test, but analog-style voltmeters drew signficantly more current than their modern DMM
equivalents. This is a problem because the current drawn by a voltmeter tends to “load down” the voltage
output by the signal source, resulting in a negative error (reading less voltage than the source is actually
trying to output).
The “null-balance” technique works like this:

• Adjust the potentiometer until the sensitive galvanometer registers zero current
• Read the voltmeter’s indication – this will be precisely equal to the signal source
Galvanometers are nothing more than hyper-sensitive ammeters. When the galvanometer reads zero,
you know the potentiometer’s output voltage is precisely equal to the signal source voltage. This is why the
voltmeter’s reading in this condition is precisely equal to the signal source voltage. However, the current
required by the voltmeter to allow it to function is being supplied by the battery, not by the signal source.
This “unloads” the signal source so that it does not have to power the voltmeter.
Answer 55
[H+ ] pH Vprobe
0.001995 M 2.7 pH 254.4 mV
6.309 × 10−7 M 6.2 pH 47.32 mV
7.943 × 10−13 M 12.1 pH −301.7 mV
3.881 × 10−5 M 4.41 pH 153.2 mV
1.452 × 10−11 M 10.84 pH −227.1 mV
Answer 56
According to the Nernst equation, the voltage output by a pH probe immersed in 7 pH solution should
be zero volts. Therefore, a pH transmitter reading exactly zero volts input should interpret that as a pH
value of 7.
Answer 57
This symptom is indicative of an open wire somewhere in the 4-20 mA loop circuit. Many faults are
possible here.
111
Answer 58
From the common logarithm version of the Nernst equation:
µ ¶
2.303RT C1
V = log
nF C2
Where,
V = Voltage produced across membrane due to ion exchange, in volts (V)
R = Universal gas constant (8.315 J/mol·K)
T = Absolute temperature, in Kelvin (K)
n = Number of electrons transferred per ion exchanged (1 for H+ ions)
F = Faraday constant, in coulombs per mole (96,485 C/mol e− )
C1 = Concentration of ion in measured solution, in moles per liter of solution (M )
C2 = Concentration of ion in reference solution (on other side of membrane), in moles per liter of
solution (M )
2.303RT
= 59.17 mV
nF
Since the common logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration is the very definition of pH, the logarithm
term of the Nernst equation may be re-written as the difference between the solution pH and the measurement
probe’s internal buffer pH (7.0):
2.303RT
V = (7 − pH)
nF
Answer 59
Temperature Slope
(o C) (mV/pH)
5o C 55.20
20o C 58.18
60o C 66.12
100o C 74.06
Answer 60
Yes. Concentrated acids may have negative pH values, while concentrated bases can exceed 14 pH. In
such extreme cases, where standard pH probe life is extremely short, a toroidal conductivity probe may be
the best way to infer acid or base concentration.
Toroidal conductivity probes are encased in non-reactive plastic, and so can withstand very harsh pH
conditions. Given that additional concentrations of either acid or caustic both increase solution conductivity
to the point of “swamping” other sources of conductivity (such as mineral or salt concentration), extreme
levels of pH may be reliably inferred from conductivity measurements.
Conductivity measurement is definitely not a reliable method for measuring pH in weak (or even most
strong) acid or base solutions, because the effect of pH changes on conductivity is not strong enough in these
cases to overshadow the effect of other conductivity factors (such as salt concentration).
Answer 61
Answer 62
112
Answer 63
Answer 64
Answer 65
Answer 66
Answer 67
Answer 68
Answer 69
Answer 70
Fuel gases with greater carbon content will generate greater voltage readings on the AC meter.
Answer 71
As the mix of carrier and sample fluids travels through the column, the packing material inside the
column delays the travel of some sample components, resulting in different chemical components exiting the
column at different times. The basic principle of a chromatograph is that a mix of flowing chemicals becomes
separated over time, allowing for individual, quantitative measurement of each chemical by a single detector
device.
The column itself is usually just a long metal tube with a very small inside diameter. Sometimes the
length to diameter ratio of the column tubing is enormous: take for example a packed column used for the
separation of components in gasoline, with a column length of 100 meters and an inside diameter of only
250 µm (micro-meters!).
As a side note, this spectacularly long column example comes from Raymond P.W. Scott’s excellent
book, Principles and Practice of Chromatography, available for free download on the Internet. In this
particular example of chromatographic gasoline analysis, the packing material was Petrocol DH with a
thickness of 0.5 µm on the inside of the column tube wall, and the sample volume was 0.1 µl. The complete
analysis took about 100 minutes, the long time due chiefly to the long length of the column. The carrier gas
was helium, and the detector was an FID (flame ionization) type. Temperature programming was used to
achieve good separation of the heavier components, starting at 35o C near the beginning of the analysis and
ending at 200o C. This being gas chromatography, higher temperatures mean higher gas viscosity (the very
opposite temperature relation of liquid viscosity!), so the higher temperatures at the end resulted in greater
retardation of the heavier gas components at the end of the run, allowing better separation.
113
Answer 72
Gas chromatography:
Stationary phase = a solid material, and/or a liquid held stationary by a solid material, all held in a
chamber known as the “column.”
Mobile phase = sample (gas) mixed with an inert gas that “carries” the sample through and past the
stationary phase.
Liquid chromatography:
Stationary phase = a solid material, and/or a liquid held stationary by a solid material, all held in a
chamber known as the “column.”
Mobile phase = sample (liquid) mixed with an inert liquid that “carries” the sample through and past
the stationary phase.
Answer 73
The injected volume for a chromatograph’s sample is determined by the internal volume of the sample
loop tubing plus the volume of one valve slot. Thus, to exactly double the injected volume, one must increase
the sample loop tube length by a factor of a little more than two.
Process chromatographs use very small sample volumes. To put things into perspective, the typical
sample volume for a chromatograph is in the order of tens of micro-liters!
The amount of time the sample valve spends in the sampling position has no effect whatsoever on the
injected sample volume so long as it exceeds the minimum amount of time required to completely flush the
sample loop and valve slot of their contained volumes. Any time greater than this is irrelevant. If the valve
spends less than this minimum amount of time in the sampling position, however, the sample loop will not
get completely emptied of sample, and the injected sample volume will be less than desired.
Answer 74
• Use a denser stationary phase in the column.

• Use a stationary phase with better adsorptivity (and/or solubility).
• Use temperature or flow “programming” to slow down the elution of that last two components to achieve
better separation
114
Answer 75
• How does the rheostat adjust current equally through both filaments? The rheostat adjusts current
through the reference filament, which then acts as a setpoint for the measurement filament circuit.
• How do opamp U1 and transistor Q1 work together to regulate current through the measurement
filament? Opamp U1 senses the voltage dropped by both shunt resistors and tries to keep them equal,
resulting in equal current through both filaments.
• How can we tell that opamp U1 is truly functioning in negative-feedback mode, since at first glance it
looks like positive feedback with the Rshunt voltage signal connecting to the noninverting (+) input?
If the current through the measurement filament grows too large, the voltage drop across the right-hand
Rshunt will exceed the voltage drop across the other shunt resistor. This will make the noninverting
input less positive than the inverting input, driving the output of U1 in the negative direction. This will
tend to turn Q1 off, decreasing the measurement filament’s current and bringing it closer to equality
with the reference filament current.
• What is the function of opamp U2 and its four equal-value resistors? This is a differential voltage
amplifier with a voltage gain of 1 (0 dB).
• Where would an output voltage signal be measured in this circuit? At the output of U2 .
• Which direction does the output voltage signal go when the measurement filament heats up to a
greater temperature, assuming a positive temperature coefficient of resistance (α) for the filament
metal? Assuming identical filaments, the output voltage will be zero when both filaments are at the
same temperature, and it will drive negative when the measurement filament grows hotter than the
reference filament.
Answer 76

√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Reference filament burned open
√
Measurement filament burned open
√
Voltmeter failed open
√
Voltmeter failed shorted
Answer 77
The problem is that the different compounds exiting the chromatograph column will not all ionize
equally in a flame. This means the heights of the chromatogram peaks vary with component flow rate and
with relative ionization ability.
This is a fundamental problem for all chromatographs, regardless of detector type. The solution to the
problem is to “program” the gain of the detector according to what component is expected to exit the column
at any given time. This by itself makes it clear why all process chromatographs are microprocessor-controlled.
115
Answer 78
• What is the purpose of the vessel labeled “He”? This is the carrier gas tank, filled with helium.
• Do the DCS input cards supply 24 VDC loop power or not? Most likely not, since the chromatograph
has its own 120 VAC power connections, it is most likely the loop power source and not the DCS.
• How would you connect a loop calibrator to simulate a 50% signal to AIR-43c? Disconnect cable AIT-
43c from either the chromatograph terminals or the DCS input channel terminals, then set the loop
calibrator to “source” mode (not “simulate” mode!) and use it to drive 12 mA of current into the DCS
channel.
• Can you think of any way we could reduce the number of cables needed to convey the data from the
chromatograph to the DCS? Use some form of digital communication rather than analog between the
chromatograph and the DCS. One option is multi-drop HART, another is FOUNDATION Fieldbus (or
some other fieldbus standard such as Profibus). Another option yet is to remote-mount the DCS I/O
near the chromatograph, then use the DCS network cable to bring the data to the main control room.
A similar option would be to remote-mount a PLC near the chromatograph, then run a network cable
from the PLC to the DCS, possibly using a “bridge” device to translate the PLC’s network protocol into
a form the DCS can interpret.
Answer 79
Current carried by the flame is pulled through the resistor by the opamp’s negative feedback action,
thus producing a measurable voltage at the output of the opamp. The more carbon in the flame, the more
current, and the more voltage output by the opamp.
Since the amount of current through the flame is exceedingly small, the resistor needs to be very large
in order to develop a respectable amount of voltage.
Answer 80
Answer 81
This is a graded question – no answers or hints given!
Answer 82
Answer 83
Answer 84
Answer 85
Answer 86
Answer 87
116
Answer 88
Answer 89
Answer 90
Answer 91
Answer 92
Your loop diagram will be validated when the instructor inspects the loop with you and the rest of your
team.
Answer 93
The only “answer” to this question is a properly documented and functioning instrument loop!
117

INST242 Sec2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INST242 Sec2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

INST242 Sec2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INST 242 (Analytical Measurement), section 2

Recommended daily schedule

Identify scholarship opportunities: check your BTC email in-box daily.

INSTRUCTOR CONTACT INFORMATION:

DEPT/COURSE #: INST 242

CREDITS: 5 Lecture Hours: 24 Lab Hours: 60 Work-based Hours: 0

COURSE TITLE: Analytical Measurement

COURSE OUTCOME ASSESSMENT: Analytical system commissioning, analysis, and diagnosis

STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS/REQUIREMENTS: All assignments for this course are thoroughly

All grades are criterion-referenced (i.e. no grading on a “curve”)

ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES:

Core Electronics -- 3 qtrs

(Only if 4th quarter was Summer: INST23x)

INST 200 -- 1 wk Offered 1st week of

Summer quarter Fall quarter Winter quarter Spring quarter

INST 230 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr INST 250 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr

INST 231 -- 3 cr INST 241 -- 6 cr INST 251 -- 5 cr INST 262 -- 5 cr

INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr INST 252 -- 4 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr

INST 233 -- 3 cr CHEM&161 -- 5 cr ENGT 134 -- 5 cr

Prerequisite for INST206

Possible course schedules depending on date of entry into 2nd year

INST 231 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr INST 250 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr

INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 241 -- 6 cr INST 251 -- 5 cr INST 262 -- 5 cr

INST 233 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr INST 252 -- 4 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr

INST 241 -- 6 cr INST 251 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr INST 231 -- 3 cr

INST 242 -- 5 cr INST 252 -- 4 cr INST 262 -- 5 cr INST 232 -- 3 cr

INST 251 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr INST 230 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr

INST 252 -- 4 cr INST 262 -- 5 cr INST 231 -- 3 cr INST 241 -- 6 cr

CHEM&161 -- 5 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr

INST 262 -- 5 cr INST 231 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr INST 251 -- 5 cr

INST 263 -- 5 cr INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 241 -- 6 cr INST 252 -- 4 cr

ENGT 134 -- 5 cr INST 233 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr CHEM&161 -- 5 cr

Graduation! Graduation! Graduation! Graduation!

Troubleshooting assessments must meet the following guidelines:

METRIC PREFIX SCALE

102 101 10-1 10-2

• Conversion formulae for temperature

Conversion equivalencies for distance

1 milliliter (ml) = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3 )

Conversion equivalencies for velocity

Conversion equivalencies for mass

Conversion equivalencies for force

Conversion equivalencies for area

Conversion equivalencies for absolute pressure units (only)

Conversion equivalencies for energy or work

Conversion equivalencies for power

Acceleration of gravity (free fall), Earth standard

Avogadro’s number (NA ) = 6.022 × 1023 per mole (mol−1 )

Electronic charge (e) = 1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb (C)

Boltzmann’s constant (k) = 1.38 × 10−23 Joules per Kelvin (J/K)

Molar gas constant (R) = 8.314 Joules per mole-Kelvin (J/mol-K)

Specific heat of water at 14o C = 1.00002 calories/g·o C = 1 BTU/lb·o F = 4.1869 Joules/g·o C

Specific heat of ice ≈ 0.5 calories/g·o C

Specific heat of steam ≈ 0.48 calories/g·o C

pH of pure water at 25o C = 7.0 (pH scale = 0 to 14)

Properties of Dry Air at sea level

file conversion constants

How to get the most out of academic reading:

How to effectively problem-solve and troubleshoot: