Engineering Drawing

ENGINEERING
DRAWING
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ENGINEERING DRAWING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction to Graphic Communication......................................................01-05
Chapter 2: Drawing Equipments and Their Use..............................................................06-11
Chapter 3: Lettering and Lines..........................................................................................11-17
Chapter 4: Geometric Construction...................................................................................18-33
Chapter 5: Projection...........................................................................................................34-49
Chapter 6: Sectioning...........................................................................................................50-58
Chapter 7: Projection of Points, Lines and Planes...............................................................59-75
Chapter 8: Dimensioning...................................................................................................... 76-81
Chapter 9: Mapping...............................................................................................................82-91
Review Questions.................................................................................................................92-93
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction to Graphic Communication
1.1. Drawing
1.1.1 Artistic Drawings
1.1.2. Technical Drawings
Chapter 2: Drawing Equipments and Their Use
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Important Drawing Equipments
Chapter 3: Lettering and Lines
3.1. Letter Styles
3.2. Technique Of Lettering
3.2.1. Guide Lines
3.3. Spacing Of Letters
3.4. Lettering In Maps
3.5. Conventional Lines
Chapter 4: Geometric Construction
4.1. 1 Introduction
4.2. Geometric Nomeniclature
4.3. Techniques of Geometric Constructions

Chapter 5: Projection
5.1. Introduction
5.1.1. Isometric Drawing
5.1.2. Orthographic Or Multi View Projection
5.2. Theory Of Multi View Projections
5.2.1. Orthographic Projection
5.2.2. Classification of Surfaces and Lines in Orthographic Projections
5.2.3. Precedence of Line
5.3. Pictorial Projections
5.3.1. Isometric Projection
5.3.2. Isometric Drawing
Chapter 6: Sectioning
6.1. Sectional Views
6.2. How Sections Are Shown
6.3. Multsection Views
Chapter 7: Projection of Points, Lines and Planes
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Reference Planes
7.3. Projection of Point
7.4. Lines in Space
7.4.1. Classification Of Lines In Orthographi Projections
7.4.2 Orthographic Projection Of A Line
7.4.3. True Size (Shape) Of An Oblique Plane

Chapter 8: Dimensioning
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Definitions
8.3. Steps in Dimensioning
8.4. Where to Put Dimensions
Chapter 9: Mapping
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Definition
9.3. Purpose
9.4. Classification of Maps
9.5. Sketch Map
9.6. Materials Used In a Sketch Mapping For Field or Office Use
9.7. Procedures for Making a Sketch Map
Review Questions
ENGINEERING DRAWING 1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHIC
COMMUNICATION
1.1 Drawing
A drawing is a graphic representation of an object, or a part of it, and is the result of creative thought by
an engineer or technician. When one person sketches a rough map in giving direction to another, this is
graphic communication. Graphic communication involves using visual materials to relate ideas. Drawings,
photographs, slides, transparencies, and sketches are all forms of graphic communication. Any medium
that uses a graphic image to aid in conveying a message, instructions, or an idea is involved in graphic
communication.
One of the most widely used forms of graphic communication is the drawing.
Technically, it can be defined as “a graphic representation of an idea, a concept or an entity which
actually or potentially exists in life. Drawing is one of the oldest forms of communicating, dating back
even farther than verbal communication. The drawing itself is a way of communicating all necessary
information about an abstract, such as an idea or concept or a graphic representation of some real entity,
such as a machine part, house or tools.
There are two basic types of drawings: Artistic and Technical drawings.
1.1.1 Artistic Drawings

Artistic Drawings range in scope from the simplest line drawing to the most famous paintings. Regardless
of their complexity, artistic drawings are used to express the feelings, beliefs, philosophies, and ideas of
the artist. In order to understand an artistic drawing, it is sometimes necessary to first understand the
artist. Artists often take a subtle or abstract approach in communicating through their drawings, which in
turn gives rise to various interpretations. (see figure 1.1)
Figure 1.1 Artistic drawings
(Source: Goetsch, Technical drawing 3rd ed. USA: Delmar Publisher Inc., 1994)
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1.1.2 Technical Drawings
The technical drawing, on the other hand, is not subtle, orabstract. It does not require an understanding of
its creator,only an understanding of technical drawings.A technical drawing is a means of clearly and
concisely communicating all of the information necessary to transform an idea or a concept into reality.
Therefore, a technical drawing often contains more than just a graphic representation of its subject. It also
contains dimensions,notes and specifications. (See figure 1.2)
Figure 1.2 Technical Drawings
A. Types of Technical Drawings
Technical drawings are based on the fundamental principles of projections. A projection is a drawing or
representation of an entity on an imaginary plane or planes. This projection planes serves the same
purpose in technical drawing as is served by the movie screen. A projection involves four
components
1. The actual object that the drawing or projection represents
2. The eye of the viewer looking at the object
3. The imaginary projection plane
4. Imaginary lines of sight called Projectors
The two broad types of projections, both with several sub- classifications, projection. are
Parallel projection and perspective

Parallel Projection
Parallel Projection is a type of projection where the line of sight or projectors are parallel and are
perpendicular to the picture planes. It is subdivided in to the following three categories: Orthographic,
Oblique and Axonometric Projections.
Orthographic projections: are drawn as multi view drawings, which show flat representations of
principal views of the subject.
Oblique Projections: actually show the full size of one view.
AxonometricProjections:arethree-dimensional drawings, and are of three different varieties:
Isometric, Dimetric and Trimetric.
Figure 1.3 Orthographic multi view

drawing
Figure 1.4 Oblique drawing
Figure 1.5 Axonometric drawing

Perspective Projection
Perspective projections are drawings which attempt to replicate what the human eye actually sees when it
views an object. There are three types of perspective projections: One- point, Two-point and Three-point
Projections.
Figure 1.6 Perspective drawing
B. Purpose of Technical Drawings
To appreciate the need for technical drawings, one mus understand the design process. The design
process is an orderly, systematic procedure used in accomplishing a needed design. Any product that is
to be manufactured, fabricated, assembled, constructed, built, or subjected to any other types of
conversion process must first be designed. For example, a house must be designed before it can be built.

C. Application of Technical Drawing
Technical drawings are used in many different applications. They are needed in any setting, which
involves design, and in any subsequent forms of conversion process. The most common applications of
technical drawings can be found in the fields of manufacturing, engineering and construction.
For instance, Surveyors, civil engineers, sanitarians use technical drawings to document such works as
the layout of a new subdivisions, or the marking of the boundaries for a piece of property. Contractors and
construction personnel use technical drawings as their blue prints in converting architectural and
engineering designs in to reality.
Figure 1.7 Technical drawing (architectural)

CHAPTER TWO
DRAWING EQUIPMENTS AND
THEIR USE
2.1 Introduction
Torecord information on paper instruments and equipments are needed. Engineering drawing is entirely a
graphic language hence instruments are essentially needed. Drawing must be clear, neat and legible in
order to serve its purpose. Hence it is extremely important for engineers to have good speed, accuracy,
legibility and neatness in the drawing work.
2.2 Important Drawing Equipments

All drawings are made by means of various instruments. The quality of drawing depends to a large extent
on the quality, adjustment and care of the instruments.
i. Drawing Paper
Drawing paper is the paper, on which drawing is to be made. All engineering drawings are made on
sheets of paper of strictly defined sizes, which are set forth in the U.S.S.R standards. The use of standard
size saves paper and ensures convenient storage of drawings. Now a day, A3 and A4 are the most
commonly used paper sizes. The U.S.S.R standard establishes five preferred sizes for drawings as
tabulated bellow:


ii. Triangles (setsquares)

They are used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 300, 450, 600) in technical drawings. The 450 x
450 and 300 x 600 triangles are the most commonly used for ordinary work. They are shown in the fig.
2.2 below. 450x450 triangle 300x600 triangle
Figure 2.3 triangles or set squares
iii. T- square
It is used primarily to draw horizontal lines and for guiding the triangles when drawing vertical and
inclined lines. It is manipulated by sliding the working edge (inner face) of the head along the left edge of
the board until the blade is in the required position.
T-square
Figure 2.4 T-square
iv. French curve

It is used to draw irregular curves that are not circle arcs. The
shape varies according to the shape of irregular curve.
Figure 2.5 French curves

v. Protractor
It is used for laying out and measuring angle.
Figure 2.6 Protractor
vi. Scale (ruler)

A number of kinds of scales are available for varied types of
engineering design. Figure fig 2.7 Scales with beveled edges
graduated in mm are usually used.

vii. Pencil
The student and professional man should be equipped with a selection of good, well-sharpened pencil
with leads of various degrees of hardness such as: 9H, 8H, 7H, and 6H (hard); 5H& 4H (medium hard);
3H and 2H (medium); and H& F (medium soft). The grade of pencil to be used for various purposes
depends on the type of line desired, the kind of paper employed, and the humidity, which affects the
surface of the paper. Standards for line quality usually will govern the selection.
For instance,
6H is used for light construction line.
4H is used for re-penciling light finished lines (dimension lines, center lines, and invisible object lines)
2H is used for visible object lines
F and H are used for all lettering and freehand work.
Table 2.2. Grade of pencil (lead) and their application
viii. Compass
It is used to draw circles and arcs both in pencil and ink. It consists of two legs pivoted at the top. One leg
is equipped with a steel needle attached with a screw, and other shorter leg is, provided with a socket for
detachable inserts.
ix. Divider
Used chiefly for transferring distances and occasionally for
dividing spaces into equal parts. i.e. for dividing curved and
straight lines into any number of equal parts, and for
transferring measurements.

Figure 2.8 Compass and divider
X. Template
A template is a thin, flat piece of plastic containing various cutout shapes. It is designed to speed the work
of the drafter and to make the finished drawing more accurate. Templates are available for drawing
circles, ellipses, plumbing’s, fixtures etc. Templates come in many sizes to fit the scale being used on the
drawing. And it should be used wherever possible to increase accuracy and speed.
Drawing board is a board whose top surface is perfectly smooth and level on which the drawing paper is
fastened.
Clinograph (Adjustable set square)-its two sides are fixed at 900 and the third side can be adjusted at any
angle.
Rubber or eraser- extra lines or curves which are not required in the drawing are to be rubbed out or
erased. Hence a rubber or eraser are required in the drawing work. Erasers are available in many
degrees of hardness, size and shape.
Eraser shield –it is an important device to protect lines near those being erased. It is made up of thin
metal plate in which gaps of different widths and lengths are cut.
Tracing paper – it is a thin transparent paper. Figures below it can be seen easily and traced out in pencil
ink.
Drawing ink- it is used for making drawings in ink on tracing paper.

CHAPTER THREE
LETTERING AND LINES
3.1 Letter Styles

Letter styles are generally classified as Gothic, Roman, Italic and Text. They were all made with speedball
pens, and are therefore largely single-stroke letters. If the letters are drawn in outline and filled in, they
are referred to as “filled- in” letters. The plainest and most legible style is the gothic from which our single
stroke engineering letters are derived. The term roman refers to any letter having wide down ward strokes
and thin connecting strokes. Roman letters include old romans and modern roman, and may be vertical or
inclined. Inclined letters are also referred to as italic, regardless of the letter style; text letters are often
referred to as old English.
Figure 3.1 Classification of letter styles
Depending up on the spacing between words and thickness of strokes, letters may be classified as
follows.
♦ Extended and Condensed Letters To meet design or space requirements, letters may be narrower and
spaced closer together, in which case they are called “Compresed” or “Condensed”letters. If the letters
are wider than normal, they are referred to as “Extended”letters.
♦ Light Face and Bold Face Letters Letters also vary as to the thickness of the stems or strokes. Letters
having very thin stems are called Light Face Letters, while those having heavy stems are called Bold
Face Letters.
3.2 Technique of Lettering

“Any normal person can learn to letter if he is persistent and intelligent in his efforts.” While it is true that”
Practice makes perfect,” it must be understood that practice alone is not enough; it must be accompanied
by continuous effort to improve.

There are three necessary steps in learning to letter:
1. Knowledge of the proportions and forms of the letters, and the order of the strokes.
2. Knowledge of composition- the spacing of the letters and words.
3. Persistent practice, with continuous effort to improve.
Guide Lines
Extremely light horizontal guidelines are necessary to regulate the height of letters. In addition, light
vertical or inclined guidelines are needed to keep the letters uniformly vertical or inclined. Guidelines are
absolutely essential for good lettering, and should be regarded as a welcome aid, not as an unnecessary
requirement.
Figure 3.2 Guide lines
Make guidelines light, so that they can be erased after the lettering has been completed. Use a relatively
hard pencil such as a 4H to 6H, with a long, sharp, conical point.
A. Guidelines for Capital Letters

On working drawings, capital letters are commonly made 3mm high, with the space between lines of
lettering from ¾ th to the full height of the letters. The vertical guidelines are not used to space the letters
(as this should always be done by eye while lettering), but only to keep the letters uniformly vertical, and
they should accordingly be drawn at random.
Figure 3.3 Guide lines for capital letters

A guideline for inclined capital letters is somewhat different. The spacing of horizontal guidelines is the
same as for vertical capital lettering. The American Standard recommends slope of approximately 68.20
with the horizontal and may be established by drawing a “sloped triangle”, and drawing the guidelines at
random with T-square and triangles.
Figure 3.4 Guide lines for inclined capital letters
B. Guidelines for Lower-Case Letters

Lower-case letters have four horizontal guidelines, called the cap line, waistline, and base line and drop
line. Strokes of letters that extend up to the cap line are called ascenders, and those that extend down to
the drop line, descenders. Since there are only five letters (p, q.g, j, y) that have descenders the drop
lines are little needed and are usually omitted. In spacing guidelines, space “a” may very from 3/5to 2/3 of
space “b”.
The term single stoke or one stoke does not mean that the entire letter is made without lifting the pencil.
But the width of the stroke is the width of the stem of the letter. Single stoke lettering
The salient features of this type of lettering are:

Greatest amount of lettering on drawings is done in a rapid single stroke letter i.e. either vertical, or
inclined.
The ability to letter and perfectly can be acquired only by continued and careful practice
it is not a matter of artistic talent or event of dexterity in hand writing
Order of strokes
They are necessary to have legible and accurate letter styles. In the following description an alphabet of
slightly extended vertical capitals has-been arranged in-group. Study the slope of each letter with the
order and direction of the storks forming it. The proportion of height and width of various letters must be
known carefully to letter them perfectly.
The I-H-T Group

The letter I is The Foundation Stroke.
The top of T is drawn first to the full width of the square and the stem is started accurately at its mid
point.

The L-E-F Group

The L is made in two strokes.
The first two strokes of the E are the same for the L, the third or the upper stoke is lightly shorter than
the lower and the last stroke is the third as long as the lower
F has the same proportion as E
The V-A-K Group

V is the same width as A, the A bridge is one third up from the bottom.
The second stroke of K strikes stem one third up from the bottom and the third stroke branches from
it.
The M-W Group

are the widest letters
M may be made in consecutive strokes of the two verticals as of N
W is made with two V’s
The O-Q-C-G Group

The O families are made as full circles and made in two strokes with the left side a longer arc than the
right.
A large size C and G can be made more accurately with an extra stroke at the top.
The D- U-J Group

The top and bottom stokes of D must be horizontal, fail line to observe this is a common fault with
beginners
U is formed by two parallel strokes to which the bottom stroke be added.
J has the same construction as U, with the first stroke omitted.
The P-R-B Group

The number of stokes depends up on the size of the letter.
The middle line of P and R are on centerline of the vertical line.

Figure 3.5 Order of strokes for capital letters
Figure 3.6 Order of strokes for inclined capital letters

3.3 Spacing of Letters

Uniformity in spacing of letters is a matter of equalizing spaces by eye. The background area between
letters, not the distance between them, should be approximately equal. Some combinations, such as LT
and VA, may even have to be slightly overlapped to secure good spacing. In some cases the width of a
letter may be decreased. For example, the lower stroke of the L may be shortened when followed by A.
Words are spaced well apart, but letters with in words should be spaced closely. Make each word a
compact unit well separated from the adjacent words. For either upper case or lower-case lettering, make
the spaces between words approximately equal to a capital O. Avoid spacing letters too far apart and
words too close together.
3.4 Lettering in Maps

Letters are generally used on maps as follows:
Vertical capital: name of states, countries, towns, capitals, titles of the map etc
Vertical lower case: name of small towns, villages, post offices etc.
Inclined capital: name of oceans, bays, gulfs, large lakes, rivers etc.
Inclined lower case: name of rivers, creeks, small lakes, ponds, marshes and springs
3.5 Conventional Lines

Each line on a technical drawing has a definite meaning and is drawn in certain ways. There are certain
conventional lines recommended by American Standard Association. According to the standard,” three
widths of line;, thick, medium, and thin are recommended… exact thickness may vary according to the
size and type of drawing…
There should also be a distinct contrast in the thickness of different kinds of lines, particularly between the
thick lines and thin lines. In technical drawings, make construction lines so light that they can barely be
seen, with a hard sharp pencil such as 4H to 6H. For visible lines, hidden lines, and other “thick” lines
use relatively soft pencils, such as F or H. All thin lines except construction line must be thin, but dark.
They should be made with a sharp medium grad pencil, such as H or 2H.

CHAPTER FOUR
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Introduction
Strict interpretation of geometric construction allows use of only the compass and an instrument for
drawing straight lines, and with these, the geometer, following mathematical theory, accomplishes
principles of his solutions. are In technical drawing, the but geometry employed constantly, instruments
are not limited to the basic two as T-squares, triangles, scales, curves etc. are used to make
constructions with speed and accuracy. Since there is continual application of geometric principles, the
methods given in this chapter should be mastered thoroughly. It is assumed that students using this book
understand the elements of plane geometry and will be able to apply their knowledge.
The constructions given here afford excellent practice in the use of instruments. Remember that the
results you obtain will be only as accurate as your skill makes them. Take care in measuring and drawing
so that your drawings will be accurate and professional in appearance.
4.2 GEOMETRIC NOMENICLATURE
A. POINTS IN SPACE
A point is an exact location in space or on a drawing surface. A point is actually represented on the
drawing by a crisscross at its exact location. The exact point in space is where the two lines of the
crisscross intersect. When a point is located on an existing line, a light, short dashed line or cross bar is
placed on the line at the location of the exact point. Never represent a point on a drawing by a dot; except
for sketching locations.
B. LINE
Lines are straight elements that have no width, but are infinite in length (magnitude), and they can be
located by two points which are not on the same spot but fall along the line. Lines may be straight lines or
curved lines.A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. It can be drawn in any direction. If
a line is indefinite, and the ends are not fixed in length, the actual length is a matter of convenience. If the
end points of a line are important, they must be marked by means of small, mechanically drawn
crossbars, as described by a pint in space. Straight lines and curved lines are considered parallel if the
shortest distance between them remains constant. Th symbol used for parallel line is //. Lines, which are
tangent and at 900 are considered perpendicular. The symbol for perpendicular line is ⊥.
Figure 4.1 Points and lines

C. ANGLE
An angle is formed by the intersection of two lines. There are three major kinds of angles: right angels,
acute angles and obtuse angles. The right angle is an angle of 900, an acute angle is an angle less than
900, and an obtuse angle is an angle more than 900. A straight line is 1800. The symbol for an angle is <
(singular) and <’s (Plural). To draw an angle, use the drafting machine, a triangle, or a protractor.
Figure 4.2 Angles
D. TRIANGLES
A triangle is a closed plane figure with three straight sides and their interior angles sum up exactly 1800.
The various kinds of triangles: a right triangle, an equilateral triangle, an isosceles triangle, and an obtuse
angled triangle.
Figure 4.3 Triangles
E. QUADRIALTERAL
It is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides. When opposite sides are parallel, the quadrilateral is
also considered to be a parallelogram.
Figure 4.4 Quadrilaterals

F. POLYGON
A polygon is a closed plane figure with three or more straight sides. The most important of these polygons
as they relate to drafting are probably the triangle with three sides, square with four sides, the hexagon
with six sides, and the octagon with eight sides.
Figure 4.5 Polygons
G. CIRCLE
A circle is a closed curve with all points on the circle at the same distance from the center point. The
major components of a circle are the diameter, the radius and circumference.
The diameter of the circle is the straight distance from one outside curved surface through the center
point to the opposite outside curved surface.
The radius of a circle is the distance from the center point to the outside curved surface. The radius is
half the diameter, and is used to set the compass when drawing a diameter.
A central angle: is an angle formed by two radial lines from the center of the circle.
A sector: is the area of a circle lying between two radial lines and the circumference.
A quadrant: is a sector with a central angle of 900 and usually with one of the radial lines oriented
horizontally.
A chord: is any straight line whose opposite ends terminate on the circumference of the circle.
A segment: is the smaller portion of a circle separated by a chord.
Concentric circles are two or more circles with a common center point.
Eccentric circles are two or more circles with out a common center point.
A semi circle is half of the circle.
Figure 4.6 Circle

H. SOLIDS
They are geometric figures bounded by plane surfaces. The surfaces are called faces, and if these are
equal regular polygons, the solids are regular polyhedra
Figure 4.7 Solids
4.3 Techniques of Geometric constructions

To construct the above mentioned geometric figures, we have to know some principles and procedures of
geometric construction. Thus, the remaining of this chapter is devoted to illustrate step-by-step geometric
construction procedures used by drafters and technicians to develop various geometric forms.
A. How to Bisect a Line or an Arc

To bisect a line means to divide it in half or to find its center point. In the given process, a line will also be
constructed at the exact center point at exactly 900.
Given: Line A-B
Step 1: Set the compass approximately two-thirds of the length of line A-B and swing an arc from point A.
Step 2: Using the exact same compass setting, swing an arc from point B.
Step 3: At the two intersections of these arcs, locate points D and E
Step 4: Draw a straight-line connecting point D with point E. Where this line intersects line A-B, it bisects
line A-B. Line D-E is also perpendicular to line A-B at the exact center point.

Figure 4.8 Example on how to bisect a line or arc
B. HOW TO DIVIDE A LINE IN TO Number of EQUAL PARTS
Given: Line A-B
Step 1: Draw a construction line AC that starts at end A of given line AB. This new line is longer than the
given line and makes an angle of not more than 300 with it.
Step 2: Find a scale that will approximately divide the line AB in to the number of parts needed (11 in the
example below), and mark these divisions on the line AC. There are now ‘n’ equal divisions from A to D
that lie on the line AC (11 in this example).
Step 3: Set the adjustable triangle to draw a construction line from point D to point B. Then draw
construction lines through each of the remaining ‘n-1’ divisions parallel to the first line BD by sliding the
triangle along the straight edge. The original line AB will now be accurately divided.
Figure 4.9 Example on how to divide a line in to a number of equal parts

C. How to Bisect an Angle

To bisect an angle means to divide it in half or to cut it in to two equal angles. Given: Angle BAC
Step 1: Set the compass at any convenient radius and swing an arc from point A
Step 2: Locate points E and F on the legs of the angle, and swing two arcs of the same identical length
from points E and F, respectively.
Step 3: Where these arcs intersect, locate point D. Draw a straight line from A to BAD.
D. This line will bisect angle and BAC and establish two equal angles: CAD
Figure 4.10 Example on how to bisect an angle
D. How to Draw an Arc or Circle (Radius) Through Three Given Points

Given: Three points in space at random: A, Band C.
Step 1: With straight line, lightly connect points A to B, and B to C,
Step 2: Using the method outlined for bisecting a line, bisect lines A-B and B-C
Step 3: Locate point X where the two extended bisectors meet. Point X is the exact center of the arc or
circle.
Step 4: Place the point of the compass on point X and adjust the lead to any of the points A, B, or C (they
are the same distance), and swing the circle. If all work is done correctly, the arc or circle should pass
through each point.
Figure 4.11 Example on how to draw an arc or circle

E. How to Draw a Line Parallel to a Straight Line at a

Given Distance
Given: Line A-B, and a required distance to the parallel line.
Step 1: Set the compass at the required distance to the parallel line. Place the point of the compass at
any location on the given line, and swing a light arc whose radius is the required distance.
Step 2: Adjust the straight edge of either a drafting machine or an adjusted triangle so that it line sup with
line A-B, slide the straight edge up or down to the extreme high point, which is the tangent point, of the
arc, then draw the parallel line.
Figure 4.12 Example on how to draw parallel line
F. How to Draw a Line Parallel to a Line Curved Line at a Given Distance

Given: Curved line A-B, and a required distance to the parallel line,
Step 1: Set the compass at the required distance to the parallel line. Starting from either end of the
curved line, place the point of the compass on the given line, and swing a series of light arcs along the
given line.
Step 2: using an irregular curve, draw a line along the extreme high points of the arcs.

Figure 4.13 Example on how to draw parallel curved line
G. How to Draw a Perpendicular Lines to a Line at a Point
Method 1
Given: Line A-B with point P on the same line.
Step 1: Using P as a center, make two arcs of equal radius or more continuous arc (R1) to intercept line
A-B on either side of point P, at points S and T.
Step 2: Swing larger but equal arcs (R2) from each of points S and T to cross each other at point U.
Step 3: A line from P to U is perpendicular to line A-B at point P
Figure 4.14 Example on how to draw a perpendicular line, to a point outside the line

H. How to Draw a Perpendicular to a Line at a Point
Method 2
Given: Line A-B with point P on the line.
Step 1: Swing an arc of any convenient radius whose center O is at any convenient location NOT on line
A-B, but positioned to make the arc cross line A-B at points P and Q
Step 2: A line from point Q through center O intercepts the opposite side of the arc at point R
Step 3: Line R-P is perpendicular to line A-B (A right angle has been inscribed in asemi circle)
Figure 4.15 Example on how to draw a perpendicular line, to a point on the line
I. How to Draw a Perpendicular to a line from a Point Not on the Line
Given: Line A-B and point P
Step 1: Using P as a center, swing an arc (R1) to intercept line A-B at points G and H.
Step 2: Swing larger, but equal length arcs (R2) from each o the points G and H to intercept each other at
point J.
Step 3: Line P-J is perpendicular to line A-B

Figure 4.16 Example on how to draw a perpendicular line, to a point outside the line
J. How to Draw a Triangle with Known Lengths of Sides
Given: lengths 1, 2, and 3.
Step 1: Draw the longest length line, in this example length 3, with ends A and B. Swing an arc (R1) from
point A whose radius is either length 1 or length 2; in this example length 1.
Step 2; using the radius length not used in step 1, swing an arc (R2) from point B to intercept the arc
swung from point A at point
Step 3: Connect A to C and B to C to complete the triangle
Figure 4.17 Example on how to draw triangles with given side

K. How to Draw a Square
Method-1
Given: The locations of the center and the required distance across the sides of a square.
Step 1: Lightly draw a circle with a diameter equal to the distance around the sides of the square. Set the
compass at half the required diameter.
Step 2: Using triangles, lightly complete the square by constructing tangent lines to the circle. Allow the
light construction lines to project from the square, with out erasing them.
Step 3: Check to see that there are four equal sides and, if so, darken in the actual square using the
correct line thickness.
Figure 4.18 Example on how to draw square with given side
Method-2
Given one side AB. Through point A, draw a perpendicular. With A as a center, and AB as radius; draw
the arc to intersect the perpendicular at C. With B and C as centers, and AB as radius, strike arcs to
intersect at D. Draw line CD and BD.
Figure 4.19 Example on how to draw square with given side

L. How to Draw A Pentagon (5 Sides)
Given: The locations of the pentagon center and the diameter that will circumscribe the pentagon.
Step 1: Bisect radius OD at C.
Step 2: With C as center, and CA as radius, strike arc AE. With A as center, and AE as radius, strike arc
EB.
Step 3: Draw line AB, then set off distances AB around the circumference of the circle, and draw the
sides through these points.
Figure 4.20 Example on how to draw pentagon with a given side
M. How to Draw A Hexagon (6 Sides)
Figure 4.21 Example on how to draw hexagon with a given side
N. To Draw Any Sided Regular Polygon
To construct a regular polygon with a specific number of sides, divide the given diameter using the
parallel line method as shown in fig below. In this example, let us assume seven- sided regular polygon.
Construct an equilateral triangle (0-7-8) with the diameter (0-7) as one of its sides. Draw a line from the
apex (point 8) through the second point on the line (point
2). Extend line 8-2 until it intersects the circle at point 9. Radius 0-9 will be the size of each side of the
figure. Using radius 0-9 step off the corners of the seven sides polygon and connect the points.

Figure 4.22 Example on how to draw any sided regular polygon
O. To Draw A Circle Tangent to a Line at a Given Point
Given: Given line AB and a point on the line.
Step 1: At P erect a perpendicular to the line.
Step 2: Set off the radius of the required circle on the perpendicular.
Step 3: Draw circle with radius CP.
Figure 4.23 Example on how to draw a tangent to a line

P. To Draw a Tangent to A Circle through a Point
Method-1
Given: Point P on the circle.
Move the T-square and triangle as a unit until one side of the triangle passes through the point P and the
center of the circle; then slide the triangle until the other side passes through point P, and draw the
required tangent.
Method-2
Given: Point P outside the circle Move the T-square and triangles as a unit until one side of the triangle
passes through point P and, by inspection, is the tangent to the circle; and then slide the triangle until the
other side passes through the center of the circle, and lightly mark the point of tangency T. finally move
the triangle back to its starting position and draw the required tangent.
Figure 4.24 Example on how to draw a tangent to a circle
Q. To Draw Tangents to Two Circles
Move the T-square and triangles as a unit until one side of the triangle is tangent, by inspection, to the
two circles; then slide the triangle until the other side passes through the center of one circle, and lightly
mark the point of tangency. Then slide the triangle until the side passes through the center of the other
circle, and mark the point of tangency. Finally slide the triangle back to the tangent position, and draw the
tangent lines between the two points of tangency. Draw the second tangent line in similar manner.
Figure 4.25 Example on how to draw a tangent to two circles

R. HOW TO CONSTRUCT AN ARC TANGENT TO an Angle
Given: A right angle, lines A and B and a required radius.
Step 1: Set the compass at the required radius and, out of the way, swing a radius from line A and one
from line B.
Step 2: From the extreme high points of each radius, construct a light line parallel to line A and another
line parallel to line B.
Step 3: Where these lines intersect is the exact location of the required swing point. Set the compass
point on the swing point and lightly construct the required radius. Allow the radius swing to extend past
the required area. It is important to locate all tangent points (T.P) before darkening in.
Step 4: Check all work and darken in the radius using the correct line thickness. Darken in connecting
straight lines as required. Always construct compass work first, followed by straight lines. Leave all light
construction lines.
Figure 4.26 Example on how to draw an arc tangent to an angle

S. How to Construct an Arc Tangent to Two Radii or Diameters
Given: Diameter A and arc B with center points located, and the required radius.
Step 1: Set the compass at the required radius and, out of the way, swing a radius of the required length
from a point on the circumference of given diameter A. Out of the way, swing a required radius from a
point on the circumference of a given arc B.
Step 2: From the extreme high points of each radius, construct a light radius out side of the given radii A
and B.
Step 3: Where these arcs intersect is the exact location of the required swing point. Set the compass
point on th swing point and lightly construct the required radius. Allow the radius swing to extend past the
required area.
Step 4: Check all work; darken in the radii using the correct line thickness. Darken in the arcs or radii in
consecutive order from left to right or from right to left, thus constructing a smooth connecting line having
no apparent change in direction.
Figure 4.27 Example on how to draw an arc tangent to two radii or diameter

CHAPTER FIVE
PROJECTION
5.1 Introduction
All forms of engineering and technical work require that a two- dimensional surface (paper) be used to
communicate ideas and the physical description of a variety of shapes. Here projections have been
divided in to two basic categories; pictorial and multi view. This simple division separates single view
projections (oblique, perspective and isometric) from multi view projections (orthographic). Theoretically,
projections can be classified as convergent and parallel, or divided in to three systems of projection:
perspective, oblique, and orthographic. Division of types based on whether the drawing is a one view or
multi view projection sufficiently separate projection types in to those used for engineering working
drawings (orthographic) and those used for display (architectural rendering, technical illustrations etc)
In short, one of the best ways to communicate one's ideas is through some form of picture or drawing.
This is especially true for the engineer. The purpose of this chapter is to give you the basics of
engineering sketching and drawing. We will treat "sketching" and "drawing" as one. "Sketching" generally,
means freehand drawing. "Drawing" usually, means using drawing instruments, from compasses to
computers to bring precision to the drawings.
Before we get started on any technical drawings, let's get a good look at this strange block (figure 5.1)
from several angles.
Figure 5.1 Machine block
5.1.1 Isometric Drawing

The representation of the object in figure 5.2 is called an isometric drawing. This is one of a family of
three-dimensional views called pictorial drawings. In an isometric drawing, the object's vertical lines are
drawn vertically, and the horizontal lines in the width and depth planes are shown at 30 degrees to the
horizontal. When drawn under these guidelines, the lines parallel to these three axes are at their true
(scale) lengths. Lines that are not parallel to these axes will not be of their true length.

Figure 5.2 Isometric drawing
Any engineering drawing should show everything: a complete understanding of the object should be
possible from the drawing. If the isometric drawing can show all details and all dimensions on one
drawing, it is ideal.
One can pack a great deal of information into an isometric drawing. Look, for instance, at the instructions
for a home woodworker in figure 5.2. Everything the designer needs to convey to the craftsperson is in
this one isometric drawing.
However, if the object in figure 5.2 had a hole on the back side, it would not be visible using a single
isometric drawing. In order to get a more complete view of the object, an orthographic projection may be
used.
5.1.2 Orthographic or Multi view Projection

Imagine that you have an object suspended by transparent threads inside a glass box, as in figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 Orthographic projection

Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen from that direction. Unfold the box (figure 5.4) and
you have the three views. We call this an "orthographic" or "multi view" drawing.
Figure 5.4 the creation of an orthographic multi view drawing
Figure 5.5 shows how the three views appear on a piece of paper after unfolding the box.
Figure 5.5 a multi view drawing and its explanation
Which views should one choose for a multi view drawing? The views that reveal every detail about the
object. Three views are not always necessary; we need only as many views as are required to describe
the object fully. For example, some objects need only two views, while others need four. The circular
object in figure 5.6 requires only two views.

Figure 5.6 an object needing only two orthogonal views
5.2 Theory of Multi view Projections

Multi view orthographic projection is the primary means of graphic communication used in engineering
work. Drawings are used to convey ideas, dimensions, shapes, and procedures for the manufacture of
the object or construction of a system. Orthographic projection is the basis of all descriptive geometry
procedures. Multi view projection is a procedure that can be used to completely describe an object’s
shape and dimensions using two or more views that are normally projected at 900 to each other, or at
specified angles. In general, engineering work is complete using this method of projection. The finished
drawing is then reproduced and sent to the shop or to the job site.
To design and communication every detail to manufacturing groups (Engineers, technicians) descriptions
must be prepared. This description must show every aspect of the shape and size of each part and of the
complete structure. Because of this necessity graphics is the fundamental method of communication only
as a supplement, for notes and specifications, is the word language used.
Shape is described by projection that is by the process of causing an image to be formed by rays of sight
taken in a particular direction from an object to a picture plane. Methods of projection vary according to
the direction in which the rays of sight are taken to the plane. When the rays are perpendicular to the
plane, the projective method is Orthographic. If the rays are at an angle to the plane, the projective
method is called oblique. Rays taken to a particular station point result in perspective projection. By the
methods of perspective, the object is represented as it would appear to the eye.
Theory of projection is the basis of background information necessary to shape representation in

graphics. Two fundamental methods of shape representation are used.
1. Orthographic view consists of a set of two or more separate views of an object taken from different
directions, generally at right angles to each other and arranged relative to each other in a definite way.
Each of the views shows the shape of the object for a particular view direction and collectively the views
describe the object completely.
2. Pictorial view, in which the object is oriented behind and projected up on a single plane. Either oblique
on perspective projection is used.

5.2.1 Orthographic Projection

A. Definition
Basically, Orthographic projection could be defined as any single projection made by dropping
perpendiculars to a plane. In short, orthographic projection is the method of representing the exact shape
of an object by dropping perpendiculars from two or more sides of the object to planes, generally at right
angles to each other; collectively, the views on these planes describe the object completely.
Descriptive geometry is basically the use of orthographic projection in order to solve for advanced
technical data involving the spatial relation ship of points, lines, planes, and solid shapes. The most
common means of understanding these types of orthographic projection is The Glass Box method.
The Glass Box method, used primarily for descriptive geometry problems, requires that the user imagine
that the object, points, lines, planes etc are enclosed in a transparent “box”. Each view of the object is
established on its corresponding glass box surface by means of perpendicular projectors originating at
each point of the object and extending to the related box surface. The box is hinged so that it can be
unfolded on to one flat plane (the paper).
The lines of sight representing the direction from which the object is viewed. In figure 5.7, the vertical
lines of sight (A) and horizontal lines of sight (B) are assumed to originate at infinity. The line of sight is
always perpendicular to the image plane, represented by the surfaces of the glass box (top, front, and
right side). Projection lines(c) connect the same point on the image plane from view to view, always at
right angle. A point is projected up on the image plane where its projector, or line of sight, pierces that
image plane. In the figure 5.8, point 1, which represents a corner of the given object, has been projected
on to the three primary image planes. Where it is intersects the horizontal plane (top image plane), it is
identified as 1H, when it intersects the frontal plane (front image plane), it is identified as 1F, and where it
intersects the profile plane (right side image plane), it is labeled 1P.
Figure 5.7 Glass box methods

Figure 5.8 Orthographic projection of objects
B. Orthographic views
It is the picture or view or thought of as being found by extending perpendiculars to the plane from all
points of the object. This picture, or projection on a frontal plane, shows the shape of the object when
viewed from the front but it does not tell the shape or distance from front to real. Accordingly, more than
one protection is required to describe the object.
If transparent plane is placed horizontally above the object, the projection on this plane found by
extending perpendiculars to it from the object, will give the appearance of the object as if viewed from
directly above and will show the distance from frontal plane. Then the horizontal plane is now rotated into
coincidence with the frontal plane. Now again a third plane, perpendicular to the first two called profile
plane are used to view an object from the side.
C. The Six Principal Views

Let us surround the object entirely by asset of six planes, each at fight angles to each other. On these
planes, views of the object can be obtained as is seen from the top, front, and right side, left side, bottom
and rear.
Think now of the six sides, or the plane of the paper. The front is already in the plane of the paper, and
the other sides are, as it were, hinged and rotated in position as shown. The projection on the frontal
plane is the front view vertical projection, or front elevation, that on the horizontal plane, the top view,
horizontal projection, or plan, that on the side, profile view, side view, profile projection, or side elevation.
By reversing the direction of sight, a bottom view is obtained instead of a top view, or a rear view instead
of a front view.

Figure 5.9 Principal Picture Planes
In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all six principal views are needed on one drawing. All
these views are principal views. Each of the six views shows two of the three dimensions of height, width
and depth. In general, when the glass box is opened, its six sides are revolved outward so that they lie in
the plane of the paper. And each image plane is perpendicular to its adjacent image plane and parallel to
the image plane across from it. Before it is revolved around its hinged fold line (reference line). A fold
line is the line of intersection between any hinged (adjacent) image planes.
The left side, front, right side, and back are all elevation views. Each is vertical. The top and bottom
planes are in the horizontal plane. But in most cases the top, front, and right sides are required.

D. COMBINATION OF VIEWS
The most usual combination selected from the six possible views consists of the top, front, and right side
views some times the left- side view helps to describe an object more clearly then the light side view.
N.B: The side view of the front face of the object is adjacent to the front view and the side view of a point
will be at the same distance from the front surface as its distance from the front surface on the top view.
The six principal views of an object or the glass box have previously been presented in the type of
orthographic projection known as Third Angle Orthographic Projection. This form of projection is used
throughout this lecture note and is primary form of projection found in all American Industry with the
exception of some special cases in the architectural and structural fields.
Figure 5.10 Third angle projections
The type of projection used in most foreign countries and on many American Structural and architectural
drawings is called First Angle Orthographic Projections. In this form of projection, the object is assumed to
be in front of the image plane. Each view is formed by projecting through the object and on to the image
plane.
Figure 5.11 First angle projections

5.2.2 Classification of surfaces and Lines in Orthographic Projections

Any object, depending upon its shape and space position may or may not have some surfaces parallel or
perpendicular to the planes of projection. Surfaces are classified according to their space relation ship
with the planes of projection i.e. horizontal, frontal and profile surfaces. When a surface is inclined to two
of the planes of projection (but perpendicular to the third, the surface is said to be auxiliary or inclined .It
the surface is at angle to all three planes, the term oblique or skew is used Although uniform in
appearance, the lines on a drawing may indicate three different types of directional change on the object.
An edge view is a line showing the edge of a projection. An intersection is a line formed by the meeting of
two surfaces where either one surface is parallel and one at an angle or both are at an angle to the plane
of projection. A surface limit is a line that indicates the reversal of direction of a curved surface.
A. Horizontal, Frontal and Profile Surfaces

The edges (represented by lines) bounding a surface may be in a simple position or inclined to the planes
of projection depending up on the shape or position, the surface takes is name from the plane of
projection. Thus, a horizontal line is a line in a horizontal plane; a frontal line is a line in a frontal plane;
and a profile line is a line in a profile plane. When a line is parallel to two planes, the line takes the name
of both planes as horizontal frontal, horizontal- profile, or frontal – profile.
Figure 5.12 Examples of objects having parallel surfaces to the principal planes
B. Inclined Surfaces
An edge appears in true length when it is parallel to the plane of projection, as a point when it is
perpendicular to the plane and shorter than true length when it is inclined to the plane. Similarly, a surface
appears in trey shape when it is parallel to the planes of projection, as alien when it is perpendicular to
the plane, and fore shortened when it inclined to the plane. An object with its face parallel to the plans of
projection as figure 5.12; a top, front, and right side surfaces are shown in true shape and the object
edges appear either in true length or as points. The inclined surface of the object as figure 5.13 does not
show true shape in any of the views but appears as an edge in front view. The front and rear edges of the
inclined surface are in true length in the front view and fore shortened in the top and side views. The top
and bottom edges of the inclined surface appear in true length in top and side views and as points in the
front view.

Figure 5.13 Examples of objects having inclined surfaces
C. Oblique Surfaces
A line that is not parallel to any plane of projection is called an oblique skew line and it does not show in
true shape in any of the views, but each of the bounding edges shows interval length in one view and is
fore shortened in the other two views,
Figure 5.14 Examples of objects having oblique surfaces

D. Hidden Surfaces
To describe an object with complex internal features completely, a drawing should contain lines
representing all the edges, intersections, and surface limits of the objects In any view there will be some
parts of the object that can not be seen from the position of the observer, as they will be covered by
station of the object closer to the observer’s eye. The edges, intersections, and surface limits of these
hidden parts are indicated by a discontinuous line called a dashed line. In figure 5.15, the drilled hole that
is visible in the top-side view is hidden in the front and right side views, and there fore it is indicated in
these views by a dashed line showing the hole and the shape as left by the drill.
Figure 5.15 Examples of objects having hidden surfaces
Particular attention should be paid to the execution of these dashed lines. It carelessly drawn, they ruin
the appearance of a drawing. Dashed lines are drawn lighten full lines, of short dashes uniform in length
with the space between there very short, about ¼ of the length of the dash. This view shows the shape of
the object when viewed from the side and the distance from bottom to top and front to rear. The horizontal
and profile planes are rotated in to the same plane as the frontal plane. Thus, related in the same plane,
they give correctly the three dimensional shape of the object.
E. Curved Surfaces
To represent curved surfaces in orthographic projections,center lines are commonly utilized. All the center
lines, which are the axes of symmetry, for all symmetrical views are a part of views.
1. Every part with an axis, such as a cylinder will have the

axis drawn as center line before the part is drawn.
2. Every circle will have its center at the intersection of two

mutually perpendicular center lines.
The standard symbol for center lines on finished drawings is a fine line made up of alternate long and
short dashes.

Figure 5.16 Examples of objects having curved surfaces
5.2.3 Precedence of lines

In any view there is likely to be a coincidence of lines. Hidden portions of the object may project to
coincide with visible portions Center lines may occur where there is a visible or hidden out line of some
part of the object. Since the physical features of the object must be represented full and dashed lines take
precedence over all other lines since visible out line is more prominent by space position, full lines take
precedence over dashed lines. A full line could cover a dashed line, but a dashed line could not cover a
full line. It is evident that a dashed line could not occur as one of the boundary lines of a view.
When a centerline and cutting- plane line coincide, the one that is more important to the readability of the
drawing takes precedent over the other. Break lines should be placed so as not to coincide with other
lines of the drawing.
The following line gives the order of precedence of lines.
1. Full line
2. Dashed line
3. Careful line or cutting – plane line
4. Break lines
5. Dimension and extension lines.
6. Crosshatch lines.
5.3 Pictorial Projections

By means of multi view drawing, it is possible to represent accurately the most complex forms by showing
a series of exterior views and sections. This type of representation has, however, two limitations: its
execution requires a through understanding of the principles of multi view projection, and it’s reading
requires a definite exercise of the constructive imagination. Frequently it is necessary to prepare drawings
that are accurate and scientifically correct, and that can be easily understood by persons with out
technical training. Such drawings show several faces of an object at once, approximately as they appear
to the observer. This type of drawing is called pictorial drawing. Since pictorial drawing shows only the
appearances of objects, it is not satisfactory for completely describing complex or detailed forms. As we
have seen in the previous chapters, the four principal

types of projection are:

♦ Multi view projection
♦ Axonometric projection
♦ Oblique projection
♦ Perspective projection
All except the regular multi view projection are pictorial types since they show several sides of the object
in a single view. In all cases the view or projections are formed by the piercing points in the plane of
projection of an infinite number of visual rays or projectors. In this chapter, we will focus on the common
types of pictorial projection i.e. isometric projection.
Figure 5.17 types of projection
In both multi view projection and axonometric projection, the observer is considered to be at infinity, and
the visual rays are perpendicular to the plane of projection. There fore, both are classified as
Orthographic Projections. In Oblique projection, the observer is considered to be at infinity, and the visual
rays are parallel to each other but oblique to the plane of projection. In Perspective, the observer is
considered to be at a finite distance from the object, and the visual rays extend from the observer’s eye,
or the station point (SP), to all points of the object to form a so-called “cone of rays.” The distinguishing
feature of axonometric projection, as compared to multi view projection, is the inclined position of the
object with respect to the plane of projection. Since the principal edges and surfaces of the object are
inclined to the plane of projection, the lengths of the lines, the sizes of the angle, and the general
proportions of the object vary with the infinite number of possible positions in which the object may be
placed with respect to the plane of projection. Three of these are shown below. In these cases the edges
of the cube are inclined to the plane of projection, and therefore foreshortened. The degree of
foreshortening of any line depends on its angle with the plane of projection; the greater the angle the
greater the foreshortening. If the degree of the foreshortening is determined for each of the three edges of
the cube which meet at one corner, scales can be easily constructed for measuring along these edges or
any other edges parallel to them. It is customary to consider the three edges of the cube which meet at
the corner nearest to the observer as the axonometric axes.

Axonometric projections are classified as

a) Isometric projection
b) Dimetric Projection
c) Trimetric Projection, depending up on the number of scales of reduction required.
Figure 5.18 Axonometric projections
Since the most widely used method of axonometric projection is Isometric, we will only see isometric
projection in detail.
5.3.1 Isometric Projection

To produce an isometric projection (Isometric means “equal measure”), it is necessary to place the object
so that its principal edges or axes, make equal angles with the plane of projection, and are therefore
foreshortened equally. In this position the edges of a cube would be projected equally and would make
equal angles with each other (1200).
Figure 5.19 Isometric Projection

In the figure above, the projections of the axes OX, OY and OZ make angles of 1200 with each other, and
are called the isometric axes. Any line parallel to one of these is called an Isometric line; a line which is
not parallel is called a non- isometric line. It should be noted that the angles in the isometric projection of
the cube are either 1200 or 600 and that all projections of 900 angles. In an isometric projection of a
cube, the faces of the cube or any planes parallel to them are called Isometric planes.
5.3.2 Isometric Drawing

When a drawing is prepared with an isometric scale or other wise as the object is actually projected on a
plane of projection, it is an isometric projection. But when it is prepared with an ordinary scale, it is an
isometric drawing. The isometric drawing is 22.5% larger than the isometric projection, but the pictorial
value is obviously the same in both.
Since the isometric projection is foreshortened and an isometric drawing is full size, it is customary to
make an isometric drawing rather than an isometric projection, because it is so much easier to execute
and, for all practical purposes, is just as satisfactory as the isometric projection.
The steps in constructing an isometric drawing of an object composed only of normal surfaces, as
illustrated in figure 5.20 .Notice that all measurements are made parallel to the main edges of enclosing
box, that is, parallel to isometric axes. No measurement along a diagonal (non-isometric line) on any
surface or through the object can be set off directly with the scale. The object may be drawn in the same
position by beginning at the corner Y or any other corner, instead of at the corner X.
The method of constructing an isometric drawing of an object composed partly of inclined surface (and
oblique edges) is shown in figure 5.20 .Notice that inclined surfaces are located by offset measurements
along isometric lines.
Figure 5.20 Isometric drawing of normal surfaces
For example, dimensions E and F are setoff to locate th inclined surface M, and dimensions A and B are
used to locate surface N.

Box Construction
Objects of rectangular shape may be more easily drawn by means of box construction, which consists
simply in imagining the object to be enclosed in a rectangular box whose sides coincide with the main
faces of the object. For example, in fig below, the object shown in two views is imagined to be enclosed in
a construction box. This box is then drawn lightly with construction lines, I, the irregular features are then
constructed, II, and finally, III, the required lines are made heavy.
Figure 5.21 isometric box constructions
Lines in Isometric Drawing

♦Hidden Lines
The use of hidden lines in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules as in all other types of
projection: Hidden lines are omitted unless they are needed to make the drawing clear. If a projecting part
cannot be clearly shown with out the use of hidden lines, then hidden lines are needed.
♦Center Lines
The use of center lines in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules as in multi view drawing:
center lines are drawn if they are needed to indicate symmetry, or if they are needed for dimensioning. In
general, center lines should be used sparingly, and omitted in cases of doubt. The use of too many center
lines may produce a confusion of lines, which diminishes the clearness of the drawing.

CHAPTER SIX
SECTIONING
6.1 SECTIONAL VIEWS

Sectioning
It is defined as an imaginary cut made through an object to expose the interior or to reveal the shape of a
portion.
Sectional view
It is a view in which all or a substantial portion of the view is sectioned. There are many times when the
interior details of an object cannot be seen from the outside (figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1 An isometric drawing that does not show all details
We can get around this by pretending to cut the object on a plane and showing the "sectional view". The
sectional view is applicable to objects like engine blocks, where the interior details are intricate and would
be very difficult to understand through the use of "hidden" lines (hidden lines are, by convention, dotted)
on an orthographic or isometric drawing. Imagine slicing the object in the middle (figure 6.2)
Figure 6.2 Sectioning an object

Figure 6.3 sectioning the object in figure 6.1
Take away the front half (figure 6.3) and what you have is a full section view (figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4 Sectioned isometric and orthogonal views
The cross-section looks like figure 6.4 when it is viewed from straight ahead.
In short, when the interior of the object is complicated or when the component parts of a machine are
drawn assembled, an attempt to show hidden portions by the customary dashed lines in regular or
graphic views often results in a confusing networks, which is difficult to draw and almost impossible to
read clearly. In case of this kind, to aid in describing the object, one or more views are drawn to show the
object as if a portion has been cut away to show the interior. For some simple objects where the
orthographic un sectioned views can be easily read, sectional views are often preferable because they
show clearly and emphasis the solid portions, the voids, and the shape.

Cross-Sectional Views
A cross-sectional view portrays a cut-away portion of the object and is another way to show hidden
components in a device. Imagine a plane that cuts vertically through the center of the pillow block as
shown in figure 6.5 (a) and (b). Then imagine removing the material from the front of this plane, as shown
in figure 6.5 (b).
Figure 6.5 Section of an object with circular holes
This is how the remaining rear section would look. Diagonal lines (cross-hatches) show regions where
materials have been cut by the cutting plane.
Figure 6.6 Section A-A
This cross-sectional view (section A-A, figure 6.6), one that is orthogonal to the viewing direction, shows
the relationships of lengths and diameters better. These drawings are easier to make than isometric
drawings. Seasoned engineers can interpret orthogonal drawings without needing an isometric drawing,
but this takes a bit of practice.
The top "outside" view of the bearing is shown in figure 6.7. It is an orthogonal (perpendicular) projection.
Notice the direction of the arrows for the "A-A" cutting plane.

Figure 6.7 The top “out side” view of the bearing
6.2 HOW SECTIONS ARE SHOWN

To clearly draw the sectional views, we have to understand the following terminologies.
A. Cutting Plane Lines

The cutting plane line indicates the path that an imaginary cutting plane follows to slice through an object.
Think of the cutting plane line as a saw blade that is used to cut through the object. The cutting-plane line
is represented by a thick black dashed line.
Figure 6.8 cutting plane lines

B. Direction of Sight
The drafter must indicate the direction in which the object is to be viewed after it is sliced or cut through.
This is accomplished by adding a short leader and arrowhead to the ends of the cutting-plane. And these
arrows indicate the direction of sight.
Figure 6.9 The direction of sight
C. Section Lining
Section lining shows where the object is sliced or cut by the cutting plane line. Section lining is
represented by thin, black lines drawn at 450 to the horizontal. Section lining is spaced by eye from
1.5mm to 6mm apart, depending up on the overall size of the object. The average spacing used for most
drawings is 3mm. Section lines must be of uniform thickness (thin black) and evenly spaced by eye.
If the cutting plane passes through more than two parts, section lining of each individual part must be
drawn at different angles. Where an angle other than 450 is used, the angle should be 300 or 600.
Section lining should not be parallel with the sides of the object to be section lined.
Figure 6.10 Section lining

6.3 MULTSECTION VIEWS

The different kinds of sections used today are:
Full section
Offset section
Half section
Broken-out section
Revolved section
Auxillary section etc.
In this part, we only consider the most commonly used types of sections.
Full Section
It is simply a section of one of the regular multi-views that sliced or cut completely in two.
Figure 6.11 Full Section

Offset Section
Many times, important features do not fall in a straight line as they do in a full section. These important
features can be illustrated in an offset section by bending or offsetting the cutting-plane line. An offset
section is very similar to a full section, except that the cutting plane line is not straight.
Figure 6.12 Offset sections

Half-Sections
A half-section is a view of an object showing one-half of the view in section, as in figure 6.13 (a) and (b)
Figure 6.13 (a) Full and sectioned isometric views (b) Front view and half section
The diagonal lines on the section drawing are used to indicate the area that has been theoretically cut.
These lines are called section lining or cross-hatching. The lines are thin and are usually drawn at a 45-
degree angle to the major outline of the object. The spacing between lines should be uniform.
A second, rarer, use of cross-hatching is to indicate the material of the object. One form of cross-hatching
may be used for cast iron, another for bronze, and so forth. More usually, the type of material is indicated
elsewhere on the drawing, making the use of different types of cross-hatching unnecessary.

Figure 6.14 Half section without hidden lines
Usually hidden (dotted) lines are not used on the cross- section unless they are needed for dimensioning
purposes. Also, some hidden lines on the non-sectioned part of the drawings are not needed (figure 6.13)
since they become redundant information and may clutter the drawing.

CHAPTER SEVEN
PROJECTION OF POINTS, LINES
AND PLANES
7.1 Introduction
A major problem in technical drawing and design is the creation of projections for finding the true views of
lines and planes. The following is a brief review of the principles of descriptive geometry involved in the
solution of such problems. The designers working along with an engineering team can solve problems
graphically with geometric elements. Structures that occupy space have three-dimensional forms made
up of a combination of geometric elements.
The geometric solutions of three-dimensional forms require an understanding of the space relations that
points, lines, and planes share in forming any given shape. Problems which many times require
mathematical solutions can often be solved graphically with accuracy that will allow manufacturing and
construction. Thus, basic descriptive geometry is one of the designer’s methods of thinking through and
solving problems.
All geometric shapes are composed of points and their connectors, lines. In descriptive geometry points
are the most important geometric element and the primary building block for any graphical projection of a
form. All projections of lines, planes, or solids can be physically located and manipulated by identifying a
series of points that represent the object.
A point can be considered physically real and can be located by a small dot or a small cross. It is normally
identified by two or more projections. In fig below, points A and B are located on all three-reference
planes. Notice that the unfolding of the three planes forms a two-dimensional surface with the fold lines
remaining. The fold lines are labeled as shown to indicate that F represents the Front view, T represents
the Top views, and S represents the Profile or Right side view. The planes are replaced with reference
lines HF and FP, which are placed in the same position as the fold lines.
7.2 Reference Planes

Unfolding of the reference planes forms a two-dimensional surface, which a drafter uses to construct and
solve problems. The planes are labeled so that T represents the top or horizontal reference plane, F
represents the front or vertical reference plane, S or P represents the side (end) or profile reference
plane. Thus a point 1 on the part, line or plane would be identified as 1F on the top reference plane, and
1T on the top reference plane, and 1S on the profile reference plane. The folding lines shown on the box
are required to as reference lines on the drawing. Other reference planes (auxiliary planes) and reference
lines (auxiliary lines) are drawn and labeled as required.

7.3 Projection of Point

Since a point is a location in space and not a dimensional form, it must be located by measurements
taken from established reference line. The two figures below show the glass box method of orthographic
projection illustrated pictorially and orthographically. These two figures represent the projection of point 1
in the three principal planes, frontal (1F), horizontal (1H), and profile (1P). In glass box method, it is
assumed that each mutually perpendicular plane is hinged so as to be revolved in to the planes of the
paper. “The intersection line of two successive (perpendicular) image planes is called fold line/ reference
line.” All measurements are taken from fold lines to locate a point is space. A fold line/reference line can
be visualized as the edge view of a reference plane.
A point can be located by means of verbal description by giving dimensions from fold/ reference lines.
Point 1 is below the horizontal plane (D1), to the left of the profile plane (D2), and behind the frontal plane
(D3). D1 establishes the elevation or height of the point in front and side view, D2 the right, left location or
width in the front and top view, and D3 the distance behind the frontal plane (depth) in the top and side
view.
Figure 7.1 Projection of a point
7.4 Lines in Space

Lines can be thought as a series of points in space, having magnitude (length) but not width. It will be
assumed that a line is straight unless otherwise stated. Though a line may be located by establishing its
end points and may be of a definite specified length, all lines can be extended in order to solve a problem.
Therefore a purely theoretical definition of a line could be: “Lines are straight elements that have no width,
but are infinite in length (magnitude); they can be located by two points which are not on the same spot
but fall along the line.” When two lines lie in the same plane they will either be parallel or intersect. Lines
can be used to establish surfaces, or solid shapes. In a majority of illustrations the view of a line and its
locating points are labeled with a subscript corresponding to the plane of projection, as fig below where
the end points of line 1-2 are denoted 1H and 2H in the horizontal views, 1F and 2F in the frontal view,
and 1P and 2P in the profile plane.

Figure 7.2 Projection of a line
7.4.1 Classification of Lines in Orthographic Projections

In orthographic projections lines can be classified based on their parallelism with the picture planes, type
and direction.
A. Classification based on Parallelism

A line that is parallel to a principal plane is called a principal line, and is true length in the principal plane
to which it is parallel. Since there are three principal planes of projection, there are three principal lines:
horizontal, frontal and profile.
♦ A horizontal line: is a principal line which is parallel to the horizontal plane and appears true length in
the horizontal view.
♦ A frontal line: is a principal line which is parallel to the frontal plane and appears true length in the
frontal view.
♦ A profile line: is a principal line which is parallel to the profile plane and appears true length in the profile
view.
(a) Horizontal line (b) Frontal line (c) Profile line
Figure 7.3 Types of principal lines
Besides the above definitions, the following terms are used to describe lines according to the direction
and type.

B. Classification Based on Direction

♦ Vertical line: A vertical line is perpendicular to the horizontal plane, and appears true length in the
frontal and profile views and as a point view in the horizontal views.
♦Level line: any line that is parallel to the horizontal plane is a level line. Level lines are horizontal lines.
♦Inclined lines: Inclined lines will be parallel to the frontal or profile planes and at angle to the horizontal
plane and appears true length in the views where it is parallel to a principal plane.
C. Classification based on Type

♦ Oblique: oblique lines are inclined to all three principal planes and therefore will not appear true length
in a principal view.
♦ Foreshortened: lines that are not true length in a specific view appear shortened than their true length
measurement.
♦ Point view: a point view is a view of a line in which the line is perpendicular to the viewing plane (the
line of sight is parallel to the line).
♦ True length: a view in which a line can be measured true distance between its end points shows the
line as true length and appears true length in any view where it is parallel to the plane of projection
7.4.2 Orthographic Projection of a Line

Lines are classified according to their orientation to the three principal planes of projection or how they
appear in a projection plane. They can also be described by their relationship to other lines in the same
view. All lines are located from the fold lines/ reference lines, which represent the intersection of two
perpendicular planes of projection. In fig. above, line 1-2 is pictorially represented. Line 1-2 (dashed) is
projected on to each principal projection plane and located by dimensions taken from fold lines.
Figure 7.4 Orthographic projection of a line

In figure above, each end points of line 1-2 is located from two fold lines in each view, using dimensions
or projection lines that originate in a previous view. Dimensions D1 and D2 establish the elevation of the
end points in the profile and frontal view, since these points are horizontally in line in these two views. D3
and D4 locate the end points in relation to the F/P fold line (to the left of the profile plane), in both the
frontal and horizontal views, since these points are aligned vertically. D5 and D6 locate each point in
relation to the H/F and the F/P fold line, since these dimensions are the distance behind the frontal plane
and will show in both the horizontal and profile views.
A. Level and Vertical Lines

A line that is parallel to the horizontal projection plane is a “level” line and appears true length in the
horizontal view. A level line is a horizontal line (principal line) since it is parallel to the horizontal projection
plane. In figure below the three variations of level (horizontal) lines are illustrated. In example (1), line 1-2
is parallel to the horizontal plane and inclined to the frontal and profile planes. It appears true length in the
horizontal view and foreshortened in the other two views. Example (2) shows level line line1-2 parallel to
both the frontal and horizontal projection planes and is a point view in the profile view. Line 1-2 is true
length in two principal views and is therefore both a horizontal line and a frontal line where as in example
(3), line1-2 is parallel to both the profile and horizontal projection planes and appears as a point view in
the frontal view, and true length in both other principal views. Hence, line 1-2 is a profile line, and a
horizontal line. Vertical lines are perpendicular to the horizontal plane (view) and appear true length in
both the frontal and profile views and as a point in the horizontal view. Thus, a vertical line is parallel to
the profile and frontal projection planes.
Figure 7.5 Level and Vertical line

B. Inclined Lines
Lines that appear true length in the frontal or profile view (but not both) are inclined
Figure 7.6 Inclined lines
Lines. Inclined lines will be parallel to the frontal plane, or parallel to the profile plane. Hence, inclined
lines will appear foreshortened in two principal views and true length in the other principal view. In
example (1), line 1-2 is true length in the frontal view i.e. parallel to the frontal projection plane and
foreshortened in the H (T) and P (S) views. In example (2), line1-2 is true length in the profile view i.e.
parallel to the profile projection plane and foreshortened in the H and F views. Note that line1-2 in
example (1) is the same distance behind the frontal plane in both the horizontal and profile view,
dimension D1.
C. Frontal Lines
A line that is parallel to the frontal projection plane is a frontal line. Frontal lines are principal lines and
always appear true length in the frontal view. A frontal line can be inclined, level, or vertical, but must be
true length. A vertical frontal line appears as a point view in the horizontal view and true length in both the
frontal and profile views, therefore a vertical line is both a frontal and profile line since it is true length in
both of these views. If a level frontal line appeared as a point in the profile plane, it would be true length in
the frontal and horizontal views and is therefore a horizontal as well as a frontal line.
Figure 7.7 Frontal lines

Line 1-2 lies behind the frontal plane the same distance in the horizontal and profile views, dimensions
D1.Note that it is not possible to tell if a line is a frontal line given the front view alone. Only in the profile
and horizontal views can it be established that a line is a frontal line
Figure 7.8 Orthographic projection of frontal lines
D. Horizontal Lines
A line that is parallel to the horizontal projection plane is a horizontal line. Horizontal lines appear true
length in the horizontal view and are therefore principal lines. A horizontal line will always be level in the
frontal and profile views. If a horizontal line is perpendicular to the frontal plane (and parallel to the profile
view) it appears as a point views in the frontal view and true length in the profile view and is a
combination horizontal and profile line. Likewise, if a horizontal line is parallel to the frontal plane it
appears as a point view in the profile view and true length in the frontal view and thus is a combination
horizontal and frontal line.
Figure 7.9 Horizontal lines

In order to tell if a line is in or parallel to the horizontal plane, it is necessary to have either the frontal or
profile views of the line. Only the frontal and profile views show the line as a point view or parallel to the
horizontal plane.
Figure 7.10 Orthographic projection of horizontal lines
E. Profile Lines
A profile line is parallel to the profile plane and shows as true length in the profile view. The frontal and
horizontal view of a profile line always shows the line as a point view or foreshortened, in either case the
line is parallel to the profile plane. Vertical lines are both profile and frontal lines since they appear true
length in the frontal and profile views and as a point in the horizontal view. Where a profile line appears
as a point in the front view, the line is both a frontal and profile line.
Figure 7.11 Profile lines

Line 1-2 is true length in the profile view and appears foreshortened in the other two principal views.
Dimensions D1 and D2 locate the end points of the line from the F/P fold line and the H/F fold line. These
measurements represent the distance of point 1 and point 2 behind the frontal plane. The angle that the
profile line 1p-2p makes with the F/P fold line is the angle between the line and the frontal plane (angle
F).Angle H is the angle that line 1p-2p makes with the horizontal plane.
Figure 7.12 Orthographic projection of profile lines
F. Oblique Lines
Oblique lines are inclined to all three principal planes: horizontal, frontal, and profile. An oblique line is not
vertical, parallel or perpendicular to any of the three principal planes, and therefore does not appear true
length in the frontal, horizontal, or profile views. All three principal views of an oblique line appear
foreshortened.
Figure 7.13 Oblique line

In order to solve for true length of an oblique line, an auxiliary view with a line of sight perpendicular to a
view of the oblique line must be projected from any existing view. The fold line between these two views
will be parallel to the oblique line.
Line 1-2 is an oblique line since it is not parallel to any principal planes of projection and appears
foreshortened in every view. In order to locate an oblique in space, dimensions must be taken from fold
lines and projection lines extended from an existing view. Dimension D1 and D2 locate the end points of
line 1-2 from the H/F and F/P fold line and represent the distance line1-2 behind the frontal plane.
Figure 7.14 Orthographic projection of oblique lines
So, the true length of an oblique line can be measured in a view where the line is parallel to the projection
plane of that view. And if the line of sight for a view is not perpendicular to the line, the line will be
foreshortened. Since oblique lines are not true length in a principal plane, it is necessary to project an
auxiliary view in which the given line appears true length. An oblique line appears foreshortened in all
three principal views: frontal, horizontal, and profile. In order to have a true length of a line, the line must
be parallel to the projection plane in the adjacent view. A true length view of an oblique line can be
projected from any existing view by establishing a line of sight perpendicular to a view of the line and
drawing a fold line parallel to the line (perpendicular to the line of sight). The following steps describe the
procedure for drawing a true length projection of an oblique line from the frontal view,
1. Establish a line of sight perpendicular to oblique line 1-2 in the frontal view.
2. Draws fold line F/A perpendicular to the line of sight and parallel to the oblique line 1F-2F
Figure 7.15 True lengths of oblique lines

3. Extend projection lines from point 1F and 2F perpendicular to the fold line and parallel to the line of
sight.
4. Transfer dimensions D1 and D2 from the horizontal view to locate point 1A and 2A along the projection
lines in auxiliary view A.
5. Connect points 1Aand 2A. This is the true length of line1-2. The true length of an oblique line can also
be projected from the horizontal views and profile views using the same basic steps as described above.
Figure 7.16 True lengths of oblique lines for all principal planes
G. Point View of a Line

A line will project as a point view when the line of sight is parallel to a true length view of the line; in other
words the point view is projected on a projection plane that is perpendicular to the true length. Finding the
true length and the point view of a line will be required for many situations involving the application of
descriptive geometry to engineering problems. The first requirement for a point view is that the line be
projected as a true length.
The point view of a principal line is established by the use of a primary auxiliary view as shown below.
The steps are:
Step 1: Establish a line of sight parallel to the true length line 1H-2H.
Step 2: Draw the fold line perpendicular to the line of sight (H/A or H/B). Note that the fold line is also
perpendicular to the true length line.

Step 3: Draw a projection line from line 1H-2H perpendicular to the fold line and therefore parallel to the
line of sight.
Step 4: Transfer dimension D1 from the front view to locate both points along the projection line, in either
auxiliary view A or B.
Figure 7.17 Point view of a line
Line 1-2 is projected as true length in two separate primary auxiliary views, A and C. To establish the
point view, a secondary auxiliary view (B or D) is projected perpendicular to the true length line. For
auxiliary view B transfer the distance between H/A and line 1H-2H along the projection line from fold line
A/B to locate point view 1B-2B. For auxiliary view D, transfer the distance between F/C and line 1F-2F
along the projection line from fold line C/D to locate the point view of line 1D-2D.
Figure 7.18 Point view of an oblique line

Planes
A plane can be defined as a flat surface that is not curved or warped. And a plane can be fixed in space
by locating any three points that lie in its surface and are not in a straight line. A line and a point, two
intersecting lines, or two parallel lines also define a plane.
Classification of Planes
When a plane is parallel to a principal projection plane, it is a principal plane. A principal plane can be a
horizontal plane, a frontal plane, or a profile plane depending on its relation ship to a principal projection
plane. All lines in a horizontal plane, frontal plane, or profile plane are true length lines; therefore principal
planes are made up of principal lines. Principal planes can be classified as:
A. Principal Lines
A horizontal plane: it is parallel to the projection plane. It is true size or shape in the horizontal view
since all of its lines are principal lines, therefore they project true length. The frontal and profile views
of a horizontal plane always show the plane as edge view.
A frontal plane: it lies parallel to the frontal projection plane where it shows as true size. In the
horizontal and profile views the plane appears as an edge view. All lines show true length in the
frontal view, since they are principal lines (frontal lines).
A profile plane: it is true size in the profile view and appears as an edge in the frontal and horizontal
views. Every line in the plane is true length in the profile view since they are profile lines. Profile
planes are perpendicular to the frontal and horizontal projection planes.
Figure 7.19 Types of principal planes

B. VERTICAL PLANES
Vertical planes are perpendicular to the horizontal projection plane. The horizontal view of all vertical
planes shows the plane as an edge view. The following figures show the three basic positions for a
vertical plane.
Figure 7.20 Vertical Planes
C. OBLIQUE AND INCLINED PLANES
The classification of planes is determined by their relationship to the three principal projection planes:
frontal, horizontal, and profile. Principal planes appear as a true size in one of the three principal
projections and as edges in the other two. Oblique planes and inclined planes do not appear true size in
any of the three principal views. Oblique and inclined planes are not vertical or horizontal (level), and will
not be parallel to a principal projection plane.
Oblique plane: An oblique plane is inclined to all three principal projection planes, which results in
each view being foreshortened (distorted). The true size of an oblique plane can not be seen in the
three principal projections.
Figure 7.21 Oblique planes

Inclined plane: An inclined plane does not appear true size in any of the principal projections. This
form of plane is seen as an edge in the profile view or in the frontal view and foreshortened (distorted)
in the other two views
Figure 7.22. Inclined Planes
Edge View of a Plane

An edge view of a plane is seen in a view where the line of sight is parallel to the plane. The line of sight
is parallel to the plane when it is parallel to a true length line that lies on the plane. Since a projection
plane is always perpendicular to the line of sight, it follows that a view drawn perpendicular to a plane
(perpendicular to a true length line that lies in the plane) shows the plane as an edge. This can be seen in
a vertical plane, which appears, as an edge in the horizontal view, since it is perpendicular to the
horizontal projection plane. A horizontal plane is perpendicular to the frontal and profile projection planes
and thus appears as an edge in these two views.
When the given plane is oblique, an auxiliary (secondary projection plane) plane is needed. In order to
establish a line of sight parallel to the plane, a true length line needs to be drawn which lies on the plane.
An auxiliary view where the line appears as a point view shows the plane as an edge. So the following
are the genera steps that are required to create an edge view. In figure below, plane 1-2-3 is given and
an edge view is required.
Step 1: Draw line 1H-2H on plane 1H-2H-3H, parallel to the H/F, and complete the frontal view by
projection. Line 1F- 4F is true length.
Step 2: Project auxiliary view a perpendicular to plane 1F-2F- 3F. The line of sight for this projection is
parallel to the plane and parallel to the true length line 1F-4F. Draw F/A perpendicular to 1F-4F and
complete auxiliary view A by projection.

Step 3: Auxiliary view a shows the line 1A-4A as a point view and therefore plane 1A-2A-3A appears as
an edge view.
Figure 7.23 Edge view of a plane
7.4.3 True Size (Shape) Of an Oblique Plane

When the line of sight is perpendicular to the edge view of a plane, it projects as true size (shape). The
true size view is projected parallel to the edge view of the plane. Therefore the fold line between the
views is drawn parallel to the edge view. An oblique plane does not appear as true size in any of the
principal projection planes. Therefore a primary and secondary auxiliary view is needed to solve for the
true shape of an oblique plane.
In figure 8.6, oblique plane 1-2-3 is given and its true shape is required.
Step 1: Draw a horizontal line 1F-4F parallel to the H/F and show it as true length in the horizontal view.
Step 2: Draw H/A perpendicular to line 1H-4H and complete auxiliary view B. Line 1A-4A is a point view
and plane 1A-2A-3A an edge.
Step 3: Project secondary auxiliary view B parallel to the edge view of plane 1A-2A-3A. Draw A/B parallel
to the edge view.

Step 4: Complete auxiliary B; plane 1B-2B-3B is true size (shape)
Note that: In a true size/shape view of a plane, all lines are true length and all angles are true angle.
Figure 7.24 True shape of an oblique plane

CHAPTER EIGHT
DIMENSIONING
8.1 Introduction
The purpose of dimensioning is to provide a clear and complete description of an object. A complete set
of dimensions will permit only one interpretation needed to construct guidelines.
1. Accuracy: correct values must be given.
2. Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions.
3. Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing duplicated.
4. Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used for legibility. The part. Dimensioning Should
follow these
8.2 Definitions
Dimension line is a thin line, broken in the middle to allow the placement of the dimension value, with
arrowheads at each end (figure 8.1).
Figure 8.1 Dimensioning Drawing

An arrowhead is approximately 3 mm long and 1 mm wide. That is, the length is roughly three times
the width.
An extension line extends a line on the object to the dimension line. The first dimension line should be
approximately 12 mm (0.6 in) from the object. Extension lines begin 1.5 mm from the object and extend 3
mm from the last dimension line.
A leader is a thin line used to connect a dimension with a particular area (figure 8.2).
Figure 8.2 Example drawing with a leader
A leader may also be used to indicate a note or comment about a specific area. When there is limited
space, a heavy black dot may be substituted for the arrows, as in figure 8.1 Also in this drawing, two
holes are identical, allowing the "2x" notation to be used and the dimension to point to only one of the
circles.

8.3 Steps in Dimensioning

There are two basic steps in dimensioning objects, regardless of the type of object.
STEP 1: Apply the size dimensions. These are dimensions, which indicate the overall sizes of the object
and the various features, which make up the object.
STEP 2: Apply the location dimensions. Location dimensions are dimensions, which locate various
features of an object from some specified datum or surface.
Figure 8.3 Dimensioning
8.4 Where to Put Dimensions

The dimensions should be placed on the face that describes the feature most clearly. Examples of
appropriate and inappropriate placing of dimensions are shown in figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4 Example of appropriate and inappropriate dimensioning

In order to get the feel of what dimensioning is all about, we can start with a simple rectangular block.
With this simple object, only three dimensions are needed to describe it completely (figure 8.5). There is
little choice on where to put its dimensions.
Figure 8.5 Simple object
We have to make some choices when we dimension a block with a notch or cutout (figure 8.6). It is
usually best to dimension from a common line or surface. This can be called the datum line of surface.
This eliminates the addition of measurement or machining inaccuracies that would come from "chain" or
"series" dimensioning. Notice how the dimensions originate on the datum surfaces. We chose one datum
surface in figure 9.6, and another in figure 8.7. As long as we are consistent, it makes no difference. (We
are just showing the top view).
Figure 8.6 Surface datum example

Figure 8.7 Surface datum examples
In figure 8.8 we have shown a hole that we have chosen to dimension on the left side of the object. The Ø
stands for "diameter".
Figure 8.8 Examples of a dimensioned hole
When the left side of the block is "radiuses" as in figure 9.9, we break our rule that we should not
duplicate dimensions. The total length is known because the radius of the curve on the left side is given.
Then, for clarity, we add the overall length of 60 and we note that it is a reference (REF) dimension. This
means that it is not really required.

Figure 8.9 Examples of a directly dimensioned hole
Somewhere on the paper, usually the bottom there should be placed information on what measuring
system is being used (e.g. inches and millimeters) and also the scale of the drawing.
Figure 8.10 Example of a directly dimensioned hole
This drawing is symmetric about the horizontal centerline. Centerlines (chain-dotted) are used for
symmetric objects, and also for the center of circles and holes. We can dimension directly to the
centerline, as in figure 8.10. In some cases this method can be clearer than just dimensioning between
surfaces.

CHAPTER NINE
MAPPING
9.1 Introduction
The oldest map known today is a small clay tablet showing the location of a man’s estate in Mesopotamia
dating from about 2800B, C. The ancient Indians and Persians also made good maps. The Chinese,
however, developed their cartography to a high degree in very early times. Romans were more interested
in a practical map for travel and war, and designed a disk shape map.
The greatest achievement of this age was the triangulation and topographic mapping of France, directed
by the members of the cosine family. Map making has become concentrated in large governmental and
private offices, producing maps by the millions, reaching great masses of people.
Traditional methods and manual drawing still also may be employed. One can not underestimate the
value of the experience of manually plotting as it leads to a much enhanced ability to use and evaluate
properly the many features found in maps.
9.2 Definition
A map is a simplified selective, symbolized diminished and a plane representation of a part or the whole
of the earth’s surface on a piece of paper. A map provides a bird’s eye view of the earth’s surface or a
part of it.
The map makers are always selective and should limit the amount of information to be shown on the
map. Otherwise, the map becomes difficult to read or it would be over crowded and confusing. This
shows that in any map the information is summarized or simplified by avoiding unnecessary details.
The features of the earth in any map are reduced or diminished in size because the drawing of maps
which is exactly equal to the area of the place to be mapped is impossible.
9.3 Purpose
Map shows information of the locality that is quantifiable; for example:
Used to show or indicate the exact size or location of a pace.
Used to measure distances between two places with out the need of actual measurement.
Used to indicate the direction of places.
Used to indicate the space or spatial relationship between different phenomena.
Used to locate the number of homesteads in a village even the sanitary facilities.
For planning in office setting.
In epidemiology and public health.
→ To indicate distribution of health institutions in an area.
→ Spot maps help to follow disease out breaks In disease surveillance activities
→ To indicate distribution of important diseases that has geographic characteristics such as related
to altitude, latitude or climatic factors.
→ To locate health related conditions such as water supply sources, industries, waste disposal sites.
→ To facilitate service delivery such as spray activities in malaria control, have visit service, etc.

9.4 Classification of maps

The types of map depend on the size of the map and the purpose of the map. The size of the amp on the
other hand, depends on the amount of information that the map maker wants to show. Depending on this,
maps are divided in to three categories.
1. On The Basis Of Scale:- maps are divided in to three

groups. These are:-
A. Large scale map
B. Medium scale map
C. Small scale map
Large scale maps:- are maps with the scale of > 1:50,000 (one to fifty thousand). Such maps can
cover small area but they show very detailed information.
Medium scale maps:- are maps with a scale between 1:50,000 and 1:250,000 (One to fifty thousand
and one to two hundred and fifty thousand). Here the area to be covered is larger while the amount of
information shown is smaller than the large scale map. These maps can’t cover large areas.
Small scale maps:- are maps with a scale of <1=250,000 (one to two hundred and fifty thousand).
Such maps can cover large areas but the information is highly summarized. Therefore, they are
suitable for drawing the map of a country, continent, world, etc.
2. On The Basis Of Their Uses
Maps are divided in to two major groups on the basis of their uses. These are:-
Topographic maps:- are maps that are used to show all man made and natural features of a given
place in one map. E.g relief features, human activities, soil type, population distribution etc. They are
some times known as general reference maps.

Figure 9.1 Topographic maps
Topical maps:- are maps that are used to show one particular feature of a given place. Eg. Climate
map, population density map, vegetation map, etc. the best examples of topical maps are the
followings:
a. Mobility maps- are the maps that are used to show the pattern of roads, railways, ship routes, airlines,
etc.
b. Inventory maps – like thematic maps they consider specific feature. But in this case the maps are used
to show the exact or precise location of an object.
c.Thematic maps – are the maps that show the distribution of one particular object in a given place. Eg.
The distribution of population in a certain locality.
Figure 9.2 Topical Maps

3. One The Bases Of How The Maps Are Drawn:

Scaled maps
Air photographed maps
Sketch maps
Block maps
For small jobs traditional methods and manual drawing still may be employed. From an educational stand
point, one can not under estimate the value of the experience of manually plotting a map as it leads to a
much- enhanced ability to use and evaluate properly the main features found in maps.
Sketch map is one that may be utilized in small public health projects and would serve its purpose.
It is a map which can be performed with in short period of time when compared to other maps. As a result
this manual focused only on a sketch map.
9.5 Sketch Map

Definition:- a sketch is a free hand drawing of a map or picture of an area or route of travel. It shows
enough detail of a locality. Sketches are useful when maps are not available or the existing maps are not
adequate. Sketches may vary from hasty to complete and detailed, depending up on their purpose and
the degree of accuracy required. For e.g. a sketch of a large minefield will require more accuracy than a
sketch map of small village.
A Sketch map should include:
Title of the sketch map: It includes name of the location and the date in which the sketch map was
done. Eg. Sketch map of Awaday Town, Kebele 04, sept, 2002 Usually the title of sketch map
answers the questions: what where & when
The North line (direction): It should be drawn close to and parallel with the upper right hand edge of
the map sheet.
Symbols: Are conventional signs or assigned symbols, which represent both natural and man made
features on the map.

Figure 9.3 Symbols
Legend (key): indicates the meaning of all the mapping symbols used. It appears in the lower right
hand corner of the map sheet.
Details: such as the total population, number of houses, highest and lowest elevation are also shown
if any. This appears on the top right hand corner of the sketch map sheet.
Natural and cultural (man made ) features: Including all water sources (rivers, wells, springs,
swamps, lakes and reservoirs) with their name and appropriate direction of flow; markets, schools,
police stations, post offices, telephone offices, hospitals, health stations, roads, bridges, mountains,
etc. Should be shown.
Boundaries: The locality boundaries should be indicated in their correct relative position with the
neighboring areas (kebeles, ketena, etc.) N.B – A locality is a small geographical unit with defined
boundaries.
Scale: The scale used to convert actual ground measurement in to paper size. Name of the drawer
and the person checking the sketch map: The name of a person (s) who drew the sketch map and the
person checking it should be indicated.
Boarder line: are lines drawn all around the sheet leaving a margin of 10mm. A margin of 25 or 30
mm is left on the left hand side so as to facilitate filing. Title block is drawn on the right hand side or
right hand side bottom corner. The remaining space is utilized for making drawings.

N.B: Some of the most common conventional symbols are:


Figure 9.4 Conventional Symbols
9.6. Materials used in a sketch mapping for field or office use
Map board (Portable drawing board) 42x45 cm.

Magnetic compass
Ruler of 40 cm length
Appropriate size of drawing paper
Pencil (HB soft) with eraser
Pencil sharpener (pocket size)
Thumb-tacks or scotch tape
Paper clips
Altimeter 0-3000 meters if possible.
A clip board
A haver sac (bag)
9.7 Procedures for making a sketch map

1. Make a survey of the specific location to be drawn. Observe the area from a high point to see lay
out of the location (eg. From top if a hill, building, etc.)
2. Select land marks, reference point or bench mark of the location: Land marks a location are
prominent and permanent features which are expected to be there incase somebody wished to
return to the place at a later dates. Examples of landmarks are: rivers, bridges, lakes, mountains,
market places, schools, police stations, health centers, etc.
3. Proceed sketching: Locate such details as the location of each households, churches, mosques,
shops, stores, factories etc. with their proper orientation and compass direction to each other. Draw
the actual shapes of the buildings as of their top plan.
Limitation of Sketches Maps

Maps are never identical with the whole or parts of the earth’s surface they represent. They do not truly
represent the actual area. That is, they can not show the whole information of the earth’s surface as it is.
This is because the site of a map is always limited.
Numbering of houses
Each housing unit within the mapped locality should be identified by its house number. Hence a number
must physically be put on each house, or housing unit. The number should be put / marked on a site
easily visible for example, on the door, window, etc, if there are separate households in housing unit or
compound different numbers should be given to each household.
House numbers could be marked on houses using deferent ways:

Tagged metals
Number written on pieces of metal sheets
Paints on doors, windows, on frames or walls.
Using markers
Using chalks

N.B: Nevertheless, it is important that the number marks are permanent or long-lasting. The step of
numbering house should be in such a way that it will lead from one house hold or group of house holds to
the next minimized walking. For a systematic is completed (in the office after the field work is over). This
helps to organization the assignment of numbers of houses should be planned after the sketch map plan
blocks, zones or clusters of houses for ease of tracing.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Chapter: 1
1. Discuss the different types of drawing?
2. Explain the different application of technical drawing?
3. What is graphic communication?
4. Mention some of the applications of technical Drawing?
Chapter: 2
1. Mention the main drawing equipments?
2. Explain the use of different drawing equipments?
3. Discuss the different type of pencils with their use?
Chapter: 3
1. Discuss the different types of lines?
2. Explain the application of each line types in technical Drawings?
Chapter: 4
1. The side of a certain triangle is 2 cm. Construct an equilateral triangle based on the given side by using
compass and ruler.?
2. Show the procedure how to divide a line in to number of equal parts?
3. Draw a line parallel to straight line AB at 2cm distance?
Chapter: 5
1. Explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections?
2. Construct a box for isometric and oblique drawings basedvon the technical drawing procedure.?
3. Describe “Glass box method“ of orthographic projections.?
Chapter: 6
1. Describe the purpose of sectioning in technical drawings?
2. What is “direction of sight” in sectioning?
3. Mention the difference between offset section and full section.?

Chapter: 7
1. Describe the difference among reference line, picture planes and views.?
2. Explain the orthographic projections of points and lines ( principal, vertical and inclined lines etc)?
3. Discuss the procedure how to draw the true shape/ size of oblique or inclined planes.?
4. Enumerate the use of edge view and steps to draw edge of a plane.?
Chapter: 8
1. Explain the difference among dimension line, extension line and leaders?
2. Discuss the purpose of dimensioning?
Chapter: 9
1. Explain the difference between maps and sketches?
2. Classify maps based on scales used and method of drawings?
3. Mention the procedures and materials used in making sketches?
------------------------------------THE END------------------------------------------

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ENGINEERING

COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

Chapter 1: Introduction to Graphic Communication......................................................01-05

Chapter 2: Drawing Equipments and Their Use..............................................................06-11

Chapter 3: Lettering and Lines..........................................................................................11-17

Chapter 4: Geometric Construction...................................................................................18-33

Chapter 7: Projection of Points, Lines and Planes...............................................................59-75

Chapter 8: Dimensioning...................................................................................................... 76-81

Chapter 1: Introduction to Graphic Communication

1.1.1 Artistic Drawings

1.1.2. Technical Drawings

Chapter 2: Drawing Equipments and Their Use

2.2. Important Drawing Equipments

Chapter 3: Lettering and Lines

3.1. Letter Styles

3.2. Technique Of Lettering

3.2.1. Guide Lines

3.3. Spacing Of Letters

3.4. Lettering In Maps

3.5. Conventional Lines

Chapter 4: Geometric Construction

4.2. Geometric Nomeniclature

4.3. Techniques of Geometric Constructions

5.1.1. Isometric Drawing

5.1.2. Orthographic Or Multi View Projection

5.2. Theory Of Multi View Projections

5.2.1. Orthographic Projection

5.2.2. Classification of Surfaces and Lines in Orthographic Projections

5.2.3. Precedence of Line

5.3. Pictorial Projections

5.3.1. Isometric Projection

5.3.2. Isometric Drawing

6.1. Sectional Views

6.2. How Sections Are Shown

6.3. Multsection Views

Chapter 7: Projection of Points, Lines and Planes

7.2. Reference Planes

7.3. Projection of Point

7.4. Lines in Space

7.4.1. Classification Of Lines In Orthographi Projections

7.4.2 Orthographic Projection Of A Line

7.4.3. True Size (Shape) Of An Oblique Plane

8.3. Steps in Dimensioning

8.4. Where to Put Dimensions

9.4. Classification of Maps

9.5. Sketch Map

9.6. Materials Used In a Sketch Mapping For Field or Office Use

9.7. Procedures for Making a Sketch Map

1.1.1 Artistic Drawings

Figure 1.1 Artistic drawings

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1.1.2 Technical Drawings

Figure 1.2 Technical Drawings

A. Types of Technical Drawings

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Figure 1.3 Orthographic multi view

Figure 1.4 Oblique drawing

Figure 1.5 Axonometric drawing

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